{"post_id": "d7qi0y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "If we return to the moon, is there a telescope on earth today strong enough to watch astronauts walking around on the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "f13td9w", "c_root_id_B": "f14oy3g", "created_at_utc_A": 1569164903, "created_at_utc_B": 1569178577, "score_A": 210, "score_B": 918, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is no, there is no telescope on Earth that can resolve detail that small.  In order to resolve something the size of the lunar rover, you would need a telescope that us roughly 75 meters in diameter.  The Hubble telescope is not large enough either, so it would not be able to resolve it.  The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter might be able to resolve just enough detail to see some evidence of us being there, but it still isn't powerful enough to resolve people walking around.", "human_ref_B": "I'm an astrophysicist, and I believe the answer is: ~~yes~~ maybe.  First we need to calculate the angular size of a \\~2 meter astronaut on the moon. We can do this easily on Wolfram Alpha: we find that the astronaut is about 1.04 milliarcseconds.  As other users have pointed out, no single telescope is large enough to have this kind of angular resolution. Hubble is about a 100x too small. Typically, to resolve an object, you need the resolution to be at most half of the object's size. So you'd need a resolution of < 0.5 milliarcseconds.  But you don't need a telescope 100x bigger than Hubble to have 100x Hubble's resolution. An interferometer is an array of telescopes that have the light-gathering power of their total mirror areas, but the effective angular resolution is determined by their most-separated elements.  The most powerful optical interferometer in the world is the CHARA array, located on Mt. Wilson. It's a series of six, 1-meter telescopes that are about 330 meters apart (at longest separation). This means it has the resolution of a 330 meter telescope! CHARA has an angular resolution of 0.2 milliarcseconds, which should be plenty to detect our astronauts.  UPDATE (7 hours later): Someone asked a question that led me to think of an obvious concern: while the astronaut be bright enough to be visible by a small telescope array like CHARA?  The moon reflects \\~12% of the light that hits it. Let's assume an astronaut is wearing a classic white spacesuit. That reflects \\~80% of the light that hits it. Let's say then, that for equal angular sizes, astronauts are 6x brighter than the moon's surface. The moon has a surface brightness of \\~4 mag/arcsecond^(2). If an astronaut has an angular size of \\~1 mas, then let's say they have a solid angle of \\~1 mas^(2). Then they are 6 x 1 mas^(2) / 1 arcsecond^(2) = 6E-6 times fainter than a square arcsecond of the moon. Which means their apparent magnitude is \\~13\\+4 = 17.  What sort of exposure time is needed to see a 17th mag object? Well, on the Kitt Peak National Observatory 0.9 m telescope, it looks like to get a signal-to-noise ratio of 10, we need a an exposure time of 0.7 seconds. But CHARA has 6 telescopes that are a bit bigger at 1.0 meters, so lets call this (0.7/6) \\* (1.0/0.9)\\^2 = \\~0.1 seconds. But I'm going to assume that optical interferometry is more lossy than a simple imager, like in the KPNO example. So let's just arbitrarily bump this up to 0.2 seconds.  I'm not certain what sort of exposure time is necessary for a ground-based telescope like CHARA to work well is. But their user's manual has an example where they use an exposure time of 8 ms. Now, is this fast exposure time needed in order to be smaller than the timescale of atmospheric variations? If so, then it's hopeless for our astronaut project.  But, if it's instead the case that CHARA had a rapid exposure time in this example because their target is very bright, then we may still be in business. CHARA might be observing bright targets because they are **big** (because they are close, which is also why they are bright), rather than because they can only see bright things. In this case, CHARA could afford to take slightly longer exposure times of \\~0.2 seconds for our astronaut, even if that's a bit slower than the atmospheric coherence timescale (which is usually taken to be 0.01 to 0.1 seconds or so, depending on lots of stuff).  So, because I don't know CHARA's upper limit for exposure time (if there is one), I must offer an unsatisfying conclusion of \"Maybe.\"  EDIT: had the wrong link for CHARA initially. Fixed now.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13674.0, "score_ratio": 4.3714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d7qi0y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "If we return to the moon, is there a telescope on earth today strong enough to watch astronauts walking around on the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "f14oy3g", "c_root_id_B": "f140d4m", "created_at_utc_A": 1569178577, "created_at_utc_B": 1569167917, "score_A": 918, "score_B": 90, "human_ref_A": "I'm an astrophysicist, and I believe the answer is: ~~yes~~ maybe.  First we need to calculate the angular size of a \\~2 meter astronaut on the moon. We can do this easily on Wolfram Alpha: we find that the astronaut is about 1.04 milliarcseconds.  As other users have pointed out, no single telescope is large enough to have this kind of angular resolution. Hubble is about a 100x too small. Typically, to resolve an object, you need the resolution to be at most half of the object's size. So you'd need a resolution of < 0.5 milliarcseconds.  But you don't need a telescope 100x bigger than Hubble to have 100x Hubble's resolution. An interferometer is an array of telescopes that have the light-gathering power of their total mirror areas, but the effective angular resolution is determined by their most-separated elements.  The most powerful optical interferometer in the world is the CHARA array, located on Mt. Wilson. It's a series of six, 1-meter telescopes that are about 330 meters apart (at longest separation). This means it has the resolution of a 330 meter telescope! CHARA has an angular resolution of 0.2 milliarcseconds, which should be plenty to detect our astronauts.  UPDATE (7 hours later): Someone asked a question that led me to think of an obvious concern: while the astronaut be bright enough to be visible by a small telescope array like CHARA?  The moon reflects \\~12% of the light that hits it. Let's assume an astronaut is wearing a classic white spacesuit. That reflects \\~80% of the light that hits it. Let's say then, that for equal angular sizes, astronauts are 6x brighter than the moon's surface. The moon has a surface brightness of \\~4 mag/arcsecond^(2). If an astronaut has an angular size of \\~1 mas, then let's say they have a solid angle of \\~1 mas^(2). Then they are 6 x 1 mas^(2) / 1 arcsecond^(2) = 6E-6 times fainter than a square arcsecond of the moon. Which means their apparent magnitude is \\~13\\+4 = 17.  What sort of exposure time is needed to see a 17th mag object? Well, on the Kitt Peak National Observatory 0.9 m telescope, it looks like to get a signal-to-noise ratio of 10, we need a an exposure time of 0.7 seconds. But CHARA has 6 telescopes that are a bit bigger at 1.0 meters, so lets call this (0.7/6) \\* (1.0/0.9)\\^2 = \\~0.1 seconds. But I'm going to assume that optical interferometry is more lossy than a simple imager, like in the KPNO example. So let's just arbitrarily bump this up to 0.2 seconds.  I'm not certain what sort of exposure time is necessary for a ground-based telescope like CHARA to work well is. But their user's manual has an example where they use an exposure time of 8 ms. Now, is this fast exposure time needed in order to be smaller than the timescale of atmospheric variations? If so, then it's hopeless for our astronaut project.  But, if it's instead the case that CHARA had a rapid exposure time in this example because their target is very bright, then we may still be in business. CHARA might be observing bright targets because they are **big** (because they are close, which is also why they are bright), rather than because they can only see bright things. In this case, CHARA could afford to take slightly longer exposure times of \\~0.2 seconds for our astronaut, even if that's a bit slower than the atmospheric coherence timescale (which is usually taken to be 0.01 to 0.1 seconds or so, depending on lots of stuff).  So, because I don't know CHARA's upper limit for exposure time (if there is one), I must offer an unsatisfying conclusion of \"Maybe.\"  EDIT: had the wrong link for CHARA initially. Fixed now.", "human_ref_B": "Lots of people saying it's not possible with a telescope that exists today, and this is true. BUT, using MULTIPLE of the largest telescopes on earth as an interferometers in sync may be able to, just like they did with the black hole images.  The event horizon telescope is able to get the angular resolution required as it had a resolution of 25 microarcseconds, but it was in radio frequencies.  You could do it in optical domain too, but it's a lot harder and they are just starting to implement this technique in optical regimes instead of radio.   It is also not exactly a traditional image, but an interferogram, but still produces a image. The moon may be bright enough as well in the daytime to have short enough exposures to support a movie too.  But this is very very hard! More elegant solution is to put a telescope in low lunar orbit.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10660.0, "score_ratio": 10.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7mmz8i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do computers and game consoles need to restart in order to install software updates?", "c_root_id_A": "drv4q63", "c_root_id_B": "drvg6z0", "created_at_utc_A": 1514474656, "created_at_utc_B": 1514487416, "score_A": 1292, "score_B": 10957, "human_ref_A": "Windows places locks on files in use.  The reasoning is you don't want to open a file, make changes but not save, and then have something else make changes to the file and save them.  Because when you do save the file, you'll overwrite the changes made by the other process.  So when your computer is on, a lot of system files are locked.  If windows needs to make changes to one in a patch, it'll set a flag and upon reboot, make the change since the file will no longer be in use at that point.", "human_ref_B": "A CPU can only work on stuff in its cache and the RAM of the device (be it PC / Mac / console / mobile / etc). However, such memory is volatile, and loses all its data if it is not powered. To solve this problem, secondary storage exists: hard disk drives, DVD drives, USB disks, flash memory, etc. They hold persistent data that is then transferred to the RAM as and when needed, to be worked on by the CPU.   Now, when a computer boots up, a lot of its core processes and functions are pre loaded into RAM and kept there permanently, for regular usage. (The first of this stuff that loads is known as the *kernel*.) They are also heavily dependent on each other; eg, the input manager talks to the process scheduler and the graphics and memory controllers when you press a button. Because these are so interconnected, shutting one down to update it is not usually possible without breaking the rest of the OS' functionality*.  So how do we update them? By replacing the files *on disk*, not touching anything already in memory, and then rebooting, so that the computer uses the new, updated files from the start.   *In fact, Linux's OS architecture and process handling tackles this modularity so well that it can largely update without a restart.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12760.0, "score_ratio": 8.4806501548, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7mmz8i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do computers and game consoles need to restart in order to install software updates?", "c_root_id_A": "drvhqmp", "c_root_id_B": "drvidt7", "created_at_utc_A": 1514489086, "created_at_utc_B": 1514489788, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 483, "human_ref_A": "Hey all,  Please remember that in /r/askscience we require _accurate, in-depth explanations_ to our questions and their concerns. Please refrain from posting analogies and \"Explain like I'm five years old\" explanations which don't directly answer the question.", "human_ref_B": "The only correct answer is that it is simply easier to treat the code as immutable, and restart the program whenever you want to change the code. It is more than possible to design systems, even operating systems or other low level programs which don't need to be rebooted in order to update(this concept is called 'hot swapping'), but it is harder to design those systems and sometimes also harder to reason about their correctness. Imagine it this way: Rebooting to update software is like putting a car into a garage and upgrading the engine. Doing a live update is like upgrading your engine while you are going down the highway at 65mph.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 702.0, "score_ratio": 483.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7mmz8i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do computers and game consoles need to restart in order to install software updates?", "c_root_id_A": "drvidt7", "c_root_id_B": "drvh5ob", "created_at_utc_A": 1514489788, "created_at_utc_B": 1514488458, "score_A": 483, "score_B": 86, "human_ref_A": "The only correct answer is that it is simply easier to treat the code as immutable, and restart the program whenever you want to change the code. It is more than possible to design systems, even operating systems or other low level programs which don't need to be rebooted in order to update(this concept is called 'hot swapping'), but it is harder to design those systems and sometimes also harder to reason about their correctness. Imagine it this way: Rebooting to update software is like putting a car into a garage and upgrading the engine. Doing a live update is like upgrading your engine while you are going down the highway at 65mph.", "human_ref_B": "I used to work on Windows, so I can speak a bit as to why the xbox needs this.  Windows requires rebooting because of a few key OS processes that cannot be simply replaced and restarted. For instance, lsass.exe, which is responsible for logging you in and taking care of lots of security \"stuff\", cannot be shut down and replaced at runtime. This could, possibly, be fixed. However, untangling the dependencies and sorting things out safely would be a nightmare.  There were so many things on Windows that would be a lot easier if back-compat wasn't so important. However, we always had to be sure the last 20+ years of applications would run after any changes. This makes things a bit tricky at times, to say the least :)  The reboot pain is understood, and that's why new features have been added over time to help make things easier. \"Use my sign in info to automatically finish setting up my device after an update or restart.\" is one such baby step.  edit 1: Sorry if it wasn't obvious, but I'm talking about Windows because xbox runs Windows.  edit 2: Also, if the hypervisor is being patched, a reboot is almost always needed. Reliably hot patching the hypervisor is possible, but it's much simpler to reboot when applying hypervisor updates.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1330.0, "score_ratio": 5.6162790698, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq93gtz", "c_root_id_B": "dq8vqt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1511474668, "created_at_utc_B": 1511464788, "score_A": 4282, "score_B": 1207, "human_ref_A": "Canadian checking in here.   **This comment has been updated with better info and links for the sake of clarity, see below for new info**  Original Comment:  >As far as I can tell from my research into how this affects Canada, there is only one undersea fiber cable linking Canada's internet to the rest of the world that doesnt go through the US first. That link goes to Greenland and reportedly has had frequent issues since it was built due to poor construction. Aside from this Greenland link, all other wired Canadian internet traffic goes through the US first before going to the rest of the world. The US could effectively cut Canada off from the internet if it wanted to.  >However, there is a proposal to built a new, modern fiber link through the Canadian arctic that would link London, UK with Tokyo, Japan. This would significantly reduce latency between Western Europe and East Asia while also bypassing the mainland US. It would also provide gigabit internet access to thousands of remote Inuit communities in the Canadian Arctic, which could have life changing effects on their economies.  **UPDATES**  Thanks to /u/RcNorth and /u/markszpak for highlighting this more detailed map than the ones I based the previous version of this comment on. This more detailed map clearly shows that there are 3 fiber links from Halifax to the UK in addition to a fiber link up to Greenland that I mentioned previously.  However as described by /u/SoontobeSam:  >As a former network operations technician for a Canadian ISP, this is correct, telegreenland's cable is the only subsea fiber I am aware of that does not enter the US before Canada, our other main access routes are in Toronto and Vancouver, but both connect to the US to access international networks. I can also confirm that their network uptime is mostly ok, but when they do have issues it takes forever to get any progress and dealing with ongoing non outage issues is difficult, also Newfies and Scots have a serious language barrier even though they're both speaking \"English\".  So while my initial remarks regarding the US basically being the gatekeeper for Canada's access to the wider Internet may be more or less correct, I was incorrect in saying that the Greenland fiber link is the ONLY fiber link Canada has to the rest of the world. While the Toronto, Halifax, and Vancouver links /u/SoontobeSam mentioned appear to all go through the US in some way first which technically restricts Canada's direct access through those links.  **Arctic Fiber**  By popular request here is the link to the site for the fiber link through the Canadian Arctic that I mentioned previously. The project was formerly known as Arctic Fiber, but has been re-branded as the Quintillion Cable System after the name of the company task with installing the cable. Yes, you read that right, this project has gotten the green light since I last checked up on it (I didn't have time to check on my way to work when I commented originally). They just completed Phase 1 which covers Alaska, and will be starting the Phase 2 to expand through Asia to Tokyo soon. Quintillion has also built a terrestrial link through Alaska and down to the mainland US in order to provide connection to existing connection hubs on the west coast.  *UPDATE 2: Just have to highlight these two awesome users comments:*  User /u/KrazyTrumpeter05 posted an awesome comment with more info about Canadian Fiber connections, and also linked to this 293 report they claim to have played a major role in writing about Internet Fiber connections around the world. Thanks for the fascinating info!  User /u/Fochang1 posted this fascinating comment about how South American/Caribbean nations have a similar issue with the US acting as their Internet gatekeepers. They linked to this insane Internet Exchange Point in Miami that routes most of South/Central America's internet traffic. Thanks for sharing this incredible perspective that Canadians like myself would otherwise be oblivious to!  **Some thoughts on the impact of Arctic Fiber** The fact that this project is actually being built is incredible, because it will mean a huge boost in connection for remote arctic communities that open up massive new economic and information exchange opportunities to these historically very isolated regions. I can't wait to see what the Inuit peoples of Canada's arctic will do with this new link to the outside world. Reconciliation between Canada's indigenous and non-indigenous peoples has become a major focus for Canada in recent years, with the Canadian government set to fully implement into law a 2007 UN declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples. There is a long way to go for reconciliation, and it has been a very rocky road so far, but I hope that this new Fiber link will open up new ways for a large portion of Canada's indigenous population to showcase their own culture to the world and make new economic opportunities for their communities in the digital marketplace.  If you for some reason read through everything to this point, thanks for reading :)", "human_ref_B": "I would like to know what the ISPs are thinking of Elon Musk's (and others) notion of covering the planet with satellite based service, and how would they compete with that? It seems inevitable that this is in some form the future of internet. And then as an aside, will the competition be companies throwing up MORE satellites?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9880.0, "score_ratio": 3.5476387738, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq8k9m9", "c_root_id_B": "dq93gtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1511450434, "created_at_utc_B": 1511474668, "score_A": 381, "score_B": 4282, "human_ref_A": "See this_YB17.png) and this and this. Also check here and here. You can see the percentages of households with a computer and internet access is in both around 70% - 80%, just pick 75% for ease of calculation, US having 330mln citizens and EU having 750 mln, that means that there are at least, respectively, 250 mln US citizens with access to internet, and in EU 560 mln. To achieve the best internet experience the datacenters for all big companies that everyone uses are spread across the world, with the concentration of datacenters being proportional to the traffic. Knowing EU has twice as many internet users as US, logically there should be, and probably are - more datacenters in EU than in US. This means that impact on EU will be low but it can lead to other unforeseen consequences outside of \"just the internet\". Same counts for other regions like Canada, South America, Asia, Australia (they have shit internet anyways) and Africa. Biggest impact (in order) I expect this to have is: Canada, EU, South America, Asia, Australia, Africa. Look for example how IBMs datacenters are spread around the world. Other big companies probably have the same spread. This would confirm which regions of the world would be fucked most by US net neutrality laws being repealed. Also check out Azure's datacenters spread and Google's datacenters spread.   Here you can see US will account for \"only\" (still a big chunk though) 30% of the worlds internet traffic in 2021 (maybe that will change with the laws repealed though). But there's still the 70% of traffic outside US.  Worldwide 45% of the population has internet access one way or another (for 7 bln people that makes 3.15 bln). Of those 3.15 bln users, US counts for 250 mln, or just shy of 8% of the worlds internet population. This means other internet traffic is generated by 92% of the rest population in the world.  So, as of now the 8% of internet worldwide internet population located in US generates 30% of the internet traffic while 92% of the world generates 70% of the traffic.. well good for Americans I guess, that will make the impact a bit heavier on the rest of the world?..  As for other unforeseen consequences, think of intercontinental shipping, they need to send data between them to coordinate stuff, slow it down and it could mean your shipping container gets delayed by a week? Maybe this is an exaggeration but who knows..", "human_ref_B": "Canadian checking in here.   **This comment has been updated with better info and links for the sake of clarity, see below for new info**  Original Comment:  >As far as I can tell from my research into how this affects Canada, there is only one undersea fiber cable linking Canada's internet to the rest of the world that doesnt go through the US first. That link goes to Greenland and reportedly has had frequent issues since it was built due to poor construction. Aside from this Greenland link, all other wired Canadian internet traffic goes through the US first before going to the rest of the world. The US could effectively cut Canada off from the internet if it wanted to.  >However, there is a proposal to built a new, modern fiber link through the Canadian arctic that would link London, UK with Tokyo, Japan. This would significantly reduce latency between Western Europe and East Asia while also bypassing the mainland US. It would also provide gigabit internet access to thousands of remote Inuit communities in the Canadian Arctic, which could have life changing effects on their economies.  **UPDATES**  Thanks to /u/RcNorth and /u/markszpak for highlighting this more detailed map than the ones I based the previous version of this comment on. This more detailed map clearly shows that there are 3 fiber links from Halifax to the UK in addition to a fiber link up to Greenland that I mentioned previously.  However as described by /u/SoontobeSam:  >As a former network operations technician for a Canadian ISP, this is correct, telegreenland's cable is the only subsea fiber I am aware of that does not enter the US before Canada, our other main access routes are in Toronto and Vancouver, but both connect to the US to access international networks. I can also confirm that their network uptime is mostly ok, but when they do have issues it takes forever to get any progress and dealing with ongoing non outage issues is difficult, also Newfies and Scots have a serious language barrier even though they're both speaking \"English\".  So while my initial remarks regarding the US basically being the gatekeeper for Canada's access to the wider Internet may be more or less correct, I was incorrect in saying that the Greenland fiber link is the ONLY fiber link Canada has to the rest of the world. While the Toronto, Halifax, and Vancouver links /u/SoontobeSam mentioned appear to all go through the US in some way first which technically restricts Canada's direct access through those links.  **Arctic Fiber**  By popular request here is the link to the site for the fiber link through the Canadian Arctic that I mentioned previously. The project was formerly known as Arctic Fiber, but has been re-branded as the Quintillion Cable System after the name of the company task with installing the cable. Yes, you read that right, this project has gotten the green light since I last checked up on it (I didn't have time to check on my way to work when I commented originally). They just completed Phase 1 which covers Alaska, and will be starting the Phase 2 to expand through Asia to Tokyo soon. Quintillion has also built a terrestrial link through Alaska and down to the mainland US in order to provide connection to existing connection hubs on the west coast.  *UPDATE 2: Just have to highlight these two awesome users comments:*  User /u/KrazyTrumpeter05 posted an awesome comment with more info about Canadian Fiber connections, and also linked to this 293 report they claim to have played a major role in writing about Internet Fiber connections around the world. Thanks for the fascinating info!  User /u/Fochang1 posted this fascinating comment about how South American/Caribbean nations have a similar issue with the US acting as their Internet gatekeepers. They linked to this insane Internet Exchange Point in Miami that routes most of South/Central America's internet traffic. Thanks for sharing this incredible perspective that Canadians like myself would otherwise be oblivious to!  **Some thoughts on the impact of Arctic Fiber** The fact that this project is actually being built is incredible, because it will mean a huge boost in connection for remote arctic communities that open up massive new economic and information exchange opportunities to these historically very isolated regions. I can't wait to see what the Inuit peoples of Canada's arctic will do with this new link to the outside world. Reconciliation between Canada's indigenous and non-indigenous peoples has become a major focus for Canada in recent years, with the Canadian government set to fully implement into law a 2007 UN declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples. There is a long way to go for reconciliation, and it has been a very rocky road so far, but I hope that this new Fiber link will open up new ways for a large portion of Canada's indigenous population to showcase their own culture to the world and make new economic opportunities for their communities in the digital marketplace.  If you for some reason read through everything to this point, thanks for reading :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24234.0, "score_ratio": 11.2388451444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq8skut", "c_root_id_B": "dq93gtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1511460895, "created_at_utc_B": 1511474668, "score_A": 253, "score_B": 4282, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m unclear if this FCC \u201cruling\u201d will only allow them to throttle connections to their subscribers down stream. This post infers that services hosted in US data centres can have their UP connections throttled no matter where the user is. Nothing surprises me about what is happening there, but this would really be pushing it. If US data centres are affected like this, Canadian & Mexican data centres are about to see a lot of new business.  Edit: Make more readable.", "human_ref_B": "Canadian checking in here.   **This comment has been updated with better info and links for the sake of clarity, see below for new info**  Original Comment:  >As far as I can tell from my research into how this affects Canada, there is only one undersea fiber cable linking Canada's internet to the rest of the world that doesnt go through the US first. That link goes to Greenland and reportedly has had frequent issues since it was built due to poor construction. Aside from this Greenland link, all other wired Canadian internet traffic goes through the US first before going to the rest of the world. The US could effectively cut Canada off from the internet if it wanted to.  >However, there is a proposal to built a new, modern fiber link through the Canadian arctic that would link London, UK with Tokyo, Japan. This would significantly reduce latency between Western Europe and East Asia while also bypassing the mainland US. It would also provide gigabit internet access to thousands of remote Inuit communities in the Canadian Arctic, which could have life changing effects on their economies.  **UPDATES**  Thanks to /u/RcNorth and /u/markszpak for highlighting this more detailed map than the ones I based the previous version of this comment on. This more detailed map clearly shows that there are 3 fiber links from Halifax to the UK in addition to a fiber link up to Greenland that I mentioned previously.  However as described by /u/SoontobeSam:  >As a former network operations technician for a Canadian ISP, this is correct, telegreenland's cable is the only subsea fiber I am aware of that does not enter the US before Canada, our other main access routes are in Toronto and Vancouver, but both connect to the US to access international networks. I can also confirm that their network uptime is mostly ok, but when they do have issues it takes forever to get any progress and dealing with ongoing non outage issues is difficult, also Newfies and Scots have a serious language barrier even though they're both speaking \"English\".  So while my initial remarks regarding the US basically being the gatekeeper for Canada's access to the wider Internet may be more or less correct, I was incorrect in saying that the Greenland fiber link is the ONLY fiber link Canada has to the rest of the world. While the Toronto, Halifax, and Vancouver links /u/SoontobeSam mentioned appear to all go through the US in some way first which technically restricts Canada's direct access through those links.  **Arctic Fiber**  By popular request here is the link to the site for the fiber link through the Canadian Arctic that I mentioned previously. The project was formerly known as Arctic Fiber, but has been re-branded as the Quintillion Cable System after the name of the company task with installing the cable. Yes, you read that right, this project has gotten the green light since I last checked up on it (I didn't have time to check on my way to work when I commented originally). They just completed Phase 1 which covers Alaska, and will be starting the Phase 2 to expand through Asia to Tokyo soon. Quintillion has also built a terrestrial link through Alaska and down to the mainland US in order to provide connection to existing connection hubs on the west coast.  *UPDATE 2: Just have to highlight these two awesome users comments:*  User /u/KrazyTrumpeter05 posted an awesome comment with more info about Canadian Fiber connections, and also linked to this 293 report they claim to have played a major role in writing about Internet Fiber connections around the world. Thanks for the fascinating info!  User /u/Fochang1 posted this fascinating comment about how South American/Caribbean nations have a similar issue with the US acting as their Internet gatekeepers. They linked to this insane Internet Exchange Point in Miami that routes most of South/Central America's internet traffic. Thanks for sharing this incredible perspective that Canadians like myself would otherwise be oblivious to!  **Some thoughts on the impact of Arctic Fiber** The fact that this project is actually being built is incredible, because it will mean a huge boost in connection for remote arctic communities that open up massive new economic and information exchange opportunities to these historically very isolated regions. I can't wait to see what the Inuit peoples of Canada's arctic will do with this new link to the outside world. Reconciliation between Canada's indigenous and non-indigenous peoples has become a major focus for Canada in recent years, with the Canadian government set to fully implement into law a 2007 UN declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples. There is a long way to go for reconciliation, and it has been a very rocky road so far, but I hope that this new Fiber link will open up new ways for a large portion of Canada's indigenous population to showcase their own culture to the world and make new economic opportunities for their communities in the digital marketplace.  If you for some reason read through everything to this point, thanks for reading :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13773.0, "score_ratio": 16.9249011858, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq8nk71", "c_root_id_B": "dq93gtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1511454783, "created_at_utc_B": 1511474668, "score_A": 85, "score_B": 4282, "human_ref_A": "That all depends on who is between you and the services you want to use. ISP are currently using their position between consumers and service providers to try and double dip on everyone. Charging consumers more to access specific sites. And services more to access their customers. If you are not their customer you will likely notice nothing.", "human_ref_B": "Canadian checking in here.   **This comment has been updated with better info and links for the sake of clarity, see below for new info**  Original Comment:  >As far as I can tell from my research into how this affects Canada, there is only one undersea fiber cable linking Canada's internet to the rest of the world that doesnt go through the US first. That link goes to Greenland and reportedly has had frequent issues since it was built due to poor construction. Aside from this Greenland link, all other wired Canadian internet traffic goes through the US first before going to the rest of the world. The US could effectively cut Canada off from the internet if it wanted to.  >However, there is a proposal to built a new, modern fiber link through the Canadian arctic that would link London, UK with Tokyo, Japan. This would significantly reduce latency between Western Europe and East Asia while also bypassing the mainland US. It would also provide gigabit internet access to thousands of remote Inuit communities in the Canadian Arctic, which could have life changing effects on their economies.  **UPDATES**  Thanks to /u/RcNorth and /u/markszpak for highlighting this more detailed map than the ones I based the previous version of this comment on. This more detailed map clearly shows that there are 3 fiber links from Halifax to the UK in addition to a fiber link up to Greenland that I mentioned previously.  However as described by /u/SoontobeSam:  >As a former network operations technician for a Canadian ISP, this is correct, telegreenland's cable is the only subsea fiber I am aware of that does not enter the US before Canada, our other main access routes are in Toronto and Vancouver, but both connect to the US to access international networks. I can also confirm that their network uptime is mostly ok, but when they do have issues it takes forever to get any progress and dealing with ongoing non outage issues is difficult, also Newfies and Scots have a serious language barrier even though they're both speaking \"English\".  So while my initial remarks regarding the US basically being the gatekeeper for Canada's access to the wider Internet may be more or less correct, I was incorrect in saying that the Greenland fiber link is the ONLY fiber link Canada has to the rest of the world. While the Toronto, Halifax, and Vancouver links /u/SoontobeSam mentioned appear to all go through the US in some way first which technically restricts Canada's direct access through those links.  **Arctic Fiber**  By popular request here is the link to the site for the fiber link through the Canadian Arctic that I mentioned previously. The project was formerly known as Arctic Fiber, but has been re-branded as the Quintillion Cable System after the name of the company task with installing the cable. Yes, you read that right, this project has gotten the green light since I last checked up on it (I didn't have time to check on my way to work when I commented originally). They just completed Phase 1 which covers Alaska, and will be starting the Phase 2 to expand through Asia to Tokyo soon. Quintillion has also built a terrestrial link through Alaska and down to the mainland US in order to provide connection to existing connection hubs on the west coast.  *UPDATE 2: Just have to highlight these two awesome users comments:*  User /u/KrazyTrumpeter05 posted an awesome comment with more info about Canadian Fiber connections, and also linked to this 293 report they claim to have played a major role in writing about Internet Fiber connections around the world. Thanks for the fascinating info!  User /u/Fochang1 posted this fascinating comment about how South American/Caribbean nations have a similar issue with the US acting as their Internet gatekeepers. They linked to this insane Internet Exchange Point in Miami that routes most of South/Central America's internet traffic. Thanks for sharing this incredible perspective that Canadians like myself would otherwise be oblivious to!  **Some thoughts on the impact of Arctic Fiber** The fact that this project is actually being built is incredible, because it will mean a huge boost in connection for remote arctic communities that open up massive new economic and information exchange opportunities to these historically very isolated regions. I can't wait to see what the Inuit peoples of Canada's arctic will do with this new link to the outside world. Reconciliation between Canada's indigenous and non-indigenous peoples has become a major focus for Canada in recent years, with the Canadian government set to fully implement into law a 2007 UN declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples. There is a long way to go for reconciliation, and it has been a very rocky road so far, but I hope that this new Fiber link will open up new ways for a large portion of Canada's indigenous population to showcase their own culture to the world and make new economic opportunities for their communities in the digital marketplace.  If you for some reason read through everything to this point, thanks for reading :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19885.0, "score_ratio": 50.3764705882, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq8yke0", "c_root_id_B": "dq93gtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1511468317, "created_at_utc_B": 1511474668, "score_A": 62, "score_B": 4282, "human_ref_A": "Why is no one talking about the impact of ISP's power to control our access to honest information and news?  HuffPo, Young Turks, ... Where did they go?  If you think the corporate media is useless now, just wait till you can't get any unfiltered information. That is the biggest risk. Everyone is talking about Netflix.  Geesh from these comments, i gather many people get their information from only one news source.  You can bet the sources that are objectionable to corporate media will the first to go.  That is why I cited examples. We'll always have access to corporate propaganda as long as they control our world.", "human_ref_B": "Canadian checking in here.   **This comment has been updated with better info and links for the sake of clarity, see below for new info**  Original Comment:  >As far as I can tell from my research into how this affects Canada, there is only one undersea fiber cable linking Canada's internet to the rest of the world that doesnt go through the US first. That link goes to Greenland and reportedly has had frequent issues since it was built due to poor construction. Aside from this Greenland link, all other wired Canadian internet traffic goes through the US first before going to the rest of the world. The US could effectively cut Canada off from the internet if it wanted to.  >However, there is a proposal to built a new, modern fiber link through the Canadian arctic that would link London, UK with Tokyo, Japan. This would significantly reduce latency between Western Europe and East Asia while also bypassing the mainland US. It would also provide gigabit internet access to thousands of remote Inuit communities in the Canadian Arctic, which could have life changing effects on their economies.  **UPDATES**  Thanks to /u/RcNorth and /u/markszpak for highlighting this more detailed map than the ones I based the previous version of this comment on. This more detailed map clearly shows that there are 3 fiber links from Halifax to the UK in addition to a fiber link up to Greenland that I mentioned previously.  However as described by /u/SoontobeSam:  >As a former network operations technician for a Canadian ISP, this is correct, telegreenland's cable is the only subsea fiber I am aware of that does not enter the US before Canada, our other main access routes are in Toronto and Vancouver, but both connect to the US to access international networks. I can also confirm that their network uptime is mostly ok, but when they do have issues it takes forever to get any progress and dealing with ongoing non outage issues is difficult, also Newfies and Scots have a serious language barrier even though they're both speaking \"English\".  So while my initial remarks regarding the US basically being the gatekeeper for Canada's access to the wider Internet may be more or less correct, I was incorrect in saying that the Greenland fiber link is the ONLY fiber link Canada has to the rest of the world. While the Toronto, Halifax, and Vancouver links /u/SoontobeSam mentioned appear to all go through the US in some way first which technically restricts Canada's direct access through those links.  **Arctic Fiber**  By popular request here is the link to the site for the fiber link through the Canadian Arctic that I mentioned previously. The project was formerly known as Arctic Fiber, but has been re-branded as the Quintillion Cable System after the name of the company task with installing the cable. Yes, you read that right, this project has gotten the green light since I last checked up on it (I didn't have time to check on my way to work when I commented originally). They just completed Phase 1 which covers Alaska, and will be starting the Phase 2 to expand through Asia to Tokyo soon. Quintillion has also built a terrestrial link through Alaska and down to the mainland US in order to provide connection to existing connection hubs on the west coast.  *UPDATE 2: Just have to highlight these two awesome users comments:*  User /u/KrazyTrumpeter05 posted an awesome comment with more info about Canadian Fiber connections, and also linked to this 293 report they claim to have played a major role in writing about Internet Fiber connections around the world. Thanks for the fascinating info!  User /u/Fochang1 posted this fascinating comment about how South American/Caribbean nations have a similar issue with the US acting as their Internet gatekeepers. They linked to this insane Internet Exchange Point in Miami that routes most of South/Central America's internet traffic. Thanks for sharing this incredible perspective that Canadians like myself would otherwise be oblivious to!  **Some thoughts on the impact of Arctic Fiber** The fact that this project is actually being built is incredible, because it will mean a huge boost in connection for remote arctic communities that open up massive new economic and information exchange opportunities to these historically very isolated regions. I can't wait to see what the Inuit peoples of Canada's arctic will do with this new link to the outside world. Reconciliation between Canada's indigenous and non-indigenous peoples has become a major focus for Canada in recent years, with the Canadian government set to fully implement into law a 2007 UN declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples. There is a long way to go for reconciliation, and it has been a very rocky road so far, but I hope that this new Fiber link will open up new ways for a large portion of Canada's indigenous population to showcase their own culture to the world and make new economic opportunities for their communities in the digital marketplace.  If you for some reason read through everything to this point, thanks for reading :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6351.0, "score_ratio": 69.064516129, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq8k9m9", "c_root_id_B": "dq8vqt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1511450434, "created_at_utc_B": 1511464788, "score_A": 381, "score_B": 1207, "human_ref_A": "See this_YB17.png) and this and this. Also check here and here. You can see the percentages of households with a computer and internet access is in both around 70% - 80%, just pick 75% for ease of calculation, US having 330mln citizens and EU having 750 mln, that means that there are at least, respectively, 250 mln US citizens with access to internet, and in EU 560 mln. To achieve the best internet experience the datacenters for all big companies that everyone uses are spread across the world, with the concentration of datacenters being proportional to the traffic. Knowing EU has twice as many internet users as US, logically there should be, and probably are - more datacenters in EU than in US. This means that impact on EU will be low but it can lead to other unforeseen consequences outside of \"just the internet\". Same counts for other regions like Canada, South America, Asia, Australia (they have shit internet anyways) and Africa. Biggest impact (in order) I expect this to have is: Canada, EU, South America, Asia, Australia, Africa. Look for example how IBMs datacenters are spread around the world. Other big companies probably have the same spread. This would confirm which regions of the world would be fucked most by US net neutrality laws being repealed. Also check out Azure's datacenters spread and Google's datacenters spread.   Here you can see US will account for \"only\" (still a big chunk though) 30% of the worlds internet traffic in 2021 (maybe that will change with the laws repealed though). But there's still the 70% of traffic outside US.  Worldwide 45% of the population has internet access one way or another (for 7 bln people that makes 3.15 bln). Of those 3.15 bln users, US counts for 250 mln, or just shy of 8% of the worlds internet population. This means other internet traffic is generated by 92% of the rest population in the world.  So, as of now the 8% of internet worldwide internet population located in US generates 30% of the internet traffic while 92% of the world generates 70% of the traffic.. well good for Americans I guess, that will make the impact a bit heavier on the rest of the world?..  As for other unforeseen consequences, think of intercontinental shipping, they need to send data between them to coordinate stuff, slow it down and it could mean your shipping container gets delayed by a week? Maybe this is an exaggeration but who knows..", "human_ref_B": "I would like to know what the ISPs are thinking of Elon Musk's (and others) notion of covering the planet with satellite based service, and how would they compete with that? It seems inevitable that this is in some form the future of internet. And then as an aside, will the competition be companies throwing up MORE satellites?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14354.0, "score_ratio": 3.1679790026, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq8skut", "c_root_id_B": "dq8vqt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1511460895, "created_at_utc_B": 1511464788, "score_A": 253, "score_B": 1207, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m unclear if this FCC \u201cruling\u201d will only allow them to throttle connections to their subscribers down stream. This post infers that services hosted in US data centres can have their UP connections throttled no matter where the user is. Nothing surprises me about what is happening there, but this would really be pushing it. If US data centres are affected like this, Canadian & Mexican data centres are about to see a lot of new business.  Edit: Make more readable.", "human_ref_B": "I would like to know what the ISPs are thinking of Elon Musk's (and others) notion of covering the planet with satellite based service, and how would they compete with that? It seems inevitable that this is in some form the future of internet. And then as an aside, will the competition be companies throwing up MORE satellites?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3893.0, "score_ratio": 4.7707509881, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq8nk71", "c_root_id_B": "dq8vqt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1511454783, "created_at_utc_B": 1511464788, "score_A": 85, "score_B": 1207, "human_ref_A": "That all depends on who is between you and the services you want to use. ISP are currently using their position between consumers and service providers to try and double dip on everyone. Charging consumers more to access specific sites. And services more to access their customers. If you are not their customer you will likely notice nothing.", "human_ref_B": "I would like to know what the ISPs are thinking of Elon Musk's (and others) notion of covering the planet with satellite based service, and how would they compete with that? It seems inevitable that this is in some form the future of internet. And then as an aside, will the competition be companies throwing up MORE satellites?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10005.0, "score_ratio": 14.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq8nk71", "c_root_id_B": "dq8skut", "created_at_utc_A": 1511454783, "created_at_utc_B": 1511460895, "score_A": 85, "score_B": 253, "human_ref_A": "That all depends on who is between you and the services you want to use. ISP are currently using their position between consumers and service providers to try and double dip on everyone. Charging consumers more to access specific sites. And services more to access their customers. If you are not their customer you will likely notice nothing.", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m unclear if this FCC \u201cruling\u201d will only allow them to throttle connections to their subscribers down stream. This post infers that services hosted in US data centres can have their UP connections throttled no matter where the user is. Nothing surprises me about what is happening there, but this would really be pushing it. If US data centres are affected like this, Canadian & Mexican data centres are about to see a lot of new business.  Edit: Make more readable.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6112.0, "score_ratio": 2.9764705882, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ez85x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "With all this fuss about net neutrality, exactly how much are we relying on America for our regular global use of the internet?", "c_root_id_A": "dq9dvzu", "c_root_id_B": "dq8yke0", "created_at_utc_A": 1511489910, "created_at_utc_B": 1511468317, "score_A": 81, "score_B": 62, "human_ref_A": "I don't see how any of it would have any impact on anyone outside the u.s.  If you're in Canada or elsewhere, and you're accessing a service in California, the Layer3 provider isn't going to be throttled at all.  The throttling has to happen ONLY at the client level inside the U.S. at the modem for the service to be able to be upgraded as a sellable package, therefore if your ISP is Comcast, their Network HAS to stay fast all the time so they can market those individual services to paying customers selectively.", "human_ref_B": "Why is no one talking about the impact of ISP's power to control our access to honest information and news?  HuffPo, Young Turks, ... Where did they go?  If you think the corporate media is useless now, just wait till you can't get any unfiltered information. That is the biggest risk. Everyone is talking about Netflix.  Geesh from these comments, i gather many people get their information from only one news source.  You can bet the sources that are objectionable to corporate media will the first to go.  That is why I cited examples. We'll always have access to corporate propaganda as long as they control our world.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21593.0, "score_ratio": 1.3064516129, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kcxjhh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why can we develop a vaccine for COVID in 8 months, but still don't have a vaccine for other viruses that are decades old? Not anti vaccine or anything and I plan on getting the covid one, but just wondering how a vaccine for COVID was made so quickly, and we still don't have a vaccine for HIV, respiratory syncytial virus, Epstein-Barr, etc.", "c_root_id_A": "gfta6n0", "c_root_id_B": "gftahr9", "created_at_utc_A": 1607955577, "created_at_utc_B": 1607955763, "score_A": 87, "score_B": 7128, "human_ref_A": "Because of the scale of the virus involved. HIV (f.e.) is a global health *issue*, but not a global health *emergency*. It probably caused more deaths than COVID, but not in the span of a single year.  The more footprint a problem has in the public, the more pressure is there for politics to release funding, and for medical companies to prioritize.  As well, it helps that SARS isn't a very complicated or entirely new strain of virus. In essence, COVID is 'just' a very complicated and dangerous flu.  High priority, easy (compared to, let's say, HIV) to develope. That's why we get a vaccine relatively quick.", "human_ref_B": "HIV is a highly mutagenic virus - there are a handful of different COVID strains circulating around the world, but in HIV the virus continues to mutate readily after infection, leading to the presence of multiple strains per individual (source). This makes it a much more difficult task to come up with an effective vaccine for HIV.  As for the others, its more of an economic reason than a biological one. The scale of the COVID pandemic has caused governments and industry worldwide to pour money into the development of a vaccine -- and that level of demand just isn't there for RSV/EBV/etc. Would love for someone with more of a background in healthcare economics to chime in here.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 186.0, "score_ratio": 81.9310344828, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kcxjhh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why can we develop a vaccine for COVID in 8 months, but still don't have a vaccine for other viruses that are decades old? Not anti vaccine or anything and I plan on getting the covid one, but just wondering how a vaccine for COVID was made so quickly, and we still don't have a vaccine for HIV, respiratory syncytial virus, Epstein-Barr, etc.", "c_root_id_A": "gfta6n0", "c_root_id_B": "gfthn7u", "created_at_utc_A": 1607955577, "created_at_utc_B": 1607959798, "score_A": 87, "score_B": 4989, "human_ref_A": "Because of the scale of the virus involved. HIV (f.e.) is a global health *issue*, but not a global health *emergency*. It probably caused more deaths than COVID, but not in the span of a single year.  The more footprint a problem has in the public, the more pressure is there for politics to release funding, and for medical companies to prioritize.  As well, it helps that SARS isn't a very complicated or entirely new strain of virus. In essence, COVID is 'just' a very complicated and dangerous flu.  High priority, easy (compared to, let's say, HIV) to develope. That's why we get a vaccine relatively quick.", "human_ref_B": "**Ph.D. in Vaccine Development here.**    Short answer: Many many reasons    Slightly longer answer:   * Combination of impact and design difficulty - Understandably, vaccines were developed for the most common/most impactful diseases (the need) + a combination of how easy/straightforward it was to design the vaccine, based on what we knew about the pathogen, its structure, the immunodominant antigen, and most importantly the correlate of protection. So you could think that a lot of the impactful diseases, that have the advantage of straightforward design - e.g. low mutation ability, limited immunodominant antigens, clear correlates of protection, e.g. antibodies have been addressed - Rotavirus, pneumococcal pneumonia, Measles, Mumps, Rubella, etc. etc.  * Others are ones that have high impact but pose considerable scientific challenges - Flu, HIV etc. There's been lots of work and $ put into them but their high mutation rates mean they are scientifically hard to crack. That's why while we have \\*generally effective\\* flu vaccines, we still need to rely on strain coverage and annual seleciton. We've been making steady progress towards a universal flu vaccine, but it's still a while away. For e.g. for flu, we know the correlate of protection, but don't have a stable/conserved immunodominant antigen yet... for HIV - mix of both, some potential immunodominant antigens, but the high mutation rate is a fucking nightmare. RSV is similar - there has been a lot of interest due to the high impact, but the concern is scientific (antigen selection and immune response) than lack of resources  * Then there is the need aspect, in the other direction - Vaccine development is expensive, and takes time. So you need resources, and in current society - conpanies investing in this need to recoup their costs - so this goes into the argument on funding. Someone else in this thread brought up chikungunya - Yep, decent example - mostly a disease affecting developing countries, but other than a few labs, and a few startups focuisng on emerging diseases, there wasn't that much effort in there - from the U.S. side - till recently. It has been in development in other countries, but like I said, this takes time.... and resources  * mRNA vaccine tech - This tech has been in development for the last 18 years or so. It is not new! The problem is, as most of the \"easy\" targets were taken up by other vaccines as mentioned earlier - they had a higher bar to prove. For a new tech, they need to convince regulators, that their vaccine is as good/better than established ones, as opposed to just proving they work. Plus the cold chain concerns etc. are a factor. But the key advantage for them was always the speed of reactivity - Once a pathogen is identified/sequenced, it's much quicker to design an mRNA vaccine than a protein/live inactivated etc. so companies like Novavax, Moderna, Biontech have been working on mRNA vaccines for a while as the USP is ability to react quickly to novel antigens - as what happened here.  * This is a litmus test for new vaccine tech, and it will be fascinating to see where we go from here. As this tech takes center stage, we can expect more investment in this tech for other diseases.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4221.0, "score_ratio": 57.3448275862, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kcxjhh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why can we develop a vaccine for COVID in 8 months, but still don't have a vaccine for other viruses that are decades old? Not anti vaccine or anything and I plan on getting the covid one, but just wondering how a vaccine for COVID was made so quickly, and we still don't have a vaccine for HIV, respiratory syncytial virus, Epstein-Barr, etc.", "c_root_id_A": "gfta6n0", "c_root_id_B": "gfty56v", "created_at_utc_A": 1607955577, "created_at_utc_B": 1607967922, "score_A": 87, "score_B": 587, "human_ref_A": "Because of the scale of the virus involved. HIV (f.e.) is a global health *issue*, but not a global health *emergency*. It probably caused more deaths than COVID, but not in the span of a single year.  The more footprint a problem has in the public, the more pressure is there for politics to release funding, and for medical companies to prioritize.  As well, it helps that SARS isn't a very complicated or entirely new strain of virus. In essence, COVID is 'just' a very complicated and dangerous flu.  High priority, easy (compared to, let's say, HIV) to develope. That's why we get a vaccine relatively quick.", "human_ref_B": "They didn't develop it in 8 months. The Moderna vaccine has been in development since 2013 for a different strain of coronavirus; they reworked it. Here's a video from the MIT course on the pandemic from one of the researchers who made the vaccine, Kizzmekia Corbett.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpqfdr9FPWM&feature=emb\\_logo The MIT course also has other researchers (one studies HIV) who discusses how and why there is no vaccine for HIV because how quickly it mutates. (Full MIT Course here: https://biology.mit.edu/undergraduate/current-students/subject-offerings/covid-19-sars-cov-2-and-the-pandemic/ )", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12345.0, "score_ratio": 6.7471264368, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dqtzsho", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512526697, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 4783, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "Well the reason the temperature in the past was so much higher is that the high CO2 levels persisted for many thousands of years allowing for the progressive accumulation of water vapor in the atmosphere which accelerated the greenhouse effect. CO2 is actually the second most important greenhouse gas behind water vapor, though it is often the trigger for climatic change because it's concentration in the atmosphere is controlled by a variety of complex processes where as water vapor is effectively controlled by temperature and pressure. Over time the increased temperature has a positive feedback with water in the atmosphere allowing for very elevated temperatures. It's worth noting that when we say the \"the last time\" we are taking a snapshot of a world that had been experiencing those conditions for millenia.  We currently believe we can keep the warming around 2C because we are projecting mitigation and emission reduction strategies that will eventually slow the warming trend. In the short term (geologically speaking) that means a temperature rise of around 2C.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 256.0, "score_ratio": 531.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu387o", "c_root_id_B": "dqu0gfv", "created_at_utc_A": 1512530640, "created_at_utc_B": 1512527450, "score_A": 232, "score_B": 181, "human_ref_A": "I think a lot of the concern about methane stems from the potential positive feedback loop that exists in polar regions. There's a ton of methane locked up in the 10's of millions of square kilometres of polar permafrost regions, and if these regions melt under climate change this adds to methane emissions, which adds to GHG emissions, which leads to more warming, which leads to more permafrost melting, etc.", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is that we don't, at least not all of us.  I certainly don't. 2C is incredibly ambitious at this point, so I'm actually with you.    However, the reasoning behind it is that CO2 to temperature isn't as simple as a 1 to 1 relationship where a CO2 level of X leads to a temperature of Y.  There are many factors in play, of which CO2 is just one.  More of it will always lead to a temperature increase, but the end value depends on a lot more, stuff like how much ice exists near the poles, solar energy, all kinds of stuff.    So in a previous \"configuration\", this CO2 level will have led to warmer temperatures at times, and probably colder temperatures at times. But in this configuration, this is what we get at this level of CO2.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3190.0, "score_ratio": 1.2817679558, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu2x1e", "c_root_id_B": "dqu387o", "created_at_utc_A": 1512530269, "created_at_utc_B": 1512530640, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 232, "human_ref_A": "Also, there are some who believe we can't - there is a tipping point from feedback carbon effects that we won't know is there until we are well past it. Even if we can't, we should still fight to reduce carbon emissions, because it'd take everything we had to survive larger changes in the climate.", "human_ref_B": "I think a lot of the concern about methane stems from the potential positive feedback loop that exists in polar regions. There's a ton of methane locked up in the 10's of millions of square kilometres of polar permafrost regions, and if these regions melt under climate change this adds to methane emissions, which adds to GHG emissions, which leads to more warming, which leads to more permafrost melting, etc.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 371.0, "score_ratio": 12.8888888889, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dqu387o", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512530640, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 232, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "I think a lot of the concern about methane stems from the potential positive feedback loop that exists in polar regions. There's a ton of methane locked up in the 10's of millions of square kilometres of polar permafrost regions, and if these regions melt under climate change this adds to methane emissions, which adds to GHG emissions, which leads to more warming, which leads to more permafrost melting, etc.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4199.0, "score_ratio": 25.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dqu0gfv", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512527450, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 181, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is that we don't, at least not all of us.  I certainly don't. 2C is incredibly ambitious at this point, so I'm actually with you.    However, the reasoning behind it is that CO2 to temperature isn't as simple as a 1 to 1 relationship where a CO2 level of X leads to a temperature of Y.  There are many factors in play, of which CO2 is just one.  More of it will always lead to a temperature increase, but the end value depends on a lot more, stuff like how much ice exists near the poles, solar energy, all kinds of stuff.    So in a previous \"configuration\", this CO2 level will have led to warmer temperatures at times, and probably colder temperatures at times. But in this configuration, this is what we get at this level of CO2.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1009.0, "score_ratio": 20.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu4h3b", "c_root_id_B": "dqu6dz2", "created_at_utc_A": 1512532176, "created_at_utc_B": 1512534670, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 94, "human_ref_A": "Global Warming is ultimately a rate of change problem.  The earth has been on an existing warming trend since the little ice age ended in the 1600s (a period of significant cooling from ~1200 AD).  The issue with anthropomorphic climate change is that we're accelerating this warming trend into what could be dangerous territory.  What the ultimate equilibrium temperature is for a given amount of atmospheric C02 is an unknown, currently the IPCC estimate for climate sensitivity is 1-6 degrees C per doubling of atmospheric C02. That range hasn't gotten more precise since the 70s.  Behind the reductionist headlines what you're seeing is a projection through a date, IE keeping the warming **by 2100** to under 2 degrees C which does not mean that the rate of warmth will slow.  As to how accurate those projections are? This far they've overestimated the effect of C02 on the actual rate of change significantly, but referring back to that 1-6 degree range that may just be further down the road.", "human_ref_B": "This is a good question. First, a little background. So the last time atmospheric CO2 levels were as high as they are today (~ 408 ppm) was about 15 mya (some say more, some say less). Regardless of the exact date, Earth's climate system was considerably different back then than it is today, and so were all of its components - climactic feedback mechanisms, ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns, vegetation coverage, ozone levels, ice cover, concentrations of other GHGs, etc. All of these components contribute (either directly or indirectly) to global temperature. Therefore, although it is important to understand paleotemperature fluctuations and the climactic factors that caused them, comparing our current climactic situation with the past in regards to CO2 concentrations alone isn't necessarily relevant to your question; you have to consider current state of all the system's components. Scientists believe (with high confidence) that the temperature change resulting from GHG emissions can be kept to less than 2\u00b0C relative to pre-industrial levels IF atmospheric concentrations do not exceed 450 ppm CO2eq by 2100. These numbers take into account all the knowledge we have about the current state of the Earth's climate system's components.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2494.0, "score_ratio": 1.4461538462, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu6dz2", "c_root_id_B": "dqu65us", "created_at_utc_A": 1512534670, "created_at_utc_B": 1512534368, "score_A": 94, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "This is a good question. First, a little background. So the last time atmospheric CO2 levels were as high as they are today (~ 408 ppm) was about 15 mya (some say more, some say less). Regardless of the exact date, Earth's climate system was considerably different back then than it is today, and so were all of its components - climactic feedback mechanisms, ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns, vegetation coverage, ozone levels, ice cover, concentrations of other GHGs, etc. All of these components contribute (either directly or indirectly) to global temperature. Therefore, although it is important to understand paleotemperature fluctuations and the climactic factors that caused them, comparing our current climactic situation with the past in regards to CO2 concentrations alone isn't necessarily relevant to your question; you have to consider current state of all the system's components. Scientists believe (with high confidence) that the temperature change resulting from GHG emissions can be kept to less than 2\u00b0C relative to pre-industrial levels IF atmospheric concentrations do not exceed 450 ppm CO2eq by 2100. These numbers take into account all the knowledge we have about the current state of the Earth's climate system's components.", "human_ref_B": "the 2 degrees celcius number is a goal to curb emissions worldwide. This actual likelihood that we achieve the goal is very low. Furthermore, the number wasn't chosen by scientists, it was chosen by policy makers, arbitrarily.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 302.0, "score_ratio": 3.2413793103, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu2x1e", "c_root_id_B": "dqu6dz2", "created_at_utc_A": 1512530269, "created_at_utc_B": 1512534670, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 94, "human_ref_A": "Also, there are some who believe we can't - there is a tipping point from feedback carbon effects that we won't know is there until we are well past it. Even if we can't, we should still fight to reduce carbon emissions, because it'd take everything we had to survive larger changes in the climate.", "human_ref_B": "This is a good question. First, a little background. So the last time atmospheric CO2 levels were as high as they are today (~ 408 ppm) was about 15 mya (some say more, some say less). Regardless of the exact date, Earth's climate system was considerably different back then than it is today, and so were all of its components - climactic feedback mechanisms, ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns, vegetation coverage, ozone levels, ice cover, concentrations of other GHGs, etc. All of these components contribute (either directly or indirectly) to global temperature. Therefore, although it is important to understand paleotemperature fluctuations and the climactic factors that caused them, comparing our current climactic situation with the past in regards to CO2 concentrations alone isn't necessarily relevant to your question; you have to consider current state of all the system's components. Scientists believe (with high confidence) that the temperature change resulting from GHG emissions can be kept to less than 2\u00b0C relative to pre-industrial levels IF atmospheric concentrations do not exceed 450 ppm CO2eq by 2100. These numbers take into account all the knowledge we have about the current state of the Earth's climate system's components.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4401.0, "score_ratio": 5.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dqu6dz2", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512534670, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 94, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "This is a good question. First, a little background. So the last time atmospheric CO2 levels were as high as they are today (~ 408 ppm) was about 15 mya (some say more, some say less). Regardless of the exact date, Earth's climate system was considerably different back then than it is today, and so were all of its components - climactic feedback mechanisms, ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns, vegetation coverage, ozone levels, ice cover, concentrations of other GHGs, etc. All of these components contribute (either directly or indirectly) to global temperature. Therefore, although it is important to understand paleotemperature fluctuations and the climactic factors that caused them, comparing our current climactic situation with the past in regards to CO2 concentrations alone isn't necessarily relevant to your question; you have to consider current state of all the system's components. Scientists believe (with high confidence) that the temperature change resulting from GHG emissions can be kept to less than 2\u00b0C relative to pre-industrial levels IF atmospheric concentrations do not exceed 450 ppm CO2eq by 2100. These numbers take into account all the knowledge we have about the current state of the Earth's climate system's components.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8229.0, "score_ratio": 10.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu4h3b", "c_root_id_B": "dqu2x1e", "created_at_utc_A": 1512532176, "created_at_utc_B": 1512530269, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Global Warming is ultimately a rate of change problem.  The earth has been on an existing warming trend since the little ice age ended in the 1600s (a period of significant cooling from ~1200 AD).  The issue with anthropomorphic climate change is that we're accelerating this warming trend into what could be dangerous territory.  What the ultimate equilibrium temperature is for a given amount of atmospheric C02 is an unknown, currently the IPCC estimate for climate sensitivity is 1-6 degrees C per doubling of atmospheric C02. That range hasn't gotten more precise since the 70s.  Behind the reductionist headlines what you're seeing is a projection through a date, IE keeping the warming **by 2100** to under 2 degrees C which does not mean that the rate of warmth will slow.  As to how accurate those projections are? This far they've overestimated the effect of C02 on the actual rate of change significantly, but referring back to that 1-6 degree range that may just be further down the road.", "human_ref_B": "Also, there are some who believe we can't - there is a tipping point from feedback carbon effects that we won't know is there until we are well past it. Even if we can't, we should still fight to reduce carbon emissions, because it'd take everything we had to survive larger changes in the climate.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1907.0, "score_ratio": 3.6111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dqu4h3b", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512532176, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "Global Warming is ultimately a rate of change problem.  The earth has been on an existing warming trend since the little ice age ended in the 1600s (a period of significant cooling from ~1200 AD).  The issue with anthropomorphic climate change is that we're accelerating this warming trend into what could be dangerous territory.  What the ultimate equilibrium temperature is for a given amount of atmospheric C02 is an unknown, currently the IPCC estimate for climate sensitivity is 1-6 degrees C per doubling of atmospheric C02. That range hasn't gotten more precise since the 70s.  Behind the reductionist headlines what you're seeing is a projection through a date, IE keeping the warming **by 2100** to under 2 degrees C which does not mean that the rate of warmth will slow.  As to how accurate those projections are? This far they've overestimated the effect of C02 on the actual rate of change significantly, but referring back to that 1-6 degree range that may just be further down the road.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5735.0, "score_ratio": 7.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqudxtb", "c_root_id_B": "dqu65us", "created_at_utc_A": 1512548660, "created_at_utc_B": 1512534368, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Well we pretty much can't. The best estimates show that there is less than 5% chance of us keeping the warming to below 2C variance. There is still a slight chance, but because there are so many people who aren't bothered by it, we will not be able to do it.", "human_ref_B": "the 2 degrees celcius number is a goal to curb emissions worldwide. This actual likelihood that we achieve the goal is very low. Furthermore, the number wasn't chosen by scientists, it was chosen by policy makers, arbitrarily.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14292.0, "score_ratio": 1.1724137931, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu2x1e", "c_root_id_B": "dqudxtb", "created_at_utc_A": 1512530269, "created_at_utc_B": 1512548660, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 34, "human_ref_A": "Also, there are some who believe we can't - there is a tipping point from feedback carbon effects that we won't know is there until we are well past it. Even if we can't, we should still fight to reduce carbon emissions, because it'd take everything we had to survive larger changes in the climate.", "human_ref_B": "Well we pretty much can't. The best estimates show that there is less than 5% chance of us keeping the warming to below 2C variance. There is still a slight chance, but because there are so many people who aren't bothered by it, we will not be able to do it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18391.0, "score_ratio": 1.8888888889, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqudxtb", "c_root_id_B": "dqu96kx", "created_at_utc_A": 1512548660, "created_at_utc_B": 1512538813, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Well we pretty much can't. The best estimates show that there is less than 5% chance of us keeping the warming to below 2C variance. There is still a slight chance, but because there are so many people who aren't bothered by it, we will not be able to do it.", "human_ref_B": "Baked into some of the assumptions is that we're going to achieve negative emissions in some way. The Economist just ran an article about it a month ago or so.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9847.0, "score_ratio": 2.6153846154, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqudxtb", "c_root_id_B": "dqtzkek", "created_at_utc_A": 1512548660, "created_at_utc_B": 1512526441, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Well we pretty much can't. The best estimates show that there is less than 5% chance of us keeping the warming to below 2C variance. There is still a slight chance, but because there are so many people who aren't bothered by it, we will not be able to do it.", "human_ref_B": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22219.0, "score_ratio": 3.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu2x1e", "c_root_id_B": "dqu65us", "created_at_utc_A": 1512530269, "created_at_utc_B": 1512534368, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Also, there are some who believe we can't - there is a tipping point from feedback carbon effects that we won't know is there until we are well past it. Even if we can't, we should still fight to reduce carbon emissions, because it'd take everything we had to survive larger changes in the climate.", "human_ref_B": "the 2 degrees celcius number is a goal to curb emissions worldwide. This actual likelihood that we achieve the goal is very low. Furthermore, the number wasn't chosen by scientists, it was chosen by policy makers, arbitrarily.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4099.0, "score_ratio": 1.6111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dqu65us", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512534368, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "the 2 degrees celcius number is a goal to curb emissions worldwide. This actual likelihood that we achieve the goal is very low. Furthermore, the number wasn't chosen by scientists, it was chosen by policy makers, arbitrarily.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7927.0, "score_ratio": 3.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu2x1e", "c_root_id_B": "dquhjmq", "created_at_utc_A": 1512530269, "created_at_utc_B": 1512558249, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Also, there are some who believe we can't - there is a tipping point from feedback carbon effects that we won't know is there until we are well past it. Even if we can't, we should still fight to reduce carbon emissions, because it'd take everything we had to survive larger changes in the climate.", "human_ref_B": "As far as I know nobody seriously expects it to stay under 2C. Many researchers said that point of no return passed years ago.   Politicians do not live in reality however. They have decided to stay under 2C. The fact that they aren\u2019t doing much in that effort and the fact that it is already impossible doesn\u2019t seem to bother them. After all, they have decided and so it shall be.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27980.0, "score_ratio": 1.6111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqu96kx", "c_root_id_B": "dquhjmq", "created_at_utc_A": 1512538813, "created_at_utc_B": 1512558249, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Baked into some of the assumptions is that we're going to achieve negative emissions in some way. The Economist just ran an article about it a month ago or so.", "human_ref_B": "As far as I know nobody seriously expects it to stay under 2C. Many researchers said that point of no return passed years ago.   Politicians do not live in reality however. They have decided to stay under 2C. The fact that they aren\u2019t doing much in that effort and the fact that it is already impossible doesn\u2019t seem to bother them. After all, they have decided and so it shall be.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19436.0, "score_ratio": 2.2307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dquevcd", "c_root_id_B": "dquhjmq", "created_at_utc_A": 1512551043, "created_at_utc_B": 1512558249, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "One thing that I've not seen mentioned so far is the importance of the oceans in regulating temperature and CO2.   The oceans are one of the most important components of the carbon cycle since they interact with the atmosphere and can store large amounts of carbon at great depths where it doesn't influence planetary temperature.   Our oceans are also vital in terms of temperature regulation. Alongside the atmosphere, the oceans redistribute heat from the equator to higher latitudes. At these high latitudes waters become cold and dense and so they sink, forming what we call deep waters. The 'ocean conveyor belt' (or meridional overturning circulation) is really important in maintaining a climate that is in equilibrium. If we stopped emitting greenhouse gases today then in a very simplistic model we might expect that over a few thousands years deep water would carry a large amount of carbon dioxide down into the deep ocean and atmospheric CO2 would reduce to pre-indutrial levels.  On the other hand, if the formation of deep water is reduced, via factors like less dense waters in the North Atlantic (as Greenland melts) and changed in wind patterns in the Southern Ocean, then it means less carbon can be taken from the atmosphere in the long term and temperatures could increase dramatically. Right now we think there were times in the past where overall deepwater formation was slow and that is associated with periods of long-term warm temperatures.", "human_ref_B": "As far as I know nobody seriously expects it to stay under 2C. Many researchers said that point of no return passed years ago.   Politicians do not live in reality however. They have decided to stay under 2C. The fact that they aren\u2019t doing much in that effort and the fact that it is already impossible doesn\u2019t seem to bother them. After all, they have decided and so it shall be.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7206.0, "score_ratio": 2.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dquhjmq", "c_root_id_B": "dqtzkek", "created_at_utc_A": 1512558249, "created_at_utc_B": 1512526441, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "As far as I know nobody seriously expects it to stay under 2C. Many researchers said that point of no return passed years ago.   Politicians do not live in reality however. They have decided to stay under 2C. The fact that they aren\u2019t doing much in that effort and the fact that it is already impossible doesn\u2019t seem to bother them. After all, they have decided and so it shall be.", "human_ref_B": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31808.0, "score_ratio": 3.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dqu2x1e", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512530269, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "Also, there are some who believe we can't - there is a tipping point from feedback carbon effects that we won't know is there until we are well past it. Even if we can't, we should still fight to reduce carbon emissions, because it'd take everything we had to survive larger changes in the climate.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3828.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dqu96kx", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512538813, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "Baked into some of the assumptions is that we're going to achieve negative emissions in some way. The Economist just ran an article about it a month ago or so.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12372.0, "score_ratio": 1.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7huc8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?", "c_root_id_A": "dqtzkek", "c_root_id_B": "dquevcd", "created_at_utc_A": 1512526441, "created_at_utc_B": 1512551043, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Also, why are they predicting only small amounts of sea rise, less than a meter, by the end of the century when we can see huge amounts of water coming off Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland alone could raise things by 7 meters, and although i'm not saying it's all going to melt this century, it's certainly not going to stay at the same ice levels. It's kinda confusing when we hear about how fast things are melting but then are told that sea levels will only rise a little", "human_ref_B": "One thing that I've not seen mentioned so far is the importance of the oceans in regulating temperature and CO2.   The oceans are one of the most important components of the carbon cycle since they interact with the atmosphere and can store large amounts of carbon at great depths where it doesn't influence planetary temperature.   Our oceans are also vital in terms of temperature regulation. Alongside the atmosphere, the oceans redistribute heat from the equator to higher latitudes. At these high latitudes waters become cold and dense and so they sink, forming what we call deep waters. The 'ocean conveyor belt' (or meridional overturning circulation) is really important in maintaining a climate that is in equilibrium. If we stopped emitting greenhouse gases today then in a very simplistic model we might expect that over a few thousands years deep water would carry a large amount of carbon dioxide down into the deep ocean and atmospheric CO2 would reduce to pre-indutrial levels.  On the other hand, if the formation of deep water is reduced, via factors like less dense waters in the North Atlantic (as Greenland melts) and changed in wind patterns in the Southern Ocean, then it means less carbon can be taken from the atmosphere in the long term and temperatures could increase dramatically. Right now we think there were times in the past where overall deepwater formation was slow and that is associated with periods of long-term warm temperatures.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24602.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f2wzdd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If a fever helps the body fight off infection, would artificially raising your body temperature (within reason), say with a hot bath or shower, help this process and speed your recovery? I understand that this might border on violating Rule #1, but I am not seeking medical advice. I  am merely curious about the effects on the body.   There are lots of ways you could raise your temperature a little (or a lot if you\u2019re not careful), such as showers, baths, hot tubs, steam rooms, saunas, etc...   My understanding is that a fever helps fight infection by acting in two ways. The higher temperature inhibits the bug\u2019s ability to reproduce in the body, and it also makes some cells in our immune system more effective at fighting the infection.   So, would basically giving yourself a fever, or increasing it if it were a very low grade fever, help?", "c_root_id_A": "fhfc26f", "c_root_id_B": "fhfkwjz", "created_at_utc_A": 1581540392, "created_at_utc_B": 1581545475, "score_A": 292, "score_B": 4986, "human_ref_A": "I'll piggy back on this question and ask, does fever actually help the body fight off infection?  I know that we take Advil/Tylenol/etc. which brings down the fever, and the body still is fighting off the infection, so I would think that it isn't the fever per se that is fighting off the infection, rather a by product of this fight...  But I really have no idea, so will be curious to hear what others say.", "human_ref_B": "There's a lot of speculation in the comments, and a lot of the information in the comments is outright wrong/dangerous. Please don't take medical advice from any of these comments...  In short, pathogens cause the release of cytokines, which are inflammatory modulators that in a broad sense do various things to help fight infection. Some of these cytokines are pyrogenic (IL-1, IL-6, TNF, IFN). These act in many ways, but one of them is acting at the level of the hypothalamus to raise the body's 'set point' temperature via PGE2, similar to how a normal thermostat works. This causes a number of physiologic changes eg. you vasoconstrict in the periphery (so your limbs feel cold), and we're behaviourally programmed to decrease exposed surfaces - wearing more clothes, getting inside, reducing activity. You might also shiver.  Fever generally makes us feel terrible because of the above. It also increases baseline O2 consumption, can induce mental changes, and it can also exacerbate cardiac or pulmonary disease.   There is evidence that an elevated (febrile) temperature in animal cells IN TEST TUBES is beneficial, via a heightened immune response and increased bacteriacidal killing (PMID 12015457). HOWEVER there are no studies showing that fever itself facilitates any faster recovery from illness or adjuvants the immune system. There is isolated evidence in the context of influenza vaccination that treatment with antipyretics can actually boost anti-influenza antibody levels (PMID 7746030). We're pretty sure that treating fever symptoms with antipyretics does no harm and also doesn't slow recovery.   Exogenous heat exposure/production in an uncontrolled fashion can override the body's ability to lose heat and cause dangerously high (read: you could die) internal temperatures (ie. heat stroke). The thing we worry most about in the context of the acute illnesses that we're talking about from a temperature perspective is high fever, because we know that this results in bad things happening (some mentioned above) - and potentially seizure, coma, death.   Our bodies are well-oiled machines, and for the most part, your body knows what it's doing. Don't go messing around with trying to increase your body temperature on your own, because that is perhaps the most dangerous thing you can do.   tl;dr - We don't really have evidence that tells us whether temperature alone changes how the body manages infections. We know for a fact that artificially altering your body's temperature, particularly attempts to raise temperature, is dangerous.  This is not medical advice, and if you want medical advice then you should go see a doctor.  Edit: spelling and more pointed summary Edit 2: Thanks for the gilds!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5083.0, "score_ratio": 17.0753424658, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b423nu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Can you kill bacteria just by pressing fingers against each other? How does daily life's mechanical forces interact with microorganisms?", "c_root_id_A": "ej43pwr", "c_root_id_B": "ej3yhup", "created_at_utc_A": 1553259664, "created_at_utc_B": 1553254313, "score_A": 6176, "score_B": 840, "human_ref_A": "In theory yes, bacteria can be crushed just like anything. When using microscope slides it's possible to crush them if you don't do it properly. But those are incredibly smooth surfaces. Your fingers are not. There are visible grooves and grooves and imperfections so small you can't see them. Your fingers also have a fair bit of give to them as do the cells that make them up. So most, if not all, of the bacteria present will not experience much force. Not to say it couldn't happen in the right circumstances though.   To have a good chance of crushing them you need a material that is rigid and so flat that they won't just be pushed into grooves or holes.", "human_ref_B": "As far as I am aware, the amount of pressure you can apply is pathetic relative to that needed to kill your average bacteria.  Quick math: surface area of your finger tips = 1cm^2 Amount of force you can apply with a finger, 200 newtons, so that's a pressure of 2 Mega-Pascals (290 PSI).  It looks like you need to get to pressures of about 200 atmospheres (20 Mega-Pascals) before you start to slow the grow of E Coli, and that certainly isn't killing them outright, just slowing them down.  So I'm pretty sure they're safe from your fingers.  Of course this makes sense. If the cell walls of bacteria are like a brick wall, then the walls of your cells are like pieces of paper. Bacteria are just built more robustly than you and I.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5351.0, "score_ratio": 7.3523809524, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b423nu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Can you kill bacteria just by pressing fingers against each other? How does daily life's mechanical forces interact with microorganisms?", "c_root_id_A": "ej43pwr", "c_root_id_B": "ej432lq", "created_at_utc_A": 1553259664, "created_at_utc_B": 1553259082, "score_A": 6176, "score_B": 677, "human_ref_A": "In theory yes, bacteria can be crushed just like anything. When using microscope slides it's possible to crush them if you don't do it properly. But those are incredibly smooth surfaces. Your fingers are not. There are visible grooves and grooves and imperfections so small you can't see them. Your fingers also have a fair bit of give to them as do the cells that make them up. So most, if not all, of the bacteria present will not experience much force. Not to say it couldn't happen in the right circumstances though.   To have a good chance of crushing them you need a material that is rigid and so flat that they won't just be pushed into grooves or holes.", "human_ref_B": "I think the other comments address your first question well, but I wanted to add that it is possible to use mechanical forces to kill bacteria.  It's been discovered relatively recently that some insects use a purely mechanical system of nanostructures to kill surface bacteria without having to rely on chemicals or other methods (article, and original source).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 582.0, "score_ratio": 9.1225997046, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b423nu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Can you kill bacteria just by pressing fingers against each other? How does daily life's mechanical forces interact with microorganisms?", "c_root_id_A": "ej43pwr", "c_root_id_B": "ej42viw", "created_at_utc_A": 1553259664, "created_at_utc_B": 1553258907, "score_A": 6176, "score_B": 484, "human_ref_A": "In theory yes, bacteria can be crushed just like anything. When using microscope slides it's possible to crush them if you don't do it properly. But those are incredibly smooth surfaces. Your fingers are not. There are visible grooves and grooves and imperfections so small you can't see them. Your fingers also have a fair bit of give to them as do the cells that make them up. So most, if not all, of the bacteria present will not experience much force. Not to say it couldn't happen in the right circumstances though.   To have a good chance of crushing them you need a material that is rigid and so flat that they won't just be pushed into grooves or holes.", "human_ref_B": "Sometimes mechanical forces are used to break open bacteria in laboratories. Depending on the application two common techniques are the French press (same name but not for making coffee) which forces bacteria through a tiny valve killing them with shear forces or a sonicator which uses intense sound waves to kind of shake them apart.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 757.0, "score_ratio": 12.7603305785, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b423nu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Can you kill bacteria just by pressing fingers against each other? How does daily life's mechanical forces interact with microorganisms?", "c_root_id_A": "ej432lq", "c_root_id_B": "ej42viw", "created_at_utc_A": 1553259082, "created_at_utc_B": 1553258907, "score_A": 677, "score_B": 484, "human_ref_A": "I think the other comments address your first question well, but I wanted to add that it is possible to use mechanical forces to kill bacteria.  It's been discovered relatively recently that some insects use a purely mechanical system of nanostructures to kill surface bacteria without having to rely on chemicals or other methods (article, and original source).", "human_ref_B": "Sometimes mechanical forces are used to break open bacteria in laboratories. Depending on the application two common techniques are the French press (same name but not for making coffee) which forces bacteria through a tiny valve killing them with shear forces or a sonicator which uses intense sound waves to kind of shake them apart.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 175.0, "score_ratio": 1.3987603306, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "76w48s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How much of sleep is actual maintenance downtime, and how much is just time-killing energy conservation? The idea of science developing a means of reducing sleep to pure function or increasing the efficiency thereof is fascinating to me. My understanding of sleep in animals is that some maintenance is performed by the mind and body, but animals also sleep to conserve energy during unfavorable periods of time be it yearly hibernation cycles or evolved specialization to periods of the night/day cycle.", "c_root_id_A": "doh8iew", "c_root_id_B": "dohaj9h", "created_at_utc_A": 1508218600, "created_at_utc_B": 1508223192, "score_A": 1130, "score_B": 8635, "human_ref_A": "Good question, but nobody knows. From a neuroscience perspective, sleep is required for the brain to consolidate experiential information into knowledge. One idea is that in order to avoid new memories from interfering (overwriting as it were) with old ones, you have to somehow interleave reactivation of old memories with new ones. Memory suffers greatly with insomnia - just ask someone with a newborn.   There is probably no way of reducing the amount of down-time needed for this. So even if you can solve the energy restoration 'problem', there will be a cognitive price to be paid for chronic deprivation of sleep.", "human_ref_B": "Virtually every question on sleep should be answered with \"nobody knows\". This is one of those. Keep in mind that some mammals, like horses, sleep 3 hours a day while others, like bats, sleep 21 hours a day. Your question will most likely have different answers depending on the animal we are talking about", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4592.0, "score_ratio": 7.6415929204, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "76w48s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How much of sleep is actual maintenance downtime, and how much is just time-killing energy conservation? The idea of science developing a means of reducing sleep to pure function or increasing the efficiency thereof is fascinating to me. My understanding of sleep in animals is that some maintenance is performed by the mind and body, but animals also sleep to conserve energy during unfavorable periods of time be it yearly hibernation cycles or evolved specialization to periods of the night/day cycle.", "c_root_id_A": "doh8iew", "c_root_id_B": "dohbgb4", "created_at_utc_A": 1508218600, "created_at_utc_B": 1508225564, "score_A": 1130, "score_B": 1163, "human_ref_A": "Good question, but nobody knows. From a neuroscience perspective, sleep is required for the brain to consolidate experiential information into knowledge. One idea is that in order to avoid new memories from interfering (overwriting as it were) with old ones, you have to somehow interleave reactivation of old memories with new ones. Memory suffers greatly with insomnia - just ask someone with a newborn.   There is probably no way of reducing the amount of down-time needed for this. So even if you can solve the energy restoration 'problem', there will be a cognitive price to be paid for chronic deprivation of sleep.", "human_ref_B": "EDIT: A few responses in this thread say the same thing \"we don't know what sleep is for\", which is a true statement. However, we *do* know what it is *not* for, hence my responce below.   _______________________  What is clear is that sleep primary function is not energy conservation. What isn't clear is if it adds to, or plays a role in sleep at all.   It is clear from various proofs that energy can't be the primary or even a major factor is *why* organisms sleep (or have sleep-like states). To give some quick ones:    * Hibernating animals wake up intermittently to both sleep and pee.  e.g. squirrels, don't continuously hibernate. They get out of their hibernation a few times and [in those times they spend most of that asleep^1, ^2]( http://ajpregu.physiology.org/content/276/2/r522).     * For humans the energy savings of sleeping vs laying awake but resting is the equivalent to a slice of bread (~50 calories). This is hardly worth losing vigilance for 1/3 the day for.     * The correlation of [body mass and sleep amount is weak at best^3]( https://www.dovepress.com/cr_data/article_fulltext/s80000/80731/img/fig3.jpg). Although generally smaller mammals, for example, sleep more than larger mammals, you can't really guess at the amount of sleep an organism has by their size.  e.g. Lions, Platypuses & chipmunks all sleep around the same amount of time^4.    * Almost every organism appears to have a sleep-like state^5. Even single cell organisms. With these organisms it's unclear if \"sleep\" is even happening, but it's doubtful that reduced stimuli responsiveness does much for their energy expenditure.     The third point, though, show that there is a bit of correlation (even if weak), which indicate that perhaps there are some side benefits of energy conservation in sleep.    I've only highlighted some of the key evidences about energy conservation. There are many, and there is wide consensus that energy conservation isn't the point of sleep.  I will say though, that I think we often make a mistake by trying to see a function of sleep as a ubiquitous thing that *must* be the same across all species (but that is just my thinking on this)     _________________________________           ^1 ^http://ajpregu.physiology.org/content/276/2/r522   ^2 ^http://physrev.physiology.org/content/83/4/1153   ^3 ^https://www.dovepress.com/cr_data/article_fulltext/s80000/80731/img/fig3.jpg  ^(from #4)     ^4 ^https://www.dovepress.com/the-influence-of-gravity-on-rem-sleep-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-OAAP     ^5 ^(Sleep-like rather than \"sleep\" since we often define sleep as we see it in humans --i.e. laying down, less responsive to stimuli and brain changes-- but in many organisms, we can't see most of these with the exception of stimuli responsiveness. Hence \"sleep-like\" rather than \"sleep\".)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6964.0, "score_ratio": 1.0292035398, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "76w48s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How much of sleep is actual maintenance downtime, and how much is just time-killing energy conservation? The idea of science developing a means of reducing sleep to pure function or increasing the efficiency thereof is fascinating to me. My understanding of sleep in animals is that some maintenance is performed by the mind and body, but animals also sleep to conserve energy during unfavorable periods of time be it yearly hibernation cycles or evolved specialization to periods of the night/day cycle.", "c_root_id_A": "dohc3sn", "c_root_id_B": "doh8iew", "created_at_utc_A": 1508227394, "created_at_utc_B": 1508218600, "score_A": 1155, "score_B": 1130, "human_ref_A": "The problem here, as far as I'm aware, is that we're still not even entirely sure what sleep is *for*. It's noted that it has a lot of very unique benefits, and is essential to our health and well-being, but this question is made even more complicated when you consider that we've recently discovered that even brainless creatures have need of sleep!  Needless to say, this is going to be a very important avenue of research, because why would a brainless creature need to sleep? Why would its cognitive ability be impaired if it has no brain to speak of? This is one of those magical areas where science doesn't quite have all of the answers just yet.", "human_ref_B": "Good question, but nobody knows. From a neuroscience perspective, sleep is required for the brain to consolidate experiential information into knowledge. One idea is that in order to avoid new memories from interfering (overwriting as it were) with old ones, you have to somehow interleave reactivation of old memories with new ones. Memory suffers greatly with insomnia - just ask someone with a newborn.   There is probably no way of reducing the amount of down-time needed for this. So even if you can solve the energy restoration 'problem', there will be a cognitive price to be paid for chronic deprivation of sleep.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8794.0, "score_ratio": 1.0221238938, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q011ji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "About 6 months ago hundreds of millions of genetically modified mosquitos were released in the Florida Keys. Is there any update on how that's going? There's an ongoing experiment in Florida involving mosquitos that are engineered to breed only male mosquitos, with the goal of eventually leaving no female mosquitos to reproduce.  In an effort to extinguish a local mosquito population, up to a billion of these mosquitos will be released in the Florida Keys over a period of a few years. How's that going?", "c_root_id_A": "hf4ww9a", "c_root_id_B": "hf4ussc", "created_at_utc_A": 1633204595, "created_at_utc_B": 1633203684, "score_A": 6209, "score_B": 78, "human_ref_A": "It looks like that started in may and they were releasing 12,000 a week for 16 weeks. So it probably is just been 16 weeks recently. So probably too soon but it isn't the first place they tested this.  \"First genetically modified mosquitoes released in the United States\" https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01186-6  Additionally, the species is only about 4% of mosquitoes in Florida so people there may not notice any difference since the other species will likely fill the niche. But the species is the one that carries zika so even though people probably wont notice it will save lives", "human_ref_B": "https://www.oxitec.com/florida  Releases began in May this year and were halted due to the hurricane that passed by. No data released yet. Still acquiring data and doing the project.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 911.0, "score_ratio": 79.6025641026, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q011ji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "About 6 months ago hundreds of millions of genetically modified mosquitos were released in the Florida Keys. Is there any update on how that's going? There's an ongoing experiment in Florida involving mosquitos that are engineered to breed only male mosquitos, with the goal of eventually leaving no female mosquitos to reproduce.  In an effort to extinguish a local mosquito population, up to a billion of these mosquitos will be released in the Florida Keys over a period of a few years. How's that going?", "c_root_id_A": "hf55ogg", "c_root_id_B": "hf4ussc", "created_at_utc_A": 1633208382, "created_at_utc_B": 1633203684, "score_A": 2323, "score_B": 78, "human_ref_A": "Mosquito scientist here.  This method is potentially very promising as it only targets the mosquito species you want it to. In this case it is Aedes aegypti  which is an invasive species to Florida. This species is adapted to live in urban environments near humans and bite during the day which makes it such a nuisance. There are many other human biting native mosquitoes species in Florida. This method doesn't target those ones so food webs are likely to be unaffected.", "human_ref_B": "https://www.oxitec.com/florida  Releases began in May this year and were halted due to the hurricane that passed by. No data released yet. Still acquiring data and doing the project.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4698.0, "score_ratio": 29.7820512821, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83xrp8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If you cut entirely through the base of a tree but somehow managed to keep the tree itself perfectly balanced on the stump, would the tree \u201cre-bond\u201d to the stump or is this a tree death penalty?", "c_root_id_A": "dvlxkjt", "c_root_id_B": "dvlns41", "created_at_utc_A": 1520906995, "created_at_utc_B": 1520896439, "score_A": 2051, "score_B": 329, "human_ref_A": "TL;DR  Yes it is possible. There are grafting techniques which can be reliably used to save the tree. usually in the case of rodent damage. Source, Am nursery owner, work with trees/grafting regularly.  Edit: Both the xylem and phloem would be reconnected with a bridge graft as long as you line the scion up properly.    As a Nursery owner Ill throw my two cents in.   Yes it is possible, but unlikely if the two parts were simply balanced together. However there are grafting techniques which can reliably save the tree.   It is highly dependent on tree species, age, health, local weather, time of year, and a huge number of other factors. You would need the tree to be cut so thinly that there is zero diameter change between the two halves of the tree. This is nearly impossibly and is why wedge or vernier grafting exist.   You actually only need some of the vascular tissue (cambium, phloem, xylem) to be lined up for success. Obviously more is better but close to half is good enough for survival. There would be damage but the top would live.   That being said there is a technique which would greatly improve the chances of survival. You could bridge the gap. A bridge graft is where you take stems from younger trees of the same species and use them to connect the two separated pieces.   https://imgur.com/a/HNJBu  This can even be done in a way where the old wood from the original tree is removed so you have a large void instead of dead wood there. This technique is rarely practiced but is used to save heritage trees which have been damaged by rodents or mechanical damage usually from people mowing the lawn.", "human_ref_B": "It might be possible if you could lift the tree up and dress the cut area with growth hormone powder. This is a common practice done with other perennials over 40+ years and would probably have some success in the scenario that you're describing.  Weeping cherry trees are often grafted to a normal cherry tree. They have been available in nurseries for decades.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10556.0, "score_ratio": 6.2340425532, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83xrp8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If you cut entirely through the base of a tree but somehow managed to keep the tree itself perfectly balanced on the stump, would the tree \u201cre-bond\u201d to the stump or is this a tree death penalty?", "c_root_id_A": "dvlo59m", "c_root_id_B": "dvlxkjt", "created_at_utc_A": 1520896824, "created_at_utc_B": 1520906995, "score_A": 199, "score_B": 2051, "human_ref_A": "It depends greatly on the species. I've used tree ringing as a forest management technique for years. A cedar is always killed by ringing. A black locust will often jump a shoot across the gap, and I will return the next year to find a 2\" thick limb growing across the gap with the upper part of the tree thriving. Many species will sprout from a stump and can be coppiced,repeatedly harvesting the regrowth, but if any species could survive what you described, I would bet on black locust.", "human_ref_B": "TL;DR  Yes it is possible. There are grafting techniques which can be reliably used to save the tree. usually in the case of rodent damage. Source, Am nursery owner, work with trees/grafting regularly.  Edit: Both the xylem and phloem would be reconnected with a bridge graft as long as you line the scion up properly.    As a Nursery owner Ill throw my two cents in.   Yes it is possible, but unlikely if the two parts were simply balanced together. However there are grafting techniques which can reliably save the tree.   It is highly dependent on tree species, age, health, local weather, time of year, and a huge number of other factors. You would need the tree to be cut so thinly that there is zero diameter change between the two halves of the tree. This is nearly impossibly and is why wedge or vernier grafting exist.   You actually only need some of the vascular tissue (cambium, phloem, xylem) to be lined up for success. Obviously more is better but close to half is good enough for survival. There would be damage but the top would live.   That being said there is a technique which would greatly improve the chances of survival. You could bridge the gap. A bridge graft is where you take stems from younger trees of the same species and use them to connect the two separated pieces.   https://imgur.com/a/HNJBu  This can even be done in a way where the old wood from the original tree is removed so you have a large void instead of dead wood there. This technique is rarely practiced but is used to save heritage trees which have been damaged by rodents or mechanical damage usually from people mowing the lawn.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10171.0, "score_ratio": 10.3065326633, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9s48sm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Whats the difference between me thinking about moving my arm and actually moving my arm? Or thinking a word and actually saying it?", "c_root_id_A": "e8m01i2", "c_root_id_B": "e8m3z9p", "created_at_utc_A": 1540745625, "created_at_utc_B": 1540748931, "score_A": 259, "score_B": 2500, "human_ref_A": "I suffer from Functional Neurological Disorder, aka Conversion Disorder). This comes into play often for me. I may want to speak or move, but my body will not perform accordingly. I have to do some quick thinking to adjust my mental trajectory so I can get a passibly desirable alternative movement or means of communication. I would love to learn more about the intent vs function.", "human_ref_B": "Before I answer, this is a MASSIVE oversimplification. Your question touches on topics like action selection, motor neural motivation and inhibition, etc, which some people spend their whole lives studying.  There's a part of the brain called the Basal Ganglia which is responsible for inhibiting motion. At any given moment, your brain might be considering a bunch of different movements. The Basal Ganglia has neurons that produce inhibitory neurotransmitters to suppress the many random signals vying to be sent down to your muscles, waiting for the brain's dopaminergic (reward and motivation) system to kind \"override\" that suppression.   So when you \"think about moving\" (say for example you picture yourself throwing a ball) you're activating all the parts of the brain associated with motion (the frontal cortex is planning your sequence of fine motor movements, your occipital lobe is imagining what it will look like visually when you pick your target and track it, your motor cortex is activating cells related to musculoskeletal movement in your arms and shoulders, etc) but your Basal Ganglia is just saying \"Nope\" before the whole signal goes to your muscles.  To better understand how the brain motivates and inhibits motion, I'd recommend reading about motor disorders like Parkinson's, Huntington's, or hemiballismus, which show scientists what happens when certain parts of the brain degrade, allowing them to better understand the functions of those brain regions.  [If you want a cursory overview of how the motor pathway works and what brain systems are involved, you might enjoy reading this!]( https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/motor-pathways/ )", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3306.0, "score_ratio": 9.6525096525, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9s48sm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Whats the difference between me thinking about moving my arm and actually moving my arm? Or thinking a word and actually saying it?", "c_root_id_A": "e8lzpye", "c_root_id_B": "e8m3z9p", "created_at_utc_A": 1540745352, "created_at_utc_B": 1540748931, "score_A": 93, "score_B": 2500, "human_ref_A": "\u201cWhen inner speech is occurring, your larynx is actually making tiny muscular movements.\u201d  https://curiosity.com/topics/what-is-the-little-voice-in-your-head-curiosity/  Basically whether you\u2019re thinking of speech or actually speaking, your throat is still \u201ctalking\u201d but just at different volumes. If you think about it just by thinking of words, you\u2019re giving your voice box a workout!", "human_ref_B": "Before I answer, this is a MASSIVE oversimplification. Your question touches on topics like action selection, motor neural motivation and inhibition, etc, which some people spend their whole lives studying.  There's a part of the brain called the Basal Ganglia which is responsible for inhibiting motion. At any given moment, your brain might be considering a bunch of different movements. The Basal Ganglia has neurons that produce inhibitory neurotransmitters to suppress the many random signals vying to be sent down to your muscles, waiting for the brain's dopaminergic (reward and motivation) system to kind \"override\" that suppression.   So when you \"think about moving\" (say for example you picture yourself throwing a ball) you're activating all the parts of the brain associated with motion (the frontal cortex is planning your sequence of fine motor movements, your occipital lobe is imagining what it will look like visually when you pick your target and track it, your motor cortex is activating cells related to musculoskeletal movement in your arms and shoulders, etc) but your Basal Ganglia is just saying \"Nope\" before the whole signal goes to your muscles.  To better understand how the brain motivates and inhibits motion, I'd recommend reading about motor disorders like Parkinson's, Huntington's, or hemiballismus, which show scientists what happens when certain parts of the brain degrade, allowing them to better understand the functions of those brain regions.  [If you want a cursory overview of how the motor pathway works and what brain systems are involved, you might enjoy reading this!]( https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/motor-pathways/ )", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3579.0, "score_ratio": 26.8817204301, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9s48sm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Whats the difference between me thinking about moving my arm and actually moving my arm? Or thinking a word and actually saying it?", "c_root_id_A": "e8m0wuo", "c_root_id_B": "e8m3z9p", "created_at_utc_A": 1540746364, "created_at_utc_B": 1540748931, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 2500, "human_ref_A": "I once read a book by Chris Firth called \u2018Making Up the Mind\u2019. It basically discussed a study where a participant were asked to move their finger whenever they felt like and their brain activity was monitored. Study showed there was brain activity before the actual finger was lifted which suggests that your brain knew it was going to lift your finger before your mind did.  Very interesting book, changed my whole perspective on perception. Would recommend.", "human_ref_B": "Before I answer, this is a MASSIVE oversimplification. Your question touches on topics like action selection, motor neural motivation and inhibition, etc, which some people spend their whole lives studying.  There's a part of the brain called the Basal Ganglia which is responsible for inhibiting motion. At any given moment, your brain might be considering a bunch of different movements. The Basal Ganglia has neurons that produce inhibitory neurotransmitters to suppress the many random signals vying to be sent down to your muscles, waiting for the brain's dopaminergic (reward and motivation) system to kind \"override\" that suppression.   So when you \"think about moving\" (say for example you picture yourself throwing a ball) you're activating all the parts of the brain associated with motion (the frontal cortex is planning your sequence of fine motor movements, your occipital lobe is imagining what it will look like visually when you pick your target and track it, your motor cortex is activating cells related to musculoskeletal movement in your arms and shoulders, etc) but your Basal Ganglia is just saying \"Nope\" before the whole signal goes to your muscles.  To better understand how the brain motivates and inhibits motion, I'd recommend reading about motor disorders like Parkinson's, Huntington's, or hemiballismus, which show scientists what happens when certain parts of the brain degrade, allowing them to better understand the functions of those brain regions.  [If you want a cursory overview of how the motor pathway works and what brain systems are involved, you might enjoy reading this!]( https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/motor-pathways/ )", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2567.0, "score_ratio": 166.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9s48sm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Whats the difference between me thinking about moving my arm and actually moving my arm? Or thinking a word and actually saying it?", "c_root_id_A": "e8m01i2", "c_root_id_B": "e8lzpye", "created_at_utc_A": 1540745625, "created_at_utc_B": 1540745352, "score_A": 259, "score_B": 93, "human_ref_A": "I suffer from Functional Neurological Disorder, aka Conversion Disorder). This comes into play often for me. I may want to speak or move, but my body will not perform accordingly. I have to do some quick thinking to adjust my mental trajectory so I can get a passibly desirable alternative movement or means of communication. I would love to learn more about the intent vs function.", "human_ref_B": "\u201cWhen inner speech is occurring, your larynx is actually making tiny muscular movements.\u201d  https://curiosity.com/topics/what-is-the-little-voice-in-your-head-curiosity/  Basically whether you\u2019re thinking of speech or actually speaking, your throat is still \u201ctalking\u201d but just at different volumes. If you think about it just by thinking of words, you\u2019re giving your voice box a workout!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 273.0, "score_ratio": 2.7849462366, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9s48sm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Whats the difference between me thinking about moving my arm and actually moving my arm? Or thinking a word and actually saying it?", "c_root_id_A": "e8m5j4a", "c_root_id_B": "e8m0wuo", "created_at_utc_A": 1540750205, "created_at_utc_B": 1540746364, "score_A": 46, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Degree in neuroscience and currently in med school.  A large part of the frontal lobe\u2019s role is inhibiting pathways elsewhere in the brain.  So thinking about saying something, but not actually saying it, involves your frontal lobe essentially saying \u201cshhhh\u201d to the parts of your brain that would actually initiate your actions.  This is why often in cases of frontal lobe brain injury, or if someone has been drinking a lot of alcohol, people have less social inhibition.  Their frontal lobe isn\u2019t working as well, and that \u201cshhhh\u201d doesn\u2019t get communicated as well, if at all.  There may be a lower threshold between thinking about saying something and actually saying it.", "human_ref_B": "I once read a book by Chris Firth called \u2018Making Up the Mind\u2019. It basically discussed a study where a participant were asked to move their finger whenever they felt like and their brain activity was monitored. Study showed there was brain activity before the actual finger was lifted which suggests that your brain knew it was going to lift your finger before your mind did.  Very interesting book, changed my whole perspective on perception. Would recommend.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3841.0, "score_ratio": 3.0666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ea0opz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "I have a theory: If there is an infinite amount of negative numbers and there is an infinite amount of positive numbers then the total amount of numbers would be odd. Because 0 is in the center. For every positive number there is an negative counterpart. Am I right? Can we prove this with math?", "c_root_id_A": "fanajnf", "c_root_id_B": "fangxd7", "created_at_utc_A": 1576231836, "created_at_utc_B": 1576239970, "score_A": 263, "score_B": 1751, "human_ref_A": "you can pick your \"0\" at any point.   you might just as well split numbers into <0 and >=0 and you'll get the same result, without excluding one number.  the answer simply is that there are equally infinite numbers in each half, however you split it.", "human_ref_B": "No, when you start working with infinites things get tricky. Some people say that the notion of size (cardinality) of sets is unintuitive for infinite sets, yet for me it's not the case if you think it about this way: Two sets have the same size if you can find a way (any way, just at least one) to match their elements up one to one. In your case, you have found a way to match up the set of positive numbers with the set of negative numbers, leaving zero out. Good! You have just shown that there are just as many positive integers as there are negatives.  But then, you jump out to the conclusion \"hey, zero is still out so if I add it then I have one more\". Oops. No, because I can still find a way to map the set of positive naturals plus zero to the set of negatives. (just think 0 to -1, 1 to - 2 and so on). The problem with infinite sets is that adding some stuff does not necessarily make it larger, and taking out some stuff doesn't necessarily make it smaller. Even if you were to add or take out infinite amounts of stuff.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8134.0, "score_ratio": 6.6577946768, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ea0opz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "I have a theory: If there is an infinite amount of negative numbers and there is an infinite amount of positive numbers then the total amount of numbers would be odd. Because 0 is in the center. For every positive number there is an negative counterpart. Am I right? Can we prove this with math?", "c_root_id_A": "fangxd7", "c_root_id_B": "fan969t", "created_at_utc_A": 1576239970, "created_at_utc_B": 1576229858, "score_A": 1751, "score_B": 195, "human_ref_A": "No, when you start working with infinites things get tricky. Some people say that the notion of size (cardinality) of sets is unintuitive for infinite sets, yet for me it's not the case if you think it about this way: Two sets have the same size if you can find a way (any way, just at least one) to match their elements up one to one. In your case, you have found a way to match up the set of positive numbers with the set of negative numbers, leaving zero out. Good! You have just shown that there are just as many positive integers as there are negatives.  But then, you jump out to the conclusion \"hey, zero is still out so if I add it then I have one more\". Oops. No, because I can still find a way to map the set of positive naturals plus zero to the set of negatives. (just think 0 to -1, 1 to - 2 and so on). The problem with infinite sets is that adding some stuff does not necessarily make it larger, and taking out some stuff doesn't necessarily make it smaller. Even if you were to add or take out infinite amounts of stuff.", "human_ref_B": "In addition to what others have said, you can enumerate in a way such that the answer would be \"even\". For example:      0, 1     -1, -2     2, 3     -3, -4     ...  This way the numbers are neatly grouped in pairs. No number is without a pair. So the total number of numbers must be even!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10112.0, "score_ratio": 8.9794871795, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ea0opz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "I have a theory: If there is an infinite amount of negative numbers and there is an infinite amount of positive numbers then the total amount of numbers would be odd. Because 0 is in the center. For every positive number there is an negative counterpart. Am I right? Can we prove this with math?", "c_root_id_A": "fana98i", "c_root_id_B": "fangxd7", "created_at_utc_A": 1576231423, "created_at_utc_B": 1576239970, "score_A": 71, "score_B": 1751, "human_ref_A": "In set theory (or some similar branch?), there is a concept called cardinality. Basically, if I gave you a set (a group of numbers), the cardinality would be the amount of numbers in that set.  In particular, the set of all integers have cardinality of aleph-zero - a special case for \u201ccountable infinity \u201d. This means you can make a special kind of function that makes the set turn into a set of natural numbers (positive integers). Proof  Now, where is the middle point for naturals? It grows on one end without stopping so the middle keeps moving as it grows. It continually flips between even and odd as it grows. And since integers have the same cardinality as naturals, your reasoning breaks down.  \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014  While googling the websites, I found this mathexchange post. It seems that there are a couple different types of infinity (and not meaning countable/uncountable) that makes things get confusing. - The top answer talks about transfinite ordinals, which uses ordinals (location of an ordered set) instead of cardinals. He says the smallest transfinite ordinal number (which I think means smallest infinity in the context of ordinals) is even because it times 2 is itself. Add one to it and it becomes odd, add one again is even, etc.  - the second answer is cardinality again and brings up a definition of even sets: the set is even cardinality if it can be split into two disjoint (un-overlapping) sets with same cardinality as each other. For natural set, you can take all evens in one set and take all odd into another set, and both have cardinality of aleph-zero, meaning the natural set cardinality is even. His other explanation is that you can always make a pair from two numbers in a natural set, meaning it is even.  - the third answer I have difficulty understanding, probably cause I haven\u2019t learned about rings). I think it says that generally, you cannot say it is even or odd because you can add one to switch between even and odd but still be called infinite. Some exceptions come from \u201c\u2018number\u2019 systems\u201d which I don\u2019t understand either.", "human_ref_B": "No, when you start working with infinites things get tricky. Some people say that the notion of size (cardinality) of sets is unintuitive for infinite sets, yet for me it's not the case if you think it about this way: Two sets have the same size if you can find a way (any way, just at least one) to match their elements up one to one. In your case, you have found a way to match up the set of positive numbers with the set of negative numbers, leaving zero out. Good! You have just shown that there are just as many positive integers as there are negatives.  But then, you jump out to the conclusion \"hey, zero is still out so if I add it then I have one more\". Oops. No, because I can still find a way to map the set of positive naturals plus zero to the set of negatives. (just think 0 to -1, 1 to - 2 and so on). The problem with infinite sets is that adding some stuff does not necessarily make it larger, and taking out some stuff doesn't necessarily make it smaller. Even if you were to add or take out infinite amounts of stuff.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8547.0, "score_ratio": 24.661971831, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ea0opz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "I have a theory: If there is an infinite amount of negative numbers and there is an infinite amount of positive numbers then the total amount of numbers would be odd. Because 0 is in the center. For every positive number there is an negative counterpart. Am I right? Can we prove this with math?", "c_root_id_A": "fanajnf", "c_root_id_B": "fan969t", "created_at_utc_A": 1576231836, "created_at_utc_B": 1576229858, "score_A": 263, "score_B": 195, "human_ref_A": "you can pick your \"0\" at any point.   you might just as well split numbers into <0 and >=0 and you'll get the same result, without excluding one number.  the answer simply is that there are equally infinite numbers in each half, however you split it.", "human_ref_B": "In addition to what others have said, you can enumerate in a way such that the answer would be \"even\". For example:      0, 1     -1, -2     2, 3     -3, -4     ...  This way the numbers are neatly grouped in pairs. No number is without a pair. So the total number of numbers must be even!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1978.0, "score_ratio": 1.3487179487, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ea0opz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "I have a theory: If there is an infinite amount of negative numbers and there is an infinite amount of positive numbers then the total amount of numbers would be odd. Because 0 is in the center. For every positive number there is an negative counterpart. Am I right? Can we prove this with math?", "c_root_id_A": "fana98i", "c_root_id_B": "fanajnf", "created_at_utc_A": 1576231423, "created_at_utc_B": 1576231836, "score_A": 71, "score_B": 263, "human_ref_A": "In set theory (or some similar branch?), there is a concept called cardinality. Basically, if I gave you a set (a group of numbers), the cardinality would be the amount of numbers in that set.  In particular, the set of all integers have cardinality of aleph-zero - a special case for \u201ccountable infinity \u201d. This means you can make a special kind of function that makes the set turn into a set of natural numbers (positive integers). Proof  Now, where is the middle point for naturals? It grows on one end without stopping so the middle keeps moving as it grows. It continually flips between even and odd as it grows. And since integers have the same cardinality as naturals, your reasoning breaks down.  \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014  While googling the websites, I found this mathexchange post. It seems that there are a couple different types of infinity (and not meaning countable/uncountable) that makes things get confusing. - The top answer talks about transfinite ordinals, which uses ordinals (location of an ordered set) instead of cardinals. He says the smallest transfinite ordinal number (which I think means smallest infinity in the context of ordinals) is even because it times 2 is itself. Add one to it and it becomes odd, add one again is even, etc.  - the second answer is cardinality again and brings up a definition of even sets: the set is even cardinality if it can be split into two disjoint (un-overlapping) sets with same cardinality as each other. For natural set, you can take all evens in one set and take all odd into another set, and both have cardinality of aleph-zero, meaning the natural set cardinality is even. His other explanation is that you can always make a pair from two numbers in a natural set, meaning it is even.  - the third answer I have difficulty understanding, probably cause I haven\u2019t learned about rings). I think it says that generally, you cannot say it is even or odd because you can add one to switch between even and odd but still be called infinite. Some exceptions come from \u201c\u2018number\u2019 systems\u201d which I don\u2019t understand either.", "human_ref_B": "you can pick your \"0\" at any point.   you might just as well split numbers into <0 and >=0 and you'll get the same result, without excluding one number.  the answer simply is that there are equally infinite numbers in each half, however you split it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 413.0, "score_ratio": 3.7042253521, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "au9lj2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How many lines of code does new PC games take?", "c_root_id_A": "eh6t0dr", "c_root_id_B": "eh6nnyc", "created_at_utc_A": 1551032777, "created_at_utc_B": 1551028877, "score_A": 1059, "score_B": 339, "human_ref_A": "Game engineer here, this is pretty impossible to answer.  There are so many toolsets and libraries involved that you can't possibly quantify \"Lines Of Code\".  It's not even a real metric because,   if(something) {do something} is 1 line of code whereas  if(something)  {  do something  }  is 4 lines of code but both examples are logically equivalent.  Then there are lines of code used in the development process that never make it into the final build(s).  Newton used the expression, \"Standing on the shoulders of giants\". Modern SW development is very much the same thing.  Best answer for your question is a buttload.", "human_ref_B": "New PC games is a very broad category and the answer will vary wildly, depending on the type, size, budget and scale of the game and depend on whether you include dependencies, such as graphics, sound and physics engines.   While a simple tic-tac-toe mobile game (Created using a third party game engine) could be created with a few hundreds lines of code, a first person shooter (Created using only in house components) would range in the millions of lines of code.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3900.0, "score_ratio": 3.1238938053, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "au9lj2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How many lines of code does new PC games take?", "c_root_id_A": "eh6y2vo", "c_root_id_B": "eh6nnyc", "created_at_utc_A": 1551036397, "created_at_utc_B": 1551028877, "score_A": 561, "score_B": 339, "human_ref_A": "Please keep in mind when people are quoting these numbers they are including the lines of dependent libraries like Unreal Engine, Network Libs, IO, etc. Most game devs will never even delv into those libs unless things have gone sideways. I am guessing hand written code for a game including all the libs is approximately 20% of the total lines?", "human_ref_B": "New PC games is a very broad category and the answer will vary wildly, depending on the type, size, budget and scale of the game and depend on whether you include dependencies, such as graphics, sound and physics engines.   While a simple tic-tac-toe mobile game (Created using a third party game engine) could be created with a few hundreds lines of code, a first person shooter (Created using only in house components) would range in the millions of lines of code.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7520.0, "score_ratio": 1.6548672566, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "au9lj2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How many lines of code does new PC games take?", "c_root_id_A": "eh6vuta", "c_root_id_B": "eh6y2vo", "created_at_utc_A": 1551034853, "created_at_utc_B": 1551036397, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 561, "human_ref_A": "Big productions are seldom done from scratch these days. They are typically built on top of one of the existing graphics and physics engines. Also, development studios build up their own reusable libraries over time as many things can be transferred over from one game to another with just slight modifications. There are also plenty of standard libraries built into 3rd gen programming languages (i.e. C++) that can be used directly for many basic tasks. Only certain performance-sensitive parts of a game might be coded with something more optimized. Computers are fast these days so I don't think that developers are putting a whole lot of inline assembly in the games anymore.", "human_ref_B": "Please keep in mind when people are quoting these numbers they are including the lines of dependent libraries like Unreal Engine, Network Libs, IO, etc. Most game devs will never even delv into those libs unless things have gone sideways. I am guessing hand written code for a game including all the libs is approximately 20% of the total lines?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1544.0, "score_ratio": 17.53125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "au9lj2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How many lines of code does new PC games take?", "c_root_id_A": "eh6vuta", "c_root_id_B": "eh9127x", "created_at_utc_A": 1551034853, "created_at_utc_B": 1551110015, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 58, "human_ref_A": "Big productions are seldom done from scratch these days. They are typically built on top of one of the existing graphics and physics engines. Also, development studios build up their own reusable libraries over time as many things can be transferred over from one game to another with just slight modifications. There are also plenty of standard libraries built into 3rd gen programming languages (i.e. C++) that can be used directly for many basic tasks. Only certain performance-sensitive parts of a game might be coded with something more optimized. Computers are fast these days so I don't think that developers are putting a whole lot of inline assembly in the games anymore.", "human_ref_B": "Our FPS game Diabotical, which is coming out soon, is 350,000 lines of code after doing my best to exclude dependencies from the count, but that may still include small dependencies like liberally licensed headers that I copy-pasted into the code base. That's  300,000 of C++, 30,000 of HLSL. JS adds about 20,000 used for UI and server stuff. (I reckon only about 250,000 are actually written by me).  Cheers.  Edit: Corrected some numbers.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 75162.0, "score_ratio": 1.8125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "feb3vt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "If somebody loses a lot of blood, how do doctors tell so fast wich blood type the patient has and exactly how much blood was lost/needs to be transfused?", "c_root_id_A": "fjnka6e", "c_root_id_B": "fjniiol", "created_at_utc_A": 1583509195, "created_at_utc_B": 1583508138, "score_A": 82, "score_B": 31, "human_ref_A": "As has been mentioned most hospitals will have a massive transfusion protocol/ critical bleed policy - this will vary somewhat between institutions due to resources, for example your facility may not have ease of access to say platelets.    These protocols are used for time critical/life threatening situations where the patient is going to die if you don\u2019t start giving blood immediately, as well as controlling your source.  The safest option for the greatest amount of people is O negative blood.  Blood from the patient will be x-matched and when known, that blood will instead be used if possible.  It is one of the situations in emergency medicine that we take the risk because the other, rapidly approaching option, is death.  As to how much is lost and how much to give this can be measured via the patients vital signs, other blood results- haemoglobin, haematocrit etc..  and whether the source of bleeding is controlled.    Various MTP\u2019s suggest differing ratios of blood products, packed cells to plasma products to platelets.  This is because simply \u201cfilling\u201d a patient with straight up O neg packed red cells is insufficient, they lack clotting agents, for example, which will worsen the patients ability to compensate and essentially what you put in will be straight back out.", "human_ref_B": "How does the doctor know? They order a type and screen and send it to the blood bank.  Most doctors know almost nothing about laboratory operations. We can crank out a type in under 5 minutes.  Deliver crossmatched blood in 20 if we process the specimen by hand.  If they can't wait that long for crossmatched blood, they sign a form agreeing to take uncrossmatched blood.  We then give them type specific blood(if we have a type) or O Pos or O neg blood whether they're Male or female respectively.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1057.0, "score_ratio": 2.6451612903, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "feb3vt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "If somebody loses a lot of blood, how do doctors tell so fast wich blood type the patient has and exactly how much blood was lost/needs to be transfused?", "c_root_id_A": "fjniiol", "c_root_id_B": "fjo1dbe", "created_at_utc_A": 1583508138, "created_at_utc_B": 1583518541, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 70, "human_ref_A": "How does the doctor know? They order a type and screen and send it to the blood bank.  Most doctors know almost nothing about laboratory operations. We can crank out a type in under 5 minutes.  Deliver crossmatched blood in 20 if we process the specimen by hand.  If they can't wait that long for crossmatched blood, they sign a form agreeing to take uncrossmatched blood.  We then give them type specific blood(if we have a type) or O Pos or O neg blood whether they're Male or female respectively.", "human_ref_B": "Doctor here. Figuring out how much blood needs to be transfused is easy, you generally don\u2019t have to figure out exactly how much was lost. If they lost blood and blood pressure is low or heart rate is high you give blood until those normalize (and/or until hemoglobin level is >7.0). If they are actively bleeding you raise BP to 90/xx, the bare minimum, until someone fixes the hole, because any higher and they will just bleed it out faster.   Blood comes in units and comes in a variety of different types. We don\u2019t usually transfuse a unit of whole blood, it is processed into its components which can be given separately. To raise the hemoglobin level by 1 point you generally give 1 unit of packed red blood cells. In other situations you can give platelets or fresh frozen plasma (no cells but all the enzymes and clotting factors). In cases of truly massive hemorrhage that is not fixed with the first unit of pRBCs you begin giving a unit of each product to keep things balanced.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10403.0, "score_ratio": 2.2580645161, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fs0drs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Are there viruses that infect, reproduce, and spread without causing any ill effects in their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "flzdtre", "c_root_id_B": "flyxnfy", "created_at_utc_A": 1585621325, "created_at_utc_B": 1585611203, "score_A": 6725, "score_B": 830, "human_ref_A": "Of course. There are probably even more benign viruses than pathological ones. It's just that they are seldom identified and rarely studied.       https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3581985/", "human_ref_B": "Yes. The classic examples are spumaviruses (\u201cFoamy Viruses\u201d), members of the retrovirus family that are widespread among animals (though there doesn\u2019t seem to be a true human version). The most studied (though \u201cmost\u201d is relative, since these don\u2019t seem to cause any disease there\u2019s limited interest in them) are simian spumaviruses, since these occasionally infect humans - still, apparently, with no symptoms at all.   >\tFV foamy virus] is considered non-pathogenic in natural and experimental hosts but systematic, longitudinal studies have not been conducted to verify the apparent non-pathogenicity. Humans can be zoonotically infected with a variety of SFVs originating from Old World monkeys and apes (OWMA) through occupational and natural exposures but demonstrate an apparently asymptomatic though persistent infection  \u2014[Wide distribution and ancient evolutionary history of simian foamy viruses in New World primates  The reason these viruses seem to be so harmless is that they infect cells that are about to be shed anyway, so they don\u2019t end up significantly changing the natural biology.   >While FVs share many features with pathogenic retroviruses, such as human immunodeficiency virus, FV infections of their primate hosts have no apparent pathological consequences. ... We show that superficial differentiated epithelial cells of the oral mucosa, many of which appear to be shedding from the tissue, are the major cell type in which SFV replicates. Thus, the innocuous nature of SFV infection can be explained by replication that is limited to differentiated superficial cells that are short-lived and shed into saliva.   \u2014Replication in a Superficial Epithelial Cell Niche Explains the Lack of Pathogenicity of Primate Foamy Virus Infections", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10122.0, "score_ratio": 8.1024096386, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fs0drs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Are there viruses that infect, reproduce, and spread without causing any ill effects in their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "flzdmo6", "c_root_id_B": "flzdtre", "created_at_utc_A": 1585621196, "created_at_utc_B": 1585621325, "score_A": 515, "score_B": 6725, "human_ref_A": "5 to 8 percent of our own DNA consists of viruses (or their traces), and although some studies try to link them to some diseases, I'd say they've become relatively harmless at this point.", "human_ref_B": "Of course. There are probably even more benign viruses than pathological ones. It's just that they are seldom identified and rarely studied.       https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3581985/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 129.0, "score_ratio": 13.0582524272, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fs0drs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Are there viruses that infect, reproduce, and spread without causing any ill effects in their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "flzno88", "c_root_id_B": "flzgink", "created_at_utc_A": 1585628258, "created_at_utc_B": 1585623124, "score_A": 92, "score_B": 78, "human_ref_A": "Up to ~10% of the DNA in your genome is actually from a bunch of viruses that infected their mammalian hosts a long time back. They're know as Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) and are an important source of variation within humans (as well as leading to copy number variations that can cause diseases)", "human_ref_B": "Adeno-associated virus or AAV   They don't know how it effects humans but 10% of us have been exposed. The reason I know thisz is they are editing the genetic code of the AAV virus and infecting people with the modified version to\" cure\" genetic disorders like muscular dystrophy or even blindness. It's called Gene therapy.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5134.0, "score_ratio": 1.1794871795, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fs0drs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Are there viruses that infect, reproduce, and spread without causing any ill effects in their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "flzlx24", "c_root_id_B": "flzno88", "created_at_utc_A": 1585626928, "created_at_utc_B": 1585628258, "score_A": 63, "score_B": 92, "human_ref_A": "Tons.  AAV is the first one to come to mind.  It's a small retrovirus that was being used to deliver new genes before CRISPR came into being.  Everyone has it already.  On the flip side there are horrible virusus that can be made harmless.  Even HIV has been made benign to use as a delivery vehicle for massive gene transfer.", "human_ref_B": "Up to ~10% of the DNA in your genome is actually from a bunch of viruses that infected their mammalian hosts a long time back. They're know as Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) and are an important source of variation within humans (as well as leading to copy number variations that can cause diseases)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1330.0, "score_ratio": 1.4603174603, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fvm4vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "A tiger has tested positive for COVID-19. Is this coronavirus particularly good at species jumping relative to other coronaviruses? Have house cats become infected yet by this virus? Link to the article.", "c_root_id_A": "fml063w", "c_root_id_B": "fmkargd", "created_at_utc_A": 1586174889, "created_at_utc_B": 1586149091, "score_A": 305, "score_B": 180, "human_ref_A": "Both the HongKong dog and the New York Tiger have been sequenced. Both had an infection and detectable RNA in the nose for several days, for the dog the viral load was low.   A lab paper said]( https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.30.015347v1) \"SARS-CoV-2 replicates poorly in dogs, pigs, chickens, and ducks, but efficiently in ferrets and cats\", in particular dogs can't transmit the disease efficiently.   [A paper found antibodies in several Hubei cats.  Another one found that ferret are efficiently infected in lab and transmit the disease to each other, even if it is mainly upper respiratory tract (thus no severe pneumonia).  Mice are not succeptible but human-ACE2 transgenic mice are and develop a mild pneumonia. Note that SARS-CoV and OC43 produced instead deadly encephalitis in such mice.", "human_ref_B": "Cats can infect other cats. There was a study in China. I believe the experiment because they want an animal model for vaccine studies.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25798.0, "score_ratio": 1.6944444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fvm4vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "A tiger has tested positive for COVID-19. Is this coronavirus particularly good at species jumping relative to other coronaviruses? Have house cats become infected yet by this virus? Link to the article.", "c_root_id_A": "fml063w", "c_root_id_B": "fmkvqkk", "created_at_utc_A": 1586174889, "created_at_utc_B": 1586170500, "score_A": 305, "score_B": 105, "human_ref_A": "Both the HongKong dog and the New York Tiger have been sequenced. Both had an infection and detectable RNA in the nose for several days, for the dog the viral load was low.   A lab paper said]( https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.30.015347v1) \"SARS-CoV-2 replicates poorly in dogs, pigs, chickens, and ducks, but efficiently in ferrets and cats\", in particular dogs can't transmit the disease efficiently.   [A paper found antibodies in several Hubei cats.  Another one found that ferret are efficiently infected in lab and transmit the disease to each other, even if it is mainly upper respiratory tract (thus no severe pneumonia).  Mice are not succeptible but human-ACE2 transgenic mice are and develop a mild pneumonia. Note that SARS-CoV and OC43 produced instead deadly encephalitis in such mice.", "human_ref_B": "Keep in mind that just because this virus can pass to animals that doesn't mean that animals are necessarily at risk like we humans are. Depending on the animal and the virus the effects the virus might have on an animal might be nothing at all, mild or severe. Just because it's bad for us doesn't mean it's bad for an animal.  Best thing to do in situations like this if you are worried about a pet is to keep up with the news about it related to animals and to keep an eye out on your animal, if you notice anything abnormal contact your vet and then possibly bring them in after you have talked to the vet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4389.0, "score_ratio": 2.9047619048, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fvm4vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "A tiger has tested positive for COVID-19. Is this coronavirus particularly good at species jumping relative to other coronaviruses? Have house cats become infected yet by this virus? Link to the article.", "c_root_id_A": "fmkzevg", "c_root_id_B": "fml063w", "created_at_utc_A": 1586174188, "created_at_utc_B": 1586174889, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 305, "human_ref_A": "Its because in receptor mediated viral entry the virus doesn't care about the underlying cell type, just the receptor. Cats, ferrets, and humans have similar ACE2 receptors (very structurally homologous) and so its not surprising that the virus is able to be transmitted.   The big questions are, can the tiger (or more relevantly housecat) transmit virus between each other, which signs point to yes, and can a cat infect a human once its been infected, which is unclear.", "human_ref_B": "Both the HongKong dog and the New York Tiger have been sequenced. Both had an infection and detectable RNA in the nose for several days, for the dog the viral load was low.   A lab paper said]( https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.30.015347v1) \"SARS-CoV-2 replicates poorly in dogs, pigs, chickens, and ducks, but efficiently in ferrets and cats\", in particular dogs can't transmit the disease efficiently.   [A paper found antibodies in several Hubei cats.  Another one found that ferret are efficiently infected in lab and transmit the disease to each other, even if it is mainly upper respiratory tract (thus no severe pneumonia).  Mice are not succeptible but human-ACE2 transgenic mice are and develop a mild pneumonia. Note that SARS-CoV and OC43 produced instead deadly encephalitis in such mice.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 701.0, "score_ratio": 11.7307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fvm4vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "A tiger has tested positive for COVID-19. Is this coronavirus particularly good at species jumping relative to other coronaviruses? Have house cats become infected yet by this virus? Link to the article.", "c_root_id_A": "fmkwhpj", "c_root_id_B": "fml063w", "created_at_utc_A": 1586171307, "created_at_utc_B": 1586174889, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 305, "human_ref_A": "The ACE2 receptor, the binding target of SARS, seems to not only be highly conserved across mammals but is also more similar between cats and bats than humans. Expect that if it can infect human, it can infect everything in between.  https://uswest.ensembl.org/Myotis_lucifugus/Gene/Compara_Tree?db=core;g=ENSMLUG00000017702;r=GL429816:4338996-4377327;t=ENSMLUT00000017706", "human_ref_B": "Both the HongKong dog and the New York Tiger have been sequenced. Both had an infection and detectable RNA in the nose for several days, for the dog the viral load was low.   A lab paper said]( https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.30.015347v1) \"SARS-CoV-2 replicates poorly in dogs, pigs, chickens, and ducks, but efficiently in ferrets and cats\", in particular dogs can't transmit the disease efficiently.   [A paper found antibodies in several Hubei cats.  Another one found that ferret are efficiently infected in lab and transmit the disease to each other, even if it is mainly upper respiratory tract (thus no severe pneumonia).  Mice are not succeptible but human-ACE2 transgenic mice are and develop a mild pneumonia. Note that SARS-CoV and OC43 produced instead deadly encephalitis in such mice.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3582.0, "score_ratio": 13.2608695652, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fvm4vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "A tiger has tested positive for COVID-19. Is this coronavirus particularly good at species jumping relative to other coronaviruses? Have house cats become infected yet by this virus? Link to the article.", "c_root_id_A": "fml9e1m", "c_root_id_B": "fmkzevg", "created_at_utc_A": 1586181712, "created_at_utc_B": 1586174188, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "I highly recommend keeping up with this webpage for the American Veterinary Medical Association for the most up to date information. Unfortunately there is still a lot we don\u2019t know, but we\u2019re learning.", "human_ref_B": "Its because in receptor mediated viral entry the virus doesn't care about the underlying cell type, just the receptor. Cats, ferrets, and humans have similar ACE2 receptors (very structurally homologous) and so its not surprising that the virus is able to be transmitted.   The big questions are, can the tiger (or more relevantly housecat) transmit virus between each other, which signs point to yes, and can a cat infect a human once its been infected, which is unclear.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7524.0, "score_ratio": 1.2307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fvm4vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "A tiger has tested positive for COVID-19. Is this coronavirus particularly good at species jumping relative to other coronaviruses? Have house cats become infected yet by this virus? Link to the article.", "c_root_id_A": "fmkwhpj", "c_root_id_B": "fml9e1m", "created_at_utc_A": 1586171307, "created_at_utc_B": 1586181712, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "The ACE2 receptor, the binding target of SARS, seems to not only be highly conserved across mammals but is also more similar between cats and bats than humans. Expect that if it can infect human, it can infect everything in between.  https://uswest.ensembl.org/Myotis_lucifugus/Gene/Compara_Tree?db=core;g=ENSMLUG00000017702;r=GL429816:4338996-4377327;t=ENSMLUT00000017706", "human_ref_B": "I highly recommend keeping up with this webpage for the American Veterinary Medical Association for the most up to date information. Unfortunately there is still a lot we don\u2019t know, but we\u2019re learning.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10405.0, "score_ratio": 1.3913043478, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fvm4vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "A tiger has tested positive for COVID-19. Is this coronavirus particularly good at species jumping relative to other coronaviruses? Have house cats become infected yet by this virus? Link to the article.", "c_root_id_A": "fmkzevg", "c_root_id_B": "fmkwhpj", "created_at_utc_A": 1586174188, "created_at_utc_B": 1586171307, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Its because in receptor mediated viral entry the virus doesn't care about the underlying cell type, just the receptor. Cats, ferrets, and humans have similar ACE2 receptors (very structurally homologous) and so its not surprising that the virus is able to be transmitted.   The big questions are, can the tiger (or more relevantly housecat) transmit virus between each other, which signs point to yes, and can a cat infect a human once its been infected, which is unclear.", "human_ref_B": "The ACE2 receptor, the binding target of SARS, seems to not only be highly conserved across mammals but is also more similar between cats and bats than humans. Expect that if it can infect human, it can infect everything in between.  https://uswest.ensembl.org/Myotis_lucifugus/Gene/Compara_Tree?db=core;g=ENSMLUG00000017702;r=GL429816:4338996-4377327;t=ENSMLUT00000017706", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2881.0, "score_ratio": 1.1304347826, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dfcjcs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In this NASA image, why does the Earth appear behind the astronaut, as well as reflected in the visor in front of her? #***The image in question***  This was taken a few days ago while they were replacing the ISS' Solar Array Batteries.   A prominent Flat Earther shared the picture, citing the fact that the Earth appears to be both in front and behind the astronaut as proof that this is all some big NASA hoax and conspiracy to hide the ***true*** shape of the Earth.  Of course that's a load of rubbish, but I'm still curious as to why the reflection appears this way!", "c_root_id_A": "f32q1w8", "c_root_id_B": "f32obed", "created_at_utc_A": 1570622187, "created_at_utc_B": 1570620256, "score_A": 144, "score_B": 75, "human_ref_A": "It's the same reason that when you're driving you can see the reflection of the yellow lines on the road on your hood, even though those lines are under the hood.  You're not seeing the reflection of the lines directly under the car; you're seeing the reflection of the lines that are dozens of yards in front of the car, because those are the lines that are \"visible\" to the leading surface of your car's curved hood.", "human_ref_B": "Imagine you are standing on the streets in front of a huge building, half of it is in front of you and half behind. Now imagine you are also wearing the same reflective helmet like a mirror. A photo of you would show half the building behind you, and also the other half that is in front of you through the mirror reflection.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1931.0, "score_ratio": 1.92, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dfcjcs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In this NASA image, why does the Earth appear behind the astronaut, as well as reflected in the visor in front of her? #***The image in question***  This was taken a few days ago while they were replacing the ISS' Solar Array Batteries.   A prominent Flat Earther shared the picture, citing the fact that the Earth appears to be both in front and behind the astronaut as proof that this is all some big NASA hoax and conspiracy to hide the ***true*** shape of the Earth.  Of course that's a load of rubbish, but I'm still curious as to why the reflection appears this way!", "c_root_id_A": "f32q1w8", "c_root_id_B": "f32lqgy", "created_at_utc_A": 1570622187, "created_at_utc_B": 1570616834, "score_A": 144, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "It's the same reason that when you're driving you can see the reflection of the yellow lines on the road on your hood, even though those lines are under the hood.  You're not seeing the reflection of the lines directly under the car; you're seeing the reflection of the lines that are dozens of yards in front of the car, because those are the lines that are \"visible\" to the leading surface of your car's curved hood.", "human_ref_B": "Because the reflective visor is round. It reflects incomming light from ~180\u00b0  You can see the reflections of both headlights in the visor also.  The earth is also not really behind him. Its to the left of him.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5353.0, "score_ratio": 3.1304347826, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dfcjcs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In this NASA image, why does the Earth appear behind the astronaut, as well as reflected in the visor in front of her? #***The image in question***  This was taken a few days ago while they were replacing the ISS' Solar Array Batteries.   A prominent Flat Earther shared the picture, citing the fact that the Earth appears to be both in front and behind the astronaut as proof that this is all some big NASA hoax and conspiracy to hide the ***true*** shape of the Earth.  Of course that's a load of rubbish, but I'm still curious as to why the reflection appears this way!", "c_root_id_A": "f32lqgy", "c_root_id_B": "f32obed", "created_at_utc_A": 1570616834, "created_at_utc_B": 1570620256, "score_A": 46, "score_B": 75, "human_ref_A": "Because the reflective visor is round. It reflects incomming light from ~180\u00b0  You can see the reflections of both headlights in the visor also.  The earth is also not really behind him. Its to the left of him.", "human_ref_B": "Imagine you are standing on the streets in front of a huge building, half of it is in front of you and half behind. Now imagine you are also wearing the same reflective helmet like a mirror. A photo of you would show half the building behind you, and also the other half that is in front of you through the mirror reflection.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3422.0, "score_ratio": 1.6304347826, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "39woqa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "What would happen to me, and everything around me, if a black hole the size of a coin instantly appeared?", "c_root_id_A": "cs7qc5g", "c_root_id_B": "cs7jake", "created_at_utc_A": 1434409212, "created_at_utc_B": 1434397966, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "The novel *Earth*, by David Brin, presents a fictional scenario where a tiny black hole is accidentally dropped into the earth and starts orbiting the core of the Earth.  It's a little dated and definitely has a 90's environmentalist theme, but it's worth reading.", "human_ref_B": "I find it very interesting and mind boggling how so many giant black holes exist, yet space in itself is so huge that we are not really affected by these black holes...or are we?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11246.0, "score_ratio": 1.7567567568, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gjm4xg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How come the space station needs to fire a rocket regularly to stay in orbit, but dangerous space junk can stay up there indefinitely?", "c_root_id_A": "fqmotwu", "c_root_id_B": "fqnknyz", "created_at_utc_A": 1589481018, "created_at_utc_B": 1589496573, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 34, "human_ref_A": "One reason is because a lot of space junk is too large to burn up on reentry or has nuclear/hazardous material on board. So instead of bringing it down, they put it into a high \"junkyard\" orbit that's out of the way of other spacecraft & sattelites. Because it's in a much higher orbit, it doesn't decay as quickly as something that's in low orbit.  As for why orbits decay in the first place, there are two things.  1st is that you never truly \"escape\" the atmosphere, it just gets thinner and thinner the higher you go. So the ISS recieves a very small amount of air drag. Naturally, smaller objects in higher orbit experience less drag.  2nd is whats called orbital perturbations. These are very subtle gravitational effects caused by the sun, the moon, the other planets in the solar system, and the fact that the earth isn't a perfect sphere with a uniform mass distribution. This causes orbits to fluctuate slightly over time.", "human_ref_B": "**Really Short Answer:**    1 - ISS is in a very low orbit and it's the size of a football field, So it suffers from a lot of drag pulling it down.   2- Space Junk is smaller and in all sorts of different orbits but usually higher up, so a lot less drag.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15555.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "853m2f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do nuclear power plants have those distinct concave-shaped smoke stacks?", "c_root_id_A": "dvuhdry", "c_root_id_B": "dvuhhy1", "created_at_utc_A": 1521295052, "created_at_utc_B": 1521295217, "score_A": 461, "score_B": 7043, "human_ref_A": "They are cooling towers and aren't just used for nuclear.  My local coal plant has 2 cooling towers.  For coal plants the exhaust gasses / steam are cooled and injected with fluids to pull as mush of the SO and SO2 out of the air.  (smog / acid rain producing gasses)  Cooling tower", "human_ref_B": "Those are cooling towers (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_tower).  That particular design is apparently really good for stability, air flow, and minimal material use.  They aren't just for nuclear plants, I know of coal fired plants that have them as well.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 165.0, "score_ratio": 15.2776572668, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "853m2f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do nuclear power plants have those distinct concave-shaped smoke stacks?", "c_root_id_A": "dvuhl92", "c_root_id_B": "dvuhdry", "created_at_utc_A": 1521295351, "created_at_utc_B": 1521295052, "score_A": 1167, "score_B": 461, "human_ref_A": "The \u201csmokestacks\u201d are cooling towers \u2013 essentially giant radiators that are used to cool clean water. A common design uses a water spray that\u2019s directly exposed to the air, resulting in the cloud of condensation.  The distinctive shape is a hyperboloid. It\u2019s stronger than a cylinder, but can still be built with straight beams.", "human_ref_B": "They are cooling towers and aren't just used for nuclear.  My local coal plant has 2 cooling towers.  For coal plants the exhaust gasses / steam are cooled and injected with fluids to pull as mush of the SO and SO2 out of the air.  (smog / acid rain producing gasses)  Cooling tower", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 299.0, "score_ratio": 2.5314533623, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "853m2f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do nuclear power plants have those distinct concave-shaped smoke stacks?", "c_root_id_A": "dvume4j", "c_root_id_B": "dvuzcjx", "created_at_utc_A": 1521301509, "created_at_utc_B": 1521316285, "score_A": 73, "score_B": 92, "human_ref_A": "Maximum surface area for minimal material use,  in the strongest shape possible for such a large concrete and steel structure.   Its an exercise in engineering optimization porn.  Its the cheapest,  and yet still quite strong way too build a tower that big,  while maximising the internal surface area for the steam to condense onto, and thus cool.", "human_ref_B": "They use the Venturi effect to cool clean heated water as it rises. They are hourglass shaped because it causes the rising hot water vapor to compress as it travels upward, which creates droplets in midair that fall like Wiley Coyote as soon as they form. This falling droplet population further cools the rising hot vapor allowing further cooling from falling micro-rain.   The towers themselves are literally just big tubes of cement, nothing more, suspended off of the ground to allow secondary airflow draw. You can stand underneath one and clap your hands and it will echo for a long period of time, but sure why, but it's cool (har).   The water that is cooled is in a completely separate system than the radiated water that drives the turbines. So the vapor you see (if any) is just as clean as a cloud.   The idea is that the radiation heats the dirty water, which drives the turbines and needs to cool. It is cooled in a closed system by the proximity of this cooling system, like a coupe of cold water wrapped around a hot water pipe. The radiated water is returned in the system and the turbines continue to run, and the heated cooling water is released under these static towers that get virtually free cooling through the process described above.   As a side not, I've always found it amusing that once we split the atom, the best we could come up with for capturing its power is \"hey, it's hot, let's burn water.\"  Edit: Bernoulli is about cool math", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14776.0, "score_ratio": 1.2602739726, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "853m2f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do nuclear power plants have those distinct concave-shaped smoke stacks?", "c_root_id_A": "dvuzcjx", "c_root_id_B": "dvunn2o", "created_at_utc_A": 1521316285, "created_at_utc_B": 1521302970, "score_A": 92, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "They use the Venturi effect to cool clean heated water as it rises. They are hourglass shaped because it causes the rising hot water vapor to compress as it travels upward, which creates droplets in midair that fall like Wiley Coyote as soon as they form. This falling droplet population further cools the rising hot vapor allowing further cooling from falling micro-rain.   The towers themselves are literally just big tubes of cement, nothing more, suspended off of the ground to allow secondary airflow draw. You can stand underneath one and clap your hands and it will echo for a long period of time, but sure why, but it's cool (har).   The water that is cooled is in a completely separate system than the radiated water that drives the turbines. So the vapor you see (if any) is just as clean as a cloud.   The idea is that the radiation heats the dirty water, which drives the turbines and needs to cool. It is cooled in a closed system by the proximity of this cooling system, like a coupe of cold water wrapped around a hot water pipe. The radiated water is returned in the system and the turbines continue to run, and the heated cooling water is released under these static towers that get virtually free cooling through the process described above.   As a side not, I've always found it amusing that once we split the atom, the best we could come up with for capturing its power is \"hey, it's hot, let's burn water.\"  Edit: Bernoulli is about cool math", "human_ref_B": "Power plants heat water to steam and cool it again for their operating cycle.  The cooling can be done with a fan-blown cooler, but the power to run the fans is significant.  Larger power plants (both nuclear and conventional) gain efficiency with the parabolic cooling towers you refer to.  Warm water is sprayed into the top, and as the water falls it heats the air inside enough to create an updraft which cools the water without a fan.  The shape and height are to aid the updraft and cooling efficiency.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13315.0, "score_ratio": 2.4210526316, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9tsbem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you jump into a volcano filled with flaming hot magma would you splash or splat?", "c_root_id_A": "e8zav9n", "c_root_id_B": "e8znxg3", "created_at_utc_A": 1541260337, "created_at_utc_B": 1541271810, "score_A": 83, "score_B": 200, "human_ref_A": "You definitely would not sink or splash, since it is almost certainly very viscous and since molten rock is denser than humans, you would float on it (if hypothetically you didn't melt from the heat). Interestingly, you would actually probably experience something called the Leidenfrost effect: basically your underside would melt and vaporise so fast that you would skid along the top. Ever see water drops skidding across a hot frying pan? Same thing, but with a person.", "human_ref_B": "Splat then burn, but if from a great enough height, your bones would break as you splat.  Further, the heat would sizzle your flesh, and eventually your interior would boil and you'd burst in a steam explosion.  In other words, you'd Snap, Crackle, and Pop!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11473.0, "score_ratio": 2.4096385542, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9tsbem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you jump into a volcano filled with flaming hot magma would you splash or splat?", "c_root_id_A": "e8znxg3", "c_root_id_B": "e8zbj3g", "created_at_utc_A": 1541271810, "created_at_utc_B": 1541260944, "score_A": 200, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Splat then burn, but if from a great enough height, your bones would break as you splat.  Further, the heat would sizzle your flesh, and eventually your interior would boil and you'd burst in a steam explosion.  In other words, you'd Snap, Crackle, and Pop!", "human_ref_B": "I have another serious lava question.   We are taught that blue/white flames are actually the hottest even though we associate hot and fire with being orange and red. With lava being so insanely hot, why is it orange? Is there some chemical make up of it that gives it that orange/red hue? Is there any magma anywhere that is blue/white?   In another note, have we ever even seen magma? I've seen diagrams that show what a volcano looks like beneath the surface and where the magma pools and such, but there is no possible way we have ever seen it right? What if the magma deep down is blue? And as it becomes lava it turns orange and that's all we have seen?   If I'm wrong about us having seen the depths of a volcano, would someone mind filling me in on how we know? Thanks!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10866.0, "score_ratio": 7.4074074074, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9tsbem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you jump into a volcano filled with flaming hot magma would you splash or splat?", "c_root_id_A": "e8zhnf4", "c_root_id_B": "e8znxg3", "created_at_utc_A": 1541266420, "created_at_utc_B": 1541271810, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 200, "human_ref_A": "It's funny how everyone is saying physically touching the magma will the first thing to burn you. You would likely burn as soon as you stood over the volcano. Assuming it's a narrow opening, you'll be falling through super heated air (likely 5-600F minimum) plus the IR from the lava will cook you alive. Then you splat on the surface and die.", "human_ref_B": "Splat then burn, but if from a great enough height, your bones would break as you splat.  Further, the heat would sizzle your flesh, and eventually your interior would boil and you'd burst in a steam explosion.  In other words, you'd Snap, Crackle, and Pop!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5390.0, "score_ratio": 10.5263157895, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34kfbh", "c_root_id_B": "e34pbrt", "created_at_utc_A": 1532696024, "created_at_utc_B": 1532700925, "score_A": 688, "score_B": 959, "human_ref_A": "Sirenians, such as manatees and dugongs are a good example. Although they are closely related to elephants and hyraxes, their evolution was more similar to cetaceans in that they lost their hind limbs; their forelimbs became paddles for open water swimming in coastal and freshwater habitats. The only remaining feature of the hindlimbs is the remnants of a pelvis.", "human_ref_B": "I'm seeing a lot of really great replies about animals (whales, etc) but it seems people are overlooking plants!! The \"sea grasses\" are not algae but are flowering land plants that have evolved to live in the water.  Sea grass beds create places to live that are HUGELY important to young fish and a whole host of ocean invertebrates. Like many things in the ocean, they're being hit hard by climate change and many of these grass beds are disappearing, leaving baby sea creatures of all types more exposed to predation.  Their flowers, however, are very disappointing compared to their land-based relatives at so i can see why people overlook them - but their evolutionary story is fascinating!    I believe there have actually been THREE independent invasions of land plants back into the marine environment just in seagrasses..i'm pretty sure that has mammals beat (though likely not all animals..thanks /u/Harsimaja)! Fact check me on these claims though.  Tl:DR; Don't forget about the plants, yo!  Edit 1: /u/Mechasteel brings up Lilypads as another example. https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e34sqmj  Edit 2: /u/zilti asked an awesome question: \"since seagrass flowers are underwater, is there an oceanic pollonator like a \"sea bee\"?\".  Edit the third: SEA BEES ARE A THING GUYS! thanks /u/GeneralRetreat for finding the article https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e350qqi.  Ok...so there's no one single \"sea bee\" species, but the flowers are definitely pollinated by more than currents and appear to have aquatic-specific adaptations to attract pollinators.   Sea bees are also not the only reproductive option these awesome plants have https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e358jxt - thanks /r/wtfjen!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4901.0, "score_ratio": 1.3938953488, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34pbrt", "c_root_id_B": "e34l4hc", "created_at_utc_A": 1532700925, "created_at_utc_B": 1532696802, "score_A": 959, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm seeing a lot of really great replies about animals (whales, etc) but it seems people are overlooking plants!! The \"sea grasses\" are not algae but are flowering land plants that have evolved to live in the water.  Sea grass beds create places to live that are HUGELY important to young fish and a whole host of ocean invertebrates. Like many things in the ocean, they're being hit hard by climate change and many of these grass beds are disappearing, leaving baby sea creatures of all types more exposed to predation.  Their flowers, however, are very disappointing compared to their land-based relatives at so i can see why people overlook them - but their evolutionary story is fascinating!    I believe there have actually been THREE independent invasions of land plants back into the marine environment just in seagrasses..i'm pretty sure that has mammals beat (though likely not all animals..thanks /u/Harsimaja)! Fact check me on these claims though.  Tl:DR; Don't forget about the plants, yo!  Edit 1: /u/Mechasteel brings up Lilypads as another example. https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e34sqmj  Edit 2: /u/zilti asked an awesome question: \"since seagrass flowers are underwater, is there an oceanic pollonator like a \"sea bee\"?\".  Edit the third: SEA BEES ARE A THING GUYS! thanks /u/GeneralRetreat for finding the article https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e350qqi.  Ok...so there's no one single \"sea bee\" species, but the flowers are definitely pollinated by more than currents and appear to have aquatic-specific adaptations to attract pollinators.   Sea bees are also not the only reproductive option these awesome plants have https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e358jxt - thanks /r/wtfjen!", "human_ref_B": "A lot of you have noticed that about 90% of the comments posted so far have been removed. The moderation team would like to remind you that r/askscience answers should be **accurate, in-depth explanations**, including peer-reviewed sources where possible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4123.0, "score_ratio": 959.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34pbrt", "c_root_id_B": "e34l9t3", "created_at_utc_A": 1532700925, "created_at_utc_B": 1532696963, "score_A": 959, "score_B": 199, "human_ref_A": "I'm seeing a lot of really great replies about animals (whales, etc) but it seems people are overlooking plants!! The \"sea grasses\" are not algae but are flowering land plants that have evolved to live in the water.  Sea grass beds create places to live that are HUGELY important to young fish and a whole host of ocean invertebrates. Like many things in the ocean, they're being hit hard by climate change and many of these grass beds are disappearing, leaving baby sea creatures of all types more exposed to predation.  Their flowers, however, are very disappointing compared to their land-based relatives at so i can see why people overlook them - but their evolutionary story is fascinating!    I believe there have actually been THREE independent invasions of land plants back into the marine environment just in seagrasses..i'm pretty sure that has mammals beat (though likely not all animals..thanks /u/Harsimaja)! Fact check me on these claims though.  Tl:DR; Don't forget about the plants, yo!  Edit 1: /u/Mechasteel brings up Lilypads as another example. https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e34sqmj  Edit 2: /u/zilti asked an awesome question: \"since seagrass flowers are underwater, is there an oceanic pollonator like a \"sea bee\"?\".  Edit the third: SEA BEES ARE A THING GUYS! thanks /u/GeneralRetreat for finding the article https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e350qqi.  Ok...so there's no one single \"sea bee\" species, but the flowers are definitely pollinated by more than currents and appear to have aquatic-specific adaptations to attract pollinators.   Sea bees are also not the only reproductive option these awesome plants have https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e358jxt - thanks /r/wtfjen!", "human_ref_B": "Oh so many times!   Fully aquatic (as is basically never come on land): whales, dugons and manatees, various frogs and salamander species, the extinct ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, placoderms.  Semi-aquatic (split between land and water): seals and sealions, otters, various shrews, (extinct) sloths, penguins, various grebes, marine iguanas, terrapins and turtles, crocodiles, the extinct phytosaurs, thalattosaurs, thalattosuchians, ichthyornithines.   That's off the top of my head, there will be plenty of others.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3962.0, "score_ratio": 4.8190954774, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34l1cx", "c_root_id_B": "e34pbrt", "created_at_utc_A": 1532696709, "created_at_utc_B": 1532700925, "score_A": 109, "score_B": 959, "human_ref_A": "Insects are land creatures, closely related to crustaceans. A small number of insects evolved back to water, but exclusively fresh water. There are exceptions, but very very few, some water bugs that live on the ocean surface, and some flies that live along the ocean shores. Diptera, a huge order of insects, are considered semi aquatic in that the larval stages require moist environments, though they find moisture in forest detritus, tiny pools of water, or corpses.", "human_ref_B": "I'm seeing a lot of really great replies about animals (whales, etc) but it seems people are overlooking plants!! The \"sea grasses\" are not algae but are flowering land plants that have evolved to live in the water.  Sea grass beds create places to live that are HUGELY important to young fish and a whole host of ocean invertebrates. Like many things in the ocean, they're being hit hard by climate change and many of these grass beds are disappearing, leaving baby sea creatures of all types more exposed to predation.  Their flowers, however, are very disappointing compared to their land-based relatives at so i can see why people overlook them - but their evolutionary story is fascinating!    I believe there have actually been THREE independent invasions of land plants back into the marine environment just in seagrasses..i'm pretty sure that has mammals beat (though likely not all animals..thanks /u/Harsimaja)! Fact check me on these claims though.  Tl:DR; Don't forget about the plants, yo!  Edit 1: /u/Mechasteel brings up Lilypads as another example. https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e34sqmj  Edit 2: /u/zilti asked an awesome question: \"since seagrass flowers are underwater, is there an oceanic pollonator like a \"sea bee\"?\".  Edit the third: SEA BEES ARE A THING GUYS! thanks /u/GeneralRetreat for finding the article https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e350qqi.  Ok...so there's no one single \"sea bee\" species, but the flowers are definitely pollinated by more than currents and appear to have aquatic-specific adaptations to attract pollinators.   Sea bees are also not the only reproductive option these awesome plants have https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e358jxt - thanks /r/wtfjen!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4216.0, "score_ratio": 8.7981651376, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34pbrt", "c_root_id_B": "e34lm1g", "created_at_utc_A": 1532700925, "created_at_utc_B": 1532697324, "score_A": 959, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "I'm seeing a lot of really great replies about animals (whales, etc) but it seems people are overlooking plants!! The \"sea grasses\" are not algae but are flowering land plants that have evolved to live in the water.  Sea grass beds create places to live that are HUGELY important to young fish and a whole host of ocean invertebrates. Like many things in the ocean, they're being hit hard by climate change and many of these grass beds are disappearing, leaving baby sea creatures of all types more exposed to predation.  Their flowers, however, are very disappointing compared to their land-based relatives at so i can see why people overlook them - but their evolutionary story is fascinating!    I believe there have actually been THREE independent invasions of land plants back into the marine environment just in seagrasses..i'm pretty sure that has mammals beat (though likely not all animals..thanks /u/Harsimaja)! Fact check me on these claims though.  Tl:DR; Don't forget about the plants, yo!  Edit 1: /u/Mechasteel brings up Lilypads as another example. https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e34sqmj  Edit 2: /u/zilti asked an awesome question: \"since seagrass flowers are underwater, is there an oceanic pollonator like a \"sea bee\"?\".  Edit the third: SEA BEES ARE A THING GUYS! thanks /u/GeneralRetreat for finding the article https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e350qqi.  Ok...so there's no one single \"sea bee\" species, but the flowers are definitely pollinated by more than currents and appear to have aquatic-specific adaptations to attract pollinators.   Sea bees are also not the only reproductive option these awesome plants have https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e358jxt - thanks /r/wtfjen!", "human_ref_B": "In terms of large vertebrates this has happened several times. The currently extant species  of turtles and crocodiles both evolved from land reptiles at similar times in the Triassic. Also at the beginning of the Triassic, two families of marine reptile evolved, Icthyoptergia  (think lizard dolphin) and Sauropterygia (think loch-ness monster), the evolutionary ancestors of the Icthyoptergia is unknown.  During the early Cretaceous period a third group of large marine reptiles evolved, the Mosasaurids (think large angry crocodile with no back legs), we think that these had the same ancestors as modern day snakes or monitor lizards. All of the large marine reptiles became extinct in the K-T mass extinction, the same extinction that killed the dinosaurs.  This extinction left a large ecological niche, an area of the food chain that had nothing to exploit it. This niche was exploited by whales.  Around 45 million years  ago mammals such as Ambulocetus began to exploit some of these abandoned niches and became very successful. 5 Million years later the first true whales appeared such as Basilosaurus they were not yet as large as modern day whales and had not yet evolved to eat plankton.  There are some excellent BBC documentaries on some of these species including the *Walking with Dinosaurs* \"Cruel Sea\" or *Walking with Beasts* \"Whale Killer\"  Edit: Formatting", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3601.0, "score_ratio": 15.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34oct7", "c_root_id_B": "e34pbrt", "created_at_utc_A": 1532700026, "created_at_utc_B": 1532700925, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 959, "human_ref_A": "Sea Cows. Manatees came from four-legged land mammals. Manatees look quite similar except for the Amazonian manatee. Their paddlelike flippers have vestigial toenails \u2014 a remnant of the claws they had when they lived on land. The Amazon species name \"inunguis\" is Latin for \"without nails.\" An animal that is similar to the manatee is the dugong (Dugong dugon). Dugongs are also in the order Sirenia, but they are in a different family, Dugongidae. These manatee cousins are found in the Indian and Pacific oceans. They have a notch in their tails, as well as tusks. The closest living land relatives they still have are elephants and hyraxes. Unlike what most people think manatees can be carnivorous. They have been known to eat small fish specifically out of fishing nets.", "human_ref_B": "I'm seeing a lot of really great replies about animals (whales, etc) but it seems people are overlooking plants!! The \"sea grasses\" are not algae but are flowering land plants that have evolved to live in the water.  Sea grass beds create places to live that are HUGELY important to young fish and a whole host of ocean invertebrates. Like many things in the ocean, they're being hit hard by climate change and many of these grass beds are disappearing, leaving baby sea creatures of all types more exposed to predation.  Their flowers, however, are very disappointing compared to their land-based relatives at so i can see why people overlook them - but their evolutionary story is fascinating!    I believe there have actually been THREE independent invasions of land plants back into the marine environment just in seagrasses..i'm pretty sure that has mammals beat (though likely not all animals..thanks /u/Harsimaja)! Fact check me on these claims though.  Tl:DR; Don't forget about the plants, yo!  Edit 1: /u/Mechasteel brings up Lilypads as another example. https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e34sqmj  Edit 2: /u/zilti asked an awesome question: \"since seagrass flowers are underwater, is there an oceanic pollonator like a \"sea bee\"?\".  Edit the third: SEA BEES ARE A THING GUYS! thanks /u/GeneralRetreat for finding the article https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e350qqi.  Ok...so there's no one single \"sea bee\" species, but the flowers are definitely pollinated by more than currents and appear to have aquatic-specific adaptations to attract pollinators.   Sea bees are also not the only reproductive option these awesome plants have https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/92arnm/theres_evidence_that_life_emerged_and_evolved/e358jxt - thanks /r/wtfjen!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 899.0, "score_ratio": 29.0606060606, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34l4hc", "c_root_id_B": "e34l9t3", "created_at_utc_A": 1532696802, "created_at_utc_B": 1532696963, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 199, "human_ref_A": "A lot of you have noticed that about 90% of the comments posted so far have been removed. The moderation team would like to remind you that r/askscience answers should be **accurate, in-depth explanations**, including peer-reviewed sources where possible.", "human_ref_B": "Oh so many times!   Fully aquatic (as is basically never come on land): whales, dugons and manatees, various frogs and salamander species, the extinct ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, placoderms.  Semi-aquatic (split between land and water): seals and sealions, otters, various shrews, (extinct) sloths, penguins, various grebes, marine iguanas, terrapins and turtles, crocodiles, the extinct phytosaurs, thalattosaurs, thalattosuchians, ichthyornithines.   That's off the top of my head, there will be plenty of others.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 161.0, "score_ratio": 199.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34lm1g", "c_root_id_B": "e34l4hc", "created_at_utc_A": 1532697324, "created_at_utc_B": 1532696802, "score_A": 63, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "In terms of large vertebrates this has happened several times. The currently extant species  of turtles and crocodiles both evolved from land reptiles at similar times in the Triassic. Also at the beginning of the Triassic, two families of marine reptile evolved, Icthyoptergia  (think lizard dolphin) and Sauropterygia (think loch-ness monster), the evolutionary ancestors of the Icthyoptergia is unknown.  During the early Cretaceous period a third group of large marine reptiles evolved, the Mosasaurids (think large angry crocodile with no back legs), we think that these had the same ancestors as modern day snakes or monitor lizards. All of the large marine reptiles became extinct in the K-T mass extinction, the same extinction that killed the dinosaurs.  This extinction left a large ecological niche, an area of the food chain that had nothing to exploit it. This niche was exploited by whales.  Around 45 million years  ago mammals such as Ambulocetus began to exploit some of these abandoned niches and became very successful. 5 Million years later the first true whales appeared such as Basilosaurus they were not yet as large as modern day whales and had not yet evolved to eat plankton.  There are some excellent BBC documentaries on some of these species including the *Walking with Dinosaurs* \"Cruel Sea\" or *Walking with Beasts* \"Whale Killer\"  Edit: Formatting", "human_ref_B": "A lot of you have noticed that about 90% of the comments posted so far have been removed. The moderation team would like to remind you that r/askscience answers should be **accurate, in-depth explanations**, including peer-reviewed sources where possible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 522.0, "score_ratio": 63.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34l4hc", "c_root_id_B": "e34oct7", "created_at_utc_A": 1532696802, "created_at_utc_B": 1532700026, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "A lot of you have noticed that about 90% of the comments posted so far have been removed. The moderation team would like to remind you that r/askscience answers should be **accurate, in-depth explanations**, including peer-reviewed sources where possible.", "human_ref_B": "Sea Cows. Manatees came from four-legged land mammals. Manatees look quite similar except for the Amazonian manatee. Their paddlelike flippers have vestigial toenails \u2014 a remnant of the claws they had when they lived on land. The Amazon species name \"inunguis\" is Latin for \"without nails.\" An animal that is similar to the manatee is the dugong (Dugong dugon). Dugongs are also in the order Sirenia, but they are in a different family, Dugongidae. These manatee cousins are found in the Indian and Pacific oceans. They have a notch in their tails, as well as tusks. The closest living land relatives they still have are elephants and hyraxes. Unlike what most people think manatees can be carnivorous. They have been known to eat small fish specifically out of fishing nets.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3224.0, "score_ratio": 33.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92arnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "There's evidence that life emerged and evolved from the water onto land, but is there any evidence of evolution happening from land back to water?", "c_root_id_A": "e34l9t3", "c_root_id_B": "e34l1cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1532696963, "created_at_utc_B": 1532696709, "score_A": 199, "score_B": 109, "human_ref_A": "Oh so many times!   Fully aquatic (as is basically never come on land): whales, dugons and manatees, various frogs and salamander species, the extinct ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, placoderms.  Semi-aquatic (split between land and water): seals and sealions, otters, various shrews, (extinct) sloths, penguins, various grebes, marine iguanas, terrapins and turtles, crocodiles, the extinct phytosaurs, thalattosaurs, thalattosuchians, ichthyornithines.   That's off the top of my head, there will be plenty of others.", "human_ref_B": "Insects are land creatures, closely related to crustaceans. A small number of insects evolved back to water, but exclusively fresh water. There are exceptions, but very very few, some water bugs that live on the ocean surface, and some flies that live along the ocean shores. Diptera, a huge order of insects, are considered semi aquatic in that the larval stages require moist environments, though they find moisture in forest detritus, tiny pools of water, or corpses.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 254.0, "score_ratio": 1.8256880734, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rgyvwm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?", "c_root_id_A": "honm8h6", "c_root_id_B": "honr21p", "created_at_utc_A": 1639583132, "created_at_utc_B": 1639585013, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 540, "human_ref_A": "an individual cell that is used up and *tired* is usually put to death by apoptosis (programmed cell death)     if apoptosis does not happen on its own, it can be triggered by immune systems cells. however, even that can fail, and this can lead to cancer. tumors, and by extension cancer, are cells that wont die on their own. instead, they just start multiplying uncontrollably.", "human_ref_B": "To add to what other people have said, while many individual cells don't \"rest\" they also die pretty quickly in comparison to our lifespan.   In a matter of speaking, they burn the wick at both ends of the candle until they die, getting replaced by a younger version. And on and on.   Some have shorter lifespans than others. Colon cells die after a few days. Sperm cells last a few days. Skin cells last a few weeks. Red blood cells last a few months. White blood cells last about a year.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1881.0, "score_ratio": 7.2972972973, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rgyvwm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?", "c_root_id_A": "honf82c", "c_root_id_B": "honr21p", "created_at_utc_A": 1639580242, "created_at_utc_B": 1639585013, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 540, "human_ref_A": "You can think of this in terms of the example of **neurons**: \u2018tiring\u2019 in this context can mean 1.) not enough energy eg. Glucose for metabolism 2.) too many toxic byproducts of metabolism 3.) not enough neurotransmitters available 4.) not enough time to rest (the cells need to \u2018recover\u2019 after firing) but in reality all of this will be happening in tandem. eg. uve been playing chess all day you've been activating more neurons and faster and longer :) [note: if you use a group of cells more, then more resources will be allocated to them and they will grow in number to divide that labour. So playing chess after 3 months will feel easier]  A liver metabolizing alcohol all day will get tired and that is reflected by breakdown of cells and accumulation of toxins. Its difficult to carry over this definition from the subjective realm of *feeling tired* into that of biology. But its a great question! When we get tired we rest but actually we *could* work more. Cells and organs just do what they must with the resources they have to keep things in an acceptable range. If not, they can get more resources (eg. body adapts by pumping more blood), switch to another pool of resources (eg. aerobic to anaerobic in muscles) and finally get damaged (eg. hypoxia) and die ... evolution has provided cells with a 'self-destruct' sequence if it comes to this and they can't fulfill their function.   So, to recap: The whole body is tightly regulated to divert resources as appropriate (the circadian rhythm, as u/turingading mentioned). The resources are too many to enumerate, but the most important is oxygen and glucose, which gets converted to ATP. The cells use this and when we run out of glucose, we can use our fatty acids or muscle breakdown product for ATP and this is another of those pathway switches that can keep the cells going.   \u0395dited for clarity purposes", "human_ref_B": "To add to what other people have said, while many individual cells don't \"rest\" they also die pretty quickly in comparison to our lifespan.   In a matter of speaking, they burn the wick at both ends of the candle until they die, getting replaced by a younger version. And on and on.   Some have shorter lifespans than others. Colon cells die after a few days. Sperm cells last a few days. Skin cells last a few weeks. Red blood cells last a few months. White blood cells last about a year.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4771.0, "score_ratio": 17.4193548387, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rgyvwm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?", "c_root_id_A": "honr21p", "c_root_id_B": "honqsru", "created_at_utc_A": 1639585013, "created_at_utc_B": 1639584909, "score_A": 540, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "To add to what other people have said, while many individual cells don't \"rest\" they also die pretty quickly in comparison to our lifespan.   In a matter of speaking, they burn the wick at both ends of the candle until they die, getting replaced by a younger version. And on and on.   Some have shorter lifespans than others. Colon cells die after a few days. Sperm cells last a few days. Skin cells last a few weeks. Red blood cells last a few months. White blood cells last about a year.", "human_ref_B": "There is an animated show called Cells at Work that does a good job explaining the immune system in an understandable way.  The spin off series, Cells at Work: Code Black specifically goes in to detail about cells getting \u201ctired\u201d in an aging body!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 104.0, "score_ratio": 22.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rgyvwm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?", "c_root_id_A": "honf82c", "c_root_id_B": "honm8h6", "created_at_utc_A": 1639580242, "created_at_utc_B": 1639583132, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "You can think of this in terms of the example of **neurons**: \u2018tiring\u2019 in this context can mean 1.) not enough energy eg. Glucose for metabolism 2.) too many toxic byproducts of metabolism 3.) not enough neurotransmitters available 4.) not enough time to rest (the cells need to \u2018recover\u2019 after firing) but in reality all of this will be happening in tandem. eg. uve been playing chess all day you've been activating more neurons and faster and longer :) [note: if you use a group of cells more, then more resources will be allocated to them and they will grow in number to divide that labour. So playing chess after 3 months will feel easier]  A liver metabolizing alcohol all day will get tired and that is reflected by breakdown of cells and accumulation of toxins. Its difficult to carry over this definition from the subjective realm of *feeling tired* into that of biology. But its a great question! When we get tired we rest but actually we *could* work more. Cells and organs just do what they must with the resources they have to keep things in an acceptable range. If not, they can get more resources (eg. body adapts by pumping more blood), switch to another pool of resources (eg. aerobic to anaerobic in muscles) and finally get damaged (eg. hypoxia) and die ... evolution has provided cells with a 'self-destruct' sequence if it comes to this and they can't fulfill their function.   So, to recap: The whole body is tightly regulated to divert resources as appropriate (the circadian rhythm, as u/turingading mentioned). The resources are too many to enumerate, but the most important is oxygen and glucose, which gets converted to ATP. The cells use this and when we run out of glucose, we can use our fatty acids or muscle breakdown product for ATP and this is another of those pathway switches that can keep the cells going.   \u0395dited for clarity purposes", "human_ref_B": "an individual cell that is used up and *tired* is usually put to death by apoptosis (programmed cell death)     if apoptosis does not happen on its own, it can be triggered by immune systems cells. however, even that can fail, and this can lead to cancer. tumors, and by extension cancer, are cells that wont die on their own. instead, they just start multiplying uncontrollably.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2890.0, "score_ratio": 2.3870967742, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rgyvwm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?", "c_root_id_A": "honf82c", "c_root_id_B": "hoogyrw", "created_at_utc_A": 1639580242, "created_at_utc_B": 1639595070, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "You can think of this in terms of the example of **neurons**: \u2018tiring\u2019 in this context can mean 1.) not enough energy eg. Glucose for metabolism 2.) too many toxic byproducts of metabolism 3.) not enough neurotransmitters available 4.) not enough time to rest (the cells need to \u2018recover\u2019 after firing) but in reality all of this will be happening in tandem. eg. uve been playing chess all day you've been activating more neurons and faster and longer :) [note: if you use a group of cells more, then more resources will be allocated to them and they will grow in number to divide that labour. So playing chess after 3 months will feel easier]  A liver metabolizing alcohol all day will get tired and that is reflected by breakdown of cells and accumulation of toxins. Its difficult to carry over this definition from the subjective realm of *feeling tired* into that of biology. But its a great question! When we get tired we rest but actually we *could* work more. Cells and organs just do what they must with the resources they have to keep things in an acceptable range. If not, they can get more resources (eg. body adapts by pumping more blood), switch to another pool of resources (eg. aerobic to anaerobic in muscles) and finally get damaged (eg. hypoxia) and die ... evolution has provided cells with a 'self-destruct' sequence if it comes to this and they can't fulfill their function.   So, to recap: The whole body is tightly regulated to divert resources as appropriate (the circadian rhythm, as u/turingading mentioned). The resources are too many to enumerate, but the most important is oxygen and glucose, which gets converted to ATP. The cells use this and when we run out of glucose, we can use our fatty acids or muscle breakdown product for ATP and this is another of those pathway switches that can keep the cells going.   \u0395dited for clarity purposes", "human_ref_B": "I'm a plant scientist and plants do need rest on the micro level. Cells have organelles, specialised structures that can do one thing, quite a bit like organs (hence the name).   Chloroplasts are the organelles that turn light, carbon dioxide and water into sugar to be used for energy. However this also produces reactive oxygen species (unbound oxygen that likes to rip stuff apart so it can bind to that molecule). That's why plants are full of antioxidants to capture ROSs. While the sun is shinning and the plant produces sugars the antioxidant production can't keep up with the ROS production. That's why plants need night, so they can produce enough antioxidants for the next day.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14828.0, "score_ratio": 1.0322580645, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rgyvwm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?", "c_root_id_A": "hoogyrw", "c_root_id_B": "honqsru", "created_at_utc_A": 1639595070, "created_at_utc_B": 1639584909, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "I'm a plant scientist and plants do need rest on the micro level. Cells have organelles, specialised structures that can do one thing, quite a bit like organs (hence the name).   Chloroplasts are the organelles that turn light, carbon dioxide and water into sugar to be used for energy. However this also produces reactive oxygen species (unbound oxygen that likes to rip stuff apart so it can bind to that molecule). That's why plants are full of antioxidants to capture ROSs. While the sun is shinning and the plant produces sugars the antioxidant production can't keep up with the ROS production. That's why plants need night, so they can produce enough antioxidants for the next day.", "human_ref_B": "There is an animated show called Cells at Work that does a good job explaining the immune system in an understandable way.  The spin off series, Cells at Work: Code Black specifically goes in to detail about cells getting \u201ctired\u201d in an aging body!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10161.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rgyvwm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "From my 7 year old: Do the things in our bodies ever get tired? Like cells and antibodies? Do they have to rest?", "c_root_id_A": "hoogyrw", "c_root_id_B": "honszoq", "created_at_utc_A": 1639595070, "created_at_utc_B": 1639585781, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "I'm a plant scientist and plants do need rest on the micro level. Cells have organelles, specialised structures that can do one thing, quite a bit like organs (hence the name).   Chloroplasts are the organelles that turn light, carbon dioxide and water into sugar to be used for energy. However this also produces reactive oxygen species (unbound oxygen that likes to rip stuff apart so it can bind to that molecule). That's why plants are full of antioxidants to capture ROSs. While the sun is shinning and the plant produces sugars the antioxidant production can't keep up with the ROS production. That's why plants need night, so they can produce enough antioxidants for the next day.", "human_ref_B": "yes. In fact even cells need to rest. \"In 2016, Japanese scientist Yoshinori Ohsumi won the Nobel Prize for his discoveries into the mechanisms of autophagy.\" It really is fascinating.  metabolic syndrome and many degenerative diseases that manifest on a cell level can be seen as symptoms of 'lack of rest'. Interesting examples, metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, Parkinson's (dopamine levels in the brain).  Most cells and bacteria have feeding / activity / rest cycles that lead to optimal health, DNA health, and reproductive health", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9289.0, "score_ratio": 1.6842105263, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6hejov", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far does an insect (like a beetle or a fly) travel from the place they were born in?", "c_root_id_A": "diy2s8q", "c_root_id_B": "diy1o2w", "created_at_utc_A": 1497546450, "created_at_utc_B": 1497545278, "score_A": 896, "score_B": 662, "human_ref_A": "African blue dragonflies travel from AUS>Africa>>aus>africa on a yearly cycle, 11,000 miles over the ocean.  In the US you'll recognize them along Gulf coast states, as the Grey or Blue Darner (no studies have been done to track N.American migration patterns)  both adults make the trip, and breed along the way for the next generation to follow - adults can live 3-5 YEARS, Nymphs can live for 3-5 years before they ever spread their wings, so the large dragonflies you see could be up to  10 years old.  (its both a generational and a lifetime journey, they dont settle.)  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1200054/Longest-insect-migration-dragonflies-fly-11-000-mile-round-trip-ocean.html", "human_ref_B": "I read an article ages ago titled 'The billion bug highway you can't see', essentially about streams of insects caught up in different layers above our heads.   Interestingly turns out the reigning champions are termites!   http://www.npr.org/sections/krulwich/2011/06/01/128389587/look-up-the-billion-bug-highway-you-cant-see", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1172.0, "score_ratio": 1.3534743202, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6hejov", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far does an insect (like a beetle or a fly) travel from the place they were born in?", "c_root_id_A": "diy2s8q", "c_root_id_B": "dixyhd9", "created_at_utc_A": 1497546450, "created_at_utc_B": 1497541926, "score_A": 896, "score_B": 110, "human_ref_A": "African blue dragonflies travel from AUS>Africa>>aus>africa on a yearly cycle, 11,000 miles over the ocean.  In the US you'll recognize them along Gulf coast states, as the Grey or Blue Darner (no studies have been done to track N.American migration patterns)  both adults make the trip, and breed along the way for the next generation to follow - adults can live 3-5 YEARS, Nymphs can live for 3-5 years before they ever spread their wings, so the large dragonflies you see could be up to  10 years old.  (its both a generational and a lifetime journey, they dont settle.)  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1200054/Longest-insect-migration-dragonflies-fly-11-000-mile-round-trip-ocean.html", "human_ref_B": "As said above, it varies a lot.  Many aquatic insects than can fly travel long distances to colonize new habitats.  Some moths travel long distances following feromones for reproduction.  Spiders travel in their nets carried by winds.  Winds also carry flies and mosquitoes.  Many butterflies have very localised breeding grounds and don't expand their range.  You might find interesting this article in Wikipedia:  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surtsey  Scroll down to Biology/Other life  Interesting also this migration:  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1200054/Longest-insect-migration-dragonflies-fly-11-000-mile-round-trip-ocean.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4524.0, "score_ratio": 8.1454545455, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6hejov", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far does an insect (like a beetle or a fly) travel from the place they were born in?", "c_root_id_A": "diy1o2w", "c_root_id_B": "dixyhd9", "created_at_utc_A": 1497545278, "created_at_utc_B": 1497541926, "score_A": 662, "score_B": 110, "human_ref_A": "I read an article ages ago titled 'The billion bug highway you can't see', essentially about streams of insects caught up in different layers above our heads.   Interestingly turns out the reigning champions are termites!   http://www.npr.org/sections/krulwich/2011/06/01/128389587/look-up-the-billion-bug-highway-you-cant-see", "human_ref_B": "As said above, it varies a lot.  Many aquatic insects than can fly travel long distances to colonize new habitats.  Some moths travel long distances following feromones for reproduction.  Spiders travel in their nets carried by winds.  Winds also carry flies and mosquitoes.  Many butterflies have very localised breeding grounds and don't expand their range.  You might find interesting this article in Wikipedia:  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surtsey  Scroll down to Biology/Other life  Interesting also this migration:  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1200054/Longest-insect-migration-dragonflies-fly-11-000-mile-round-trip-ocean.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3352.0, "score_ratio": 6.0181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6hejov", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far does an insect (like a beetle or a fly) travel from the place they were born in?", "c_root_id_A": "diy4xt4", "c_root_id_B": "dixyhd9", "created_at_utc_A": 1497548733, "created_at_utc_B": 1497541926, "score_A": 199, "score_B": 110, "human_ref_A": "A British study was done on this using radar to track insects flying:  https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/12/researchers-use-radar-to-track-3-5-trillion-insects-migrating-over-england/  \"The travel speed of these larger insects indicated that they weren't simply passively riding the wind. They reached speeds of between 30 and 60 kilometers an hour, which suggested that they were actively flying along with the wind. The authors note that, in just a few hours, these insects would be able to cover over 200km.\"  Another big surprise of the study was the pure volume of insects, 3.5 trillion insects over the course of a year migrating.", "human_ref_B": "As said above, it varies a lot.  Many aquatic insects than can fly travel long distances to colonize new habitats.  Some moths travel long distances following feromones for reproduction.  Spiders travel in their nets carried by winds.  Winds also carry flies and mosquitoes.  Many butterflies have very localised breeding grounds and don't expand their range.  You might find interesting this article in Wikipedia:  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surtsey  Scroll down to Biology/Other life  Interesting also this migration:  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1200054/Longest-insect-migration-dragonflies-fly-11-000-mile-round-trip-ocean.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6807.0, "score_ratio": 1.8090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qp5i5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In the Seinfeld episode \"The Junior Mint\", Jerry and Kramer are watching an operation of a man who gets his spleen removed. Kramer is eating Junior Mints, and fumbles one that drops into the cavity of the patient, unbeknownst to the doctors. What outcome would a patient have IRL if this happened? I presume an infection, but wasn't sure if possibly the body would somehow breakdown/consume the food?", "c_root_id_A": "hjrtag6", "c_root_id_B": "hjrtrp3", "created_at_utc_A": 1636349677, "created_at_utc_B": 1636350001, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 1890, "human_ref_A": "It is hard to tell what something like a mint may do when dropped into a body cavity during surgery. The easiest analogy to examine would be when surgical instruments or debris are left inside after a surgery.  As per this article on Retained Surgical Bodies the outcomes are generally not good for the patient and often require further surgery.  Reactions to retained surgical instruments can manifest from acute such as inflammatory response, infection or abscess within days or weeks after the operation. Alternatively chronic presentation may present similar to malignant tumors years later prior to investigation.  Where this all falls apart is that the mint is probably soluble to some degree and there aren't a lot of soluble materials used during surgical operations. What did come to mind is the usage of absorb-able sutures.  This article about Suture Hypersensitivity reveals that except in the most extreme cases reactions to sutures are self limiting and don't cause large complications.  How this would apply to a mint, well sadly I can't find any specific literature.", "human_ref_B": "I work in the operating room (I can\u2019t say my role or degrees and training for my own privacy). Patients occasionally ingest non-edible objects due to mental health issues or for other reasons. I\u2019ve seen people who have eaten twigs off trees, plastic forks and spoons, the ink cartridge of a Bic pen, live ammunition, and more.  These \u201cingestion of a foreign body\u201d cases occasionally lead to perforation of the esophagus or stomach. Gunshot wounds and stab wounds can lead to perforation of the intestines or other structures.  The gastrointestinal tract of non-fasting individuals contains food in various stages of digestion, which then leaks out into the surrounding spaces. The contamination from your own \u201cgut flora\u201d - the trillions of bacteria that live in your GI tract - is what causes most infection in these cases. Depending on the degree of contamination and the patient\u2019s level of health beforehand, the infection can be minor or major, leading to sepsis and death. Source control is the name of the game in these cases. Perform an operation to find the perforation, clean out the contamination, close the perforation (or more commonly, cut out the perforated / damaged section to get clean margins and then close the freshly-cut margins), leave drains in place, give lots of antibiotics, and either close up the surgical site or leave it open and use a \u201cwound vac\u201d or other technology to aid with eventual closure.  A single Junior Mint, as shown in the episode, would be expected to cause a minor infection in most healthy individuals. It may cause no infection at all, since the standard of care today is to administer prophylactic antibiotics to all patients undergoing major surgery. The interior of the Junior Mint very likely IS sterile (heat processing of food is wonderful!) and if the mint was untouched before automated manufacturing and packaging was performed, then the only bacteria or infectious organisms on it would be from Kramer\u2019s hands, most likely. Unless Kramer is carrying around some seriously dangerous bacterial flora on his hands and hasn\u2019t washed them in a long time, he probably has the usual mild bacteria we all do - staph epidermidis and other easily-treated bacteria (which the antibiotics already in the patient\u2019s system would treat).  Once the immune system mobilized and started breaking down the outside, it is primarily responding to the presence of the foreign matter, not any microscopic infectious organisms like bacteria, spores, or viruses - they should be gone after the first few days. The body will slowly degrade and break down the organic substances of the Junior Mint. Anything inorganic or difficult to break down like confectioners wax, etc. will be \u201cwalled off\u201d in a cyst-type structure that can exist for decades without being noticed or causing major harm. It will also likely break down over time, too, depending on the substance.  Edit to discuss long-term effects: if the immune system\u2019s response to the Junior Mint was particularly aggressive, it could cause \u201cfriendly fire\u201d damage to surrounding tissues. This usually isn\u2019t a problem, but in some cases, and depending on the damage\u2019s location, it can result in the formation of scar tissue. That scar tissue can constrict and change over time, causing parts of the bowel to become kinked and stuck together as they are bound up by the scar. This leads to a bowel obstruction, with subsequent vomiting and inability to move food through the GI tract. That would require an additional surgery to fix. Bowel obstructions due to scarring (called adhesions in medical terminology) can be fixed easily in most cases and are not usually fatal.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 324.0, "score_ratio": 75.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qp5i5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In the Seinfeld episode \"The Junior Mint\", Jerry and Kramer are watching an operation of a man who gets his spleen removed. Kramer is eating Junior Mints, and fumbles one that drops into the cavity of the patient, unbeknownst to the doctors. What outcome would a patient have IRL if this happened? I presume an infection, but wasn't sure if possibly the body would somehow breakdown/consume the food?", "c_root_id_A": "hjs0f1d", "c_root_id_B": "hjsn109", "created_at_utc_A": 1636354856, "created_at_utc_B": 1636373768, "score_A": 73, "score_B": 116, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ll weigh in this one as an MD (not a surgeon,  but have spent plenty of time in an or).  If a junior mint found its way into the surgical field and actually into the body,  after the utter wtf shock of what just happened,  the surgeon would stop what they\u2019re doing and start fishing around to find it, place it in a specimen cup to go to pathology (and probably microbiology) to see what it is,  irrigate the cavity (with at least saline, maybe some antibiotics ) and go on their way to complete the surgery.  Afterwards, would probably give extra antibiotics to cover for mouth bacteria.  Most likely the patient would do ok.  If somehow no one noticed,  the patient would be at risk for infection, maybe spiking fevers and getting antibiotics.  Possibly getting some type of imaging which would show the junior mint and confuse everyone.  Eventually the immune system would step in either walling it off or dissolving it.", "human_ref_B": "Probably nothing.  The scrub nurses in our OR are super strict.  We do a needle count, clip count and sponge count before we close.  We also do a mint count.  We would have caught this.  As an aside, Junior Mints are the number 1 energy mint we use to stay focused in the OR.  We thank Junior Mints for their sponsorship and look forward to many years working together.  (Real talk, the patient would likely have been fine -only a slight chance of peritonitis.  In medical school I actually saw a Cheeto fall into the abdominal cavity - one of the residents had scrubbed out, gotten a snack and had a Cheeto on the lip of his mask when he came back in.  During the middle of the case, the attending says \"Goddamit, what is that?\" and the chief says \"I believe that's a Cheeto sir.\"  Patient did fine, resident did not.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18912.0, "score_ratio": 1.5890410959, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qp5i5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In the Seinfeld episode \"The Junior Mint\", Jerry and Kramer are watching an operation of a man who gets his spleen removed. Kramer is eating Junior Mints, and fumbles one that drops into the cavity of the patient, unbeknownst to the doctors. What outcome would a patient have IRL if this happened? I presume an infection, but wasn't sure if possibly the body would somehow breakdown/consume the food?", "c_root_id_A": "hjsn109", "c_root_id_B": "hjsjmc1", "created_at_utc_A": 1636373768, "created_at_utc_B": 1636371372, "score_A": 116, "score_B": 49, "human_ref_A": "Probably nothing.  The scrub nurses in our OR are super strict.  We do a needle count, clip count and sponge count before we close.  We also do a mint count.  We would have caught this.  As an aside, Junior Mints are the number 1 energy mint we use to stay focused in the OR.  We thank Junior Mints for their sponsorship and look forward to many years working together.  (Real talk, the patient would likely have been fine -only a slight chance of peritonitis.  In medical school I actually saw a Cheeto fall into the abdominal cavity - one of the residents had scrubbed out, gotten a snack and had a Cheeto on the lip of his mask when he came back in.  During the middle of the case, the attending says \"Goddamit, what is that?\" and the chief says \"I believe that's a Cheeto sir.\"  Patient did fine, resident did not.)", "human_ref_B": "ER surgeon here. I would think there's an extremely high risk of development of an OPSI. I haven't seen the episode but a spit stained mint in the abdominal cavity of a splenectomy patient could be a death sentence if it isn't picked up in time.  Edit : thanks for the award!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2396.0, "score_ratio": 2.3673469388, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qp5i5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In the Seinfeld episode \"The Junior Mint\", Jerry and Kramer are watching an operation of a man who gets his spleen removed. Kramer is eating Junior Mints, and fumbles one that drops into the cavity of the patient, unbeknownst to the doctors. What outcome would a patient have IRL if this happened? I presume an infection, but wasn't sure if possibly the body would somehow breakdown/consume the food?", "c_root_id_A": "hjsn109", "c_root_id_B": "hjrtag6", "created_at_utc_A": 1636373768, "created_at_utc_B": 1636349677, "score_A": 116, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Probably nothing.  The scrub nurses in our OR are super strict.  We do a needle count, clip count and sponge count before we close.  We also do a mint count.  We would have caught this.  As an aside, Junior Mints are the number 1 energy mint we use to stay focused in the OR.  We thank Junior Mints for their sponsorship and look forward to many years working together.  (Real talk, the patient would likely have been fine -only a slight chance of peritonitis.  In medical school I actually saw a Cheeto fall into the abdominal cavity - one of the residents had scrubbed out, gotten a snack and had a Cheeto on the lip of his mask when he came back in.  During the middle of the case, the attending says \"Goddamit, what is that?\" and the chief says \"I believe that's a Cheeto sir.\"  Patient did fine, resident did not.)", "human_ref_B": "It is hard to tell what something like a mint may do when dropped into a body cavity during surgery. The easiest analogy to examine would be when surgical instruments or debris are left inside after a surgery.  As per this article on Retained Surgical Bodies the outcomes are generally not good for the patient and often require further surgery.  Reactions to retained surgical instruments can manifest from acute such as inflammatory response, infection or abscess within days or weeks after the operation. Alternatively chronic presentation may present similar to malignant tumors years later prior to investigation.  Where this all falls apart is that the mint is probably soluble to some degree and there aren't a lot of soluble materials used during surgical operations. What did come to mind is the usage of absorb-able sutures.  This article about Suture Hypersensitivity reveals that except in the most extreme cases reactions to sutures are self limiting and don't cause large complications.  How this would apply to a mint, well sadly I can't find any specific literature.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24091.0, "score_ratio": 4.64, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qp5i5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In the Seinfeld episode \"The Junior Mint\", Jerry and Kramer are watching an operation of a man who gets his spleen removed. Kramer is eating Junior Mints, and fumbles one that drops into the cavity of the patient, unbeknownst to the doctors. What outcome would a patient have IRL if this happened? I presume an infection, but wasn't sure if possibly the body would somehow breakdown/consume the food?", "c_root_id_A": "hjrtag6", "c_root_id_B": "hjs0f1d", "created_at_utc_A": 1636349677, "created_at_utc_B": 1636354856, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 73, "human_ref_A": "It is hard to tell what something like a mint may do when dropped into a body cavity during surgery. The easiest analogy to examine would be when surgical instruments or debris are left inside after a surgery.  As per this article on Retained Surgical Bodies the outcomes are generally not good for the patient and often require further surgery.  Reactions to retained surgical instruments can manifest from acute such as inflammatory response, infection or abscess within days or weeks after the operation. Alternatively chronic presentation may present similar to malignant tumors years later prior to investigation.  Where this all falls apart is that the mint is probably soluble to some degree and there aren't a lot of soluble materials used during surgical operations. What did come to mind is the usage of absorb-able sutures.  This article about Suture Hypersensitivity reveals that except in the most extreme cases reactions to sutures are self limiting and don't cause large complications.  How this would apply to a mint, well sadly I can't find any specific literature.", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ll weigh in this one as an MD (not a surgeon,  but have spent plenty of time in an or).  If a junior mint found its way into the surgical field and actually into the body,  after the utter wtf shock of what just happened,  the surgeon would stop what they\u2019re doing and start fishing around to find it, place it in a specimen cup to go to pathology (and probably microbiology) to see what it is,  irrigate the cavity (with at least saline, maybe some antibiotics ) and go on their way to complete the surgery.  Afterwards, would probably give extra antibiotics to cover for mouth bacteria.  Most likely the patient would do ok.  If somehow no one noticed,  the patient would be at risk for infection, maybe spiking fevers and getting antibiotics.  Possibly getting some type of imaging which would show the junior mint and confuse everyone.  Eventually the immune system would step in either walling it off or dissolving it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5179.0, "score_ratio": 2.92, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qp5i5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "In the Seinfeld episode \"The Junior Mint\", Jerry and Kramer are watching an operation of a man who gets his spleen removed. Kramer is eating Junior Mints, and fumbles one that drops into the cavity of the patient, unbeknownst to the doctors. What outcome would a patient have IRL if this happened? I presume an infection, but wasn't sure if possibly the body would somehow breakdown/consume the food?", "c_root_id_A": "hjrtag6", "c_root_id_B": "hjsjmc1", "created_at_utc_A": 1636349677, "created_at_utc_B": 1636371372, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 49, "human_ref_A": "It is hard to tell what something like a mint may do when dropped into a body cavity during surgery. The easiest analogy to examine would be when surgical instruments or debris are left inside after a surgery.  As per this article on Retained Surgical Bodies the outcomes are generally not good for the patient and often require further surgery.  Reactions to retained surgical instruments can manifest from acute such as inflammatory response, infection or abscess within days or weeks after the operation. Alternatively chronic presentation may present similar to malignant tumors years later prior to investigation.  Where this all falls apart is that the mint is probably soluble to some degree and there aren't a lot of soluble materials used during surgical operations. What did come to mind is the usage of absorb-able sutures.  This article about Suture Hypersensitivity reveals that except in the most extreme cases reactions to sutures are self limiting and don't cause large complications.  How this would apply to a mint, well sadly I can't find any specific literature.", "human_ref_B": "ER surgeon here. I would think there's an extremely high risk of development of an OPSI. I haven't seen the episode but a spit stained mint in the abdominal cavity of a splenectomy patient could be a death sentence if it isn't picked up in time.  Edit : thanks for the award!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21695.0, "score_ratio": 1.96, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97c5nv", "c_root_id_B": "e97caqo", "created_at_utc_A": 1541560170, "created_at_utc_B": 1541560291, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 1140, "human_ref_A": "This is called Content Uniformity and there are tests and procedures for determining what's acceptable.  In the US, for example, USP 905 says:  > To ensure the consistency of dosage units, each unit in a batch should have a drug substance content within a narrow range around the label claim.   and it goes on to provide a test procedure for determining this acceptable range.   Quite broadly speaking, it looks like an acceptable range is for relative standard deviations in a range between 85 and 115% of the label claim.", "human_ref_B": "Chemist at a pharmaceutical company  here.  It's pretty close. Usually within 3 percent of label claim depending on the active ingredient.  So 100mg is somewhere in the 97-103mg range, but more than likely will be 99-101mg.  Any pharma company has release limits also, meaning they can't let anything out the door that doesn't meet FDA ch11 compliance and whatever the established release limits are for that specific drug.  At my company all of our release limits are stricter than the FDA's, so you can pretty much always rely on whatever you're getting to be spot on.   Edit: Whoa guys sorry, I didn't expect this to blow up!  Working on replying to everyone at the moment, but definitely got bombarded with DM's also.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 121.0, "score_ratio": 29.2307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97b3oc", "c_root_id_B": "e97caqo", "created_at_utc_A": 1541559278, "created_at_utc_B": 1541560291, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 1140, "human_ref_A": "Anything produced in a chain production like this has various samples taken out at random for testing. That goes with anything produced in this context, from pills, food, windows, aluminum siding, coffee cups, pillows, etc.", "human_ref_B": "Chemist at a pharmaceutical company  here.  It's pretty close. Usually within 3 percent of label claim depending on the active ingredient.  So 100mg is somewhere in the 97-103mg range, but more than likely will be 99-101mg.  Any pharma company has release limits also, meaning they can't let anything out the door that doesn't meet FDA ch11 compliance and whatever the established release limits are for that specific drug.  At my company all of our release limits are stricter than the FDA's, so you can pretty much always rely on whatever you're getting to be spot on.   Edit: Whoa guys sorry, I didn't expect this to blow up!  Working on replying to everyone at the moment, but definitely got bombarded with DM's also.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1013.0, "score_ratio": 42.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97eooo", "c_root_id_B": "e97k173", "created_at_utc_A": 1541562302, "created_at_utc_B": 1541567333, "score_A": 69, "score_B": 137, "human_ref_A": "Several folks have talked about the testing against specifications, but these products also must undergo stability studies as well.  The finished product (bottles of pills, blister packs, etc.) are stored in controlled conditions for specific periods of time and retested at these intervals.  For example, the sealed bottles can be stored at 5C (similar to a fridge) or 40C/75% relative humidity (think of your medicine cabinet in a steamy bathroom).  These stability profiles allow manufacturers to establish the expiry dating for the product so you know it\u2019s still 18-22mg after x months and the impurity profile is also within established tolerances.  As you can imagine, the 40C condition typically yields the worst stability, which is why many medicines recommend storing in a cool, dry place.", "human_ref_B": "In Pakistan\u2014a few years ago at least\u2014it\u2019s a big joke. The government had imposed price controls on certain OTC and prescription medicines, not adjusted to inflation, so drug makers kept the prices and the listed quantities the same but dropped the true amount of the active ingredient by half or more. Everyone knew (or at least, everyone I talked to about it did), so people and medical professionals just adjusted the number of pills they took or prescribed. A dentist recommended that I take a particular antibiotic before a procedure as a prophylactic. But when he found out that I had already brought the drug over from the US, he slashed the specified dosage exactly in half, since my pills would actually match the label amount.  I\u2019m curious if this happens in other countries.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5031.0, "score_ratio": 1.9855072464, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97c5nv", "c_root_id_B": "e97k173", "created_at_utc_A": 1541560170, "created_at_utc_B": 1541567333, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 137, "human_ref_A": "This is called Content Uniformity and there are tests and procedures for determining what's acceptable.  In the US, for example, USP 905 says:  > To ensure the consistency of dosage units, each unit in a batch should have a drug substance content within a narrow range around the label claim.   and it goes on to provide a test procedure for determining this acceptable range.   Quite broadly speaking, it looks like an acceptable range is for relative standard deviations in a range between 85 and 115% of the label claim.", "human_ref_B": "In Pakistan\u2014a few years ago at least\u2014it\u2019s a big joke. The government had imposed price controls on certain OTC and prescription medicines, not adjusted to inflation, so drug makers kept the prices and the listed quantities the same but dropped the true amount of the active ingredient by half or more. Everyone knew (or at least, everyone I talked to about it did), so people and medical professionals just adjusted the number of pills they took or prescribed. A dentist recommended that I take a particular antibiotic before a procedure as a prophylactic. But when he found out that I had already brought the drug over from the US, he slashed the specified dosage exactly in half, since my pills would actually match the label amount.  I\u2019m curious if this happens in other countries.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7163.0, "score_ratio": 3.5128205128, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97k173", "c_root_id_B": "e97b3oc", "created_at_utc_A": 1541567333, "created_at_utc_B": 1541559278, "score_A": 137, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "In Pakistan\u2014a few years ago at least\u2014it\u2019s a big joke. The government had imposed price controls on certain OTC and prescription medicines, not adjusted to inflation, so drug makers kept the prices and the listed quantities the same but dropped the true amount of the active ingredient by half or more. Everyone knew (or at least, everyone I talked to about it did), so people and medical professionals just adjusted the number of pills they took or prescribed. A dentist recommended that I take a particular antibiotic before a procedure as a prophylactic. But when he found out that I had already brought the drug over from the US, he slashed the specified dosage exactly in half, since my pills would actually match the label amount.  I\u2019m curious if this happens in other countries.", "human_ref_B": "Anything produced in a chain production like this has various samples taken out at random for testing. That goes with anything produced in this context, from pills, food, windows, aluminum siding, coffee cups, pillows, etc.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8055.0, "score_ratio": 5.0740740741, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97k173", "c_root_id_B": "e97e224", "created_at_utc_A": 1541567333, "created_at_utc_B": 1541561775, "score_A": 137, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "In Pakistan\u2014a few years ago at least\u2014it\u2019s a big joke. The government had imposed price controls on certain OTC and prescription medicines, not adjusted to inflation, so drug makers kept the prices and the listed quantities the same but dropped the true amount of the active ingredient by half or more. Everyone knew (or at least, everyone I talked to about it did), so people and medical professionals just adjusted the number of pills they took or prescribed. A dentist recommended that I take a particular antibiotic before a procedure as a prophylactic. But when he found out that I had already brought the drug over from the US, he slashed the specified dosage exactly in half, since my pills would actually match the label amount.  I\u2019m curious if this happens in other countries.", "human_ref_B": "I am a Formulations scientist who works in pharmaceutical development for many types of (injectable) drugs that are used throughout the country. I can safely say, from my professional experience working in this field (and ultimately working for both the FDA and the people who use our drugs), that you should put your trust in the drugs manufactured under the guidelines of the pharmacopoeia in this world.  Specifically to your point, as manchotendormi said, all drugs are made to specifications, which at their core are a +/- of some percentage of the intended dose for any active pharmaceutical ingredients (i.e. the chemicals which have the pharmacological effect you're taking them for). These specifications (and any associated expiration dates) are created only after the manufacturer has proven that 1) they can reliably produce a quality product with the listed dose, 2) the drug product will be stable until the listed expiration date, and 3) any variances in delivered dosage won't significantly affect the patient. (There are many other things taken into account when proving that drugs are safe and effective, but I'm trying to summarize for simplicity).  Is humanity 'right' 100% of the time? No. Are our society's pharmaceutical processes always safe and effective? No. But our industry is (usually) doing the best job that it can, and it's (usually) staffed by people who want other people to be happy and healthy. At the end of the day (and at the very least), if the drug is approved by the FDA, you should put your trust in its quality.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5558.0, "score_ratio": 5.9565217391, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97eooo", "c_root_id_B": "e97c5nv", "created_at_utc_A": 1541562302, "created_at_utc_B": 1541560170, "score_A": 69, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "Several folks have talked about the testing against specifications, but these products also must undergo stability studies as well.  The finished product (bottles of pills, blister packs, etc.) are stored in controlled conditions for specific periods of time and retested at these intervals.  For example, the sealed bottles can be stored at 5C (similar to a fridge) or 40C/75% relative humidity (think of your medicine cabinet in a steamy bathroom).  These stability profiles allow manufacturers to establish the expiry dating for the product so you know it\u2019s still 18-22mg after x months and the impurity profile is also within established tolerances.  As you can imagine, the 40C condition typically yields the worst stability, which is why many medicines recommend storing in a cool, dry place.", "human_ref_B": "This is called Content Uniformity and there are tests and procedures for determining what's acceptable.  In the US, for example, USP 905 says:  > To ensure the consistency of dosage units, each unit in a batch should have a drug substance content within a narrow range around the label claim.   and it goes on to provide a test procedure for determining this acceptable range.   Quite broadly speaking, it looks like an acceptable range is for relative standard deviations in a range between 85 and 115% of the label claim.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2132.0, "score_ratio": 1.7692307692, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97eooo", "c_root_id_B": "e97b3oc", "created_at_utc_A": 1541562302, "created_at_utc_B": 1541559278, "score_A": 69, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Several folks have talked about the testing against specifications, but these products also must undergo stability studies as well.  The finished product (bottles of pills, blister packs, etc.) are stored in controlled conditions for specific periods of time and retested at these intervals.  For example, the sealed bottles can be stored at 5C (similar to a fridge) or 40C/75% relative humidity (think of your medicine cabinet in a steamy bathroom).  These stability profiles allow manufacturers to establish the expiry dating for the product so you know it\u2019s still 18-22mg after x months and the impurity profile is also within established tolerances.  As you can imagine, the 40C condition typically yields the worst stability, which is why many medicines recommend storing in a cool, dry place.", "human_ref_B": "Anything produced in a chain production like this has various samples taken out at random for testing. That goes with anything produced in this context, from pills, food, windows, aluminum siding, coffee cups, pillows, etc.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3024.0, "score_ratio": 2.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97eooo", "c_root_id_B": "e97e224", "created_at_utc_A": 1541562302, "created_at_utc_B": 1541561775, "score_A": 69, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Several folks have talked about the testing against specifications, but these products also must undergo stability studies as well.  The finished product (bottles of pills, blister packs, etc.) are stored in controlled conditions for specific periods of time and retested at these intervals.  For example, the sealed bottles can be stored at 5C (similar to a fridge) or 40C/75% relative humidity (think of your medicine cabinet in a steamy bathroom).  These stability profiles allow manufacturers to establish the expiry dating for the product so you know it\u2019s still 18-22mg after x months and the impurity profile is also within established tolerances.  As you can imagine, the 40C condition typically yields the worst stability, which is why many medicines recommend storing in a cool, dry place.", "human_ref_B": "I am a Formulations scientist who works in pharmaceutical development for many types of (injectable) drugs that are used throughout the country. I can safely say, from my professional experience working in this field (and ultimately working for both the FDA and the people who use our drugs), that you should put your trust in the drugs manufactured under the guidelines of the pharmacopoeia in this world.  Specifically to your point, as manchotendormi said, all drugs are made to specifications, which at their core are a +/- of some percentage of the intended dose for any active pharmaceutical ingredients (i.e. the chemicals which have the pharmacological effect you're taking them for). These specifications (and any associated expiration dates) are created only after the manufacturer has proven that 1) they can reliably produce a quality product with the listed dose, 2) the drug product will be stable until the listed expiration date, and 3) any variances in delivered dosage won't significantly affect the patient. (There are many other things taken into account when proving that drugs are safe and effective, but I'm trying to summarize for simplicity).  Is humanity 'right' 100% of the time? No. Are our society's pharmaceutical processes always safe and effective? No. But our industry is (usually) doing the best job that it can, and it's (usually) staffed by people who want other people to be happy and healthy. At the end of the day (and at the very least), if the drug is approved by the FDA, you should put your trust in its quality.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 527.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9uuseh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How accurate is the amount of a medicine in a pill (is 20 milligrams of Aspirin really 20 milligrams)?", "c_root_id_A": "e97c5nv", "c_root_id_B": "e97b3oc", "created_at_utc_A": 1541560170, "created_at_utc_B": 1541559278, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "This is called Content Uniformity and there are tests and procedures for determining what's acceptable.  In the US, for example, USP 905 says:  > To ensure the consistency of dosage units, each unit in a batch should have a drug substance content within a narrow range around the label claim.   and it goes on to provide a test procedure for determining this acceptable range.   Quite broadly speaking, it looks like an acceptable range is for relative standard deviations in a range between 85 and 115% of the label claim.", "human_ref_B": "Anything produced in a chain production like this has various samples taken out at random for testing. That goes with anything produced in this context, from pills, food, windows, aluminum siding, coffee cups, pillows, etc.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 892.0, "score_ratio": 1.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f5x34v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there really only 50-60 years of oil remaining?", "c_root_id_A": "fi2n2gk", "c_root_id_B": "fi1nosm", "created_at_utc_A": 1582083668, "created_at_utc_B": 1582061266, "score_A": 140, "score_B": 83, "human_ref_A": "2018:  * Largest continuous oil and gas resource potential ever assessed in Texas/New Mexico - 46B barrels of oil and 281T cubic feet of natural gas and 20B barrels of natural gas liquids    2019:  * Russia:  1.5 billion barrels of oil equivalent (Bboe). That's the equivalent of 17T cubic feet of natural gas * Iran discovered 53B barrels in Dec 2019. * Exxon discovered 5-9 Trillion cubic feet of natural gas off the coast of Cyprus.  That's only a few of a dozen or more examples. With more and more deep water exploration there will be more.  We should see a change in the number of years not only because of the discoveries, but reduction of consumption due to new technology. It all could be offset by increases in population and other factors. But as others have said here, as long as it remains profitable to find it, we will.", "human_ref_B": "Another factor that needs to be considered here is the planning horizon of oil companies. Finding new oil sources costs money, and currently-known oil reserves will keep the average oil company going for 50-60 years. One may speculate that this is sufficient for the oil company. They have no need to invest more into finding oil reserves as long as the current ones last so long into the future. This year, they only need to find enough new sources to last another year to maintain the current horizon of 50-60 years.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22402.0, "score_ratio": 1.686746988, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8ogln9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why are there so many volcanic eruptions recently? Are they somehow connected or is it a coincidence? Or is it just new media coverage?", "c_root_id_A": "e0404rn", "c_root_id_B": "e03myt6", "created_at_utc_A": 1528142764, "created_at_utc_B": 1528131376, "score_A": 80, "score_B": 35, "human_ref_A": "There's this emergency website, you can monitor all sorts of stuff going on in real time. There's tons of small earthquakes (rarely more than 2.5 on the scale), volcano eruptions, lots of fires, small airplane crashes and other similar stuff going every single day. It's normal.   http://hisz.rsoe.hu/alertmap/index2.php", "human_ref_B": "It\u2019s not so much that there\u2019s more \u2018recently\u2019 it\u2019s that pretty much everyone has got a camera in their hands at any given moment. I think some of the pyroclastic flows have dedicated web cameras and live streams (especially the Hawaii ones) the technological/digital age is a heck of a time to be alive.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11388.0, "score_ratio": 2.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8ogln9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why are there so many volcanic eruptions recently? Are they somehow connected or is it a coincidence? Or is it just new media coverage?", "c_root_id_A": "e0404rn", "c_root_id_B": "e03vorz", "created_at_utc_A": 1528142764, "created_at_utc_B": 1528138898, "score_A": 80, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "There's this emergency website, you can monitor all sorts of stuff going on in real time. There's tons of small earthquakes (rarely more than 2.5 on the scale), volcano eruptions, lots of fires, small airplane crashes and other similar stuff going every single day. It's normal.   http://hisz.rsoe.hu/alertmap/index2.php", "human_ref_B": "\"Are they somehow connected or is it a coincidence?\"  The Hawaiian situation is completely unrelated to the Guatemalan situation.  Guatemala is a point along the \"Ring of Fire,\" a system of seams at the edges of several tectonic plates, which are in a perpetual state of physical conflict.  Whether it's in the news or not, there is really never a day of perfect peace in that gargantuan horseshoe of natural terror.  Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, Alaska, the San Andreas fault in California, the chain of volcanoes in Central America, down to Chile.  It's rare for somebody NOT to be under present duress along that route on any given day.  Kilauea, on the other hand, is a weird hot spot in the dead center of one of earth's biggest oceanic plates, arising from completely different forces deep in the earth, acting upon the central part of the plate from below. Unlike what's happening underneath Guatemala, where the eruptions are the result of the relative movements of different plates. So there's no relationship whatsoever.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3866.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8ogln9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why are there so many volcanic eruptions recently? Are they somehow connected or is it a coincidence? Or is it just new media coverage?", "c_root_id_A": "e03myt6", "c_root_id_B": "e042s1o", "created_at_utc_A": 1528131376, "created_at_utc_B": 1528145122, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 58, "human_ref_A": "It\u2019s not so much that there\u2019s more \u2018recently\u2019 it\u2019s that pretty much everyone has got a camera in their hands at any given moment. I think some of the pyroclastic flows have dedicated web cameras and live streams (especially the Hawaii ones) the technological/digital age is a heck of a time to be alive.", "human_ref_B": "It is worth noting that the current eruptions at K\u012blauea in Hawaii and Fuego in Guatemala are nothing new.  K\u012blauea has been in a constant state of eruption since Jan. 1983.  More than 35 years. A few weeks ago a dike intruded further east into the Lower East Rift Zone, causing the fissure eruptions that have been so much in the news.  It\u2019s been a long time since K\u012blauea burnt down any houses, but as soon as it does it suddenly gets media attention and a lot of people think it\u2019s a new eruption when in fact it\u2019s just another phase of the activity that started in 1983 - just at a new vent location.   Volcan Fuego too has been in a frequent state of eruption for years now, with frequent Strombolian activity and often sending lava flows down the various arroyos descending around the summit.  Only when it enters a more explosive phase, producing pyroclastic density currents that kill people, does it make the news.  Thus further adding to the general impression that there has been an increase in volcanic activity world-wide, when in fact this is not true.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13746.0, "score_ratio": 1.6571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8ogln9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why are there so many volcanic eruptions recently? Are they somehow connected or is it a coincidence? Or is it just new media coverage?", "c_root_id_A": "e042s1o", "c_root_id_B": "e03vorz", "created_at_utc_A": 1528145122, "created_at_utc_B": 1528138898, "score_A": 58, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "It is worth noting that the current eruptions at K\u012blauea in Hawaii and Fuego in Guatemala are nothing new.  K\u012blauea has been in a constant state of eruption since Jan. 1983.  More than 35 years. A few weeks ago a dike intruded further east into the Lower East Rift Zone, causing the fissure eruptions that have been so much in the news.  It\u2019s been a long time since K\u012blauea burnt down any houses, but as soon as it does it suddenly gets media attention and a lot of people think it\u2019s a new eruption when in fact it\u2019s just another phase of the activity that started in 1983 - just at a new vent location.   Volcan Fuego too has been in a frequent state of eruption for years now, with frequent Strombolian activity and often sending lava flows down the various arroyos descending around the summit.  Only when it enters a more explosive phase, producing pyroclastic density currents that kill people, does it make the news.  Thus further adding to the general impression that there has been an increase in volcanic activity world-wide, when in fact this is not true.", "human_ref_B": "\"Are they somehow connected or is it a coincidence?\"  The Hawaiian situation is completely unrelated to the Guatemalan situation.  Guatemala is a point along the \"Ring of Fire,\" a system of seams at the edges of several tectonic plates, which are in a perpetual state of physical conflict.  Whether it's in the news or not, there is really never a day of perfect peace in that gargantuan horseshoe of natural terror.  Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, Alaska, the San Andreas fault in California, the chain of volcanoes in Central America, down to Chile.  It's rare for somebody NOT to be under present duress along that route on any given day.  Kilauea, on the other hand, is a weird hot spot in the dead center of one of earth's biggest oceanic plates, arising from completely different forces deep in the earth, acting upon the central part of the plate from below. Unlike what's happening underneath Guatemala, where the eruptions are the result of the relative movements of different plates. So there's no relationship whatsoever.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6224.0, "score_ratio": 2.9, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "seybvk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Oat Milk bad for Reproductive Organs? Barista here!  Just had a customer order a Pumpkin Spice Latte and when I said Oat milk was our nondairy option, he backed away and said \u201cwhether you know it or not, oat milk messes with your reproductive organs.\u201d  I then spelled O-A-T to confirm and said, \u201cwell I drink it all day so that\u2019s great\u201d  He confirmed oat and walked away.   Apologies in advance if this isn\u2019t considered a science question.. I just drink a lot of oat milk and have never heard this/would like to know if there\u2019s any grounds for this claim.", "c_root_id_A": "humgax6", "c_root_id_B": "humtf2v", "created_at_utc_A": 1643398551, "created_at_utc_B": 1643403555, "score_A": 1497, "score_B": 10809, "human_ref_A": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4270274/  Hes confusing Oat with Soy. Soy contains phytoestrogens that may affect hormones in the human body.  Many people believe soy products will boost their estrogen (female hormone) and turn them into females, or somewhere in between.  >There have been only singular reports on modified gender-related behavior or feminization in humans in consequence of soy consumption. In animals, the intake of phytoestrogens was reported to impact fertility, sexual development and behavior. Feminizing effects in humans can be subtle and identifiable only statistically in large populations.  Oats also contain phytoestrogen, along with many vegetables and grains, but I dont believe its anywhere near soy.", "human_ref_B": "Oats as grains are perfectly normal for anyone to eat unless you have a specific allergy to them. Other than that, there isn't a single peer-review study of any kind that I know of that makes the claim that kooky customer made.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5004.0, "score_ratio": 7.2204408818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "seybvk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Oat Milk bad for Reproductive Organs? Barista here!  Just had a customer order a Pumpkin Spice Latte and when I said Oat milk was our nondairy option, he backed away and said \u201cwhether you know it or not, oat milk messes with your reproductive organs.\u201d  I then spelled O-A-T to confirm and said, \u201cwell I drink it all day so that\u2019s great\u201d  He confirmed oat and walked away.   Apologies in advance if this isn\u2019t considered a science question.. I just drink a lot of oat milk and have never heard this/would like to know if there\u2019s any grounds for this claim.", "c_root_id_A": "humtf2v", "c_root_id_B": "humjwo9", "created_at_utc_A": 1643403555, "created_at_utc_B": 1643399914, "score_A": 10809, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Oats as grains are perfectly normal for anyone to eat unless you have a specific allergy to them. Other than that, there isn't a single peer-review study of any kind that I know of that makes the claim that kooky customer made.", "human_ref_B": "Hi everyone.  Please keep your focus on the question. Comments belittling individuals or trying to guess at their misconceptions are not appropriate. Thank you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3641.0, "score_ratio": 10809.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7qhoz3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How can people sever entire legs and survive the blood loss, while other people bleed out from severing just one artery in their leg?", "c_root_id_A": "dspveso", "c_root_id_B": "dsq1xg8", "created_at_utc_A": 1516034481, "created_at_utc_B": 1516040940, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Try to remember that people regularly die from both of these events. Its not like people getting limbs severed are surviving more, its just possible, and everything is circumstance. If you lose a limb in the middle of a national forest you're likely toast. Same with severing a major artery in your leg (or anywhere). Its possible, but they are both mortal wounds that take peoples lives regularly.", "human_ref_B": "Seeing how there're already 186 comments on this post, this's probably already been answered, but - I don't feel like scrolling through it all to check.   SO - in case it hasn't been answered - basically the difference between a limb getting severed and a laceration of the limb is the surface-area of exposure of the blood vessels, along with blood vessel elasticity.   In the case of a laceration, a large section of the blood vessel will be compromised (especially when it's a tear down the length of it) which prevents platelets from being able to fully staunch the bleeding.   In the case of severing, usually the blood vessels are cut more or less cleanly cross-wise, so there's a much smaller 'hole' for the platelets to do their clotting work, which means they are more effective. Also - the blood vessels themselves will draw up inside the severed stump, due to their elasticity, where the clotting (now inside the 'meat' of the stump is made even more effective.  Think of it this way - if you have a leaky jug of water, is it easier to plug the leak if it's from a hole, or from a large gash?  This is not to say that a person with a severed limb cannot still bleed out. It depends on how high up on the limb is (ie, how large the major blood vessels are, in that part of the limb), and how cleanly cross-wise the blood vessels are cut.  In either case, you'd still want to apply a tourniquet as soon as humanly possible in the case of a stump, and also in the case of a laceration if the blood is forcibly squirting out (that means it's an artery, which is .. very bad), OR if you apply a tight pressure-dressing over the laceration, and the bleeding hasn't stopped after another minute or two.  And - always - when you apply a tourniquet - DO NOT remove it. When you put one on someone, you are effectively \"giving up\" on that limb (you're completely cutting off the blood supply for an extended period), and it should always be a Last Resort, when you're faced with a choice of either losing the limb, or losing the patient.   AND ALWAYS MARK A \"T,\" AND THE TIME YOU APPLIED THE TOURNIQUET, ON THE VICTIM'S FOREHEAD (write it with your finger, using their blood - it's gross, but it's also very quick, and time is critical!). This let's the Doctor that removes the tourniquet know how long it's been since you put it on, so they can determine whether the limb can still be saved, or whether they will need to amputate. Otherwise, not writing \"T+time\" pretty much means they will lose that limb.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6459.0, "score_ratio": 1.6785714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ebbbai", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is it possible for a computer to count to 1 googolplex? Assuming the computer never had any issues and was able to run 24/7, would it be possible?", "c_root_id_A": "fb3xqud", "c_root_id_B": "fb3yr5b", "created_at_utc_A": 1576494933, "created_at_utc_B": 1576496289, "score_A": 36, "score_B": 718, "human_ref_A": "Counting to it probably isn't possible as others have mentioned, but there are still multiple ways to represent it and even calculate with it. So if any real problem would require a googolplex somehow it still wouldn't be impossible to create a program that can handle it.   Very simple example: If you define \"a\" as \"a googolplex\" you could just write 2\\*a to have it doubled  Same goes for more complicated calculations", "human_ref_B": "A googolplex is such a huge number that, even if we were to write zeros the size of quarks, we wouldn't be able to write the number using standard notation using all of the matter in the universe.   Seems crazy but realistic when reading some of the above answers!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1356.0, "score_ratio": 19.9444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ebbbai", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is it possible for a computer to count to 1 googolplex? Assuming the computer never had any issues and was able to run 24/7, would it be possible?", "c_root_id_A": "fb4e1lb", "c_root_id_B": "fb3xqud", "created_at_utc_A": 1576507143, "created_at_utc_B": 1576494933, "score_A": 85, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "You might find this article interesting.  It talks about how 512 bit keys aren't any better than 256 bit keys because there isn't even enough energy in our solar system to count to 2\\^256.   https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2009/09/the\\_doghouse\\_cr.html", "human_ref_B": "Counting to it probably isn't possible as others have mentioned, but there are still multiple ways to represent it and even calculate with it. So if any real problem would require a googolplex somehow it still wouldn't be impossible to create a program that can handle it.   Very simple example: If you define \"a\" as \"a googolplex\" you could just write 2\\*a to have it doubled  Same goes for more complicated calculations", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12210.0, "score_ratio": 2.3611111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ebbbai", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is it possible for a computer to count to 1 googolplex? Assuming the computer never had any issues and was able to run 24/7, would it be possible?", "c_root_id_A": "fb4b7mx", "c_root_id_B": "fb4e1lb", "created_at_utc_A": 1576505515, "created_at_utc_B": 1576507143, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 85, "human_ref_A": "Another way to answer this is to look at cryptography, specifically the calculations for practicality of brute-force attacks where you enumerate every possible key. Here, rather than look at the minimum time required, let's look at the minimum energy requirements.  First, here is a quote of a snippet from Bruce Schneier's Applied Cryptography. Full details at the link, but I'll try to summarise.  It looks at the absolute minimum energy required to make a single bit state change in an ideal computer - not something that practically exists. We can approximately assume that each change increments our counter by one (technically, you'd need multiple bit changes for carries, but we can ignore that since the numbers are absurdly large anyway).  The conclusion is that all the energy released by a supernova (minus neutrinos) would be enough to count 2^219 values. That is approximately 10^85 values.  Therefore, you would need the energy of approximately 10^15 or a quadrillion supernovae to count to 10^100, or a googol, at an absolute minimum with a theoretical ideal computer.  We can consider that completely impossible within any known or even most assumed possible computers.  And all those are just for a googol. A googolplex is 10^(10^100) (10\\^(10\\^100) if it's not rendering correctly), so much higher than 10^100 I'm not sure how to express the difference.", "human_ref_B": "You might find this article interesting.  It talks about how 512 bit keys aren't any better than 256 bit keys because there isn't even enough energy in our solar system to count to 2\\^256.   https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2009/09/the\\_doghouse\\_cr.html", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1628.0, "score_ratio": 3.1481481481, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ebbbai", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is it possible for a computer to count to 1 googolplex? Assuming the computer never had any issues and was able to run 24/7, would it be possible?", "c_root_id_A": "fb3zsu8", "c_root_id_B": "fb4e1lb", "created_at_utc_A": 1576497629, "created_at_utc_B": 1576507143, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 85, "human_ref_A": "Something that nobody seems to have touched on is memory integrity over time. Even if we assume that a computer could be built to count to a googleplex, and that we were willing to wait while the entire counting process would take place (probably hundreds of years or more) - we then have to consider the fact that computer memory is not actually anywhere near as static as in a simplified model - even if we ignore hardware faults and degradation.  Every day, a small number of bits in your computer memory will be struck by charged particles from outer space, which (relatively) frequently produce enough electrical charge to 'flip' the state of the memory component from a 1 to a 0.  Some estimates put the frequency of this at 1 bit per 4GB of storage per day, which is pretty inconsequential for most applications. When you are dealing however with a number that takes huge amounts of memory to simply represent, and you hope to increment it over the space of decades of computing time, it becomes a statistical likelihood that your number will grow faster as a result of bits flipping from 0 to 1 spontaneously, rather than flipping as a legitimate part of the counting process.   The flip side of this, is that once you start to approach 1 googleplex almost all of your bits will be 1s rather than 0s. This means that cosmic rays will on average have the effect of decreasing the current count, by flipping active bits to inactivity. I strongly suspect that on average, the effect would be to keep the number relatively stable around the midpoint, with the actual counting becoming almost irrelevant compared to the effect of the cosmic ray flipping.  After I've had my coffee I might do the actual maths on this.", "human_ref_B": "You might find this article interesting.  It talks about how 512 bit keys aren't any better than 256 bit keys because there isn't even enough energy in our solar system to count to 2\\^256.   https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2009/09/the\\_doghouse\\_cr.html", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9514.0, "score_ratio": 3.5416666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ebbbai", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is it possible for a computer to count to 1 googolplex? Assuming the computer never had any issues and was able to run 24/7, would it be possible?", "c_root_id_A": "fb4b7mx", "c_root_id_B": "fb5ijk5", "created_at_utc_A": 1576505515, "created_at_utc_B": 1576528288, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "Another way to answer this is to look at cryptography, specifically the calculations for practicality of brute-force attacks where you enumerate every possible key. Here, rather than look at the minimum time required, let's look at the minimum energy requirements.  First, here is a quote of a snippet from Bruce Schneier's Applied Cryptography. Full details at the link, but I'll try to summarise.  It looks at the absolute minimum energy required to make a single bit state change in an ideal computer - not something that practically exists. We can approximately assume that each change increments our counter by one (technically, you'd need multiple bit changes for carries, but we can ignore that since the numbers are absurdly large anyway).  The conclusion is that all the energy released by a supernova (minus neutrinos) would be enough to count 2^219 values. That is approximately 10^85 values.  Therefore, you would need the energy of approximately 10^15 or a quadrillion supernovae to count to 10^100, or a googol, at an absolute minimum with a theoretical ideal computer.  We can consider that completely impossible within any known or even most assumed possible computers.  And all those are just for a googol. A googolplex is 10^(10^100) (10\\^(10\\^100) if it's not rendering correctly), so much higher than 10^100 I'm not sure how to express the difference.", "human_ref_B": "In CS, \u201ccounting\u201d has a special meaning.  Why would we want a computer that can count? Why would a human count? It\u2019s usually because we want to know \u201chow many\u201d there is of something. In computing, we usually are interested in \u201chow many answers to an arbitrary question.\u201d A deeper insight (which relates to the famous Church Turing Thesis ) is that _every_ counting problem can be phrased in terms of # of answers to some computable question. For example \u201chow many apples are on the table\u201d => take a picture of the scene and ask the computer \u201cdoes picture X contain Y apples?\u201d which is computable.  So in terms of computation complexity, \u201cis it possible to count to 1 googol\u201d can be framed as \u201ccan a computer correctly identify (in polynomial time with high probability) that there are >= 1 googol answers to a problem (for any possible problem)?\u201d The answer is yes, it is because we can make up an arbitrary problem designed for computers to solve with >= 1 googol answers. (A trivial problem would be \u201chow many numbers are there\u201d, answer: infinity > 1 googol). This approach is how quantum supremacy is proved.  Now you might object \u201cthat\u2019s not what I\u2019m actually asking. the answer is degenerate!\u201d So let\u2019s rephrase the question again into something more useful to think about and might cut into the crux of what you want to ask. \u201cFor any *computable* function/program/task, are there < 1 googol unique outputs/results for *any* possible input?\u201d A concrete example of a question that fits this structure might be \u201cgiven an picture containing apples, can you compute if there are < 1 googol apples in the picture or >= 1 googol\u201d if the computer can return the correct result then we can say this computer \u201ccan count to 1 googol\u201d wouldn\u2019t you agree?  Turns out this is a profoundly difficult question to think about. If you replace \u201c1 googol\u201d with \u201cany integer\u201d. The class of all problems of this form is in a complexity *class* called **#P**. That \u201cP\u201d in \u201c#P\u201d is the same \u201cP\u201d in the infamous \u201cP vs NP\u201d question which is the most fundamental unsolved question in computational complexity. Turns out the class NP can be reformulated as \u201cfor any computable function, are there < 1 result for any input or >= 1 result\u201d. Note that this is just our question with \u201c1 googol\u201d replaced with a \u201c1\u201d. We can actually *reduce* our class of questions to the definition of NP by pushing around some definitions (exercise left for the reader).  \u201cCan a computer count to 1 googol\u201d is just as difficult as \u201ccan a computer count to 1\u201d. Again we all know that enumerating digits is trivial but when we count, we have to count *something* and counting some things are easy for humans but not computers (apples in a picture) and some things are easy for computers but not humans (number of prime numbers below 1 million). But can a computer count *anything*? That is the single most difficult question we have conceptualized since computers were invented.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22773.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ebbbai", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is it possible for a computer to count to 1 googolplex? Assuming the computer never had any issues and was able to run 24/7, would it be possible?", "c_root_id_A": "fb3zsu8", "c_root_id_B": "fb5ijk5", "created_at_utc_A": 1576497629, "created_at_utc_B": 1576528288, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "Something that nobody seems to have touched on is memory integrity over time. Even if we assume that a computer could be built to count to a googleplex, and that we were willing to wait while the entire counting process would take place (probably hundreds of years or more) - we then have to consider the fact that computer memory is not actually anywhere near as static as in a simplified model - even if we ignore hardware faults and degradation.  Every day, a small number of bits in your computer memory will be struck by charged particles from outer space, which (relatively) frequently produce enough electrical charge to 'flip' the state of the memory component from a 1 to a 0.  Some estimates put the frequency of this at 1 bit per 4GB of storage per day, which is pretty inconsequential for most applications. When you are dealing however with a number that takes huge amounts of memory to simply represent, and you hope to increment it over the space of decades of computing time, it becomes a statistical likelihood that your number will grow faster as a result of bits flipping from 0 to 1 spontaneously, rather than flipping as a legitimate part of the counting process.   The flip side of this, is that once you start to approach 1 googleplex almost all of your bits will be 1s rather than 0s. This means that cosmic rays will on average have the effect of decreasing the current count, by flipping active bits to inactivity. I strongly suspect that on average, the effect would be to keep the number relatively stable around the midpoint, with the actual counting becoming almost irrelevant compared to the effect of the cosmic ray flipping.  After I've had my coffee I might do the actual maths on this.", "human_ref_B": "In CS, \u201ccounting\u201d has a special meaning.  Why would we want a computer that can count? Why would a human count? It\u2019s usually because we want to know \u201chow many\u201d there is of something. In computing, we usually are interested in \u201chow many answers to an arbitrary question.\u201d A deeper insight (which relates to the famous Church Turing Thesis ) is that _every_ counting problem can be phrased in terms of # of answers to some computable question. For example \u201chow many apples are on the table\u201d => take a picture of the scene and ask the computer \u201cdoes picture X contain Y apples?\u201d which is computable.  So in terms of computation complexity, \u201cis it possible to count to 1 googol\u201d can be framed as \u201ccan a computer correctly identify (in polynomial time with high probability) that there are >= 1 googol answers to a problem (for any possible problem)?\u201d The answer is yes, it is because we can make up an arbitrary problem designed for computers to solve with >= 1 googol answers. (A trivial problem would be \u201chow many numbers are there\u201d, answer: infinity > 1 googol). This approach is how quantum supremacy is proved.  Now you might object \u201cthat\u2019s not what I\u2019m actually asking. the answer is degenerate!\u201d So let\u2019s rephrase the question again into something more useful to think about and might cut into the crux of what you want to ask. \u201cFor any *computable* function/program/task, are there < 1 googol unique outputs/results for *any* possible input?\u201d A concrete example of a question that fits this structure might be \u201cgiven an picture containing apples, can you compute if there are < 1 googol apples in the picture or >= 1 googol\u201d if the computer can return the correct result then we can say this computer \u201ccan count to 1 googol\u201d wouldn\u2019t you agree?  Turns out this is a profoundly difficult question to think about. If you replace \u201c1 googol\u201d with \u201cany integer\u201d. The class of all problems of this form is in a complexity *class* called **#P**. That \u201cP\u201d in \u201c#P\u201d is the same \u201cP\u201d in the infamous \u201cP vs NP\u201d question which is the most fundamental unsolved question in computational complexity. Turns out the class NP can be reformulated as \u201cfor any computable function, are there < 1 result for any input or >= 1 result\u201d. Note that this is just our question with \u201c1 googol\u201d replaced with a \u201c1\u201d. We can actually *reduce* our class of questions to the definition of NP by pushing around some definitions (exercise left for the reader).  \u201cCan a computer count to 1 googol\u201d is just as difficult as \u201ccan a computer count to 1\u201d. Again we all know that enumerating digits is trivial but when we count, we have to count *something* and counting some things are easy for humans but not computers (apples in a picture) and some things are easy for computers but not humans (number of prime numbers below 1 million). But can a computer count *anything*? That is the single most difficult question we have conceptualized since computers were invented.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30659.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ebbbai", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is it possible for a computer to count to 1 googolplex? Assuming the computer never had any issues and was able to run 24/7, would it be possible?", "c_root_id_A": "fb3zsu8", "c_root_id_B": "fb4b7mx", "created_at_utc_A": 1576497629, "created_at_utc_B": 1576505515, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Something that nobody seems to have touched on is memory integrity over time. Even if we assume that a computer could be built to count to a googleplex, and that we were willing to wait while the entire counting process would take place (probably hundreds of years or more) - we then have to consider the fact that computer memory is not actually anywhere near as static as in a simplified model - even if we ignore hardware faults and degradation.  Every day, a small number of bits in your computer memory will be struck by charged particles from outer space, which (relatively) frequently produce enough electrical charge to 'flip' the state of the memory component from a 1 to a 0.  Some estimates put the frequency of this at 1 bit per 4GB of storage per day, which is pretty inconsequential for most applications. When you are dealing however with a number that takes huge amounts of memory to simply represent, and you hope to increment it over the space of decades of computing time, it becomes a statistical likelihood that your number will grow faster as a result of bits flipping from 0 to 1 spontaneously, rather than flipping as a legitimate part of the counting process.   The flip side of this, is that once you start to approach 1 googleplex almost all of your bits will be 1s rather than 0s. This means that cosmic rays will on average have the effect of decreasing the current count, by flipping active bits to inactivity. I strongly suspect that on average, the effect would be to keep the number relatively stable around the midpoint, with the actual counting becoming almost irrelevant compared to the effect of the cosmic ray flipping.  After I've had my coffee I might do the actual maths on this.", "human_ref_B": "Another way to answer this is to look at cryptography, specifically the calculations for practicality of brute-force attacks where you enumerate every possible key. Here, rather than look at the minimum time required, let's look at the minimum energy requirements.  First, here is a quote of a snippet from Bruce Schneier's Applied Cryptography. Full details at the link, but I'll try to summarise.  It looks at the absolute minimum energy required to make a single bit state change in an ideal computer - not something that practically exists. We can approximately assume that each change increments our counter by one (technically, you'd need multiple bit changes for carries, but we can ignore that since the numbers are absurdly large anyway).  The conclusion is that all the energy released by a supernova (minus neutrinos) would be enough to count 2^219 values. That is approximately 10^85 values.  Therefore, you would need the energy of approximately 10^15 or a quadrillion supernovae to count to 10^100, or a googol, at an absolute minimum with a theoretical ideal computer.  We can consider that completely impossible within any known or even most assumed possible computers.  And all those are just for a googol. A googolplex is 10^(10^100) (10\\^(10\\^100) if it's not rendering correctly), so much higher than 10^100 I'm not sure how to express the difference.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7886.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f24eyo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Can depression related cognitive decline be reversed? As in does depression permanently damage your cognitive ability?", "c_root_id_A": "fhb751m", "c_root_id_B": "fhb2dzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1581436231, "created_at_utc_B": 1581433229, "score_A": 101, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Absolutely no one who commented gave a scientific  peer reviewed journal to support their claims. That being said, I would recommend talking with your doctor or psychiatrist if you see one.   This review research paper looks at multiple peer reviewed research papers. One thing I found really interesting about this review paper is that it states \u201c...chronic stress can be effectively reversed by chronic but not acute treatment with current antidepressant medications. \u201c which suggests that it\u2019s possible to reverse these negative effects of major depressive disorder from epigenetic factors.   Also in figure 1, it shows a number of different changes that occur with depression and highlights (in red) the changes that are reversed by chronic treatment with current antidepressants.  That being said, this review article didn\u2019t specify to what degree it is reversed and how  that research study defines chronic treatment. If you search in the reference page for the specific peer reviewed research articles, you may be able to find the degree to which this is reversed and how they define chronic treatment. This research review paper also notes that there is a negative correlation with major depressive disorder and a reduction of grey matter in the brain.    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3521990/#!po=0.359712", "human_ref_B": "Reminder that answers here should be supportable by peer-reviewed scientific sources. Personal anecdotes are not appropriate here, and will be removed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3002.0, "score_ratio": 101.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f24eyo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Can depression related cognitive decline be reversed? As in does depression permanently damage your cognitive ability?", "c_root_id_A": "fhbn4dv", "c_root_id_B": "fhb2dzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1581445695, "created_at_utc_B": 1581433229, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Neuropsychology post-grad student here (and undergoing clinical training).  Depression does often affect some cognitive aspects, like memory, attention and processing speed. Like someone correctly mentioned here already, it is sometimes referred to as pseudodementia, such that it is a differential diagnosis for mild cognitive impairment or dementia itself.  Treatment of depression should therefore result in improvements to the cognitive ability.  This case study showed improvement in functioning and behavior in a patient suffering from depressive pseudodementia following treatment.  Another case study of a woman with refractary depression showed improvement in symptoms and cognitive function after treatment.  Antidepressants showed improvements across measures of cognition.  Yoga therapy, alone or in combination with medications, is associated with improved neuropsychological functions and neuroplastic effects in patients with depression.  Hope this suffices.", "human_ref_B": "Reminder that answers here should be supportable by peer-reviewed scientific sources. Personal anecdotes are not appropriate here, and will be removed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12466.0, "score_ratio": 27.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f24eyo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Can depression related cognitive decline be reversed? As in does depression permanently damage your cognitive ability?", "c_root_id_A": "fhb2dzq", "c_root_id_B": "fhbejx5", "created_at_utc_A": 1581433229, "created_at_utc_B": 1581440667, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Reminder that answers here should be supportable by peer-reviewed scientific sources. Personal anecdotes are not appropriate here, and will be removed.", "human_ref_B": "Depression consists of slowing down of certain functions in the brain (i.e. certain functions are depressed).  Antidepressants reverse at least some of those functions.  The main reason most antidepressants come with suicide ideation warnings is that certain functions get restored before others (i.e. decisiveness before self-preservation).  At least SOME cognitive atrophy is reversed with antidepressants, but it is a slow process.  That being said, they don't block age-related, chronic cognitive decline:  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002934315000777  Yet in case of Alzheimer's, some antidepressants did slow down the decline: https://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/121334", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7438.0, "score_ratio": 18.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f24eyo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Can depression related cognitive decline be reversed? As in does depression permanently damage your cognitive ability?", "c_root_id_A": "fhbejx5", "c_root_id_B": "fhbn4dv", "created_at_utc_A": 1581440667, "created_at_utc_B": 1581445695, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Depression consists of slowing down of certain functions in the brain (i.e. certain functions are depressed).  Antidepressants reverse at least some of those functions.  The main reason most antidepressants come with suicide ideation warnings is that certain functions get restored before others (i.e. decisiveness before self-preservation).  At least SOME cognitive atrophy is reversed with antidepressants, but it is a slow process.  That being said, they don't block age-related, chronic cognitive decline:  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002934315000777  Yet in case of Alzheimer's, some antidepressants did slow down the decline: https://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/121334", "human_ref_B": "Neuropsychology post-grad student here (and undergoing clinical training).  Depression does often affect some cognitive aspects, like memory, attention and processing speed. Like someone correctly mentioned here already, it is sometimes referred to as pseudodementia, such that it is a differential diagnosis for mild cognitive impairment or dementia itself.  Treatment of depression should therefore result in improvements to the cognitive ability.  This case study showed improvement in functioning and behavior in a patient suffering from depressive pseudodementia following treatment.  Another case study of a woman with refractary depression showed improvement in symptoms and cognitive function after treatment.  Antidepressants showed improvements across measures of cognition.  Yoga therapy, alone or in combination with medications, is associated with improved neuropsychological functions and neuroplastic effects in patients with depression.  Hope this suffices.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5028.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dohc3f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun is 4.85 billion years old, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old. If the sun will die in around 5 billion years, Proxima Centauri would be already dead by then or close to it?", "c_root_id_A": "f5oqhfr", "c_root_id_B": "f5on4j9", "created_at_utc_A": 1572327083, "created_at_utc_B": 1572323264, "score_A": 596, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "Interestingly, Proxima will become a type of star which cannot exist in the universe at the moment, but not until long, long after the Sun is but a cool stellar ember.  Red dwarf stars, like Proxima, are frugal with their fuel and can also use far more of it, proportionally, than larger stars can. They aren't picky eaters, they're slow eaters. The Sun will be a planetary nebula in around 6-8 billion years, but Proxima will be unchanged from how it is today. It works on a completely different timescale, that of trillions, not billions, of years. At the upper edge of estimates, Proxima may get up to eight trillion years out of its hydrogen.  Proxima will never fuse helium. As it ages, it contracts. Fusion rates try to decrease with declining hydrogen concentration, but the contracting star increases core pressure. Of course, being convective, Proxima doesn't have a core, and we don't think one will emerge even as the star contracts. This means its central pressure is ultimately limited by lower temperatures: Convection is an efficient way of moving heat to the surface.  The star becomes a low mass blue dwarf, a spectral type of O or B, and very rich in helium. While more powerful, it is still quite feeble. To the spectroscope, it will appear to be a Wolf-Rayet star, but anyone who can measure its mass will realise it is much too small for this classification.  It will remain like this for a few billion years before fusion begins to fade away completely. The star will cool through blue, white, yellow and back to red. Eventually it's just a really massive ball of helium, looking much like a gas giant planet, but for its lack of hydrogen and its very high mass.  No grand event signals the end of its life, no great nebula nor mighty flash. It just fades and cools, becoming a helium ember.", "human_ref_B": "Not all stars burn their fuel at the same rate, nor are they the same size of begin with. A red dwarf burns substantially cooler.  For example, the habitable zone of one of the exoplanets at Proxima is .05AU. It\u2019s incredibly close and is probably tidally locked because of it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3819.0, "score_ratio": 15.2820512821, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6dzrdm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it possible to 'store' light so it can be used as a form of energy? Year 12 student here. I recently learnt about superconductors and how they can essentially keep current running in a loop forever without losing energy. Random idea just popped into my mind - since we've developed fibre optics - a way of transmitting data by sending light patterns with energy loss close to 0 - why can't we use principles such as TIR (total internal reflection) to collect large amounts of light (sunlight) and then store it similar to how the superconductor bank works?   If we could be able to store light as a form of energy - could be collected, amplified by using mirrors and be a source of sustainable energy much alike solar panels (quite inefficient).   So to all the scientists out there, is this concept plausible? and if it is, what could we do with such a concept?", "c_root_id_A": "di6kuac", "c_root_id_B": "di6knas", "created_at_utc_A": 1496060310, "created_at_utc_B": 1496059857, "score_A": 4032, "score_B": 194, "human_ref_A": "What you are describing is basically an optical cavity. The most simple variation of cavity is just mirrors facing each other, but there are also ring resonators that basically do exactly what you are suggesting, which is keeping light on a circular trajectory by total internal reflection.  Even the best cavities have a maximum lifetime of less than milliseconds (in vacuum). In order to get such lifetimes you need incredibly stable configurations and high finesse cavities are definitively delicate instruments that are susceptible to even small fluctuations in temperature and the like and need to be constantly locked to references and only very narrow-band light can be coupled inside.  Fibers would be even worse for the task. Attenuation in silica fibers is at least 0.5 dB/km, meaning after 20km there is only 10% of your initial power. Light will travel this distance in 0.0000001s in fiber.  So no, using them for energy storage is not reasonable. There are still tasks were we need to store light coherently (or more precisely store the information that is encoded in the light) as in my field which is quantum information. There we use effects as slow/stopped light or absorption by single atoms or collective excitation of several atoms. Just using fiber delays is not satisfying option for the reason that I mentioned above. Research on such so called quantum memories is a considerable field in experimental quantum info currently and I might even join a research group doing exactly this in autumn.", "human_ref_B": "There are no superconductors for light yet. And fibres absorb quite a bit of light. So for now, not so much chance of getting there.   Typical fibre loss rates are in the order of 1dB/km. Let's be generous and assume a super low loss of 0.01dB/km.  Per second light travels 300000 km. This means that after a tenth of a second in a fibre loop the loss would already be 300dB which corresponds to an energy by a factor of 10^30 less than what was there in the beginning.   To put that into perspective, if you were to come the entire output of the sun into the fibre, after a tenth of a second you'd hardly be able to detect a signal.  Basically, any interaction with light causes losses so for now the better option is to store other forms of energy using light as an input, such as solar panels.   Tiny edit: light is actually slower in fibres, but just by a factor of 1.5. It takes slightly longer to run through my fictional fibre but the rest of the math still stands.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 453.0, "score_ratio": 20.7835051546, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6dzrdm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it possible to 'store' light so it can be used as a form of energy? Year 12 student here. I recently learnt about superconductors and how they can essentially keep current running in a loop forever without losing energy. Random idea just popped into my mind - since we've developed fibre optics - a way of transmitting data by sending light patterns with energy loss close to 0 - why can't we use principles such as TIR (total internal reflection) to collect large amounts of light (sunlight) and then store it similar to how the superconductor bank works?   If we could be able to store light as a form of energy - could be collected, amplified by using mirrors and be a source of sustainable energy much alike solar panels (quite inefficient).   So to all the scientists out there, is this concept plausible? and if it is, what could we do with such a concept?", "c_root_id_A": "di6psq3", "c_root_id_B": "di6x00w", "created_at_utc_A": 1496069368, "created_at_utc_B": 1496079083, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 85, "human_ref_A": "Ok, followup by dumb layman.  I realize that I've never thought about it, but what about glow-in-the-dark paint and other such substances.  Substances that you have to \"recharge\" with light.  They are storing the energy, then releasing it slowly, right?   Then what is the difference between energy and light?", "human_ref_B": "That's what plants do with photosynthesis. They take light, they use its energy to excite electrons in the photosystems (the bits where chlorophyl is) and then they use those electrons to pump protons (H^+ ) through a membrane. The protons then want to move back to the side of the membrane with the least concentration, and they deposit the energy that was transferred to them by the excited electrons, into a protein that acts like a pipe. Then that protein converts the energy into chemical energy (ATP). Throughout this process other chemicals are produced that pass through another big process (Calvin cycle) to produce even more energy stored in glucose (sugar).  There are many projects around that try to take advantage of photosynthesis. The problem is:  a) to create machinery that can convert efficiently the chemical energy we have produced to store energy, into a more usable form of energy, like electricity or heat. Plants (and all other organisms) don't do this very efficiently at all. 70% of that energy is dissipated as heat.  b) To make artificial photosynthesis be fast enough, so that it can create a bulk of solar fuel. To do that we need to make it capture way more energy from sunlight than what plants achieve.  Artificial photosynthesis has been a thing since the very early 20th century (1910-1920), but only recently did we make it industrially feasible by creating artificial leaves that capture 10% of sunlight when using pure CO2 or 3-4% when they use atmospheric CO2. In comparison, plants have a 0.3-0.6% efficiency (When I say efficiency here I mean how much energy from the total sunlight radiation that hits them gets captured to be used in photosynthesis).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9715.0, "score_ratio": 4.7222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6dzrdm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it possible to 'store' light so it can be used as a form of energy? Year 12 student here. I recently learnt about superconductors and how they can essentially keep current running in a loop forever without losing energy. Random idea just popped into my mind - since we've developed fibre optics - a way of transmitting data by sending light patterns with energy loss close to 0 - why can't we use principles such as TIR (total internal reflection) to collect large amounts of light (sunlight) and then store it similar to how the superconductor bank works?   If we could be able to store light as a form of energy - could be collected, amplified by using mirrors and be a source of sustainable energy much alike solar panels (quite inefficient).   So to all the scientists out there, is this concept plausible? and if it is, what could we do with such a concept?", "c_root_id_A": "di6x00w", "c_root_id_B": "di6kw7u", "created_at_utc_A": 1496079083, "created_at_utc_B": 1496060437, "score_A": 85, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "That's what plants do with photosynthesis. They take light, they use its energy to excite electrons in the photosystems (the bits where chlorophyl is) and then they use those electrons to pump protons (H^+ ) through a membrane. The protons then want to move back to the side of the membrane with the least concentration, and they deposit the energy that was transferred to them by the excited electrons, into a protein that acts like a pipe. Then that protein converts the energy into chemical energy (ATP). Throughout this process other chemicals are produced that pass through another big process (Calvin cycle) to produce even more energy stored in glucose (sugar).  There are many projects around that try to take advantage of photosynthesis. The problem is:  a) to create machinery that can convert efficiently the chemical energy we have produced to store energy, into a more usable form of energy, like electricity or heat. Plants (and all other organisms) don't do this very efficiently at all. 70% of that energy is dissipated as heat.  b) To make artificial photosynthesis be fast enough, so that it can create a bulk of solar fuel. To do that we need to make it capture way more energy from sunlight than what plants achieve.  Artificial photosynthesis has been a thing since the very early 20th century (1910-1920), but only recently did we make it industrially feasible by creating artificial leaves that capture 10% of sunlight when using pure CO2 or 3-4% when they use atmospheric CO2. In comparison, plants have a 0.3-0.6% efficiency (When I say efficiency here I mean how much energy from the total sunlight radiation that hits them gets captured to be used in photosynthesis).", "human_ref_B": "Yes, sort of, it is not really possible to store light per se, but they use something you describe in big laser systems. For example look at this animation of the NIF (starting around 1:10 ) but it is not really storing light, it is just bouncing back and forth and amplified and it takes a couple of microseconds. And they are not just simple mirrors and optical fibers.    Storing light with photons with mirrors is possible too, but just a couple of photons for a couple of milliseconds. There is a field called cavity QED wherin they do something similar.   They drop excited atoms trough a cavity with two mirrors. The excited atom can then emit a photon in the cavity wherein it will stay.  By timing it extremely precise, taking in account something called Raabi ocillations, they can add any number of photons to that cavity.     But just a passive geometrical configuration of light guides and mirrors, no it's impossible, draw it on a piece of paper, light will always be able to escape the way it went in.   You can store light in atoms however, this is called phosphorescence known as \"glow in the dark\" stuff.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18646.0, "score_ratio": 12.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6dzrdm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it possible to 'store' light so it can be used as a form of energy? Year 12 student here. I recently learnt about superconductors and how they can essentially keep current running in a loop forever without losing energy. Random idea just popped into my mind - since we've developed fibre optics - a way of transmitting data by sending light patterns with energy loss close to 0 - why can't we use principles such as TIR (total internal reflection) to collect large amounts of light (sunlight) and then store it similar to how the superconductor bank works?   If we could be able to store light as a form of energy - could be collected, amplified by using mirrors and be a source of sustainable energy much alike solar panels (quite inefficient).   So to all the scientists out there, is this concept plausible? and if it is, what could we do with such a concept?", "c_root_id_A": "di6psq3", "c_root_id_B": "di6kw7u", "created_at_utc_A": 1496069368, "created_at_utc_B": 1496060437, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Ok, followup by dumb layman.  I realize that I've never thought about it, but what about glow-in-the-dark paint and other such substances.  Substances that you have to \"recharge\" with light.  They are storing the energy, then releasing it slowly, right?   Then what is the difference between energy and light?", "human_ref_B": "Yes, sort of, it is not really possible to store light per se, but they use something you describe in big laser systems. For example look at this animation of the NIF (starting around 1:10 ) but it is not really storing light, it is just bouncing back and forth and amplified and it takes a couple of microseconds. And they are not just simple mirrors and optical fibers.    Storing light with photons with mirrors is possible too, but just a couple of photons for a couple of milliseconds. There is a field called cavity QED wherin they do something similar.   They drop excited atoms trough a cavity with two mirrors. The excited atom can then emit a photon in the cavity wherein it will stay.  By timing it extremely precise, taking in account something called Raabi ocillations, they can add any number of photons to that cavity.     But just a passive geometrical configuration of light guides and mirrors, no it's impossible, draw it on a piece of paper, light will always be able to escape the way it went in.   You can store light in atoms however, this is called phosphorescence known as \"glow in the dark\" stuff.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8931.0, "score_ratio": 2.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6dzrdm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it possible to 'store' light so it can be used as a form of energy? Year 12 student here. I recently learnt about superconductors and how they can essentially keep current running in a loop forever without losing energy. Random idea just popped into my mind - since we've developed fibre optics - a way of transmitting data by sending light patterns with energy loss close to 0 - why can't we use principles such as TIR (total internal reflection) to collect large amounts of light (sunlight) and then store it similar to how the superconductor bank works?   If we could be able to store light as a form of energy - could be collected, amplified by using mirrors and be a source of sustainable energy much alike solar panels (quite inefficient).   So to all the scientists out there, is this concept plausible? and if it is, what could we do with such a concept?", "c_root_id_A": "di6kw7u", "c_root_id_B": "di7biga", "created_at_utc_A": 1496060437, "created_at_utc_B": 1496098280, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Yes, sort of, it is not really possible to store light per se, but they use something you describe in big laser systems. For example look at this animation of the NIF (starting around 1:10 ) but it is not really storing light, it is just bouncing back and forth and amplified and it takes a couple of microseconds. And they are not just simple mirrors and optical fibers.    Storing light with photons with mirrors is possible too, but just a couple of photons for a couple of milliseconds. There is a field called cavity QED wherin they do something similar.   They drop excited atoms trough a cavity with two mirrors. The excited atom can then emit a photon in the cavity wherein it will stay.  By timing it extremely precise, taking in account something called Raabi ocillations, they can add any number of photons to that cavity.     But just a passive geometrical configuration of light guides and mirrors, no it's impossible, draw it on a piece of paper, light will always be able to escape the way it went in.   You can store light in atoms however, this is called phosphorescence known as \"glow in the dark\" stuff.", "human_ref_B": "As everyone else says it is not possible in any real useful way, at least with current technology, to store light as you suggest. That said, it is very easy to store *the energy* from light. There are many ways to do this:  * Hot salt storage * Batteries * Compressed Air * Trains (Really!)  That last is just one example of using gravity as an energy storage device. There are lots of variants. Basically you use solar power during the day to move something heavy up a hill, then at night the heavy thing moves down to generate electricity. Another way to use this is with hydro-electric. Pump water up to a basin during the day, let it flow down at night to generate electricity.   That list is by no means exhaustive, just a few methods that come immediately to mind.  Edit: Added \"in any real useful way\" to appease the pedants.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37843.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "efgcki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If you were in a completely dark room, and you somehow could see in the dark. Would you be able to see your reflection in a mirror? I know this sounds dumb, but this was just a shower thought i got.", "c_root_id_A": "fc0ego4", "c_root_id_B": "fc0au3y", "created_at_utc_A": 1577288633, "created_at_utc_B": 1577285317, "score_A": 360, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "There's a common problem with people asking hypothetical physics questions that include an impossible element; the answer is usually either 'there's no way to answer because the premise is impossible' or 'it entirely depends on how your underspecified impossible element works.'  In this case: to 'see' something is to gain true information about it.  There's no way to 'see' something without interacting with it in some way; usually this is done by having some kind of particle/wave interact with it, then interact with you.  If your magical version of 'seeing' includes some type of particle first bouncing off your body then the mirror then back to your body (which is how a mirror works with light), an that particle has a different reflectance function for your body than it has for the rest of the room, then yes, you will see yourself in the mirror.  If the magical vision works via any other method, and 'dark' means there is truly absolutely zero EM radiation in the room within the range that the mirror reflects (also near/totally impossible), then no, you won't see a reflection.", "human_ref_B": "It depends on how you are seeing in the dark. Most methods, like night vision goggles, rely on sub-visual light, like infrared or ultraviolet, or extreme low level visual light, like reflections of ambient light from across the room.  In that case, you would be able to see just as well in the mirror as you are seeing outside the mirror.  If you were using a radar sense, like Daredevil, then you would probably be able to \"see\" in the mirror, but it would appear distorted, as the sound waves bounce around improperly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3316.0, "score_ratio": 16.3636363636, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "efgcki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If you were in a completely dark room, and you somehow could see in the dark. Would you be able to see your reflection in a mirror? I know this sounds dumb, but this was just a shower thought i got.", "c_root_id_A": "fc0iu1m", "c_root_id_B": "fc0hao4", "created_at_utc_A": 1577291789, "created_at_utc_B": 1577290827, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": ">and you somehow could see in the dark  You'll have to be more specific. If there's no light, then you mean something different by the word \"see\" than the usual meaning. If you tell us how we'd \"see\" in the dark (echolocation? non-visible light like infrared or radar?), we can tell you whether a mirror would work.", "human_ref_B": "Question makes no sense. See in the dark, nobody can see in complete darkness. Devices like night vision goggles merely amplify what little light there is, or just detect light that is out of the human spectrum (sometimes emitting those waves like a flashlight; other humans will not be able to see this, so it is useful for covert military operations, etc.). So...no, you cannot possibly see in a completely dark room devoid of any photons of any frequency; two conditions of this question contradict each other. No more to say about it. Think a little bit more about the physics and logic, not so much about how you, as a human, see things normally. Seeing in the dark is actually just seeing in darker-than-normal circumstances.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 962.0, "score_ratio": 3.4545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "efgcki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If you were in a completely dark room, and you somehow could see in the dark. Would you be able to see your reflection in a mirror? I know this sounds dumb, but this was just a shower thought i got.", "c_root_id_A": "fc0iu1m", "c_root_id_B": "fc0au3y", "created_at_utc_A": 1577291789, "created_at_utc_B": 1577285317, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": ">and you somehow could see in the dark  You'll have to be more specific. If there's no light, then you mean something different by the word \"see\" than the usual meaning. If you tell us how we'd \"see\" in the dark (echolocation? non-visible light like infrared or radar?), we can tell you whether a mirror would work.", "human_ref_B": "It depends on how you are seeing in the dark. Most methods, like night vision goggles, rely on sub-visual light, like infrared or ultraviolet, or extreme low level visual light, like reflections of ambient light from across the room.  In that case, you would be able to see just as well in the mirror as you are seeing outside the mirror.  If you were using a radar sense, like Daredevil, then you would probably be able to \"see\" in the mirror, but it would appear distorted, as the sound waves bounce around improperly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6472.0, "score_ratio": 3.4545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iwhl0i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Solar panels directly convert sunlight into electricity. Are there technologies to do so with heat more efficiently than steam turbines? I find it interesting that turning turbines has been the predominant way to convert energy into electricity for the majority of the history of electricity", "c_root_id_A": "g60j7m3", "c_root_id_B": "g6094pn", "created_at_utc_A": 1600628217, "created_at_utc_B": 1600624907, "score_A": 835, "score_B": 111, "human_ref_A": "Short answer: no.  Longer answer: no, steam turbines are much more efficient and simple than anything else we have come up with. We are talking about up to 80% efficiency with about 50% average (edit: ideal, multistage turbine), nothing comes even close to that. Them being simple, having non toxic materials that are abundant makes it even more attractive even if we did have more efficient methods.  Somethings just were so good at the moment they were invented that afterwards, we can only get incremental, marginal improvements. Same goes with electric motors, they have not changed much in a century. You can take AC motor from the 1950s and have roughly same efficiency as its modern counterpart. You can expect better tolerances, less friction, better cooling and less materials being used but.. that is about all we have been able to do in more than a half a century. Steam turbine is kind of the same, it is hard to get another huge step when we started with so great concept.", "human_ref_B": "There's a device called a thermocouple that's basically a solar panel for heat, but it's far less efficient than a steam generator. The reason for thermocouples' inefficiency is complex, but keep in mind that steam turbines are actually fairly efficient - up to 55% thermal efficiency.  On the other hand, thermocouples have the advantage of being rugged and relatively light-weight, which makes them perfect for some applications, such as deep space probes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3310.0, "score_ratio": 7.5225225225, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iwhl0i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Solar panels directly convert sunlight into electricity. Are there technologies to do so with heat more efficiently than steam turbines? I find it interesting that turning turbines has been the predominant way to convert energy into electricity for the majority of the history of electricity", "c_root_id_A": "g6094pn", "c_root_id_B": "g60opbh", "created_at_utc_A": 1600624907, "created_at_utc_B": 1600630594, "score_A": 111, "score_B": 153, "human_ref_A": "There's a device called a thermocouple that's basically a solar panel for heat, but it's far less efficient than a steam generator. The reason for thermocouples' inefficiency is complex, but keep in mind that steam turbines are actually fairly efficient - up to 55% thermal efficiency.  On the other hand, thermocouples have the advantage of being rugged and relatively light-weight, which makes them perfect for some applications, such as deep space probes.", "human_ref_B": "The maximum possible efficiency for any heat-to-useful-energy device (a \"heat engine\") is given by the Carnot limit):  1-Tc/Th, where Th is the temperature of the heat source and Tc is the temperature of the cooling apparatus.  Modern steam turbines operate at temperatures of 400-500 C (700-800  Kelvin) and have cooling stages at about 30 C (300 Kelvin), so their maximum possible Carnot efficiency is around 60%.  Actual efficiencies are typically around 36-42%.  So, not quite perfect.  But the optimal Carnot efficiency can only be achieved with an engine that runs infinitely slowly, which is more than a little bit useless, so 40% is about as perfect as things are likely to get.  The main limitation is the temperature tolerance of the metal parts.  Some sort of amazing improvement in high-temperature metallurgy could increase Th, and raise overall efficiency.  Oh, and two other useful data points: once heat has been turned into a spinning rotor, converting it to electricity via a generator is well over 90% efficient.    And if you want to compare to commercial photovoltaic solar panels, those are in the ballpark of 18% efficient.   https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-power-plant/turbine-generator-power-conversion-system/theory-of-steam-turbines-thermodynamics/thermal-efficiency-of-steam-turbine/  https://www.powerengineeringint.com/coal-fired/pushing-the-steam-cycle-boundaries/  https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/steam-inlet-temperature  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conversion_efficiency", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5687.0, "score_ratio": 1.3783783784, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dnmi9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Liquids can't actually be incompressible, right? I've heard that you can't compress a liquid, but that can't be correct. At the very least, it's got to have enough \"give\" so that its molecules can vibrate according to its temperature, right?  So, as you compress a liquid, what actually happens? Does it cool down as its molecules become constrained? Eventually, I guess it'll come down to what has the greatest structural integrity: the \"plunger\", the driving \"piston\", or the liquid itself. One of those will be the first to give, right? What happens if it is the liquid that gives? Fusion?", "c_root_id_A": "f5ctznx", "c_root_id_B": "f5cu0w6", "created_at_utc_A": 1572141361, "created_at_utc_B": 1572141383, "score_A": 64, "score_B": 260, "human_ref_A": "You're right. Liquids like water can be compressed. However, for almost all intents and purposes, it can be treated as if its incompressible; its compression is small enough to be considered insignificant. If a liquid were compressible in a significant fashion at standard conditions, it would be considered a gas. That's why some scientists will designate some fluids as an \"incompressible fluid\" rather than a liquid, or \"compressible fluid\" instead of a gas.", "human_ref_B": "if you compress a liquid it will heat up, not cool down and become pressurised.  What will give in the case of most liquids is it will become solid, though you'd generally need a very strong container.  For water which expands as becomes solid, it's a bit weird but still doable.  You get a different form of ice than normal, ice IV.  You don't get it on Earth because of the immense pressure required.  Planets with 20km deep oceans might have it though.  They are mostly considered incompressible fluids for thermodynamics because the amount of pressure for any change in volume is vast.  It simplifies calculations without introducing significant errors most of the time.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22.0, "score_ratio": 4.0625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dnmi9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Liquids can't actually be incompressible, right? I've heard that you can't compress a liquid, but that can't be correct. At the very least, it's got to have enough \"give\" so that its molecules can vibrate according to its temperature, right?  So, as you compress a liquid, what actually happens? Does it cool down as its molecules become constrained? Eventually, I guess it'll come down to what has the greatest structural integrity: the \"plunger\", the driving \"piston\", or the liquid itself. One of those will be the first to give, right? What happens if it is the liquid that gives? Fusion?", "c_root_id_A": "f5d0zy5", "c_root_id_B": "f5ctznx", "created_at_utc_A": 1572146963, "created_at_utc_B": 1572141361, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 64, "human_ref_A": "Liquids can definitely be compressed, just not in situations common to our every day life. I work with Ultra-High Pressure water systems (10-40K PSI) and the compression of water is something we have to take into account on the higher end of that range. At pressures close to 40,000 PSI the volume of water delivered is ~85% of the volume before compression.", "human_ref_B": "You're right. Liquids like water can be compressed. However, for almost all intents and purposes, it can be treated as if its incompressible; its compression is small enough to be considered insignificant. If a liquid were compressible in a significant fashion at standard conditions, it would be considered a gas. That's why some scientists will designate some fluids as an \"incompressible fluid\" rather than a liquid, or \"compressible fluid\" instead of a gas.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5602.0, "score_ratio": 1.1875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dnmi9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Liquids can't actually be incompressible, right? I've heard that you can't compress a liquid, but that can't be correct. At the very least, it's got to have enough \"give\" so that its molecules can vibrate according to its temperature, right?  So, as you compress a liquid, what actually happens? Does it cool down as its molecules become constrained? Eventually, I guess it'll come down to what has the greatest structural integrity: the \"plunger\", the driving \"piston\", or the liquid itself. One of those will be the first to give, right? What happens if it is the liquid that gives? Fusion?", "c_root_id_A": "f5d0zy5", "c_root_id_B": "f5d0tqq", "created_at_utc_A": 1572146963, "created_at_utc_B": 1572146845, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Liquids can definitely be compressed, just not in situations common to our every day life. I work with Ultra-High Pressure water systems (10-40K PSI) and the compression of water is something we have to take into account on the higher end of that range. At pressures close to 40,000 PSI the volume of water delivered is ~85% of the volume before compression.", "human_ref_B": "http://image.thefabricator.com/a/articles/photos/1333/fig1.jpg  If you double the pressure on a gas while keeping the temp the same, it will reduce volume by 50%, and doubles the density, as long as you don't get so dense that you deviate from Boyle's Law.  However, putting water under 15,000 PSI (bottom of Marianas   Trench) reduces volume (and increases density) by only 4%.  In a system of hydraulic flex lines, once you put the fluid under a few thousand PSI, the main factor is the lines stretch out under pressure, increasing the volume the lines hold.  As such, under high loads, there is a bit of \"springiness\" not because the hydraulic fluid shrinks under compression but the lines swell under pressure.  This is why a waterbed isn't like a rock when you lie down on it.  The water doesn't lose any volume, but the container reforms and stretches.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 118.0, "score_ratio": 3.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dnmi9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Liquids can't actually be incompressible, right? I've heard that you can't compress a liquid, but that can't be correct. At the very least, it's got to have enough \"give\" so that its molecules can vibrate according to its temperature, right?  So, as you compress a liquid, what actually happens? Does it cool down as its molecules become constrained? Eventually, I guess it'll come down to what has the greatest structural integrity: the \"plunger\", the driving \"piston\", or the liquid itself. One of those will be the first to give, right? What happens if it is the liquid that gives? Fusion?", "c_root_id_A": "f5d0tqq", "c_root_id_B": "f5d5fpx", "created_at_utc_A": 1572146845, "created_at_utc_B": 1572148797, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "http://image.thefabricator.com/a/articles/photos/1333/fig1.jpg  If you double the pressure on a gas while keeping the temp the same, it will reduce volume by 50%, and doubles the density, as long as you don't get so dense that you deviate from Boyle's Law.  However, putting water under 15,000 PSI (bottom of Marianas   Trench) reduces volume (and increases density) by only 4%.  In a system of hydraulic flex lines, once you put the fluid under a few thousand PSI, the main factor is the lines stretch out under pressure, increasing the volume the lines hold.  As such, under high loads, there is a bit of \"springiness\" not because the hydraulic fluid shrinks under compression but the lines swell under pressure.  This is why a waterbed isn't like a rock when you lie down on it.  The water doesn't lose any volume, but the container reforms and stretches.", "human_ref_B": "I am an engineer for company that uses high pressure hydraulics at pressures up to 140 MPa.   Oil is most certainly compressible and it is something that we must account for in our engineering.   One of the systems that we make has nearly 14 liters of oil in compression when pressurized,  or put another way, at atmospheric pressure the oil occupies 14 liters more in volume than it does at the operating pressure.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1952.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bo734g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If ocean water had a higher viscosity, would wave size be affected?", "c_root_id_A": "end7b4q", "c_root_id_B": "end8tu4", "created_at_utc_A": 1557778824, "created_at_utc_B": 1557779449, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 202, "human_ref_A": "It makes sense that higher viscosity=more energy required to create a wave. But how would gale force winds interact? Typically the viscosity, surface tension, and fetch are the limiting factors in how big a wave could grow before \"breaking\". Given enough energy from wind, would a more viscous sea develop larger waves? Steeper?  How would it effect hull speed?", "human_ref_B": "It depends on how much you increase the viscosity. Making the oceans like jello would obviously change wave dynamics significantly, but it's possible that even a 10x increase in water viscosity wouldn't change wave physics very much.  That might seem counterintuitive, because it seems obvious that waves would be in some kind of equilibrium, with energy being input by winds and energy being dissipated by viscosity. That intuition is misleading, because it leaves out an important process: the turbulent energy cascade.  The turbulent cascade is the transfer of energy from large scales (where the energy is input by e.g. wind) to the small scales (where energy is dissipated by e.g. viscosity). Why doesn't viscosity just act directly at the large scales? Well, it does, but the effect is tiny. People who study fluids characterize the influence of viscosity using the Reynolds number, calculated as a length scale times a velocity scale, divided by viscosity. For an ocean wave with wavelength 10m, wavespeed 2m/s, and normal water viscosity of 10^-6 m^2 /s , the Reynolds number is 20,000,000. That means that the inertia of the wave is 20,000,000 times more important than viscosity at that scale, so there isn't much energy dissipation at that scale.  What happens instead is that the energy is transferred from the largest scale to a slightly smaller scale, and then to a slightly smaller scale, and then to a slightly smaller scale, and so on, until it reaches a scale where the Reynolds number is roughly one. This transfer of energy can happen through waves breaking on the shore, internal waves breaking over seafloor topography, hard-to-visualize instabilities within the flow, or any number of other ways that are the subject of lots of research.   So what does that mean for our hypothetical, ten-times-more-viscous ocean? Well, the wave Reynolds number is now 2,000,000, so viscosity still doesn't have much effect at that scale. The dissipation scale is now 10 times bigger, so there's maybe one less step in the energy cascade. That would probably cause an effect that scientists would notice with careful measurement, but it wouldn't be obvious to casual observers.  What would be affected by increased ocean viscosity? Small ocean creatures like plankton often operate at Reynolds numbers of around 1, so viscosity has a direct effect on the forces they experience. A 10x increase in viscosity would cause a 10x increase in drag/thrust for those little guys. I don't know if they would like it or hate it, though.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 625.0, "score_ratio": 15.5384615385, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bo734g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If ocean water had a higher viscosity, would wave size be affected?", "c_root_id_A": "end8tu4", "c_root_id_B": "end295e", "created_at_utc_A": 1557779449, "created_at_utc_B": 1557776744, "score_A": 202, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "It depends on how much you increase the viscosity. Making the oceans like jello would obviously change wave dynamics significantly, but it's possible that even a 10x increase in water viscosity wouldn't change wave physics very much.  That might seem counterintuitive, because it seems obvious that waves would be in some kind of equilibrium, with energy being input by winds and energy being dissipated by viscosity. That intuition is misleading, because it leaves out an important process: the turbulent energy cascade.  The turbulent cascade is the transfer of energy from large scales (where the energy is input by e.g. wind) to the small scales (where energy is dissipated by e.g. viscosity). Why doesn't viscosity just act directly at the large scales? Well, it does, but the effect is tiny. People who study fluids characterize the influence of viscosity using the Reynolds number, calculated as a length scale times a velocity scale, divided by viscosity. For an ocean wave with wavelength 10m, wavespeed 2m/s, and normal water viscosity of 10^-6 m^2 /s , the Reynolds number is 20,000,000. That means that the inertia of the wave is 20,000,000 times more important than viscosity at that scale, so there isn't much energy dissipation at that scale.  What happens instead is that the energy is transferred from the largest scale to a slightly smaller scale, and then to a slightly smaller scale, and then to a slightly smaller scale, and so on, until it reaches a scale where the Reynolds number is roughly one. This transfer of energy can happen through waves breaking on the shore, internal waves breaking over seafloor topography, hard-to-visualize instabilities within the flow, or any number of other ways that are the subject of lots of research.   So what does that mean for our hypothetical, ten-times-more-viscous ocean? Well, the wave Reynolds number is now 2,000,000, so viscosity still doesn't have much effect at that scale. The dissipation scale is now 10 times bigger, so there's maybe one less step in the energy cascade. That would probably cause an effect that scientists would notice with careful measurement, but it wouldn't be obvious to casual observers.  What would be affected by increased ocean viscosity? Small ocean creatures like plankton often operate at Reynolds numbers of around 1, so viscosity has a direct effect on the forces they experience. A 10x increase in viscosity would cause a 10x increase in drag/thrust for those little guys. I don't know if they would like it or hate it, though.", "human_ref_B": "Yes salinity does impact water cohesion, which impacts surface tension, which in turn impacts wave generation.  More salt=more surface tension.  So it takes more force to generate a wave.  Also more to break one.  Freshwater waves would probably be larger but break sooner.  Sources:  https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0953-8984/24/12/124109/meta  https://www.aquapublications.nl/Contentsbook1.pdf", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2705.0, "score_ratio": 20.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bo734g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If ocean water had a higher viscosity, would wave size be affected?", "c_root_id_A": "end7b4q", "c_root_id_B": "endmg85", "created_at_utc_A": 1557778824, "created_at_utc_B": 1557784716, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "It makes sense that higher viscosity=more energy required to create a wave. But how would gale force winds interact? Typically the viscosity, surface tension, and fetch are the limiting factors in how big a wave could grow before \"breaking\". Given enough energy from wind, would a more viscous sea develop larger waves? Steeper?  How would it effect hull speed?", "human_ref_B": "Not a physicist but I am a ship captain. I can't speak to the physics as well as others here can but I can mention a couple things that may be of interest. Wave height/size does noticeably change with changes in salinity and temperature, however there are many other factors at play in real world conditions. The main thing dictating wave height in open water is input energy(wind) coupled with time or distance the wave has to build (we call this fetch). So to answer your question: yes, wave height would be affected by changes in viscosity but you would probably have to change it a bunch to notice anything. A thicker liquid would require more input energy to create a wave of a similar height. The characteristics of the sea state would be different as well with a longer period but smaller amplitude  There is also the use of storm oil which should be mentioned. Storm oil is used to smooth out oncoming seas. Not sure whether it has more to do with viscosity or surface tension but it creates a sheen on the water surface that prevents waves from breaking. It has mostly fallen out of use but is still a handy trick in survival situations when in a life raft.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5892.0, "score_ratio": 1.3846153846, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bo734g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If ocean water had a higher viscosity, would wave size be affected?", "c_root_id_A": "end295e", "c_root_id_B": "endmg85", "created_at_utc_A": 1557776744, "created_at_utc_B": 1557784716, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Yes salinity does impact water cohesion, which impacts surface tension, which in turn impacts wave generation.  More salt=more surface tension.  So it takes more force to generate a wave.  Also more to break one.  Freshwater waves would probably be larger but break sooner.  Sources:  https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0953-8984/24/12/124109/meta  https://www.aquapublications.nl/Contentsbook1.pdf", "human_ref_B": "Not a physicist but I am a ship captain. I can't speak to the physics as well as others here can but I can mention a couple things that may be of interest. Wave height/size does noticeably change with changes in salinity and temperature, however there are many other factors at play in real world conditions. The main thing dictating wave height in open water is input energy(wind) coupled with time or distance the wave has to build (we call this fetch). So to answer your question: yes, wave height would be affected by changes in viscosity but you would probably have to change it a bunch to notice anything. A thicker liquid would require more input energy to create a wave of a similar height. The characteristics of the sea state would be different as well with a longer period but smaller amplitude  There is also the use of storm oil which should be mentioned. Storm oil is used to smooth out oncoming seas. Not sure whether it has more to do with viscosity or surface tension but it creates a sheen on the water surface that prevents waves from breaking. It has mostly fallen out of use but is still a handy trick in survival situations when in a life raft.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7972.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bo734g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If ocean water had a higher viscosity, would wave size be affected?", "c_root_id_A": "endhmqk", "c_root_id_B": "endmg85", "created_at_utc_A": 1557782840, "created_at_utc_B": 1557784716, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Interesting question! I recently wrote an article about measuring wave height in the Southern Ocean. It doesn't take viscosity into consideration, but you might find it interesting anyway: https://www.saildrone.com/news/wave-height-southern-ocean", "human_ref_B": "Not a physicist but I am a ship captain. I can't speak to the physics as well as others here can but I can mention a couple things that may be of interest. Wave height/size does noticeably change with changes in salinity and temperature, however there are many other factors at play in real world conditions. The main thing dictating wave height in open water is input energy(wind) coupled with time or distance the wave has to build (we call this fetch). So to answer your question: yes, wave height would be affected by changes in viscosity but you would probably have to change it a bunch to notice anything. A thicker liquid would require more input energy to create a wave of a similar height. The characteristics of the sea state would be different as well with a longer period but smaller amplitude  There is also the use of storm oil which should be mentioned. Storm oil is used to smooth out oncoming seas. Not sure whether it has more to do with viscosity or surface tension but it creates a sheen on the water surface that prevents waves from breaking. It has mostly fallen out of use but is still a handy trick in survival situations when in a life raft.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1876.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bo734g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If ocean water had a higher viscosity, would wave size be affected?", "c_root_id_A": "end7b4q", "c_root_id_B": "end295e", "created_at_utc_A": 1557778824, "created_at_utc_B": 1557776744, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "It makes sense that higher viscosity=more energy required to create a wave. But how would gale force winds interact? Typically the viscosity, surface tension, and fetch are the limiting factors in how big a wave could grow before \"breaking\". Given enough energy from wind, would a more viscous sea develop larger waves? Steeper?  How would it effect hull speed?", "human_ref_B": "Yes salinity does impact water cohesion, which impacts surface tension, which in turn impacts wave generation.  More salt=more surface tension.  So it takes more force to generate a wave.  Also more to break one.  Freshwater waves would probably be larger but break sooner.  Sources:  https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0953-8984/24/12/124109/meta  https://www.aquapublications.nl/Contentsbook1.pdf", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2080.0, "score_ratio": 1.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bo734g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If ocean water had a higher viscosity, would wave size be affected?", "c_root_id_A": "endhmqk", "c_root_id_B": "endtzld", "created_at_utc_A": 1557782840, "created_at_utc_B": 1557787722, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Interesting question! I recently wrote an article about measuring wave height in the Southern Ocean. It doesn't take viscosity into consideration, but you might find it interesting anyway: https://www.saildrone.com/news/wave-height-southern-ocean", "human_ref_B": "Viscosity dissipates kinetic energy.  The wave energy would be lost faster.  Long wave ocean waves - swell - can travel thousands of kilometres across ocean because there is minimal energy lost.  In longer waves the relative motions of nearby water particles is small so there is little energy dissipated by viscosity.  In shorter waves the energy loss is greater.  So, an increase in viscosity would make wave dissipate faster, which in turn would mean they don't  build up to the same sizes.   When the wave is growing, energy input from wind is greater than loss to viscosity.  When the wave size is decreasing, energy loss is greater.   In the middle, these two effects cancel.  More viscosity moves the balance point to smaller waves for the same wind.  \\[edit: typos\\]", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4882.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx54ra", "c_root_id_B": "fxx5b3c", "created_at_utc_A": 1594640400, "created_at_utc_B": 1594640552, "score_A": 95, "score_B": 720, "human_ref_A": "In your experience what is the best way to steer an antivaxxer back on the right track after they have been anti-vax for years?", "human_ref_B": "How do you have a debate with someone who refutes anything other than their own sources as false and untrustworthy?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 152.0, "score_ratio": 7.5789473684, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx5dbv", "c_root_id_B": "fxxek7l", "created_at_utc_A": 1594640606, "created_at_utc_B": 1594647239, "score_A": 243, "score_B": 275, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for your work.  It feels like the antivaxxers have made being anti-vaxx a core part of who they are, and when you challenge their 'arguments' you challenge their identity  eg: I loathe brussels sprouts and always have done, but I don't identify myself as a sproutophobe or feel the need to convince others that sprouts are the Devil's Buds.  I just get on with my life not eating sprouts.  If compelling research came out that despite the foul disgusting taste of sprouts, eating them brought significant benefits, I'd at least reconsider.  but antivaxxers seem to take a more religious view: vaccines are *sinful. Unclean.*  How do you deal with that?", "human_ref_B": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6633.0, "score_ratio": 1.1316872428, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxek7l", "c_root_id_B": "fxxa0ts", "created_at_utc_A": 1594647239, "created_at_utc_B": 1594644253, "score_A": 275, "score_B": 152, "human_ref_A": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "human_ref_B": "I watched the flat earth documentary on Netflix (behind the curve) and one point they made is when you ridicule and insult them, all it does is push them further into their echo chamber. I would imagine this is similar for anti-vaxxers, so how can you discuss things in a meaningful way when they don\u2019t listen to any of the science that\u2019s out there?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2986.0, "score_ratio": 1.8092105263, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx5b88", "c_root_id_B": "fxxek7l", "created_at_utc_A": 1594640555, "created_at_utc_B": 1594647239, "score_A": 108, "score_B": 275, "human_ref_A": "Has the growth of the antivax movement halted in younger generations from the data available? I saw in a Pew poll that younger generations(18-34) are a bit less vaccine hesitant than people aged 35-55", "human_ref_B": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6684.0, "score_ratio": 2.5462962963, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx54ra", "c_root_id_B": "fxxek7l", "created_at_utc_A": 1594640400, "created_at_utc_B": 1594647239, "score_A": 95, "score_B": 275, "human_ref_A": "In your experience what is the best way to steer an antivaxxer back on the right track after they have been anti-vax for years?", "human_ref_B": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6839.0, "score_ratio": 2.8947368421, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxek7l", "c_root_id_B": "fxx944r", "created_at_utc_A": 1594647239, "created_at_utc_B": 1594643606, "score_A": 275, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "human_ref_B": "Do you think the Covid-19 pandemic is causing many anti-vaxxers to reconsider?  --  Do you think an eventual Covid-19 vaccine will be received differently, as a kind of special case, by most anti-vaxxers?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3633.0, "score_ratio": 4.8245614035, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxek7l", "c_root_id_B": "fxx6k2s", "created_at_utc_A": 1594647239, "created_at_utc_B": 1594641610, "score_A": 275, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "human_ref_B": "Do you believe there are adequate social/legal consequences for people who choose not to vaccinate their children (for example, not allowing the children to attend public school unless vaccinated) in order to minimize the risk posed to public health by people with these beliefs? If not, what more do you think we can or should do?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5629.0, "score_ratio": 9.4827586207, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx8h76", "c_root_id_B": "fxxek7l", "created_at_utc_A": 1594643136, "created_at_utc_B": 1594647239, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 275, "human_ref_A": "Can you address the National Vaccine Injury Compensation program?  A local anti-vaxxer received compensation from this and it is what he threw in my face as evidence that the government knows vaccines are dangerous.", "human_ref_B": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4103.0, "score_ratio": 10.5769230769, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxalyj", "c_root_id_B": "fxxek7l", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644662, "created_at_utc_B": 1594647239, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 275, "human_ref_A": "There are countries where vaccinations for infants are mandatory and there are severe repercussions for depriving children of them. Why do you think this isn\u2019t the global standard when the stakes are so huge?  Do you think it would be an easy shift if suddenly vaccination was made mandatory everywhere or would the backlash by anti-vaxxers be so big that the governments need more subtle policies?", "human_ref_B": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2577.0, "score_ratio": 12.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxek7l", "c_root_id_B": "fxxa0db", "created_at_utc_A": 1594647239, "created_at_utc_B": 1594644244, "score_A": 275, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for taking these questions!  Do you believe that shame/humiliation are *ever* effective mechanisms for urging people to reconsider their anti-vax beliefs?  As someone with a research interest in \"conspiracy beliefs\", particularly with regard to health behaviors and trust in scientific and medical practice, how do we most effectively engage with people who act on their beliefs in ways that are detrimental to individual and population health?   Is there a method by which we can honor parts of scientific/medical mistrust that may be valid (some rightly distrust doctors due to past mistreatment, and some distrust the government for its history of unethical medical practice on disenfranchised groups), while still working to dispel specific beliefs that lead to harmful behaviors?  To put this more succinctly and in plain language: How do you tell a child, one who has been physically/emotionally/sexually abused by their parent, that \"eat your vegetables\" and \"go to bed\" aren't just another form of abuse? How do we teach people to differentiate legitimately good advice and legitimately bad advice when it comes from the same untrustworthy source?  Thank you again for your work and for taking these questions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2995.0, "score_ratio": 13.0952380952, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa4py", "c_root_id_B": "fxxek7l", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644330, "created_at_utc_B": 1594647239, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 275, "human_ref_A": "Have you ever successfully convinced an anti-vaxer to change their mind?", "human_ref_B": "I am a middle school science teacher. I find the growing movement of anti-science and the proliferation of disinformation on social media that perpetuates it to be one of the most disturbing trends in our society. For many years I have incorporated lessons on how to research facts and differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. What advice do you have for creating a good foundation for young people to be able to think rationally in order to be able to navigate a world in which they are increasingly bombarded with disinformation? Is there a good way to do this while staying politically neutral, especially when considering that many students grow up in households with parents that actively embrace conspiracy theories and anti-science propaganda? How do you think our education system, on a larger scale, should be addressing this issue?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2909.0, "score_ratio": 17.1875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx5dbv", "c_root_id_B": "fxx5b88", "created_at_utc_A": 1594640606, "created_at_utc_B": 1594640555, "score_A": 243, "score_B": 108, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for your work.  It feels like the antivaxxers have made being anti-vaxx a core part of who they are, and when you challenge their 'arguments' you challenge their identity  eg: I loathe brussels sprouts and always have done, but I don't identify myself as a sproutophobe or feel the need to convince others that sprouts are the Devil's Buds.  I just get on with my life not eating sprouts.  If compelling research came out that despite the foul disgusting taste of sprouts, eating them brought significant benefits, I'd at least reconsider.  but antivaxxers seem to take a more religious view: vaccines are *sinful. Unclean.*  How do you deal with that?", "human_ref_B": "Has the growth of the antivax movement halted in younger generations from the data available? I saw in a Pew poll that younger generations(18-34) are a bit less vaccine hesitant than people aged 35-55", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 51.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx5dbv", "c_root_id_B": "fxx54ra", "created_at_utc_A": 1594640606, "created_at_utc_B": 1594640400, "score_A": 243, "score_B": 95, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for your work.  It feels like the antivaxxers have made being anti-vaxx a core part of who they are, and when you challenge their 'arguments' you challenge their identity  eg: I loathe brussels sprouts and always have done, but I don't identify myself as a sproutophobe or feel the need to convince others that sprouts are the Devil's Buds.  I just get on with my life not eating sprouts.  If compelling research came out that despite the foul disgusting taste of sprouts, eating them brought significant benefits, I'd at least reconsider.  but antivaxxers seem to take a more religious view: vaccines are *sinful. Unclean.*  How do you deal with that?", "human_ref_B": "In your experience what is the best way to steer an antivaxxer back on the right track after they have been anti-vax for years?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 206.0, "score_ratio": 2.5578947368, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa0ts", "c_root_id_B": "fxx5b88", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644253, "created_at_utc_B": 1594640555, "score_A": 152, "score_B": 108, "human_ref_A": "I watched the flat earth documentary on Netflix (behind the curve) and one point they made is when you ridicule and insult them, all it does is push them further into their echo chamber. I would imagine this is similar for anti-vaxxers, so how can you discuss things in a meaningful way when they don\u2019t listen to any of the science that\u2019s out there?", "human_ref_B": "Has the growth of the antivax movement halted in younger generations from the data available? I saw in a Pew poll that younger generations(18-34) are a bit less vaccine hesitant than people aged 35-55", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3698.0, "score_ratio": 1.4074074074, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa0ts", "c_root_id_B": "fxx54ra", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644253, "created_at_utc_B": 1594640400, "score_A": 152, "score_B": 95, "human_ref_A": "I watched the flat earth documentary on Netflix (behind the curve) and one point they made is when you ridicule and insult them, all it does is push them further into their echo chamber. I would imagine this is similar for anti-vaxxers, so how can you discuss things in a meaningful way when they don\u2019t listen to any of the science that\u2019s out there?", "human_ref_B": "In your experience what is the best way to steer an antivaxxer back on the right track after they have been anti-vax for years?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3853.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa0ts", "c_root_id_B": "fxx944r", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644253, "created_at_utc_B": 1594643606, "score_A": 152, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "I watched the flat earth documentary on Netflix (behind the curve) and one point they made is when you ridicule and insult them, all it does is push them further into their echo chamber. I would imagine this is similar for anti-vaxxers, so how can you discuss things in a meaningful way when they don\u2019t listen to any of the science that\u2019s out there?", "human_ref_B": "Do you think the Covid-19 pandemic is causing many anti-vaxxers to reconsider?  --  Do you think an eventual Covid-19 vaccine will be received differently, as a kind of special case, by most anti-vaxxers?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 647.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx6k2s", "c_root_id_B": "fxxa0ts", "created_at_utc_A": 1594641610, "created_at_utc_B": 1594644253, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 152, "human_ref_A": "Do you believe there are adequate social/legal consequences for people who choose not to vaccinate their children (for example, not allowing the children to attend public school unless vaccinated) in order to minimize the risk posed to public health by people with these beliefs? If not, what more do you think we can or should do?", "human_ref_B": "I watched the flat earth documentary on Netflix (behind the curve) and one point they made is when you ridicule and insult them, all it does is push them further into their echo chamber. I would imagine this is similar for anti-vaxxers, so how can you discuss things in a meaningful way when they don\u2019t listen to any of the science that\u2019s out there?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2643.0, "score_ratio": 5.2413793103, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa0ts", "c_root_id_B": "fxx8h76", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644253, "created_at_utc_B": 1594643136, "score_A": 152, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "I watched the flat earth documentary on Netflix (behind the curve) and one point they made is when you ridicule and insult them, all it does is push them further into their echo chamber. I would imagine this is similar for anti-vaxxers, so how can you discuss things in a meaningful way when they don\u2019t listen to any of the science that\u2019s out there?", "human_ref_B": "Can you address the National Vaccine Injury Compensation program?  A local anti-vaxxer received compensation from this and it is what he threw in my face as evidence that the government knows vaccines are dangerous.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1117.0, "score_ratio": 5.8461538462, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa0db", "c_root_id_B": "fxxa0ts", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644244, "created_at_utc_B": 1594644253, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 152, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for taking these questions!  Do you believe that shame/humiliation are *ever* effective mechanisms for urging people to reconsider their anti-vax beliefs?  As someone with a research interest in \"conspiracy beliefs\", particularly with regard to health behaviors and trust in scientific and medical practice, how do we most effectively engage with people who act on their beliefs in ways that are detrimental to individual and population health?   Is there a method by which we can honor parts of scientific/medical mistrust that may be valid (some rightly distrust doctors due to past mistreatment, and some distrust the government for its history of unethical medical practice on disenfranchised groups), while still working to dispel specific beliefs that lead to harmful behaviors?  To put this more succinctly and in plain language: How do you tell a child, one who has been physically/emotionally/sexually abused by their parent, that \"eat your vegetables\" and \"go to bed\" aren't just another form of abuse? How do we teach people to differentiate legitimately good advice and legitimately bad advice when it comes from the same untrustworthy source?  Thank you again for your work and for taking these questions.", "human_ref_B": "I watched the flat earth documentary on Netflix (behind the curve) and one point they made is when you ridicule and insult them, all it does is push them further into their echo chamber. I would imagine this is similar for anti-vaxxers, so how can you discuss things in a meaningful way when they don\u2019t listen to any of the science that\u2019s out there?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9.0, "score_ratio": 7.2380952381, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx54ra", "c_root_id_B": "fxx5b88", "created_at_utc_A": 1594640400, "created_at_utc_B": 1594640555, "score_A": 95, "score_B": 108, "human_ref_A": "In your experience what is the best way to steer an antivaxxer back on the right track after they have been anti-vax for years?", "human_ref_B": "Has the growth of the antivax movement halted in younger generations from the data available? I saw in a Pew poll that younger generations(18-34) are a bit less vaccine hesitant than people aged 35-55", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 155.0, "score_ratio": 1.1368421053, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx944r", "c_root_id_B": "fxx6k2s", "created_at_utc_A": 1594643606, "created_at_utc_B": 1594641610, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Do you think the Covid-19 pandemic is causing many anti-vaxxers to reconsider?  --  Do you think an eventual Covid-19 vaccine will be received differently, as a kind of special case, by most anti-vaxxers?", "human_ref_B": "Do you believe there are adequate social/legal consequences for people who choose not to vaccinate their children (for example, not allowing the children to attend public school unless vaccinated) in order to minimize the risk posed to public health by people with these beliefs? If not, what more do you think we can or should do?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1996.0, "score_ratio": 1.9655172414, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx944r", "c_root_id_B": "fxx8h76", "created_at_utc_A": 1594643606, "created_at_utc_B": 1594643136, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Do you think the Covid-19 pandemic is causing many anti-vaxxers to reconsider?  --  Do you think an eventual Covid-19 vaccine will be received differently, as a kind of special case, by most anti-vaxxers?", "human_ref_B": "Can you address the National Vaccine Injury Compensation program?  A local anti-vaxxer received compensation from this and it is what he threw in my face as evidence that the government knows vaccines are dangerous.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 470.0, "score_ratio": 2.1923076923, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxfpn7", "c_root_id_B": "fxx6k2s", "created_at_utc_A": 1594647945, "created_at_utc_B": 1594641610, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Is there a difference between how you would advise engaging anti-vaxxers on social media and how you would advise engaging them face-to-face?  That is, are there different approaches or different tactics that are more likely to work, based on the format where you \u201cmeet\u201d the person?  [edit: fixed a typo.]", "human_ref_B": "Do you believe there are adequate social/legal consequences for people who choose not to vaccinate their children (for example, not allowing the children to attend public school unless vaccinated) in order to minimize the risk posed to public health by people with these beliefs? If not, what more do you think we can or should do?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6335.0, "score_ratio": 1.0344827586, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxx8h76", "c_root_id_B": "fxxfpn7", "created_at_utc_A": 1594643136, "created_at_utc_B": 1594647945, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Can you address the National Vaccine Injury Compensation program?  A local anti-vaxxer received compensation from this and it is what he threw in my face as evidence that the government knows vaccines are dangerous.", "human_ref_B": "Is there a difference between how you would advise engaging anti-vaxxers on social media and how you would advise engaging them face-to-face?  That is, are there different approaches or different tactics that are more likely to work, based on the format where you \u201cmeet\u201d the person?  [edit: fixed a typo.]", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4809.0, "score_ratio": 1.1538461538, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxfpn7", "c_root_id_B": "fxxalyj", "created_at_utc_A": 1594647945, "created_at_utc_B": 1594644662, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Is there a difference between how you would advise engaging anti-vaxxers on social media and how you would advise engaging them face-to-face?  That is, are there different approaches or different tactics that are more likely to work, based on the format where you \u201cmeet\u201d the person?  [edit: fixed a typo.]", "human_ref_B": "There are countries where vaccinations for infants are mandatory and there are severe repercussions for depriving children of them. Why do you think this isn\u2019t the global standard when the stakes are so huge?  Do you think it would be an easy shift if suddenly vaccination was made mandatory everywhere or would the backlash by anti-vaxxers be so big that the governments need more subtle policies?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3283.0, "score_ratio": 1.3636363636, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxfpn7", "c_root_id_B": "fxxa0db", "created_at_utc_A": 1594647945, "created_at_utc_B": 1594644244, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "Is there a difference between how you would advise engaging anti-vaxxers on social media and how you would advise engaging them face-to-face?  That is, are there different approaches or different tactics that are more likely to work, based on the format where you \u201cmeet\u201d the person?  [edit: fixed a typo.]", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for taking these questions!  Do you believe that shame/humiliation are *ever* effective mechanisms for urging people to reconsider their anti-vax beliefs?  As someone with a research interest in \"conspiracy beliefs\", particularly with regard to health behaviors and trust in scientific and medical practice, how do we most effectively engage with people who act on their beliefs in ways that are detrimental to individual and population health?   Is there a method by which we can honor parts of scientific/medical mistrust that may be valid (some rightly distrust doctors due to past mistreatment, and some distrust the government for its history of unethical medical practice on disenfranchised groups), while still working to dispel specific beliefs that lead to harmful behaviors?  To put this more succinctly and in plain language: How do you tell a child, one who has been physically/emotionally/sexually abused by their parent, that \"eat your vegetables\" and \"go to bed\" aren't just another form of abuse? How do we teach people to differentiate legitimately good advice and legitimately bad advice when it comes from the same untrustworthy source?  Thank you again for your work and for taking these questions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3701.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa4py", "c_root_id_B": "fxxfpn7", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644330, "created_at_utc_B": 1594647945, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Have you ever successfully convinced an anti-vaxer to change their mind?", "human_ref_B": "Is there a difference between how you would advise engaging anti-vaxxers on social media and how you would advise engaging them face-to-face?  That is, are there different approaches or different tactics that are more likely to work, based on the format where you \u201cmeet\u201d the person?  [edit: fixed a typo.]", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3615.0, "score_ratio": 1.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa0db", "c_root_id_B": "fxxalyj", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644244, "created_at_utc_B": 1594644662, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for taking these questions!  Do you believe that shame/humiliation are *ever* effective mechanisms for urging people to reconsider their anti-vax beliefs?  As someone with a research interest in \"conspiracy beliefs\", particularly with regard to health behaviors and trust in scientific and medical practice, how do we most effectively engage with people who act on their beliefs in ways that are detrimental to individual and population health?   Is there a method by which we can honor parts of scientific/medical mistrust that may be valid (some rightly distrust doctors due to past mistreatment, and some distrust the government for its history of unethical medical practice on disenfranchised groups), while still working to dispel specific beliefs that lead to harmful behaviors?  To put this more succinctly and in plain language: How do you tell a child, one who has been physically/emotionally/sexually abused by their parent, that \"eat your vegetables\" and \"go to bed\" aren't just another form of abuse? How do we teach people to differentiate legitimately good advice and legitimately bad advice when it comes from the same untrustworthy source?  Thank you again for your work and for taking these questions.", "human_ref_B": "There are countries where vaccinations for infants are mandatory and there are severe repercussions for depriving children of them. Why do you think this isn\u2019t the global standard when the stakes are so huge?  Do you think it would be an easy shift if suddenly vaccination was made mandatory everywhere or would the backlash by anti-vaxxers be so big that the governments need more subtle policies?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 418.0, "score_ratio": 1.0476190476, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxalyj", "c_root_id_B": "fxxa4py", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644662, "created_at_utc_B": 1594644330, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "There are countries where vaccinations for infants are mandatory and there are severe repercussions for depriving children of them. Why do you think this isn\u2019t the global standard when the stakes are so huge?  Do you think it would be an easy shift if suddenly vaccination was made mandatory everywhere or would the backlash by anti-vaxxers be so big that the governments need more subtle policies?", "human_ref_B": "Have you ever successfully convinced an anti-vaxer to change their mind?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 332.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxrnja", "c_root_id_B": "fxy3uc6", "created_at_utc_A": 1594654474, "created_at_utc_B": 1594660465, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "The AMA will be answered intermittently by our guest. Please do not answer any questions until the AMA has concluded. Please remember, r/AskScience has strict comment rules enforced by the moderators. Keep questions and interactions professional and remember, asking for medical advice is not allowed. If you have any questions on the rules you can read them here.", "human_ref_B": "Taking a break to get lunch, and get some work done. I'll trying to answer some more questions I didn't get to this morning in a bit.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5991.0, "score_ratio": 19.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hqd9gr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I am Jonathan Berman, author of the forthcoming \"Antivaxxers: How To Challenge A Misinformed Movement\" from MIT press, former co-chair of the March for Science, and a renal physiologist, AMA! My name is Jonathan Berman and my book Antivaxxers: How to Challenge a Misinformed Movement is due out on September 8th. It is about the anti-vaccine movement and its historical antecedents, as well as what makes anti-vaxxers tick.  I hosted the unveiling of the world's largest periodic table of the elements. I've worked as a rickshaw driver, wing cook, and assistant professor. At various points I've been a stand up comic, carpet remover, and radio host, but mostly a scientist.  Verification on twitter. Ask me anything!  Out guest will be joining us at 12 ET (16 UT). Username: bermanAMA2020", "c_root_id_A": "fxxa4py", "c_root_id_B": "fxy3uc6", "created_at_utc_A": 1594644330, "created_at_utc_B": 1594660465, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Have you ever successfully convinced an anti-vaxer to change their mind?", "human_ref_B": "Taking a break to get lunch, and get some work done. I'll trying to answer some more questions I didn't get to this morning in a bit.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16135.0, "score_ratio": 1.1875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vmp5ol", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why does a woman\u2019s risk of having a baby with Down Syndrome increase with her age, when women are born with all the eggs they will ever ovulate? I just don\u2019t understand why the risk of \u201cproducing\u201d an egg - or ovulating an egg - with an extra copy of chromosome 21 increases with age, when the woman has all her fully formed eggs in her ovaries at birth?   Or do the ovaries for some reason start to ovulate more eggs with the extra chromosome 21 as a woman ages?", "c_root_id_A": "ie2m80w", "c_root_id_B": "ie2rcxj", "created_at_utc_A": 1656433712, "created_at_utc_B": 1656435689, "score_A": 245, "score_B": 355, "human_ref_A": "At 40 years old, those single cells are 40 years old and have been there ever since. No matter how dormant, those cells have been alive and metabolising while they wait their turn. Living things age.  For a bad analogy: standing still doesn't mean time doesn't pass. Like storing a car on a garage, after 20 years you try to take it off and the rubbers and stuff have gone bad, the fluids are messed up...  We should rather be very surprised at how well it keeps up. 40 years for a cell? Damn!", "human_ref_B": "Eggs and sperm are produced by the process of meiosis, which has 8 phases. The first 4 phases (meiosis 1) split the chromosomes apart and result in two cells. The next 4 phases (meiosis 2) split the sister chromatids apart and then the two cells split to make 4. Only one of the 4 becomes the ovum, and it takes more of the cytoplasm and organelles than the other 3, which are called polar bodies and are much smaller.   The oocytes that people are born with are essentially stuck in the first phase of meiosis 1. Just before one is ovulated, it completes meiosis 1. It doesn't finish meiosis 2 until just after it meets a spermatozoa.  In either meiosis 1 or meiosis 2, nondisjunction can occur. This is when a pair of chromosomes or chromatids stick together, so both are pulled to one side of the cell and none go to the other side. This results in one of the cells having an extra chromosome and the other having one fewer. Depending on which chromosome it is, the pregnancy may or may not be viable; Down's syndrome results from an extra chromosome #21.  So, even though the oocyte progenitor cells are all present during fetal development, they don't finish dividing to make the ovum until ovulation and fertilization.  Hope this helps and gives you terms to look up even if it's a little complicated \ud83d\ude0a", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1977.0, "score_ratio": 1.4489795918, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vmp5ol", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why does a woman\u2019s risk of having a baby with Down Syndrome increase with her age, when women are born with all the eggs they will ever ovulate? I just don\u2019t understand why the risk of \u201cproducing\u201d an egg - or ovulating an egg - with an extra copy of chromosome 21 increases with age, when the woman has all her fully formed eggs in her ovaries at birth?   Or do the ovaries for some reason start to ovulate more eggs with the extra chromosome 21 as a woman ages?", "c_root_id_A": "ie320vl", "c_root_id_B": "ie333s5", "created_at_utc_A": 1656439889, "created_at_utc_B": 1656440327, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 86, "human_ref_A": "Eggs are not fully formed at birth. They are \"frozen\" at the stage before their first division. When ovulating, an egg wakes up and begins the division process before being released, which is where the opportunity for errors arises. You can look up oogenesis in humans for more info.", "human_ref_B": "FWIW paternal age is a risk factor for Down Syndrome too. Similar processes to those explained (excellently) elsewhere in the thread.  Link is to an Atlantic article which links to a lot of the relevant science on this belated realisation and a good discussion of the difficulties in measuring these sorts of risks accurately.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 438.0, "score_ratio": 3.3076923077, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vmp5ol", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why does a woman\u2019s risk of having a baby with Down Syndrome increase with her age, when women are born with all the eggs they will ever ovulate? I just don\u2019t understand why the risk of \u201cproducing\u201d an egg - or ovulating an egg - with an extra copy of chromosome 21 increases with age, when the woman has all her fully formed eggs in her ovaries at birth?   Or do the ovaries for some reason start to ovulate more eggs with the extra chromosome 21 as a woman ages?", "c_root_id_A": "ie3eon2", "c_root_id_B": "ie320vl", "created_at_utc_A": 1656444958, "created_at_utc_B": 1656439889, "score_A": 61, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Med student here. It's sort of simple and sort of complicated. You see oocytes (or eggs) are frozen in something called \"metaphase II\" which is to say that they are stuck at the point right before the matching pairs of chromosomes are ripped apart. Women tend to contribute issues of \"non-disjunction\" in pregnancy for this reason. If the two matching chromosomes don't come apart correctly one of their mature eggs will have an extra chromosome (and one will be short an entire chromosome). This is how you get trisomy 21 (well it's one of a few ways) or down syndrome. The 21st chromosome is really small and doesn't come apart properly. One of the eggs gets two copies.   Paternal advanced age issues are more related to repeating segments of non-coding DNA which is thought to contribute to autism.   It's important to remember that the rate of trisomy 21 in advanced age pregnancy is still very low.", "human_ref_B": "Eggs are not fully formed at birth. They are \"frozen\" at the stage before their first division. When ovulating, an egg wakes up and begins the division process before being released, which is where the opportunity for errors arises. You can look up oogenesis in humans for more info.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5069.0, "score_ratio": 2.3461538462, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hdao65", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Is it possible to create a contagious Vaccine? I know a lot of half of the information. When learning about the multiple vaccines being developed, I believe one was having portions of the virus (but not the whole code) implanted in another virus to stimulate an immune response.   Along with that I believe I heard that weapons manufactures want to splice different diseases with whooping cough to create airborne version of the diseases.   Is there a safe way to do this with Vaccines? And if its something that could possibly happen down the line do you think the anti vaxxers would start wearing mask then?", "c_root_id_A": "fvkdih3", "c_root_id_B": "fvk8wnw", "created_at_utc_A": 1592767994, "created_at_utc_B": 1592765518, "score_A": 176, "score_B": 157, "human_ref_A": "Many current vaccines are live attenuated strains.  These are so weak they rarely ever spread, but the old polio vaccine was one that did spread and sometimes caused harm.  The biggest risk is if we accidentally give the vaccine to someone who is immunocompromised - they should not be given this type of vaccine.  >\"Live\u201d vaccines contain active viruses which have been selectively bred to be profoundly weak. This is referred to as an \u201cattenuated\u201d virus strain. These attenuated viruses are too weak to cause serious illness, but still offer our immune systems a chance to create protective antibodies. The following is a list of live vaccines recommended for routine use in the United States:  MMR (measles, mumps and rubella)  Rotavirus  Varicella (chicken pox)  Influenza (only the intranasal \u201cflumist\u201d; injectable flu vaccines are not live viruses)  Herpes Simplex Zoster (shingles \u2013 not a childhood vaccine)   https://ndsforvaccines.com/shedding-doubt-are-live-vaccines-contagious/", "human_ref_B": "That would just be a virus. Technically it might be possible, but you'd have to create a virus that:   -Doesn't have any symptoms or has mild symptoms  -Looks similar to a harmful virus to our immune systems  -Spreads incredibly easily  -Is stable enough that it can't mutate into a harmful disease, or mutate into a form that no longer works as a vaccine as it looks too different  -Is virulent enough that it can effectively infiltrate our bodies and then spread to others before the body eliminates it.  It would incredibly difficult to do, cost a lot of money to do, and doesn't really provide a real benefit over traditional vaccines or, and especially no financial incentive for a company to develop it.  Edit: There are infectious vaccines in existence right now, such as one of the polio vaccines and cowpox, if you count it as a vaccine. Cowpox is its own disease that caused skin legions and fever, but was noticeably less severe than smallpox, which it is incredibly similar to. So in 1796 Edward Jenner intentionally infected people with cowpox, waited for then to recover, then infected them with smallpox. The individuals exposed to cowpox would not become infected with smallpox, so Jenner called it a \"vaccination\" using the prefix \"Vaca\", or cow in Latin. Technically though cowpox was its own disease, and still had numerous symptoms that weren't fun to have, just better than smallpox.  In addition, if you have an infectious vaccine that's just a weakened virus, it could infect an immunocompromised individual and actually infect them with the full range of symptoms as the regular virus.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2476.0, "score_ratio": 1.1210191083, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hdao65", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Is it possible to create a contagious Vaccine? I know a lot of half of the information. When learning about the multiple vaccines being developed, I believe one was having portions of the virus (but not the whole code) implanted in another virus to stimulate an immune response.   Along with that I believe I heard that weapons manufactures want to splice different diseases with whooping cough to create airborne version of the diseases.   Is there a safe way to do this with Vaccines? And if its something that could possibly happen down the line do you think the anti vaxxers would start wearing mask then?", "c_root_id_A": "fvkblwv", "c_root_id_B": "fvkdih3", "created_at_utc_A": 1592766973, "created_at_utc_B": 1592767994, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 176, "human_ref_A": "Live virus vaccines can be contagious. Polio is one of these as were the original smallpox vaccines. We engineer or select a very mild version of the disease that gives immunity, and is sometimes contagious. This actually improves the population immunity but can be a problem if a lot of the population isn\u2019t immune already as it can cycle back to its old virulent form.   Wild poliovirus is rare now and in some regions, vaccine poliovirus causes polio cases after it passes human to human many, many times. But when used properly, it\u2019s not a risk. The problem is when it only gets to a small percent of a not immune population, giving it the space to do this.  Other vaccine types are not contagious by design because they aren\u2019t functioning replicating virus.", "human_ref_B": "Many current vaccines are live attenuated strains.  These are so weak they rarely ever spread, but the old polio vaccine was one that did spread and sometimes caused harm.  The biggest risk is if we accidentally give the vaccine to someone who is immunocompromised - they should not be given this type of vaccine.  >\"Live\u201d vaccines contain active viruses which have been selectively bred to be profoundly weak. This is referred to as an \u201cattenuated\u201d virus strain. These attenuated viruses are too weak to cause serious illness, but still offer our immune systems a chance to create protective antibodies. The following is a list of live vaccines recommended for routine use in the United States:  MMR (measles, mumps and rubella)  Rotavirus  Varicella (chicken pox)  Influenza (only the intranasal \u201cflumist\u201d; injectable flu vaccines are not live viruses)  Herpes Simplex Zoster (shingles \u2013 not a childhood vaccine)   https://ndsforvaccines.com/shedding-doubt-are-live-vaccines-contagious/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1021.0, "score_ratio": 7.652173913, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hdao65", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Is it possible to create a contagious Vaccine? I know a lot of half of the information. When learning about the multiple vaccines being developed, I believe one was having portions of the virus (but not the whole code) implanted in another virus to stimulate an immune response.   Along with that I believe I heard that weapons manufactures want to splice different diseases with whooping cough to create airborne version of the diseases.   Is there a safe way to do this with Vaccines? And if its something that could possibly happen down the line do you think the anti vaxxers would start wearing mask then?", "c_root_id_A": "fvle98t", "c_root_id_B": "fvkblwv", "created_at_utc_A": 1592789419, "created_at_utc_B": 1592766973, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "In my kidney transplant education, they made it abundantly clear that I wouldn't be able to take  (at least certain) live vaccines and being around people who had recently taken a live vaccine could be dangerous as well.  (This is a result of being immunosuppressed.)  Then they let me know I could no longer walk barefoot in grass or touch lizards or birds.", "human_ref_B": "Live virus vaccines can be contagious. Polio is one of these as were the original smallpox vaccines. We engineer or select a very mild version of the disease that gives immunity, and is sometimes contagious. This actually improves the population immunity but can be a problem if a lot of the population isn\u2019t immune already as it can cycle back to its old virulent form.   Wild poliovirus is rare now and in some regions, vaccine poliovirus causes polio cases after it passes human to human many, many times. But when used properly, it\u2019s not a risk. The problem is when it only gets to a small percent of a not immune population, giving it the space to do this.  Other vaccine types are not contagious by design because they aren\u2019t functioning replicating virus.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22446.0, "score_ratio": 1.347826087, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3j81fq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Came across this \"fact\" while browsing the net. I call bullshit. Can science confirm? If you have 23 people in a room, there is a 50% chance that 2 of them have the same birthday.", "c_root_id_A": "cun6zxd", "c_root_id_B": "cun2c2a", "created_at_utc_A": 1441128026, "created_at_utc_B": 1441120974, "score_A": 71, "score_B": 54, "human_ref_A": "**This will take some participation** - but if anyone wants to put it to the test I have set up a survey monkey asking for your birthday. I will simply collect the data into \"rooms\" of 23 submissions and test the results.   https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/N6XSBBD  Clarification  *Year is not taken into equation*   **UPDATE - I made an error in my tables which caused the data to be flawed - please see new results*  * Room 1 - No Matches  * Room 2 - 2 Matches (1/21 & 11/21) * Room 3 - 2 Matches (8/20 & 1/01) * Room 4 - No Matches  * Room 5 - 2 Matches (11/11 & 10/31)  * Room 6 - 1 Match (11/23) * Room 7 - 2 Matches (2/25 & 8/25) * Room 8 - No Matches  * Room 9 - 1 Match (5/15) * Room 10 - 2 Matches (6/30 & 3/31) * Room 11 - No Matches  * Room 12 - No Matches  * Room 13 - No matches  * Room 14 - 1 Match (8/27)  *These results are inline with the statement and actually demonstrate a higher than 50% chance*", "human_ref_B": "The other explanations already posted do a good job of the maths involved, but if you're still struggling with the intuition I remember it seems like a less \"weird\" result if you imagine each person entering the room in turn, and picking a birthday at random - for there to be no shared birthdays, each person needs to have a birthday that's distinct from all the others that have already been picked.  Odds of success are 1/1 for the first guy (empty calendar, free pick of the dates), then 364/365 for the second, 363/365 for the third, and so on down. Then for the odds of *all of them* being distinct you need to multiply those fractions along as you go, for each and every person to have to come up with a distinct birthday one after the other.  Even though the odds are reasonably good for each one individually, you get an effect similar to compound interest where the small chance of a match multiplies up with each successive person.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7052.0, "score_ratio": 1.3148148148, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3j81fq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Came across this \"fact\" while browsing the net. I call bullshit. Can science confirm? If you have 23 people in a room, there is a 50% chance that 2 of them have the same birthday.", "c_root_id_A": "cun6zxd", "c_root_id_B": "cun2gev", "created_at_utc_A": 1441128026, "created_at_utc_B": 1441121162, "score_A": 71, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "**This will take some participation** - but if anyone wants to put it to the test I have set up a survey monkey asking for your birthday. I will simply collect the data into \"rooms\" of 23 submissions and test the results.   https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/N6XSBBD  Clarification  *Year is not taken into equation*   **UPDATE - I made an error in my tables which caused the data to be flawed - please see new results*  * Room 1 - No Matches  * Room 2 - 2 Matches (1/21 & 11/21) * Room 3 - 2 Matches (8/20 & 1/01) * Room 4 - No Matches  * Room 5 - 2 Matches (11/11 & 10/31)  * Room 6 - 1 Match (11/23) * Room 7 - 2 Matches (2/25 & 8/25) * Room 8 - No Matches  * Room 9 - 1 Match (5/15) * Room 10 - 2 Matches (6/30 & 3/31) * Room 11 - No Matches  * Room 12 - No Matches  * Room 13 - No matches  * Room 14 - 1 Match (8/27)  *These results are inline with the statement and actually demonstrate a higher than 50% chance*", "human_ref_B": "I literally copy-pasted your question into google and the first result was this wikipedia page with the mathematical proof: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthday_problem", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6864.0, "score_ratio": 1.9722222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql6ey", "c_root_id_B": "ilqpxhh", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438054, "created_at_utc_B": 1661439915, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Should the role of human's in wildfires be more passive or more like ecological engineers? (shaping the land to prevent or decrease likelihood)", "human_ref_B": "I've two questions, but first: Hello! Thanks for being here. The work you do seems awfully interesting and depressingly critical...  1 - How generalizable are the data? For example, I am interested in the uncommon soil statistical models, but seeing how the research was done in America, Colorado, I feel like the model wouldn't be applicable in other fire-torn areas (perhaps around the world). While it might not be easy to generalize, I believe it still gives important insight to the research that could be done in other countries. What would you say are the venues these types of predictions could be used?  2 - I actually forgot my second question I hope I can get back to that before you reply...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1861.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqj01m", "c_root_id_B": "ilqpxhh", "created_at_utc_A": 1661437190, "created_at_utc_B": 1661439915, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Does the reduction or elimination of roaming cattle in favour of industrial farming increase the risk of wildfires? Are soils more vulnerable with less animals grazing around? Would promoting this practice increase resilience of natural habitats against fire?", "human_ref_B": "I've two questions, but first: Hello! Thanks for being here. The work you do seems awfully interesting and depressingly critical...  1 - How generalizable are the data? For example, I am interested in the uncommon soil statistical models, but seeing how the research was done in America, Colorado, I feel like the model wouldn't be applicable in other fire-torn areas (perhaps around the world). While it might not be easy to generalize, I believe it still gives important insight to the research that could be done in other countries. What would you say are the venues these types of predictions could be used?  2 - I actually forgot my second question I hope I can get back to that before you reply...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2725.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqpxhh", "c_root_id_B": "ilql3p1", "created_at_utc_A": 1661439915, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438023, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've two questions, but first: Hello! Thanks for being here. The work you do seems awfully interesting and depressingly critical...  1 - How generalizable are the data? For example, I am interested in the uncommon soil statistical models, but seeing how the research was done in America, Colorado, I feel like the model wouldn't be applicable in other fire-torn areas (perhaps around the world). While it might not be easy to generalize, I believe it still gives important insight to the research that could be done in other countries. What would you say are the venues these types of predictions could be used?  2 - I actually forgot my second question I hope I can get back to that before you reply...", "human_ref_B": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1892.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqpxhh", "c_root_id_B": "ilqm4ro", "created_at_utc_A": 1661439915, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438433, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've two questions, but first: Hello! Thanks for being here. The work you do seems awfully interesting and depressingly critical...  1 - How generalizable are the data? For example, I am interested in the uncommon soil statistical models, but seeing how the research was done in America, Colorado, I feel like the model wouldn't be applicable in other fire-torn areas (perhaps around the world). While it might not be easy to generalize, I believe it still gives important insight to the research that could be done in other countries. What would you say are the venues these types of predictions could be used?  2 - I actually forgot my second question I hope I can get back to that before you reply...", "human_ref_B": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1482.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql6ey", "c_root_id_B": "ilqqjrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438054, "created_at_utc_B": 1661440156, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Should the role of human's in wildfires be more passive or more like ecological engineers? (shaping the land to prevent or decrease likelihood)", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m in the middle of my PhD program studying the gut microbiome. My partner works in forest conservation. We often discuss the ecological parallels between our fields.   One concept in forest ecology that\u2019s interested me is the hypothesis that periodic but minor disturbances can actually promote biodiversity (eg, pyrodiversity). This made me wonder if similar phenomena exist regarding the gut microbiome (eg, via fasting, diets, or probiotics).   Given that an array of inflammatory gut diseases are becoming increasingly common worldwide as are the severity of wildfires, and the connections between microbes, soil/gut health and wildfires/inflammation, what insights gained from your research could (possibly) be translated to gut microbiome research, or vice versa?   Thanks!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2102.0, "score_ratio": 1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqqjrl", "c_root_id_B": "ilqj01m", "created_at_utc_A": 1661440156, "created_at_utc_B": 1661437190, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m in the middle of my PhD program studying the gut microbiome. My partner works in forest conservation. We often discuss the ecological parallels between our fields.   One concept in forest ecology that\u2019s interested me is the hypothesis that periodic but minor disturbances can actually promote biodiversity (eg, pyrodiversity). This made me wonder if similar phenomena exist regarding the gut microbiome (eg, via fasting, diets, or probiotics).   Given that an array of inflammatory gut diseases are becoming increasingly common worldwide as are the severity of wildfires, and the connections between microbes, soil/gut health and wildfires/inflammation, what insights gained from your research could (possibly) be translated to gut microbiome research, or vice versa?   Thanks!", "human_ref_B": "Does the reduction or elimination of roaming cattle in favour of industrial farming increase the risk of wildfires? Are soils more vulnerable with less animals grazing around? Would promoting this practice increase resilience of natural habitats against fire?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2966.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqqjrl", "c_root_id_B": "ilqq82t", "created_at_utc_A": 1661440156, "created_at_utc_B": 1661440029, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m in the middle of my PhD program studying the gut microbiome. My partner works in forest conservation. We often discuss the ecological parallels between our fields.   One concept in forest ecology that\u2019s interested me is the hypothesis that periodic but minor disturbances can actually promote biodiversity (eg, pyrodiversity). This made me wonder if similar phenomena exist regarding the gut microbiome (eg, via fasting, diets, or probiotics).   Given that an array of inflammatory gut diseases are becoming increasingly common worldwide as are the severity of wildfires, and the connections between microbes, soil/gut health and wildfires/inflammation, what insights gained from your research could (possibly) be translated to gut microbiome research, or vice versa?   Thanks!", "human_ref_B": "How does wildland fire differ in different ecosystems, for example forests versus grasslands versus wetlands? Are there different impacts on their soils?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 127.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql3p1", "c_root_id_B": "ilqqjrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438023, "created_at_utc_B": 1661440156, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m in the middle of my PhD program studying the gut microbiome. My partner works in forest conservation. We often discuss the ecological parallels between our fields.   One concept in forest ecology that\u2019s interested me is the hypothesis that periodic but minor disturbances can actually promote biodiversity (eg, pyrodiversity). This made me wonder if similar phenomena exist regarding the gut microbiome (eg, via fasting, diets, or probiotics).   Given that an array of inflammatory gut diseases are becoming increasingly common worldwide as are the severity of wildfires, and the connections between microbes, soil/gut health and wildfires/inflammation, what insights gained from your research could (possibly) be translated to gut microbiome research, or vice versa?   Thanks!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2133.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqqjrl", "c_root_id_B": "ilqm4ro", "created_at_utc_A": 1661440156, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438433, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m in the middle of my PhD program studying the gut microbiome. My partner works in forest conservation. We often discuss the ecological parallels between our fields.   One concept in forest ecology that\u2019s interested me is the hypothesis that periodic but minor disturbances can actually promote biodiversity (eg, pyrodiversity). This made me wonder if similar phenomena exist regarding the gut microbiome (eg, via fasting, diets, or probiotics).   Given that an array of inflammatory gut diseases are becoming increasingly common worldwide as are the severity of wildfires, and the connections between microbes, soil/gut health and wildfires/inflammation, what insights gained from your research could (possibly) be translated to gut microbiome research, or vice versa?   Thanks!", "human_ref_B": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1723.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqj01m", "c_root_id_B": "ilqu8ua", "created_at_utc_A": 1661437190, "created_at_utc_B": 1661441584, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Does the reduction or elimination of roaming cattle in favour of industrial farming increase the risk of wildfires? Are soils more vulnerable with less animals grazing around? Would promoting this practice increase resilience of natural habitats against fire?", "human_ref_B": "Hey all. I am a wildland firefighter in southern California, so I see fires of different scales pretty frequently. My question is how does fire intensity change it's impact on the ecosystem? I've seen tiny fires that burn hot enough to vitrify sand, and sections of large fires that are barely scorched. Will different rates of burn and fuel consumption change the effect it has, or is it more or less the same across the board? Thanks", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4394.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqq82t", "c_root_id_B": "ilqu8ua", "created_at_utc_A": 1661440029, "created_at_utc_B": 1661441584, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "How does wildland fire differ in different ecosystems, for example forests versus grasslands versus wetlands? Are there different impacts on their soils?", "human_ref_B": "Hey all. I am a wildland firefighter in southern California, so I see fires of different scales pretty frequently. My question is how does fire intensity change it's impact on the ecosystem? I've seen tiny fires that burn hot enough to vitrify sand, and sections of large fires that are barely scorched. Will different rates of burn and fuel consumption change the effect it has, or is it more or less the same across the board? Thanks", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1555.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql3p1", "c_root_id_B": "ilqu8ua", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438023, "created_at_utc_B": 1661441584, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "human_ref_B": "Hey all. I am a wildland firefighter in southern California, so I see fires of different scales pretty frequently. My question is how does fire intensity change it's impact on the ecosystem? I've seen tiny fires that burn hot enough to vitrify sand, and sections of large fires that are barely scorched. Will different rates of burn and fuel consumption change the effect it has, or is it more or less the same across the board? Thanks", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3561.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqu8ua", "c_root_id_B": "ilqm4ro", "created_at_utc_A": 1661441584, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438433, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hey all. I am a wildland firefighter in southern California, so I see fires of different scales pretty frequently. My question is how does fire intensity change it's impact on the ecosystem? I've seen tiny fires that burn hot enough to vitrify sand, and sections of large fires that are barely scorched. Will different rates of burn and fuel consumption change the effect it has, or is it more or less the same across the board? Thanks", "human_ref_B": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3151.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql6ey", "c_root_id_B": "ilqj01m", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438054, "created_at_utc_B": 1661437190, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Should the role of human's in wildfires be more passive or more like ecological engineers? (shaping the land to prevent or decrease likelihood)", "human_ref_B": "Does the reduction or elimination of roaming cattle in favour of industrial farming increase the risk of wildfires? Are soils more vulnerable with less animals grazing around? Would promoting this practice increase resilience of natural habitats against fire?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 864.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql3p1", "c_root_id_B": "ilql6ey", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438023, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438054, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "human_ref_B": "Should the role of human's in wildfires be more passive or more like ecological engineers? (shaping the land to prevent or decrease likelihood)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilr80oz", "c_root_id_B": "ilqj01m", "created_at_utc_A": 1661446723, "created_at_utc_B": 1661437190, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "What is your favourite method of making coffee?", "human_ref_B": "Does the reduction or elimination of roaming cattle in favour of industrial farming increase the risk of wildfires? Are soils more vulnerable with less animals grazing around? Would promoting this practice increase resilience of natural habitats against fire?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9533.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilquqof", "c_root_id_B": "ilr80oz", "created_at_utc_A": 1661441775, "created_at_utc_B": 1661446723, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The Pacific Northwest US has been hit really hard by wildfires in recent years. Can you describe broadly the potential changes in the landscape these might result in over time? Can the PNW expect fewer fires as time goes on due to things simply burning off, or should they prepare for this to be the new normal? I'm just interested in what the future landscape might look like in contrast to this lush/green damp place filled with trees, mushrooms and plants we currently think of it as. Anything notable about the PNW fires you'd like to mention?  Edit: less to fewer", "human_ref_B": "What is your favourite method of making coffee?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4948.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilquumy", "c_root_id_B": "ilr80oz", "created_at_utc_A": 1661441818, "created_at_utc_B": 1661446723, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "How are peat soils impacted by fire? What happens if areas with peat become drier?", "human_ref_B": "What is your favourite method of making coffee?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4905.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql3p1", "c_root_id_B": "ilr80oz", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438023, "created_at_utc_B": 1661446723, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "human_ref_B": "What is your favourite method of making coffee?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8700.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilr80oz", "c_root_id_B": "ilqm4ro", "created_at_utc_A": 1661446723, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438433, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What is your favourite method of making coffee?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8290.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqq82t", "c_root_id_B": "ilqj01m", "created_at_utc_A": 1661440029, "created_at_utc_B": 1661437190, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "How does wildland fire differ in different ecosystems, for example forests versus grasslands versus wetlands? Are there different impacts on their soils?", "human_ref_B": "Does the reduction or elimination of roaming cattle in favour of industrial farming increase the risk of wildfires? Are soils more vulnerable with less animals grazing around? Would promoting this practice increase resilience of natural habitats against fire?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2839.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqq82t", "c_root_id_B": "ilql3p1", "created_at_utc_A": 1661440029, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438023, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How does wildland fire differ in different ecosystems, for example forests versus grasslands versus wetlands? Are there different impacts on their soils?", "human_ref_B": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2006.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqq82t", "c_root_id_B": "ilqm4ro", "created_at_utc_A": 1661440029, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438433, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How does wildland fire differ in different ecosystems, for example forests versus grasslands versus wetlands? Are there different impacts on their soils?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1596.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilquqof", "c_root_id_B": "ilquumy", "created_at_utc_A": 1661441775, "created_at_utc_B": 1661441818, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The Pacific Northwest US has been hit really hard by wildfires in recent years. Can you describe broadly the potential changes in the landscape these might result in over time? Can the PNW expect fewer fires as time goes on due to things simply burning off, or should they prepare for this to be the new normal? I'm just interested in what the future landscape might look like in contrast to this lush/green damp place filled with trees, mushrooms and plants we currently think of it as. Anything notable about the PNW fires you'd like to mention?  Edit: less to fewer", "human_ref_B": "How are peat soils impacted by fire? What happens if areas with peat become drier?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 43.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilquqof", "c_root_id_B": "ilrax4t", "created_at_utc_A": 1661441775, "created_at_utc_B": 1661447811, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The Pacific Northwest US has been hit really hard by wildfires in recent years. Can you describe broadly the potential changes in the landscape these might result in over time? Can the PNW expect fewer fires as time goes on due to things simply burning off, or should they prepare for this to be the new normal? I'm just interested in what the future landscape might look like in contrast to this lush/green damp place filled with trees, mushrooms and plants we currently think of it as. Anything notable about the PNW fires you'd like to mention?  Edit: less to fewer", "human_ref_B": "I'm curious about how different intensity fires effect mycorrhizal fungi, particularly how fire plays into it. Is there a specific heat threshold that that would prevent reestablishment, or do these systems tend to persist or establish slowly from intact areas to a burned forest once regeneration starts to become established?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6036.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilquqof", "c_root_id_B": "ilrkjq2", "created_at_utc_A": 1661441775, "created_at_utc_B": 1661451493, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The Pacific Northwest US has been hit really hard by wildfires in recent years. Can you describe broadly the potential changes in the landscape these might result in over time? Can the PNW expect fewer fires as time goes on due to things simply burning off, or should they prepare for this to be the new normal? I'm just interested in what the future landscape might look like in contrast to this lush/green damp place filled with trees, mushrooms and plants we currently think of it as. Anything notable about the PNW fires you'd like to mention?  Edit: less to fewer", "human_ref_B": "Hi everyone, happy to be here! Our lab studies the effects of fire on soil microbes (including bacteria, archaea, and fungi), and on soil properties in general. Our study sites include wildfires in boreal forests of northern Canada and prescribed fires in Wisconsin. We also use laboratory simulations of fire, in collaboration with colleagues with the US Forest Service, to study which microbes respond to fire, and why. In addition, we work with microbial isolates in the lab, to study which microbes can degrade pyrogenic (fire-affected) organic matter.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9718.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilrmg7d", "c_root_id_B": "ilquqof", "created_at_utc_A": 1661452223, "created_at_utc_B": 1661441775, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How would you go about sourcing and dispersing \"healthy\" microbial communities into areas targeted for restoration (ie rather than allowing natural succession)?", "human_ref_B": "The Pacific Northwest US has been hit really hard by wildfires in recent years. Can you describe broadly the potential changes in the landscape these might result in over time? Can the PNW expect fewer fires as time goes on due to things simply burning off, or should they prepare for this to be the new normal? I'm just interested in what the future landscape might look like in contrast to this lush/green damp place filled with trees, mushrooms and plants we currently think of it as. Anything notable about the PNW fires you'd like to mention?  Edit: less to fewer", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10448.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilquumy", "c_root_id_B": "ilrkjq2", "created_at_utc_A": 1661441818, "created_at_utc_B": 1661451493, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "How are peat soils impacted by fire? What happens if areas with peat become drier?", "human_ref_B": "Hi everyone, happy to be here! Our lab studies the effects of fire on soil microbes (including bacteria, archaea, and fungi), and on soil properties in general. Our study sites include wildfires in boreal forests of northern Canada and prescribed fires in Wisconsin. We also use laboratory simulations of fire, in collaboration with colleagues with the US Forest Service, to study which microbes respond to fire, and why. In addition, we work with microbial isolates in the lab, to study which microbes can degrade pyrogenic (fire-affected) organic matter.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9675.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql3p1", "c_root_id_B": "ilquumy", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438023, "created_at_utc_B": 1661441818, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "human_ref_B": "How are peat soils impacted by fire? What happens if areas with peat become drier?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3795.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqm4ro", "c_root_id_B": "ilquumy", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438433, "created_at_utc_B": 1661441818, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "human_ref_B": "How are peat soils impacted by fire? What happens if areas with peat become drier?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3385.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilrkjq2", "c_root_id_B": "ilrax4t", "created_at_utc_A": 1661451493, "created_at_utc_B": 1661447811, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Hi everyone, happy to be here! Our lab studies the effects of fire on soil microbes (including bacteria, archaea, and fungi), and on soil properties in general. Our study sites include wildfires in boreal forests of northern Canada and prescribed fires in Wisconsin. We also use laboratory simulations of fire, in collaboration with colleagues with the US Forest Service, to study which microbes respond to fire, and why. In addition, we work with microbial isolates in the lab, to study which microbes can degrade pyrogenic (fire-affected) organic matter.", "human_ref_B": "I'm curious about how different intensity fires effect mycorrhizal fungi, particularly how fire plays into it. Is there a specific heat threshold that that would prevent reestablishment, or do these systems tend to persist or establish slowly from intact areas to a burned forest once regeneration starts to become established?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3682.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilrax4t", "c_root_id_B": "ilql3p1", "created_at_utc_A": 1661447811, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438023, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I'm curious about how different intensity fires effect mycorrhizal fungi, particularly how fire plays into it. Is there a specific heat threshold that that would prevent reestablishment, or do these systems tend to persist or establish slowly from intact areas to a burned forest once regeneration starts to become established?", "human_ref_B": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9788.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqm4ro", "c_root_id_B": "ilrax4t", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438433, "created_at_utc_B": 1661447811, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "human_ref_B": "I'm curious about how different intensity fires effect mycorrhizal fungi, particularly how fire plays into it. Is there a specific heat threshold that that would prevent reestablishment, or do these systems tend to persist or establish slowly from intact areas to a burned forest once regeneration starts to become established?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9378.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilrkjq2", "c_root_id_B": "ilql3p1", "created_at_utc_A": 1661451493, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438023, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hi everyone, happy to be here! Our lab studies the effects of fire on soil microbes (including bacteria, archaea, and fungi), and on soil properties in general. Our study sites include wildfires in boreal forests of northern Canada and prescribed fires in Wisconsin. We also use laboratory simulations of fire, in collaboration with colleagues with the US Forest Service, to study which microbes respond to fire, and why. In addition, we work with microbial isolates in the lab, to study which microbes can degrade pyrogenic (fire-affected) organic matter.", "human_ref_B": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13470.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilqm4ro", "c_root_id_B": "ilrkjq2", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438433, "created_at_utc_B": 1661451493, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "human_ref_B": "Hi everyone, happy to be here! Our lab studies the effects of fire on soil microbes (including bacteria, archaea, and fungi), and on soil properties in general. Our study sites include wildfires in boreal forests of northern Canada and prescribed fires in Wisconsin. We also use laboratory simulations of fire, in collaboration with colleagues with the US Forest Service, to study which microbes respond to fire, and why. In addition, we work with microbial isolates in the lab, to study which microbes can degrade pyrogenic (fire-affected) organic matter.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13060.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilql3p1", "c_root_id_B": "ilrmg7d", "created_at_utc_A": 1661438023, "created_at_utc_B": 1661452223, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is there archeological precedence for fires like this? Which is to say a period of high fires, climate disruption. If so what do we see? Do forests recover or does it take even longer ?", "human_ref_B": "How would you go about sourcing and dispersing \"healthy\" microbial communities into areas targeted for restoration (ie rather than allowing natural succession)?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14200.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxb4t0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're experts who study how wildfires affect micro- and macro-ecosystems. AUA! Wildfires in many regions are becoming more frequent and more severe. Most of the headlines focus on the short and long-term impacts these disasters have on plants, animals and the economy. But what's going on underground? Research is just beginning to demonstrate the impacts disturbances to microbial communities can have on soil composition, plant behavior and human health.  Join us today at 2 PM ET (19UT) for an AMA, organized by the American Society for Microbiology, focused on the impact wildfires are having on microbial communities. We will take questions about experimental approaches being taken to study this issue, share insight into how the increased frequency and severity of fires is affecting ecosystems at the micro and macro levels, and discuss strategies for managing fire-affected ecosystems under changing fire regimes. Ask us anything!  With us today are:  + Dr. Brent Christner, Ph.D. (u/DrXner)- Associate Professor and Preeminent Scholar, University of Florida + Dr. Sam L. Fox, Ph.D. (u/DrFungiFox)- Postdoctoral Fellow, Natural Resources and Society, University of Idaho + Dr. John Spear, Ph.D. (u/spearmicrobe)- Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines + Dr. Thea Whitman, Ph.D. (u/TheaWhitman)- Associate Professor of Soil Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison + Dr. Zifan Zhao, Ph.D. (u/Gator_Zifan)- Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida  Links:  + The Microbiology of Wildfires + Statistical Learning and Uncommon Soil Microbiota Explain Biogeochemical Responses after Wildfire + Resilience in soil bacterial communities of the boreal forest from one to five years after wildfire across a severity gradient + Fire as a driver of fungal diversity- A synthesis of current knowledge + What bacteria in smoke means for our health (video)", "c_root_id_A": "ilrmg7d", "c_root_id_B": "ilqm4ro", "created_at_utc_A": 1661452223, "created_at_utc_B": 1661438433, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How would you go about sourcing and dispersing \"healthy\" microbial communities into areas targeted for restoration (ie rather than allowing natural succession)?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any particular class of microbial animal you've noticed survives wildfires abnormally well compared to others?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13790.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy5y92", "c_root_id_B": "hpy4k57", "created_at_utc_A": 1640463370, "created_at_utc_B": 1640462658, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I'm excited for the day my expertise seems strange and esoteric again.  Have fun and safe holidays all!", "human_ref_B": "Thank you! This is an amazing team and I\u2019m lucky to be a part of it. It\u2019s truly a joy to have such a large community of people who are interested in science. I hope everyone has a safe and happy holiday season!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 712.0, "score_ratio": 1.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy5y92", "c_root_id_B": "hpy58ma", "created_at_utc_A": 1640463370, "created_at_utc_B": 1640463003, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I'm excited for the day my expertise seems strange and esoteric again.  Have fun and safe holidays all!", "human_ref_B": "<3", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 367.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy5y92", "c_root_id_B": "hpy4qad", "created_at_utc_A": 1640463370, "created_at_utc_B": 1640462745, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm excited for the day my expertise seems strange and esoteric again.  Have fun and safe holidays all!", "human_ref_B": "Merry Chrystler", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 625.0, "score_ratio": 18.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpyq92i", "c_root_id_B": "hpz016l", "created_at_utc_A": 1640473667, "created_at_utc_B": 1640478625, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Merry Christmas. Thanks r/askscience", "human_ref_B": "A special big thank you to our green panelists (/u/PHealthy and /u/iayork come to mind) for taking so much time answering the never ending wave of COVID questions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4958.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy58ma", "c_root_id_B": "hpz016l", "created_at_utc_A": 1640463003, "created_at_utc_B": 1640478625, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "<3", "human_ref_B": "A special big thank you to our green panelists (/u/PHealthy and /u/iayork come to mind) for taking so much time answering the never ending wave of COVID questions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15622.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy4qad", "c_root_id_B": "hpz016l", "created_at_utc_A": 1640462745, "created_at_utc_B": 1640478625, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Merry Chrystler", "human_ref_B": "A special big thank you to our green panelists (/u/PHealthy and /u/iayork come to mind) for taking so much time answering the never ending wave of COVID questions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15880.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy58ma", "c_root_id_B": "hpyq92i", "created_at_utc_A": 1640463003, "created_at_utc_B": 1640473667, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "<3", "human_ref_B": "Merry Christmas. Thanks r/askscience", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10664.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpyq92i", "c_root_id_B": "hpy4qad", "created_at_utc_A": 1640473667, "created_at_utc_B": 1640462745, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Merry Christmas. Thanks r/askscience", "human_ref_B": "Merry Chrystler", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10922.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpzhc5f", "c_root_id_B": "hpzfiav", "created_at_utc_A": 1640487993, "created_at_utc_B": 1640486977, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Thank you!  It's great to be a part of the askscience team!", "human_ref_B": "I love this sub!  Thank you so much for providing excellent information and explaining it so well.  As a biology teacher I find these conversations fascinating and look forward to reading them all the way to the end. Thank you so much. Best wishes to you and yours.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1016.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpzhc5f", "c_root_id_B": "hpy4qad", "created_at_utc_A": 1640487993, "created_at_utc_B": 1640462745, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Thank you!  It's great to be a part of the askscience team!", "human_ref_B": "Merry Chrystler", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25248.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy4qad", "c_root_id_B": "hpy58ma", "created_at_utc_A": 1640462745, "created_at_utc_B": 1640463003, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Merry Chrystler", "human_ref_B": "<3", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 258.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy4qad", "c_root_id_B": "hpzfiav", "created_at_utc_A": 1640462745, "created_at_utc_B": 1640486977, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Merry Chrystler", "human_ref_B": "I love this sub!  Thank you so much for providing excellent information and explaining it so well.  As a biology teacher I find these conversations fascinating and look forward to reading them all the way to the end. Thank you so much. Best wishes to you and yours.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24232.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rog62g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Happy holidays to you! And a special thanks to our Moderators, Panelists and Users. Happy holidays to all of you from /r/AskScience! All of you make this subreddit possible and I want to all know how sincerely I appreciate what you do here.  To every moderator who ensures that the posts are curated and the overall function of the subreddit works. You make up the framework of AskScience, without you there would be nothing to build on. With your high standards of quality and diligent work, you keep this subreddit full of quality content.  To every panelist, thank you for helping curate comments and answering questions. Without your answers this sub could not exist. Sharing your expertise and answering questions I truly believe you have helped raise the overall understanding of science across all of reddit. With such a wide array of experts, you always come through with a stunning level of understanding to share.  Finally, to the users. Thank you, driving interest and asking questions lets this subreddit fill its core function. Your curiosity helps everyone reading the posts gain a greater understanding of the universe and how it works.  I hope every single one of you have a fantastic end to the year and an even happier new year.", "c_root_id_A": "hpy4qad", "c_root_id_B": "hq16dor", "created_at_utc_A": 1640462745, "created_at_utc_B": 1640532355, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Merry Chrystler", "human_ref_B": "Thank you for this sub and all you do to maintain it. I lurk here every single day and absolutely love you guys for the information you share and dedication you have to this sub. The scientists and scholars who post and the mods who keep it running...  With all my heart, Merry Christmas and many blessings to you and yours.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 69610.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q1v345", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher/lower are not?", "c_root_id_A": "hfjgxl0", "c_root_id_B": "hfiluxn", "created_at_utc_A": 1633476283, "created_at_utc_B": 1633462493, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Physicist here. We don't discriminate on the basis of color. All electromagnetic waves are comprised of *photons* in my book, and I do think of them that way. It's not as common to speak of radio waves in this way, but it's definitely how we count x-rays and gamma rays,", "human_ref_B": "I've never heard anyone avoid talking about EM radiation of all kinds as photons.  In specific contexts it can be more useful to discuss wavelengths, like if you're trying to figure out how your microwave interferes with your 5GHz Wi-Fi, it's more useful to talk about frequency. But that isn't incompatible with photons either\u2026a photon has a frequency.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13790.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q1v345", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher/lower are not?", "c_root_id_A": "hfjgxl0", "c_root_id_B": "hfi7avz", "created_at_utc_A": 1633476283, "created_at_utc_B": 1633456409, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Physicist here. We don't discriminate on the basis of color. All electromagnetic waves are comprised of *photons* in my book, and I do think of them that way. It's not as common to speak of radio waves in this way, but it's definitely how we count x-rays and gamma rays,", "human_ref_B": "The higher and lower frequencies are referred to as photons. They're just also referred to as radiation (as is visible light). The general public for whatever reason generally prefers photons for light and radiation for the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum. Scientists will go back and forth depending on context.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19874.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q1v345", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher/lower are not?", "c_root_id_A": "hfjgxl0", "c_root_id_B": "hfihoea", "created_at_utc_A": 1633476283, "created_at_utc_B": 1633460783, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Physicist here. We don't discriminate on the basis of color. All electromagnetic waves are comprised of *photons* in my book, and I do think of them that way. It's not as common to speak of radio waves in this way, but it's definitely how we count x-rays and gamma rays,", "human_ref_B": "\"photon\" was the word that Gibbs, a physical chemist,  invented as he was sick of saying, \"A quantum of electromagnetic energy.\" This was round 1916.   So, you have electrons and photons. And, an electron absorbing a photon is what chemistry is all about. There really isn't anything else.   An electron in a molecule absorbs a photon. The electron has gained some energy. It could lose that energy by emitting a photon, but there is no fun in that.   The energy gained by the electron in a molecule, let's say \"chlorophyll\",  could be lost in a lot of small steps. This energy could be used to synthesize a carbohydrate. A cow might eat this carbohydrate, in the form of grass, and and use some of the energy to make protein etc... we eat the cow........     It all starts with an electron absorbing a photon.    I think a lot of this wave/ray thing is historical. You have radio waves and X rays. You could just as easily call them radio rays and X waves.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15500.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q1v345", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher/lower are not?", "c_root_id_A": "hfi7avz", "c_root_id_B": "hfiluxn", "created_at_utc_A": 1633456409, "created_at_utc_B": 1633462493, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The higher and lower frequencies are referred to as photons. They're just also referred to as radiation (as is visible light). The general public for whatever reason generally prefers photons for light and radiation for the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum. Scientists will go back and forth depending on context.", "human_ref_B": "I've never heard anyone avoid talking about EM radiation of all kinds as photons.  In specific contexts it can be more useful to discuss wavelengths, like if you're trying to figure out how your microwave interferes with your 5GHz Wi-Fi, it's more useful to talk about frequency. But that isn't incompatible with photons either\u2026a photon has a frequency.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6084.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q1v345", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "As light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum why is it referred to in terms of photons whereas frequencies that are higher/lower are not?", "c_root_id_A": "hfiluxn", "c_root_id_B": "hfihoea", "created_at_utc_A": 1633462493, "created_at_utc_B": 1633460783, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've never heard anyone avoid talking about EM radiation of all kinds as photons.  In specific contexts it can be more useful to discuss wavelengths, like if you're trying to figure out how your microwave interferes with your 5GHz Wi-Fi, it's more useful to talk about frequency. But that isn't incompatible with photons either\u2026a photon has a frequency.", "human_ref_B": "\"photon\" was the word that Gibbs, a physical chemist,  invented as he was sick of saying, \"A quantum of electromagnetic energy.\" This was round 1916.   So, you have electrons and photons. And, an electron absorbing a photon is what chemistry is all about. There really isn't anything else.   An electron in a molecule absorbs a photon. The electron has gained some energy. It could lose that energy by emitting a photon, but there is no fun in that.   The energy gained by the electron in a molecule, let's say \"chlorophyll\",  could be lost in a lot of small steps. This energy could be used to synthesize a carbohydrate. A cow might eat this carbohydrate, in the form of grass, and and use some of the energy to make protein etc... we eat the cow........     It all starts with an electron absorbing a photon.    I think a lot of this wave/ray thing is historical. You have radio waves and X rays. You could just as easily call them radio rays and X waves.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1710.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zfmnt2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How much has our view of the Moon changed throughout human history? When I look up am I seeing the Moon as it appeared, more or less, to William the Conquerer? Caesar? King Tut? Follow up, how far back in time would you need to go before our view of the Moon was noticeably different from the modern day?", "c_root_id_A": "ize24qx", "c_root_id_B": "izdx66w", "created_at_utc_A": 1670503733, "created_at_utc_B": 1670500475, "score_A": 69, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "One thing that in principle can be different is the crater patterning. However, it seems unlikely that has changed in any meaningful degree in human history.  Certainly not all craters have been dated, but a decent number has. You can access a crater Excel sheet on this page. I shortlist two that stand out:  * The crater named Giordano Bruno has an interesting history. In 1178 there is a well-documented event on the moon where \"fire, hot coals and sparks\" burst from the moon. It has been thought this was when an impact caused the creation of this crater. That would have been a change to the lunar surface that a keen observer would have noted. So at least Ceasar would have looked at a different moon than today. **However**, this theory has been doubted since there is no record of an associated meteor storm on Earth, as would have been expected. So this is at least a young crater, but probably not as young as 1178. * The crater named Eimmart A is noted in the database as \"very young\". It is a small crater, however (\\~7 km diameter), and when the lunar people say \"very young\", they mean it is \"probably less than 100 million years ago\". So sure, maybe it might have formed early during the human era. Still, not that likely.   From what I can tell, a major crater formation that would change the appearance of the moon viewed with eyes would generate a great deal of meteors on Earth, like when comet debris hit Earth. I do not know enough obscure history, but if a major crater formed while there were literate humans on Earth, then maybe they would have recorded that as some great mystical event.   So in short, my best guess is that  major crater formation that would alter the view of the moon during human civilization is unlikely, but possible.  My guess is that light pollution from cities are a bigger difference in how the moon appears to us and to Ceasar.", "human_ref_B": "The moon is slowly moving farther away from the earth. But for humans to notice you'd have to span out 10,000 plus years at a time. NASA claims its about 3.8 centimeters a year. Definitely not noticeable in one's lifetime.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3258.0, "score_ratio": 2.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vxect4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "I know everyone is excited about the Webb telescope, but what is going on with the 6-pointed star artifacts? Follow-up question: why is this artifact not considered a serious issue?", "c_root_id_A": "ifvetob", "c_root_id_B": "ifvmzsm", "created_at_utc_A": 1657642054, "created_at_utc_B": 1657645210, "score_A": 64, "score_B": 526, "human_ref_A": "Diffraction spikes from the telescope structure. They do need to be accounted for, but aside from the exact shape this is normal.", "human_ref_B": "As others have said, they are diffraction spikes, but to more directly address your follow-up question: they are not considered a serious issue because they are a fundamental consequence of the optics of reflective telescopes. Something has to support the reflecting mirrors and they will always diffract the incoming light. Maybe one day someone very clever will come up with a way to eliminate this issue.  On the bright side, they are a neat kind of 'signature' for a telescope. You can quickly determine if an image is from JWST or Hubble by the difference in their diffraction patterns (the six plus two dimmer horizontal for JWST, and four for Hubble).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3156.0, "score_ratio": 8.21875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vxect4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "I know everyone is excited about the Webb telescope, but what is going on with the 6-pointed star artifacts? Follow-up question: why is this artifact not considered a serious issue?", "c_root_id_A": "ifvup4i", "c_root_id_B": "ifvetob", "created_at_utc_A": 1657648311, "created_at_utc_B": 1657642054, "score_A": 244, "score_B": 64, "human_ref_A": "The diffraction spikes are an artifact caused by the structure of the telescope itself - the shape of the primary mirrors and the struts supporting the secondary mirror determine their shape.  Since the primary mirrors are hexagonal, the largest diffraction spikes are in a six-pointed pattern.    The three struts actually create another six-pointed pattern, but four of their six spikes align with the spikes from the shape of the primary mirror - the shape of the struts was deliberately chosen to achieve this.  The remaining two can be seen as a horizontal bar of two (much smaller) diffraction spikes around a point light source.  There isn't a way to \"filter them out\" from a single image because there's no real data in the regions covered by the diffraction spikes - they're a sort of blind spot for the telescope.  However, by rotating the telescope slightly and taking a second image, the diffraction spikes will be in a different place in the second image.  That's why they're not considered a problem - if we want to see what's behind them, we can simply rotate the telescope to do that.", "human_ref_B": "Diffraction spikes from the telescope structure. They do need to be accounted for, but aside from the exact shape this is normal.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6257.0, "score_ratio": 3.8125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vxect4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "I know everyone is excited about the Webb telescope, but what is going on with the 6-pointed star artifacts? Follow-up question: why is this artifact not considered a serious issue?", "c_root_id_A": "ifw9v7k", "c_root_id_B": "ifwlj20", "created_at_utc_A": 1657654311, "created_at_utc_B": 1657658852, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 55, "human_ref_A": "They are due to diffraction, but they are actually due to the hexagonal mirror shape, not the support struts as most people are saying. There are 3 support struts, but they are aligned with the mirror such that the diffraction due to two of them align with the mirror diffraction. Hence the '8 pointed star' diagram some people have linked to.   The ones due to the mirror shape are what we call the 'point spread function' (or PSF), which just defines what light coming from a single point will look like to the telescope. The typical example of a PSF is based on a circular mirror, and have a simpler, circular PSF like the one shown in the 2nd picture on the Wiki page. For ground based telescopes this is actually dominated by atmospheric effects -- in practice it is similar to the circular mirror PSF, but considerably more spread out.  With space based telescopes, they aren't a huge deal because we know what the point spread function is, so when we want to measure anything from that image we just take that into account. It's definitely a headache though and will require a lot of work to get right, since we are accustomed to circular PSFs. This is exactly what we were expecting though.", "human_ref_B": "See their infographic on Diffraction Spikes: https://stsci-opo.org/STScI-01G6934F9PKRPVD8J1HVSA65CR.png \"This illustration demonstrates the science behind Webb\u2019s diffraction spike patterns, showing how diffraction spikes happen, the influence of the primary mirror and struts, and the contributions of each to Webb\u2019s diffraction spikes.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4541.0, "score_ratio": 3.9285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vxect4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "I know everyone is excited about the Webb telescope, but what is going on with the 6-pointed star artifacts? Follow-up question: why is this artifact not considered a serious issue?", "c_root_id_A": "ifx8eeo", "c_root_id_B": "ifw9v7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1657668360, "created_at_utc_B": 1657654311, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "The 6 stars is caused by the shape of the mirrors of JWST combined with the support struts that hold it. It looks strange because Hubble's arrangement meant there was 4 points on each star, JWSt's arrangement causes 6.  This explains it with pictures: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/FXa0HELWIAkYJwh?format=jpg&name=4096x4096", "human_ref_B": "They are due to diffraction, but they are actually due to the hexagonal mirror shape, not the support struts as most people are saying. There are 3 support struts, but they are aligned with the mirror such that the diffraction due to two of them align with the mirror diffraction. Hence the '8 pointed star' diagram some people have linked to.   The ones due to the mirror shape are what we call the 'point spread function' (or PSF), which just defines what light coming from a single point will look like to the telescope. The typical example of a PSF is based on a circular mirror, and have a simpler, circular PSF like the one shown in the 2nd picture on the Wiki page. For ground based telescopes this is actually dominated by atmospheric effects -- in practice it is similar to the circular mirror PSF, but considerably more spread out.  With space based telescopes, they aren't a huge deal because we know what the point spread function is, so when we want to measure anything from that image we just take that into account. It's definitely a headache though and will require a lot of work to get right, since we are accustomed to circular PSFs. This is exactly what we were expecting though.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14049.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vxect4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "I know everyone is excited about the Webb telescope, but what is going on with the 6-pointed star artifacts? Follow-up question: why is this artifact not considered a serious issue?", "c_root_id_A": "ifwp8em", "c_root_id_B": "ifx8eeo", "created_at_utc_A": 1657660293, "created_at_utc_B": 1657668360, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "Light always diffracts. Even if you had a perfectly circular aperture, you'd end up with concentric rings of diffraction instead of spikes. Diffracted light is much dimmer than the source light, which is why you don't see diffraction spikes (or rings) on every single source of light from every single image ever taken. When you see a halo around a bright light, that's diffraction. It's only the overexposed stars that create diffraction noise strong enough to be recorded by the sensor.  It's not an issue because the way light behaves makes a perfect telescope impossible. There are always tradeoffs, and the ones they picked are the best for the kinds of research they want to do.  Here are a few ways (I know of) to deal with diffraction if it is a problem:  * Aim the telescope so it the offending star isn't in the field of view. You just need the source light out of frame and the diffraction spikes no longer exist. * Use a sensor that can block bright sources, like holding your hand up to block the sun. There is one sensor with this capability. * If the diffracting star has different wavelengths than what you want to observe, you can filter out those wavelengths. * There are computational methods, but from what I know they can make a prettier picture but don't produce as useful data.", "human_ref_B": "The 6 stars is caused by the shape of the mirrors of JWST combined with the support struts that hold it. It looks strange because Hubble's arrangement meant there was 4 points on each star, JWSt's arrangement causes 6.  This explains it with pictures: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/FXa0HELWIAkYJwh?format=jpg&name=4096x4096", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8067.0, "score_ratio": 2.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgakan", "c_root_id_B": "iwg7fdk", "created_at_utc_A": 1668516302, "created_at_utc_B": 1668514312, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "I always imagined that a food 3d printer would use a combination of algae paste, and flavonoid cartridges.   How the heck do you 3d print raw chicken? I'm imagining you turn it into a paste, extrude it into the desired shape while using a combo of heat and some sort of starch to maintain structural integrity?  How do you then keep the system clean from all very many very dangerous bacteria that would be swarming a chicken paste?   Is the heat bed 165F?", "human_ref_B": "What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1990.0, "score_ratio": 2.6206896552, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgakan", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668516302, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I always imagined that a food 3d printer would use a combination of algae paste, and flavonoid cartridges.   How the heck do you 3d print raw chicken? I'm imagining you turn it into a paste, extrude it into the desired shape while using a combo of heat and some sort of starch to maintain structural integrity?  How do you then keep the system clean from all very many very dangerous bacteria that would be swarming a chicken paste?   Is the heat bed 165F?", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1038.0, "score_ratio": 15.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwgh6yc", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668519956, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "Any publications? I want to follow the progression of this. I cook like an engineer, which is to say, I haven't enjoyed my own cooking in a decade.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9602.0, "score_ratio": 1.1384615385, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgtihh", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668525557, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4001.0, "score_ratio": 1.298245614, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwgeg5k", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668518514, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11044.0, "score_ratio": 1.9473684211, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwg7fdk", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668514312, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15246.0, "score_ratio": 2.5517241379, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgi54x", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520439, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9119.0, "score_ratio": 3.5238095238, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgpxws", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668524042, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5516.0, "score_ratio": 4.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgs3dy", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668524965, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "Do you hate food?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4593.0, "score_ratio": 5.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgle56", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521994, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength/toughness?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7564.0, "score_ratio": 6.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzlg2", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528012, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1546.0, "score_ratio": 7.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwghem9", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520067, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9491.0, "score_ratio": 8.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwghz7k", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520357, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9201.0, "score_ratio": 9.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh0isi", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528381, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1177.0, "score_ratio": 10.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz530", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527834, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1724.0, "score_ratio": 9.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzufz", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528111, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1447.0, "score_ratio": 10.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwgkhg7", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668521571, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7987.0, "score_ratio": 12.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwgsp2v", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525218, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4340.0, "score_ratio": 12.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14294.0, "score_ratio": 14.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwgw1zm", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668526598, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC/whatever infuser?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2960.0, "score_ratio": 12.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz17g", "c_root_id_B": "iwh3i43", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527792, "created_at_utc_B": 1668529558, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "Will NASA send one to the iss?", "human_ref_B": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1766.0, "score_ratio": 18.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh3i43", "c_root_id_B": "iwh0rg0", "created_at_utc_A": 1668529558, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528476, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Tea, earl grey, hot.", "human_ref_B": "Very cool! I work with 3D printers constantly for my job. What is your personal favorite food to make with your food 3D printer?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1082.0, "score_ratio": 14.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgh6yc", "c_root_id_B": "iwgeg5k", "created_at_utc_A": 1668519956, "created_at_utc_B": 1668518514, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "Any publications? I want to follow the progression of this. I cook like an engineer, which is to say, I haven't enjoyed my own cooking in a decade.", "human_ref_B": "I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1442.0, "score_ratio": 1.7105263158, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgh6yc", "c_root_id_B": "iwg7fdk", "created_at_utc_A": 1668519956, "created_at_utc_B": 1668514312, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Any publications? I want to follow the progression of this. I cook like an engineer, which is to say, I haven't enjoyed my own cooking in a decade.", "human_ref_B": "What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5644.0, "score_ratio": 2.2413793103, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgh6yc", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668519956, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Any publications? I want to follow the progression of this. I cook like an engineer, which is to say, I haven't enjoyed my own cooking in a decade.", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4692.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgeg5k", "c_root_id_B": "iwgtihh", "created_at_utc_A": 1668518514, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525557, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?", "human_ref_B": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7043.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgtihh", "c_root_id_B": "iwg7fdk", "created_at_utc_A": 1668525557, "created_at_utc_B": 1668514312, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "human_ref_B": "What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11245.0, "score_ratio": 1.9655172414, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgi54x", "c_root_id_B": "iwgtihh", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520439, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525557, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?", "human_ref_B": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5118.0, "score_ratio": 2.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgtihh", "c_root_id_B": "iwgpxws", "created_at_utc_A": 1668525557, "created_at_utc_B": 1668524042, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "human_ref_B": "Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1515.0, "score_ratio": 3.5625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgs3dy", "c_root_id_B": "iwgtihh", "created_at_utc_A": 1668524965, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525557, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "Do you hate food?", "human_ref_B": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 592.0, "score_ratio": 4.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgle56", "c_root_id_B": "iwgtihh", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521994, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525557, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength/toughness?", "human_ref_B": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3563.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgtihh", "c_root_id_B": "iwghem9", "created_at_utc_A": 1668525557, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520067, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "human_ref_B": "Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5490.0, "score_ratio": 6.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgtihh", "c_root_id_B": "iwghz7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1668525557, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520357, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "human_ref_B": "Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5200.0, "score_ratio": 7.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgkhg7", "c_root_id_B": "iwgtihh", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521571, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525557, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "human_ref_B": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3986.0, "score_ratio": 9.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgsp2v", "c_root_id_B": "iwgtihh", "created_at_utc_A": 1668525218, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525557, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?", "human_ref_B": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 339.0, "score_ratio": 9.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgtihh", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668525557, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "What is the ultimate goal in creating this technology?  As in, since normal cooking techniques already exist, as well as methods for people with limited time (meal prepping, slow cookers, insta pots, air fryers, pre-made meals), what does this new innovation bring to the table?  Additionally, over-processed foods and their additives have been found to be detrimental to nutritional health, how will this technology get around over-processing?", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10293.0, "score_ratio": 11.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg7fdk", "c_root_id_B": "iwgeg5k", "created_at_utc_A": 1668514312, "created_at_utc_B": 1668518514, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "What kinds of binders, starches, fillers, and extenders will be required? How's this going to be labeled, for people with non-top-8 allergies?", "human_ref_B": "I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4202.0, "score_ratio": 1.3103448276, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwgeg5k", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668518514, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "I can see this being extremely useful in situations that could require a consistent food supply with limited storage, I.E. space travel. Is there any markets in particular that is motivating this R&D?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3250.0, "score_ratio": 7.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwghem9", "c_root_id_B": "iwgi54x", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520067, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520439, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?", "human_ref_B": "What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 372.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgi54x", "c_root_id_B": "iwghz7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520439, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520357, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?", "human_ref_B": "Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 82.0, "score_ratio": 2.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwgi54x", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520439, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "What materials do you use? For example, if you\u2019re printing chicken, is the material derived from a chicken or is it something synthetic?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5175.0, "score_ratio": 4.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgpxws", "c_root_id_B": "iwgle56", "created_at_utc_A": 1668524042, "created_at_utc_B": 1668521994, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)", "human_ref_B": "Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength/toughness?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2048.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgpxws", "c_root_id_B": "iwghem9", "created_at_utc_A": 1668524042, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520067, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)", "human_ref_B": "Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3975.0, "score_ratio": 1.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwghz7k", "c_root_id_B": "iwgpxws", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520357, "created_at_utc_B": 1668524042, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?", "human_ref_B": "Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3685.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgkhg7", "c_root_id_B": "iwgpxws", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521571, "created_at_utc_B": 1668524042, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "human_ref_B": "Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2471.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgpxws", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668524042, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Have you tried anything that has to be extruded while hot in either a pressure or vacuum chamber? (Like pop rocks that have carbon dioxide in the sugary crystals, or malted milk ball centers, which need to be extruded in a vacuum chamber in order to get their airy texture)        Also, have you considered applications for improving nutritional intake for people with texture struggles? (For instance, by adding various vegetable purees, protein powders, etc to pasta dough and printing in a shape that's texturally interesting for kids - or encasing very small pockets of softer fillings with dough in shapes that'd be too difficult to do without 3d printing, to \"hide\" the nutritious components better)", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8778.0, "score_ratio": 3.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgle56", "c_root_id_B": "iwgs3dy", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521994, "created_at_utc_B": 1668524965, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength/toughness?", "human_ref_B": "Do you hate food?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2971.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgs3dy", "c_root_id_B": "iwghem9", "created_at_utc_A": 1668524965, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520067, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Do you hate food?", "human_ref_B": "Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4898.0, "score_ratio": 1.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwghz7k", "c_root_id_B": "iwgs3dy", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520357, "created_at_utc_B": 1668524965, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?", "human_ref_B": "Do you hate food?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4608.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgs3dy", "c_root_id_B": "iwgkhg7", "created_at_utc_A": 1668524965, "created_at_utc_B": 1668521571, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Do you hate food?", "human_ref_B": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3394.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwgs3dy", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668524965, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "Do you hate food?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9701.0, "score_ratio": 2.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgle56", "c_root_id_B": "iwghem9", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521994, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520067, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength/toughness?", "human_ref_B": "Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1927.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgle56", "c_root_id_B": "iwghz7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521994, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520357, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength/toughness?", "human_ref_B": "Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1637.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgkhg7", "c_root_id_B": "iwgle56", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521571, "created_at_utc_B": 1668521994, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "human_ref_B": "Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength/toughness?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 423.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgle56", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521994, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Is there a way of reading the taste profile of a particular food item, and then recreating that? If yes, would that include texture and strength/toughness?", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6730.0, "score_ratio": 2.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwghem9", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzlg2", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520067, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528012, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?", "human_ref_B": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7945.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwghz7k", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzlg2", "created_at_utc_A": 1668520357, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528012, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?", "human_ref_B": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7655.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgzlg2", "c_root_id_B": "iwgz530", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528012, "created_at_utc_B": 1668527834, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "human_ref_B": "I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 178.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgkhg7", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzlg2", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521571, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528012, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "human_ref_B": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6441.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgzlg2", "c_root_id_B": "iwgsp2v", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528012, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525218, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "human_ref_B": "Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2794.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgzlg2", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528012, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12748.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgw1zm", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzlg2", "created_at_utc_A": 1668526598, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528012, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC/whatever infuser?", "human_ref_B": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1414.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgzlg2", "c_root_id_B": "iwgz17g", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528012, "created_at_utc_B": 1668527792, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "We've been learning that highly processed foods are actually quite bad for our health.  How does printable food fit into this dynamic?  Is it as healthy as 'real' food?  Is it going to be filled with chemicals?  Is the 3D printer plastic and liable to introduce contaminants?", "human_ref_B": "Will NASA send one to the iss?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 220.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwghem9", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520067, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "Do you expect a food printer to end up on the consumer market?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4803.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwghz7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668520357, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "Can you call it The Tinger and make it go ting when its done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5093.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgkhg7", "c_root_id_B": "iwh0isi", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521571, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528381, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "human_ref_B": "I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6810.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh0isi", "c_root_id_B": "iwgsp2v", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528381, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525218, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?", "human_ref_B": "Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3163.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh0isi", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528381, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13117.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgw1zm", "c_root_id_B": "iwh0isi", "created_at_utc_A": 1668526598, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528381, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC/whatever infuser?", "human_ref_B": "I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1783.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz17g", "c_root_id_B": "iwh0isi", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527792, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528381, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Will NASA send one to the iss?", "human_ref_B": "I'm sorry if my question does not fit the list you provided but I hope as a researcher it will be interesting for you anyway.  Do you ever feel we (as in we humans) are sometimes using technology to solve problems we do not have?   If so can you name one or two examples that come to your mind?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 589.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz530", "c_root_id_B": "iwgkhg7", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527834, "created_at_utc_B": 1668521571, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?", "human_ref_B": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6263.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz530", "c_root_id_B": "iwgsp2v", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527834, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525218, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?", "human_ref_B": "Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2616.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwgz530", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668527834, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12570.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz530", "c_root_id_B": "iwgw1zm", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527834, "created_at_utc_B": 1668526598, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?", "human_ref_B": "Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC/whatever infuser?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1236.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz530", "c_root_id_B": "iwgz17g", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527834, "created_at_utc_B": 1668527792, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I assume that some foods print more easily than others. What are some simple foods that are surprisingly hard to print, and complex foods that are surprisingly easy?", "human_ref_B": "Will NASA send one to the iss?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 42.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgkhg7", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzufz", "created_at_utc_A": 1668521571, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528111, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "human_ref_B": "Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6540.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgsp2v", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzufz", "created_at_utc_A": 1668525218, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528111, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?", "human_ref_B": "Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2893.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgzufz", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528111, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12847.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgw1zm", "c_root_id_B": "iwgzufz", "created_at_utc_A": 1668526598, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528111, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC/whatever infuser?", "human_ref_B": "Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1513.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgzufz", "c_root_id_B": "iwgz17g", "created_at_utc_A": 1668528111, "created_at_utc_B": 1668527792, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Super cool to read about your work!   How do you peserve the freshness of your ingredients?", "human_ref_B": "Will NASA send one to the iss?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 319.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwgkhg7", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668521571, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "Were you inspired by Star Trek The Next Generation?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6307.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwgsp2v", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668525218, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "Has there been a consideration made to include hoppers with various artificial or natrual flavor powders?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9954.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgw1zm", "c_root_id_B": "iwg8vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1668526598, "created_at_utc_B": 1668515264, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Any safeguards set in or is this mainly going to be sold as a THC/whatever infuser?", "human_ref_B": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11334.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwg8vke", "c_root_id_B": "iwh52ch", "created_at_utc_A": 1668515264, "created_at_utc_B": 1668530184, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Will the food price point be around the same as \"conventional\" food, or will it probably be more expensive or cheaper?", "human_ref_B": "So the Star Trek Replicator?  Very cool!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14920.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz17g", "c_root_id_B": "iwh0rg0", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527792, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528476, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Will NASA send one to the iss?", "human_ref_B": "Very cool! I work with 3D printers constantly for my job. What is your personal favorite food to make with your food 3D printer?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 684.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwgz17g", "c_root_id_B": "iwh52ch", "created_at_utc_A": 1668527792, "created_at_utc_B": 1668530184, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Will NASA send one to the iss?", "human_ref_B": "So the Star Trek Replicator?  Very cool!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2392.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yvv4rq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: I'm Dr. Jonathan Blutinger, a postdoctoral researcher in the Creative Machines Lab at Columbia University, developing a \"digital chef\" that can 3D print and laser cook edible items. Ask me anything about the process! Hello all, after my MSc in Integrated Product Design at the University of Pennsylvania and a year stint in industry designing pick-and-place robots, I started working as a Ph.D. researcher (Mechanical Engineering) at Hod Lipson's (He co-launched the world's first open-source 3D printer which could be used for food) Creative Machines Lab where I tinker with digital cooking techniques using food printers and lasers. We've experimented with dough, meats, vegetables, sweets, made a seven-ingredient slice of cheesecake, and printed chicken samples which were then cooked by lasers. Currently, we are focusing on building robust software and hardware to incorporate more functionality to print food of different consistencies and multi-ingredient combinations to fully showcase this tech's potential.  In August 2022, my work was featured in Interesting Engineering, and the publication helped organize this AMA session. Ask me anything about the technology behind 3D-printed food, the how-tos on printing food, how lasers can cook food, how 3D-printed food can be inventive, nutritious, and customized for each individual.  I will be replying to messages with the username \"IntEngineering\" at noon ET (17 UT), AMA!", "c_root_id_A": "iwh52ch", "c_root_id_B": "iwh0rg0", "created_at_utc_A": 1668530184, "created_at_utc_B": 1668528476, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "So the Star Trek Replicator?  Very cool!", "human_ref_B": "Very cool! I work with 3D printers constantly for my job. What is your personal favorite food to make with your food 3D printer?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1708.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "teni1a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Is there a scientific reason they ask you not to use flash on your camera when taking photos centuries old interiors or artifacts?", "c_root_id_A": "i0rlt0t", "c_root_id_B": "i0risqd", "created_at_utc_A": 1647361584, "created_at_utc_B": 1647360421, "score_A": 6492, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "The concern is that the brief-but-intense light may damage artworks and artifacts.  The spectrum of flashlamp light is typically bluer than indoor illumination in galleries, and xenon flashlamps also emit a certain amount of ultraviolet (though this is very nearly always filtered out from camera flashes.)  In practice, this seems to be more of a precautionary-principle measure, than anything supported by data. A study back in 1995 looked at this issue and found the effect of flash on pigments was essentially negligible. I can't locate the original paper's text, but here's a report discussing its findings.  That said, regardless of any effect on the artworks there's still one very good reason that flash photograph is - and should forever remain - banned in most galleries. It's *really annoying*. People trying to look at art don't want random, intermittent, blindingly bright flashes of light interrupting their viewing experience, or burning little purple afterimages onto their retinas.", "human_ref_B": "The intensity of the light can fade the pigments of the paint, wall covers and other things that are on exhibit. It is like the bleaching effect of sunlight. Over time thousands of people flashing away will destroy the image.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1163.0, "score_ratio": 282.2608695652, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "teni1a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Is there a scientific reason they ask you not to use flash on your camera when taking photos centuries old interiors or artifacts?", "c_root_id_A": "i0risqd", "c_root_id_B": "i0s06vh", "created_at_utc_A": 1647360421, "created_at_utc_B": 1647367138, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 148, "human_ref_A": "The intensity of the light can fade the pigments of the paint, wall covers and other things that are on exhibit. It is like the bleaching effect of sunlight. Over time thousands of people flashing away will destroy the image.", "human_ref_B": "Using this fading calculator I tried to get something of an answer. Assuming that a flash bulb is as bright as the sun and lasts 1 millisecond, then taking 10 pictures a minute for 12 hours a day for 100 years causes Red Carmine (the most light sensitive pigment) to degrade about 30% of it's saturation. The minimum brightness museums use for their most sensitive displays (50 lux) for 12 hours day over 100 years will cause the Red Carmine to lose 80% of it's saturation. So yes, flash photography can significantly contribute to color degradation of some artifacts, but even extreme amounts of flash photography are a small contributor to damage compared to the normal display lighting.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6717.0, "score_ratio": 6.4347826087, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "teni1a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Is there a scientific reason they ask you not to use flash on your camera when taking photos centuries old interiors or artifacts?", "c_root_id_A": "i0risqd", "c_root_id_B": "i0tdlnm", "created_at_utc_A": 1647360421, "created_at_utc_B": 1647386509, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "The intensity of the light can fade the pigments of the paint, wall covers and other things that are on exhibit. It is like the bleaching effect of sunlight. Over time thousands of people flashing away will destroy the image.", "human_ref_B": "While photonic damage to the works of art could have been a real thing back in the day, it just seems like it would be common courtesy to not be flashing bright lights in a gallery that many people around you may have traveled a few hours or more to get to purely for the visual experience.  I mean let them enjoy the view without the \"lightning\" flashes, right?  Like not talking during a string quartet concert.  No brainer", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26088.0, "score_ratio": 1.0434782609, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "teni1a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Is there a scientific reason they ask you not to use flash on your camera when taking photos centuries old interiors or artifacts?", "c_root_id_A": "i0swp8o", "c_root_id_B": "i0tdlnm", "created_at_utc_A": 1647379677, "created_at_utc_B": 1647386509, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Xenon flash bulbs can have extremely high power levels for very short duration. This source states as short as 10 microseconds.  Large old professional units can also have energies up to several tens of Joules.   What this means is that the peak output power may be in the range of *hundreds of kilowatts* or even megawatts. In addition to light exposure itself, this can very briefly heat up dark materials to surprisingly high temperatures, which can potentially cause some additional damage.  If you have an old xenon flash bulb, you can easily observe extremely brief heating effects yourself: flash it on a white surface, and on a black surface (with no transparent gloss over the black material). You will hear a louder \"pop\" sound when flashing onto the black surface, due to the air briefly expanding from the heat. It is most dramatic when using a soot covered surface (because it absorbs all the light very close to the surface, rather than deeper in, as less dark materials do).   I don't have a source for this simple demonstration but I done that demonstration myself numerous times.  edit: Source for energy claims states up to 80 J electrical energy stored in a capacitor, which even at 10% efficiency is still 8 J worth of light. Released in 10 microseconds, that would be 800 kilowatts (realistically, the time could be longer, but the curve is uneven and the peak power is higher than average power).   Basically, there is no way to predict long term effects from many flashes, across a wide variety of different artifacts using a wide variety of pigment types, so museums have to play it safe.", "human_ref_B": "While photonic damage to the works of art could have been a real thing back in the day, it just seems like it would be common courtesy to not be flashing bright lights in a gallery that many people around you may have traveled a few hours or more to get to purely for the visual experience.  I mean let them enjoy the view without the \"lightning\" flashes, right?  Like not talking during a string quartet concert.  No brainer", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6832.0, "score_ratio": 1.2631578947, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tty6fr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Not sure if this is exactly a science question but thought I\u2019d ask anyway. Are there any records of humans interacting with radioactive substances prior to its discovery? I\u2019m talking about records detailing what we now know could\u2019ve been significant radioactive sources or radioactivity-related injuries, any time between the first written record up until the first industrial revolution.", "c_root_id_A": "i31kctc", "c_root_id_B": "i31wvha", "created_at_utc_A": 1648853410, "created_at_utc_B": 1648859600, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 40, "human_ref_A": "Possibly.  The author states the he is skeptical of such claims about the art, but, OTOH, it would be unusual to depict people in that manner unless someone has seen such victims.  Another example.  Aborigines own regions in Australia with large deposits of uranium ore, but have turned down offers as high as $5B USD to mine the ore.  It seems they know to leave it alone.", "human_ref_B": "I can't answer your question properly so apologies in advance, but I immediately thought of the sad case of factory workers painting glow-in-the-dark watches ('Radium Girls'), 1930s.  Skin cancer is nothing new and has been described in the years BC, I don't think 'the Sun' fits your question but its obviously very old and very radioactive.  This line about Percival Pott and 1775 chimney sweeps might be relevant; coal is generally pretty spicy. I think 1775 is too late for you, but we were burning coal long before then.  The natural reactor is too interesting not to mention.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6190.0, "score_ratio": 1.0810810811, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tty6fr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Not sure if this is exactly a science question but thought I\u2019d ask anyway. Are there any records of humans interacting with radioactive substances prior to its discovery? I\u2019m talking about records detailing what we now know could\u2019ve been significant radioactive sources or radioactivity-related injuries, any time between the first written record up until the first industrial revolution.", "c_root_id_A": "i34sgap", "c_root_id_B": "i36196q", "created_at_utc_A": 1648922130, "created_at_utc_B": 1648943709, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Yes, they were. There are several \"radon spas\" such as in the austrian Bad Gastein which have a high concentration of the radioactive noble gas Radon. People have been unknowingly subjecting themselves to low-dose radiotherapy since the Middle Ages by bathing in these spas. Radon spa and low-dose radiotherapy in general are able to reduce chronic pain from arthritis and other chronic inflammatory conditions by modulating the immune response. Here's a paper on the topic.", "human_ref_B": "In the 16th-17th century it was noted that many silver/nickel miners in Saxony (Germany) would die of a disease which they called schneeberger krankheit (disease from schneeberg, which is a city in the area). The ore there is very rich in uranium which was not recognized at the time but extensively mined by the soviets later and the disease was probably lung cancer, due to prolonged radon inhalation. There is a German wikipedia page about it https://de.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schneeberger_Krankheit", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21579.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8dk08m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In the last 5-10 years, there\u2019s been tremendous efforts made by many of the first world countries to curb carbon emissions. Have we made a dent? Where do we stand on present day global carbon emissions vs say 10-20 years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dxo0c5v", "c_root_id_B": "dxnxgnn", "created_at_utc_A": 1524200558, "created_at_utc_B": 1524196587, "score_A": 247, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "I wouldn't call the effort made tremendous at all. The average person has made no sacrifice or changed their lifestyle in any way.   I'd say the effort made has been minimal, but even that's kinda generous. One of the most promising developments, solar energy, has only taken off because it just *happens* to be cheaper than other energies.   But, efforts *are* starting to be made, a bit late, but you have to start somewhere. These efforts have merely slowed the increase of CO2 emissions per year but those emissions are still going up.", "human_ref_B": "Simple answer is no.   But the real answer is vastly complex. For instance, emissions =/= concentration. Carbon has a positive feedback loop, so if we stopped emitting today, levels would continue to rise tomorrow. Plus carbon stays in the air a very long time, like 100 years long, so basically we are affecting people we will never meet.  Also countries like China are building like(not sure how current this is) two coal powerplants a week, or something like that. Coal isn't really a problem as much in more developed nations, since natural gas is more popular.   The real trick is to figure out how to reduce atmospheric levels while also switching to a renewable energy, meaning wind or solar.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3971.0, "score_ratio": 8.5172413793, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8dk08m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In the last 5-10 years, there\u2019s been tremendous efforts made by many of the first world countries to curb carbon emissions. Have we made a dent? Where do we stand on present day global carbon emissions vs say 10-20 years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dxo4scv", "c_root_id_B": "dxnxgnn", "created_at_utc_A": 1524208563, "created_at_utc_B": 1524196587, "score_A": 191, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Carbon emissions data is a really tricky subject and you have to be really careful with the graphs and data you read.   For example many countries are not reducing their absolute carbon emissions, but reducing emissions per GDP. In essence as Long as their GDP grows faster than their emissions they look like they are reducing their emissions. Some countries have really stepped up their game with Australia pledging 5% reductions regardless of the rest of the world. However, with increasing protectionism in large global players like USA, the global agreement and action is unlikely to take effect. Also, climate change is a really Long term problem with effects happening in 50-100 years. Most governments are only interested in maybe the next 20 years and reelection\u2019s so to them it isn\u2019t a big priority.   The IPCC AR5 report shows us that the danger of inaction now is likely to to cost magnitudes more than taking action now. But without global cooperation, CO2 is likely to exceed the 450ppm threshold that will allow us the time to adapt to climate change.   However it is a good to note that even if all emissions were to stop now, the temperature would continue to rise due to the delayed action of our carbon sinks. Also there are a bunch of cool geoengineering projects that people believe we can \u201cinnovate\u201d our way out of global warming like aerosol spraying and biosequestration using micro algae. So not all is lost, but much needs to be done. Whatever we are doing now is too little and too slow to avoid the deadliest impacts. We are on course for a more than 2 degree rise when the target is 1.5 degrees. There is a huge difference between them.", "human_ref_B": "Simple answer is no.   But the real answer is vastly complex. For instance, emissions =/= concentration. Carbon has a positive feedback loop, so if we stopped emitting today, levels would continue to rise tomorrow. Plus carbon stays in the air a very long time, like 100 years long, so basically we are affecting people we will never meet.  Also countries like China are building like(not sure how current this is) two coal powerplants a week, or something like that. Coal isn't really a problem as much in more developed nations, since natural gas is more popular.   The real trick is to figure out how to reduce atmospheric levels while also switching to a renewable energy, meaning wind or solar.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11976.0, "score_ratio": 6.5862068966, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8dk08m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In the last 5-10 years, there\u2019s been tremendous efforts made by many of the first world countries to curb carbon emissions. Have we made a dent? Where do we stand on present day global carbon emissions vs say 10-20 years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dxo4scv", "c_root_id_B": "dxo449r", "created_at_utc_A": 1524208563, "created_at_utc_B": 1524207186, "score_A": 191, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Carbon emissions data is a really tricky subject and you have to be really careful with the graphs and data you read.   For example many countries are not reducing their absolute carbon emissions, but reducing emissions per GDP. In essence as Long as their GDP grows faster than their emissions they look like they are reducing their emissions. Some countries have really stepped up their game with Australia pledging 5% reductions regardless of the rest of the world. However, with increasing protectionism in large global players like USA, the global agreement and action is unlikely to take effect. Also, climate change is a really Long term problem with effects happening in 50-100 years. Most governments are only interested in maybe the next 20 years and reelection\u2019s so to them it isn\u2019t a big priority.   The IPCC AR5 report shows us that the danger of inaction now is likely to to cost magnitudes more than taking action now. But without global cooperation, CO2 is likely to exceed the 450ppm threshold that will allow us the time to adapt to climate change.   However it is a good to note that even if all emissions were to stop now, the temperature would continue to rise due to the delayed action of our carbon sinks. Also there are a bunch of cool geoengineering projects that people believe we can \u201cinnovate\u201d our way out of global warming like aerosol spraying and biosequestration using micro algae. So not all is lost, but much needs to be done. Whatever we are doing now is too little and too slow to avoid the deadliest impacts. We are on course for a more than 2 degree rise when the target is 1.5 degrees. There is a huge difference between them.", "human_ref_B": "pfft.  no, not even that.  what's been done is coming up with \"solutions\" people can feasibly do with no significant sacrifice, and then lots of patting ourselves on the back for half-assing it, hoping that after time we'll progress towards actually making reductions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1377.0, "score_ratio": 7.0740740741, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8dk08m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In the last 5-10 years, there\u2019s been tremendous efforts made by many of the first world countries to curb carbon emissions. Have we made a dent? Where do we stand on present day global carbon emissions vs say 10-20 years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dxnxgnn", "c_root_id_B": "dxo7x9t", "created_at_utc_A": 1524196587, "created_at_utc_B": 1524215808, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Simple answer is no.   But the real answer is vastly complex. For instance, emissions =/= concentration. Carbon has a positive feedback loop, so if we stopped emitting today, levels would continue to rise tomorrow. Plus carbon stays in the air a very long time, like 100 years long, so basically we are affecting people we will never meet.  Also countries like China are building like(not sure how current this is) two coal powerplants a week, or something like that. Coal isn't really a problem as much in more developed nations, since natural gas is more popular.   The real trick is to figure out how to reduce atmospheric levels while also switching to a renewable energy, meaning wind or solar.", "human_ref_B": "Don't worry, we all committed to keep the warning to 1.5C in Paris, right ?    So far, assuming that every country meet their respective commitments :  Full implementation of the unconditional NDCs and comparable action afterwards is consistent with a temperature **increase** of about **3.2\u00b0C** by 2100.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19221.0, "score_ratio": 1.0344827586, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8dk08m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In the last 5-10 years, there\u2019s been tremendous efforts made by many of the first world countries to curb carbon emissions. Have we made a dent? Where do we stand on present day global carbon emissions vs say 10-20 years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dxo449r", "c_root_id_B": "dxo7x9t", "created_at_utc_A": 1524207186, "created_at_utc_B": 1524215808, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "pfft.  no, not even that.  what's been done is coming up with \"solutions\" people can feasibly do with no significant sacrifice, and then lots of patting ourselves on the back for half-assing it, hoping that after time we'll progress towards actually making reductions.", "human_ref_B": "Don't worry, we all committed to keep the warning to 1.5C in Paris, right ?    So far, assuming that every country meet their respective commitments :  Full implementation of the unconditional NDCs and comparable action afterwards is consistent with a temperature **increase** of about **3.2\u00b0C** by 2100.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8622.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8dk08m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In the last 5-10 years, there\u2019s been tremendous efforts made by many of the first world countries to curb carbon emissions. Have we made a dent? Where do we stand on present day global carbon emissions vs say 10-20 years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dxo4vke", "c_root_id_B": "dxo7x9t", "created_at_utc_A": 1524208745, "created_at_utc_B": 1524215808, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "carbon emissions will go down when alternatives are cheaper.  were actually getting really close, Coal is just about to be passed by Solar, and if Battery Tech gets a bit cheaper electric cars will be a lot more affordable than gas cars.  and if the new research in Thorium Reactors actually pans out, we could find ourselfs with mostly clean energy in 20-30 years", "human_ref_B": "Don't worry, we all committed to keep the warning to 1.5C in Paris, right ?    So far, assuming that every country meet their respective commitments :  Full implementation of the unconditional NDCs and comparable action afterwards is consistent with a temperature **increase** of about **3.2\u00b0C** by 2100.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7063.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8dk08m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In the last 5-10 years, there\u2019s been tremendous efforts made by many of the first world countries to curb carbon emissions. Have we made a dent? Where do we stand on present day global carbon emissions vs say 10-20 years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dxogy85", "c_root_id_B": "dxo449r", "created_at_utc_A": 1524230782, "created_at_utc_B": 1524207186, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "I did my PhD on a particular aspect of the economics of climate change so please take the following statement with that grain of salt.  In a nutshell.  Advanced economies have been de-carbonising for a couple of decades at least (even without actual policy effort, it is something advanced economies do). This will keep happening, that is a good thing.  The scary thing is these advanced economies got to that point by basically being crackheads on carbon to get to the advanced stage.  If China and India follow the exact same path then the globe is toast. We are all relying on China and India to find a different path to economic prosperity.  China knows this, they actually know there are not enough resources on the planet for their population to prosper. This is not even considering climate change. China know they need to find a different path.  That is a big part of the battle. It will be a battle though.  My main hope is that technology will get us all out of the worst of it just in time.  But that is hope.", "human_ref_B": "pfft.  no, not even that.  what's been done is coming up with \"solutions\" people can feasibly do with no significant sacrifice, and then lots of patting ourselves on the back for half-assing it, hoping that after time we'll progress towards actually making reductions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23596.0, "score_ratio": 1.0740740741, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8dk08m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In the last 5-10 years, there\u2019s been tremendous efforts made by many of the first world countries to curb carbon emissions. Have we made a dent? Where do we stand on present day global carbon emissions vs say 10-20 years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dxogy85", "c_root_id_B": "dxo4vke", "created_at_utc_A": 1524230782, "created_at_utc_B": 1524208745, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "I did my PhD on a particular aspect of the economics of climate change so please take the following statement with that grain of salt.  In a nutshell.  Advanced economies have been de-carbonising for a couple of decades at least (even without actual policy effort, it is something advanced economies do). This will keep happening, that is a good thing.  The scary thing is these advanced economies got to that point by basically being crackheads on carbon to get to the advanced stage.  If China and India follow the exact same path then the globe is toast. We are all relying on China and India to find a different path to economic prosperity.  China knows this, they actually know there are not enough resources on the planet for their population to prosper. This is not even considering climate change. China know they need to find a different path.  That is a big part of the battle. It will be a battle though.  My main hope is that technology will get us all out of the worst of it just in time.  But that is hope.", "human_ref_B": "carbon emissions will go down when alternatives are cheaper.  were actually getting really close, Coal is just about to be passed by Solar, and if Battery Tech gets a bit cheaper electric cars will be a lot more affordable than gas cars.  and if the new research in Thorium Reactors actually pans out, we could find ourselfs with mostly clean energy in 20-30 years", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22037.0, "score_ratio": 1.380952381, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kef0kf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Does a photon travel more than 1 billion light years in 1 billion years due to the expansion of space?   Assuming we shoot a photon out into space, it would go 1 light year after 1 year, and 1 million light years after 1 million years.  Because after that the expansion of space is noticeable, would photon be farther than 1 billion light years after 1 billion years?  Does the expansion of space (Hubble flow) carry the photon forward?", "c_root_id_A": "gg50nr3", "c_root_id_B": "gg4tfay", "created_at_utc_A": 1608211759, "created_at_utc_B": 1608205805, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "A photon would travel exactly one billion light years in one billion years.  At the same time after a billion years, the photon would not yet reach the point that was one billion light years away when departing.  Finally, the photon would also be more than a billion light years away from the origin after a billion years.  The thing with traveling through expanding universe is that only distances scale up over time, while everything else remains the same. A great analog of that would be a balloon if you are taking a picture of it, you can ma\u0142e it bigger by zooming in (this is what would happen if everything would scale up with space) or you can blow more air into it (this is expansion). If our 1 billion years of a photon flight would be represented by a \"1 billion light years\" long string, in the first case you could still stretch the string between the same two spots on the balloon, but if you blow more air and expand the balloon, the string wi\u0142 no longer be long enough.  Now to your original question: your photon \"string\" is not attached to any of the points on the balloon, but for a lack of better analog, it's more like tied to the middle point than any of the ends. The photon path after all that time is still 1 billion light years long, despite the origin being further away than originally and the destination being further away than it was at the moment of departure.", "human_ref_B": "I would like to ask a follow up question since I actually thought about this a few days ago:  If Space is expanding wouldn't measurement Unit also expand with it? Meaning even when space expands it doesn't actually have any effect? Then again, is Matter affected by the expansion the same way space is?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5954.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xm05zf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "One of the first things we learn in chemistry class is that mass stays the same in closed system, so where does the energy come from when there's enthalpy variation? Take for example   2 H\u00b2 + O\u00b2 -> 2 H\u00b2O  This is a combustion, so there's energy being released, and whenever there's energy coming from matter, I'd assume E = mc\u00b2 comes into play.  But from what I've learned in school, and also the result I get when I try googling this problem, is that the mass *does not* change at all, and it makes sense, if you put 4 mol of hydrogen and 2 mol of oxygen in, you'd expect the same amount out with their respective masses.  But if that's the case, where does the energy released come from? Is that some sort of potential energy I'm not aware about?", "c_root_id_A": "iplzvqf", "c_root_id_B": "ipn1fn9", "created_at_utc_A": 1663949478, "created_at_utc_B": 1663966075, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 49, "human_ref_A": "If energy is released from the system then the system isn't closed after all. The mass drops by an amount equivalent to the energy released, which is infinitesimal: it can be calculated but it cannot be measured for lack of sufficiently accurate instrumentation. But if you contain this energy somehow then the total mass, including the equivalent \"mass\" of the energy, remains constant.", "human_ref_B": "The binding energy of a stable chemical bond does indeed count as a mass deficit. The reason you can't find any change is because the change in mass involved is incredibly tiny, even for atomic scales.  Hydrogen combustion releases 285.8 kJ/mol, which means 4.748e-22 kJ per reaction, or 0.296 eV per reaction, equivalent to a mass change of 0.296 eV/c\\^2.  A hydrogen molecule and half an oxygen molecule have a combined mass of 18.015 amu, or 16,780,000,000 eV/c\\^2, plus or minus a few hundred thousand eV/c\\^2.  The change in mass is on the order of 10 parts per trillion, so you'd need to get the masses of these molecules to around 12 digits of precision in order to see any change at all.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16597.0, "score_ratio": 4.4545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xm05zf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "One of the first things we learn in chemistry class is that mass stays the same in closed system, so where does the energy come from when there's enthalpy variation? Take for example   2 H\u00b2 + O\u00b2 -> 2 H\u00b2O  This is a combustion, so there's energy being released, and whenever there's energy coming from matter, I'd assume E = mc\u00b2 comes into play.  But from what I've learned in school, and also the result I get when I try googling this problem, is that the mass *does not* change at all, and it makes sense, if you put 4 mol of hydrogen and 2 mol of oxygen in, you'd expect the same amount out with their respective masses.  But if that's the case, where does the energy released come from? Is that some sort of potential energy I'm not aware about?", "c_root_id_A": "ipm7of3", "c_root_id_B": "ipn1fn9", "created_at_utc_A": 1663952910, "created_at_utc_B": 1663966075, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 49, "human_ref_A": "The orbitals of both merge, which have a lower total energy than them being seperate. It's potential energy being released. E=mc\u00b2 is applied when you e.g. fuse hydrogen into helium or split atoms. That's when you have a mass change and a lot of energy/mass is converted.", "human_ref_B": "The binding energy of a stable chemical bond does indeed count as a mass deficit. The reason you can't find any change is because the change in mass involved is incredibly tiny, even for atomic scales.  Hydrogen combustion releases 285.8 kJ/mol, which means 4.748e-22 kJ per reaction, or 0.296 eV per reaction, equivalent to a mass change of 0.296 eV/c\\^2.  A hydrogen molecule and half an oxygen molecule have a combined mass of 18.015 amu, or 16,780,000,000 eV/c\\^2, plus or minus a few hundred thousand eV/c\\^2.  The change in mass is on the order of 10 parts per trillion, so you'd need to get the masses of these molecules to around 12 digits of precision in order to see any change at all.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13165.0, "score_ratio": 49000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xm05zf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "One of the first things we learn in chemistry class is that mass stays the same in closed system, so where does the energy come from when there's enthalpy variation? Take for example   2 H\u00b2 + O\u00b2 -> 2 H\u00b2O  This is a combustion, so there's energy being released, and whenever there's energy coming from matter, I'd assume E = mc\u00b2 comes into play.  But from what I've learned in school, and also the result I get when I try googling this problem, is that the mass *does not* change at all, and it makes sense, if you put 4 mol of hydrogen and 2 mol of oxygen in, you'd expect the same amount out with their respective masses.  But if that's the case, where does the energy released come from? Is that some sort of potential energy I'm not aware about?", "c_root_id_A": "ipm7of3", "c_root_id_B": "ippb33b", "created_at_utc_A": 1663952910, "created_at_utc_B": 1664015887, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The orbitals of both merge, which have a lower total energy than them being seperate. It's potential energy being released. E=mc\u00b2 is applied when you e.g. fuse hydrogen into helium or split atoms. That's when you have a mass change and a lot of energy/mass is converted.", "human_ref_B": "Conservation of mass in a chemical reaction is an approximation. A very precise one that\u2019s more than good enough for chemistry.  This is not something special about conservation of mass. *All scientific laws are approximations.* How precise a law is depends on the situation it\u2019s applied in. Some of them are so good we haven\u2019t yet measured any deviation from the prediction, but that doesn\u2019t necessarily mean those laws are \u201ctrue\u201d or \u201creal\u201d or \u201cactually \u201c.  In school, lots of what you learn in science will be these approximations. For some of them, if you continue in the sciences at university you will learn more complicated and precise laws. But because the more approximate laws can be simpler they are often still used. Most spaceflight uses Newtonian gravity for the calculations even though general relativity is more precise, because Newtonian gravity is precise enough. On the other hand GPS does need to use relativity calculations to work.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 62977.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xm05zf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "One of the first things we learn in chemistry class is that mass stays the same in closed system, so where does the energy come from when there's enthalpy variation? Take for example   2 H\u00b2 + O\u00b2 -> 2 H\u00b2O  This is a combustion, so there's energy being released, and whenever there's energy coming from matter, I'd assume E = mc\u00b2 comes into play.  But from what I've learned in school, and also the result I get when I try googling this problem, is that the mass *does not* change at all, and it makes sense, if you put 4 mol of hydrogen and 2 mol of oxygen in, you'd expect the same amount out with their respective masses.  But if that's the case, where does the energy released come from? Is that some sort of potential energy I'm not aware about?", "c_root_id_A": "ipp61se", "c_root_id_B": "ippb33b", "created_at_utc_A": 1664011492, "created_at_utc_B": 1664015887, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The energy comes from releasing an energy in a chemical bond & forming another bond of less energy with it, so deficit energy is released as heat. There is some energy associated with a chemical bond that holds it together, when the bond breaks, this energy is released.  The molecules don't just sit while a reaction is taking place. If you break a bond violently, the molecules in it drift apart with a high kinetic energy & they collide with other things & transfer some of that kinetic energy to them. It is that energy obtained as heat.   When you put your hand in a boiled water, the reason why you feel heat is because those water molecules are very fast, they are violently moving & colliding in a process transferring some of kinetic energy to the molecules of glass & that of your hand, this is called as heat.", "human_ref_B": "Conservation of mass in a chemical reaction is an approximation. A very precise one that\u2019s more than good enough for chemistry.  This is not something special about conservation of mass. *All scientific laws are approximations.* How precise a law is depends on the situation it\u2019s applied in. Some of them are so good we haven\u2019t yet measured any deviation from the prediction, but that doesn\u2019t necessarily mean those laws are \u201ctrue\u201d or \u201creal\u201d or \u201cactually \u201c.  In school, lots of what you learn in science will be these approximations. For some of them, if you continue in the sciences at university you will learn more complicated and precise laws. But because the more approximate laws can be simpler they are often still used. Most spaceflight uses Newtonian gravity for the calculations even though general relativity is more precise, because Newtonian gravity is precise enough. On the other hand GPS does need to use relativity calculations to work.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4395.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xm05zf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "One of the first things we learn in chemistry class is that mass stays the same in closed system, so where does the energy come from when there's enthalpy variation? Take for example   2 H\u00b2 + O\u00b2 -> 2 H\u00b2O  This is a combustion, so there's energy being released, and whenever there's energy coming from matter, I'd assume E = mc\u00b2 comes into play.  But from what I've learned in school, and also the result I get when I try googling this problem, is that the mass *does not* change at all, and it makes sense, if you put 4 mol of hydrogen and 2 mol of oxygen in, you'd expect the same amount out with their respective masses.  But if that's the case, where does the energy released come from? Is that some sort of potential energy I'm not aware about?", "c_root_id_A": "ipppx1a", "c_root_id_B": "ipm7of3", "created_at_utc_A": 1664025686, "created_at_utc_B": 1663952910, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The energy comes from the breaking of bonds and the forming of new bonds. If the new bonds are lower in energy than the old bonds, then energy has been released in that process. E = mc\\^2 simply is a statement that mass and energy can be thought of as equivalent concepts. In other words, the released energy can be conceptualized as mass.", "human_ref_B": "The orbitals of both merge, which have a lower total energy than them being seperate. It's potential energy being released. E=mc\u00b2 is applied when you e.g. fuse hydrogen into helium or split atoms. That's when you have a mass change and a lot of energy/mass is converted.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 72776.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xm05zf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "One of the first things we learn in chemistry class is that mass stays the same in closed system, so where does the energy come from when there's enthalpy variation? Take for example   2 H\u00b2 + O\u00b2 -> 2 H\u00b2O  This is a combustion, so there's energy being released, and whenever there's energy coming from matter, I'd assume E = mc\u00b2 comes into play.  But from what I've learned in school, and also the result I get when I try googling this problem, is that the mass *does not* change at all, and it makes sense, if you put 4 mol of hydrogen and 2 mol of oxygen in, you'd expect the same amount out with their respective masses.  But if that's the case, where does the energy released come from? Is that some sort of potential energy I'm not aware about?", "c_root_id_A": "ipp61se", "c_root_id_B": "ipppx1a", "created_at_utc_A": 1664011492, "created_at_utc_B": 1664025686, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The energy comes from releasing an energy in a chemical bond & forming another bond of less energy with it, so deficit energy is released as heat. There is some energy associated with a chemical bond that holds it together, when the bond breaks, this energy is released.  The molecules don't just sit while a reaction is taking place. If you break a bond violently, the molecules in it drift apart with a high kinetic energy & they collide with other things & transfer some of that kinetic energy to them. It is that energy obtained as heat.   When you put your hand in a boiled water, the reason why you feel heat is because those water molecules are very fast, they are violently moving & colliding in a process transferring some of kinetic energy to the molecules of glass & that of your hand, this is called as heat.", "human_ref_B": "The energy comes from the breaking of bonds and the forming of new bonds. If the new bonds are lower in energy than the old bonds, then energy has been released in that process. E = mc\\^2 simply is a statement that mass and energy can be thought of as equivalent concepts. In other words, the released energy can be conceptualized as mass.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14194.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "eoxfkh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Would we be able to see the landing gear left behind on the moon by the Apollo missions with a telescope to prove we landed there? I'm not a landing denier/doubter. Just had a good view of the moon while driving home and thought about this.", "c_root_id_A": "fegbv9a", "c_root_id_B": "feg9b29", "created_at_utc_A": 1579086806, "created_at_utc_B": 1579083252, "score_A": 46, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "*Technically speaking*, yes, but the aperture of the telescope would have to be **very, very big**.  Let's start by ignoring atmospheric distortion of light, light pollution, bad weather, and what not. Everyone know physics is really about spherical cows in a vacuum.  In order to determine the resolution of a telescope you use the Rayleigh criterion, which says that two point sources of light can be resolved from each other if the angular distance \u03b8 between exceeds a certain number. If not, the blur together. The criterion can be expressed as  sin \u03b8 = k\\*\u03bb / D  where \u03bb is the wavelength of the light, D is the diameter of the aperture, and k = 1.2197. You can rearrange this as  D = k\\*\u03bb / sin \u03b8  Now, the Apollo 11 Lunar Module is 9.4 meters at its widest point (landing gear). The average distance from the Earth to the Moon is somewhere around 385 000 km or 3.85 \\* 10^(8) meters. Visible light has a wavelength of 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red), but let's use 400 nm as that will give us the smallest possible aperture for our giant telescope.  Substituting the numbers gives  D = 1.2197 \\* 4 \\* 10^(-7) m / (9.4 m / 3.85 \\* 10^(8) m) **= 19.98 m**  This might not seem like a huge number but the largest optical telescope at the moment, at least according to Wikipedia, has an aperture of 11.8 m. Also, keep in mind that we made some pretty out there simplifications and assumptions and that this number is the *smallest possible* aperture for *barely* being able to distinguish to *violet* lights at *opposite ends of the landing gear*.  If we do the same calculations, but instead look at red light (700 nm) at opposite ends of the actual module (4.2 m), the aperture would have to be **78.26 m**. Keep in mind that this number is the bare minimum if you want to be able to just barely distinguish two red lights from one another, and it won't give you a clear image of anything. Wanna be able to distinguish one red line from another on a one by two meters American flag? Your telescope needs to have a diameter of almost **two kilometers**.", "human_ref_B": "A while back I was pretty involved in an astronomy forum and the question was often posed, how big of a telescope would be needed to see the US flag on the moon? The answer was, at that time, with the given pixel size of cameras being what they were circa 2008 let's say, that you would need a Reflecting telescope about 1320 feet wide to get the US flag (5'x3') to show up as a single pixel in a photo.   That would mean that same telescope/camera would probably be able to get the landing gear which is 31'(diagonally?) in a 5x5 pixel square.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3554.0, "score_ratio": 5.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8r1ksw", "c_root_id_B": "d8ra6no", "created_at_utc_A": 1476404363, "created_at_utc_B": 1476415711, "score_A": 694, "score_B": 1609, "human_ref_A": "There are very exciting things on the horizon in nuclear physics. A new facility called FRIB is currently being built, and it will allow us to study lots of new nuclei that have never been produced before. FRIB is going to be a big linear accelerator which will be used to produce beams of radioactive nuclei which we can then shoot at a target and make measurements.  These new nuclei that it will be able to produce are not your superheavies that recently made headlines, but they're nuclei very far from stability. Basically, nuclei with *extreme* neutron to proton ratios.  FRIB will go online in the early 2020s. The number of new nuclei it's expected to be able to produce is enormous (see slide 28 here).  None of these individual nuclei is as big of a deal as a Higgs boson, but I think if you take into account how many there are, it starts to add up.  This is a *huge* deal in nuclear physics, although probably not really in other subfields of physics.  Here's another set of slides which goes into the exciting things on the horizon for nuclear physics.", "human_ref_B": "The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is launching in 2018.  Just think about how much the Hubble Space Telescope has discovered in 20 years, and think of having a telescope with 7x more light collection.  Plus JWST will work in infrared which is much more advantageous for seeing through dust clouds.  With this we will get much more detailed findings on exoplanets and for the first time detect liquid water.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11348.0, "score_ratio": 2.318443804, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8ra6no", "c_root_id_B": "d8r8ahk", "created_at_utc_A": 1476415711, "created_at_utc_B": 1476413183, "score_A": 1609, "score_B": 310, "human_ref_A": "The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is launching in 2018.  Just think about how much the Hubble Space Telescope has discovered in 20 years, and think of having a telescope with 7x more light collection.  Plus JWST will work in infrared which is much more advantageous for seeing through dust clouds.  With this we will get much more detailed findings on exoplanets and for the first time detect liquid water.", "human_ref_B": "Single-molecule imaging is on the horizon at XFEL facilities. I'm not sure if anyone's suggested a timeframe at this stage, but a lot of people are talking about it.   This would huge for structural biology as it would permit solving of protein structures that can't be crystallised (lots).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2528.0, "score_ratio": 5.1903225806, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8r4nej", "c_root_id_B": "d8ra6no", "created_at_utc_A": 1476408410, "created_at_utc_B": 1476415711, "score_A": 189, "score_B": 1609, "human_ref_A": "After ATLAS and CMS found the Higgs boson, it was basically going into \"here be dragons\" territory, and it didn't find any dragons. Lots of analysis went into determining whether it had detected superpartners or signs of extra dimensions or whatnot, but it hasn't so far. Last year there was hubbub about hints of a very large particle, but it turned out to be a statistical fluke.", "human_ref_B": "The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is launching in 2018.  Just think about how much the Hubble Space Telescope has discovered in 20 years, and think of having a telescope with 7x more light collection.  Plus JWST will work in infrared which is much more advantageous for seeing through dust clouds.  With this we will get much more detailed findings on exoplanets and for the first time detect liquid water.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7301.0, "score_ratio": 8.5132275132, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8ra6no", "c_root_id_B": "d8r9pq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1476415711, "created_at_utc_B": 1476415080, "score_A": 1609, "score_B": 174, "human_ref_A": "The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is launching in 2018.  Just think about how much the Hubble Space Telescope has discovered in 20 years, and think of having a telescope with 7x more light collection.  Plus JWST will work in infrared which is much more advantageous for seeing through dust clouds.  With this we will get much more detailed findings on exoplanets and for the first time detect liquid water.", "human_ref_B": "Possible life on Jupers Moon Europa. Europa has one of the highest probabilities of sustaining (at least microbial) life in the solar system. Even though its is not in the habitable zone, heat is generated inside of Europa from tidal flexing. The irregular shape and orbit squashes and stretches the icy moon creating a subsurface ocean; the perfect conditions necessary for life. Nasa is launching a mission in the 2020s, you can read more about it here: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/europa-mission/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 631.0, "score_ratio": 9.2471264368, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8ra6no", "c_root_id_B": "d8r8zjs", "created_at_utc_A": 1476415711, "created_at_utc_B": 1476414095, "score_A": 1609, "score_B": 100, "human_ref_A": "The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is launching in 2018.  Just think about how much the Hubble Space Telescope has discovered in 20 years, and think of having a telescope with 7x more light collection.  Plus JWST will work in infrared which is much more advantageous for seeing through dust clouds.  With this we will get much more detailed findings on exoplanets and for the first time detect liquid water.", "human_ref_B": "There are (hopfully soon) going to be big things happening with Nuclear Fusion as a source of power. The LLNL National Ignition Facility has been operating for quite a few years now, but they have yet to really achieve a net gain fusion reaction. They also conducted a bunch of research on material properties and improving our nuclear waste situation. The facility is currently going through some upgrades so we'll see if they can achieve fusion in the future.   Then ITER has kind of the same goal, sustained nuclear fusion for large scale energy production, but uses a different devie to acheive fusion.   Both of these concepts are extremely clean energy and basically make relatively small amounts of helium as their waste.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1616.0, "score_ratio": 16.09, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8r4nej", "c_root_id_B": "d8r8ahk", "created_at_utc_A": 1476408410, "created_at_utc_B": 1476413183, "score_A": 189, "score_B": 310, "human_ref_A": "After ATLAS and CMS found the Higgs boson, it was basically going into \"here be dragons\" territory, and it didn't find any dragons. Lots of analysis went into determining whether it had detected superpartners or signs of extra dimensions or whatnot, but it hasn't so far. Last year there was hubbub about hints of a very large particle, but it turned out to be a statistical fluke.", "human_ref_B": "Single-molecule imaging is on the horizon at XFEL facilities. I'm not sure if anyone's suggested a timeframe at this stage, but a lot of people are talking about it.   This would huge for structural biology as it would permit solving of protein structures that can't be crystallised (lots).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4773.0, "score_ratio": 1.6402116402, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8rak4g", "c_root_id_B": "d8r4nej", "created_at_utc_A": 1476416266, "created_at_utc_B": 1476408410, "score_A": 201, "score_B": 189, "human_ref_A": "Six months ago, you could have said LIGO or LISA for the first detection of gravitational waves. But i guess you can still say that they will start marking out the territory on the gravitational wave map of the universe. (Including compact binaries, solar mass, intermediate mass, and super massive black holes, and the gravitational wave background from inflation.)", "human_ref_B": "After ATLAS and CMS found the Higgs boson, it was basically going into \"here be dragons\" territory, and it didn't find any dragons. Lots of analysis went into determining whether it had detected superpartners or signs of extra dimensions or whatnot, but it hasn't so far. Last year there was hubbub about hints of a very large particle, but it turned out to be a statistical fluke.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7856.0, "score_ratio": 1.0634920635, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8r9pq9", "c_root_id_B": "d8rak4g", "created_at_utc_A": 1476415080, "created_at_utc_B": 1476416266, "score_A": 174, "score_B": 201, "human_ref_A": "Possible life on Jupers Moon Europa. Europa has one of the highest probabilities of sustaining (at least microbial) life in the solar system. Even though its is not in the habitable zone, heat is generated inside of Europa from tidal flexing. The irregular shape and orbit squashes and stretches the icy moon creating a subsurface ocean; the perfect conditions necessary for life. Nasa is launching a mission in the 2020s, you can read more about it here: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/europa-mission/", "human_ref_B": "Six months ago, you could have said LIGO or LISA for the first detection of gravitational waves. But i guess you can still say that they will start marking out the territory on the gravitational wave map of the universe. (Including compact binaries, solar mass, intermediate mass, and super massive black holes, and the gravitational wave background from inflation.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1186.0, "score_ratio": 1.1551724138, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8rak4g", "c_root_id_B": "d8r8zjs", "created_at_utc_A": 1476416266, "created_at_utc_B": 1476414095, "score_A": 201, "score_B": 100, "human_ref_A": "Six months ago, you could have said LIGO or LISA for the first detection of gravitational waves. But i guess you can still say that they will start marking out the territory on the gravitational wave map of the universe. (Including compact binaries, solar mass, intermediate mass, and super massive black holes, and the gravitational wave background from inflation.)", "human_ref_B": "There are (hopfully soon) going to be big things happening with Nuclear Fusion as a source of power. The LLNL National Ignition Facility has been operating for quite a few years now, but they have yet to really achieve a net gain fusion reaction. They also conducted a bunch of research on material properties and improving our nuclear waste situation. The facility is currently going through some upgrades so we'll see if they can achieve fusion in the future.   Then ITER has kind of the same goal, sustained nuclear fusion for large scale energy production, but uses a different devie to acheive fusion.   Both of these concepts are extremely clean energy and basically make relatively small amounts of helium as their waste.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2171.0, "score_ratio": 2.01, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8r9pq9", "c_root_id_B": "d8r8zjs", "created_at_utc_A": 1476415080, "created_at_utc_B": 1476414095, "score_A": 174, "score_B": 100, "human_ref_A": "Possible life on Jupers Moon Europa. Europa has one of the highest probabilities of sustaining (at least microbial) life in the solar system. Even though its is not in the habitable zone, heat is generated inside of Europa from tidal flexing. The irregular shape and orbit squashes and stretches the icy moon creating a subsurface ocean; the perfect conditions necessary for life. Nasa is launching a mission in the 2020s, you can read more about it here: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/europa-mission/", "human_ref_B": "There are (hopfully soon) going to be big things happening with Nuclear Fusion as a source of power. The LLNL National Ignition Facility has been operating for quite a few years now, but they have yet to really achieve a net gain fusion reaction. They also conducted a bunch of research on material properties and improving our nuclear waste situation. The facility is currently going through some upgrades so we'll see if they can achieve fusion in the future.   Then ITER has kind of the same goal, sustained nuclear fusion for large scale energy production, but uses a different devie to acheive fusion.   Both of these concepts are extremely clean energy and basically make relatively small amounts of helium as their waste.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 985.0, "score_ratio": 1.74, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "57cogh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "When the LHC was created there was an expectation that it would lead to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Do we have any similar discoveries we are expecting to make in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "d8re5y4", "c_root_id_B": "d8rhhed", "created_at_utc_A": 1476422548, "created_at_utc_B": 1476431146, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 58, "human_ref_A": "The International Pulsar Timing Array (IPTA) is expected to detect the gravitational wave background some time in the next decade.  Gravitational waves are quite hard to detect and we've only recently had the capability to detect them at all. You may have heard of the recent detection of gravitational waves from LIGO. Those were produced by the merger of two black holes which is obviously quite large and releases a lot of energy. However, most binary systems are constantly emitting gravitational radiation, it's just waaaaay less energetic than emission from a merger. Think of it like only being able to detect a faint star after it goes supernova. The goal of IPTA is to detect the gravitational wave background - the sum of all the really tiny gravitational waves emitted by basically everything. Now that sum is still really tiny and our current instruments aren't sensitive enough to get close to the predicted strength of the gravitational wave background, but they're rapidly improving and it'll happen soon.", "human_ref_B": "Not quite as sexy as nuclear physics, but there are a number of huge cohort studies on human population genetics. We know extraordinarily little about how our genetic material compares to the global population. The cost of sequencing a genome had collapsed in recent years, affording the opportunity to study population genomics at a massive scale", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8598.0, "score_ratio": 2.2307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egx0jtf", "c_root_id_B": "egvjuul", "created_at_utc_A": 1550706958, "created_at_utc_B": 1550670245, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What are your thoughts on the politicisation of science, in particular scientists suddenly being thrust into debates that have turned political (I'm thinking: climate science, for example)? Tips for scientists trying to communicate their work to as broad an audience with as little hate as possible?", "human_ref_B": "What institutional changes do you recommend?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 36713.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egwa3kk", "c_root_id_B": "egx0jtf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550688985, "created_at_utc_B": 1550706958, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "A lot of article headlines at least seem to display normal media tendencies towards clickbait and misrepresented facts. What sort of quality control do you have over published content?", "human_ref_B": "What are your thoughts on the politicisation of science, in particular scientists suddenly being thrust into debates that have turned political (I'm thinking: climate science, for example)? Tips for scientists trying to communicate their work to as broad an audience with as little hate as possible?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17973.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egwxlp0", "c_root_id_B": "egx0jtf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550704761, "created_at_utc_B": 1550706958, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "You all do some cool things with art. I \u2764\ufe0fL O V E D \u2764\ufe0f the Reanimation! series from last year! Both the art and the science blew my mind. I also loved the Women in Science Tarot Deck but missed snagging a deck! \ud83d\ude43 Will there be more opportunities to get a tarot deck and what other fun art projects are you hatching?", "human_ref_B": "What are your thoughts on the politicisation of science, in particular scientists suddenly being thrust into debates that have turned political (I'm thinking: climate science, for example)? Tips for scientists trying to communicate their work to as broad an audience with as little hate as possible?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2197.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egvzimf", "c_root_id_B": "egx0jtf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550682023, "created_at_utc_B": 1550706958, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "So glad this exists. As a scientist, educator, and somebody who has been teaching science communication & storytelling for almost 2 decades, this makes me incredibly happy to see.   What ways do you see your program reaching the \u201cbest\u201d audiences for your material?  One of my main focuses on bridging the gap is through techniques found in improvisational theatre.  What are fun ways you like to bring out stories?  (Also, maybe we should talk sometime and do something together!)", "human_ref_B": "What are your thoughts on the politicisation of science, in particular scientists suddenly being thrust into debates that have turned political (I'm thinking: climate science, for example)? Tips for scientists trying to communicate their work to as broad an audience with as little hate as possible?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24935.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egx0jtf", "c_root_id_B": "egvrdrf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550706958, "created_at_utc_B": 1550676346, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "What are your thoughts on the politicisation of science, in particular scientists suddenly being thrust into debates that have turned political (I'm thinking: climate science, for example)? Tips for scientists trying to communicate their work to as broad an audience with as little hate as possible?", "human_ref_B": "Should we change our government system to put scientists in charge or will that just bring a whole new set of issues?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30612.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egwa3kk", "c_root_id_B": "egvzimf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550688985, "created_at_utc_B": 1550682023, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A lot of article headlines at least seem to display normal media tendencies towards clickbait and misrepresented facts. What sort of quality control do you have over published content?", "human_ref_B": "So glad this exists. As a scientist, educator, and somebody who has been teaching science communication & storytelling for almost 2 decades, this makes me incredibly happy to see.   What ways do you see your program reaching the \u201cbest\u201d audiences for your material?  One of my main focuses on bridging the gap is through techniques found in improvisational theatre.  What are fun ways you like to bring out stories?  (Also, maybe we should talk sometime and do something together!)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6962.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egvrdrf", "c_root_id_B": "egwa3kk", "created_at_utc_A": 1550676346, "created_at_utc_B": 1550688985, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Should we change our government system to put scientists in charge or will that just bring a whole new set of issues?", "human_ref_B": "A lot of article headlines at least seem to display normal media tendencies towards clickbait and misrepresented facts. What sort of quality control do you have over published content?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12639.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egvzimf", "c_root_id_B": "egwxlp0", "created_at_utc_A": 1550682023, "created_at_utc_B": 1550704761, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "So glad this exists. As a scientist, educator, and somebody who has been teaching science communication & storytelling for almost 2 decades, this makes me incredibly happy to see.   What ways do you see your program reaching the \u201cbest\u201d audiences for your material?  One of my main focuses on bridging the gap is through techniques found in improvisational theatre.  What are fun ways you like to bring out stories?  (Also, maybe we should talk sometime and do something together!)", "human_ref_B": "You all do some cool things with art. I \u2764\ufe0fL O V E D \u2764\ufe0f the Reanimation! series from last year! Both the art and the science blew my mind. I also loved the Women in Science Tarot Deck but missed snagging a deck! \ud83d\ude43 Will there be more opportunities to get a tarot deck and what other fun art projects are you hatching?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22738.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egwxlp0", "c_root_id_B": "egvrdrf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550704761, "created_at_utc_B": 1550676346, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "You all do some cool things with art. I \u2764\ufe0fL O V E D \u2764\ufe0f the Reanimation! series from last year! Both the art and the science blew my mind. I also loved the Women in Science Tarot Deck but missed snagging a deck! \ud83d\ude43 Will there be more opportunities to get a tarot deck and what other fun art projects are you hatching?", "human_ref_B": "Should we change our government system to put scientists in charge or will that just bring a whole new set of issues?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28415.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egvrdrf", "c_root_id_B": "egvzimf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550676346, "created_at_utc_B": 1550682023, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Should we change our government system to put scientists in charge or will that just bring a whole new set of issues?", "human_ref_B": "So glad this exists. As a scientist, educator, and somebody who has been teaching science communication & storytelling for almost 2 decades, this makes me incredibly happy to see.   What ways do you see your program reaching the \u201cbest\u201d audiences for your material?  One of my main focuses on bridging the gap is through techniques found in improvisational theatre.  What are fun ways you like to bring out stories?  (Also, maybe we should talk sometime and do something together!)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5677.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egx2s5w", "c_root_id_B": "egvrdrf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550708659, "created_at_utc_B": 1550676346, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "You all do some cool things with art. I \u2764\ufe0fL O V E D \u2764\ufe0f the Reanimation! series from last year! Both the art and the science blew my mind. I also loved the Women in Science Tarot Deck but missed snagging a deck! \ud83d\ude43 Will there be more opportunities to get a tarot deck and what other fun art projects are you hatching?", "human_ref_B": "Should we change our government system to put scientists in charge or will that just bring a whole new set of issues?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32313.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "asnipu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are Massive Science. We're closing the gap between scientists and the public. We're here to answer your questions about science communication and the best ways to merge art and science. AUA! Writing about science is hard. How do you get people to read and care about, let alone believe in, scientific research? We're Nadja Oertelt and Allan Lasser. In 2017 we founded Massive Science, a science media company. We had the idea that scientists could work closer with real editors to tell more interesting and accurate stories themselves. We're creating new opportunities for scientists in storytelling and communication so the public can get access to insights only they have. Joining us are our two scientist editors, Dan Samorodnitsky and Gabi Serrato-Marks, as well as some members of our science community. AUA!  PS: Don't forget to sign up for our newsletter here!", "c_root_id_A": "egxlzc0", "c_root_id_B": "egvrdrf", "created_at_utc_A": 1550724047, "created_at_utc_B": 1550676346, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Are you hiring?", "human_ref_B": "Should we change our government system to put scientists in charge or will that just bring a whole new set of issues?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 47701.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d074q14", "c_root_id_B": "d07c8i0", "created_at_utc_A": 1455985343, "created_at_utc_B": 1455998939, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 117, "human_ref_A": "The only way to generate gravity waves is to move (enormous)masses around.  So any contraption is basically mechanical. How fast can you modulate the signal, now? Seems awfully slow compared to electronics, so bandwidths will be very low.  You can make the argument that we won't have the source 5 billion light years away, so way smaller masses, closer, could generate a detectable signal.  One problem I see is that gravity waves couple to all mass, so every bit of mass in the way will attenuate the signal by stealing energy from it.   EM waves are used at frequencies where the intervening medium has do resonances and does not couple to the signal.   I don't know if this factor in gravity waves is right. Maybe large masses will have small accelerations, and won't receive much energy from the passing wave. Not sure.", "human_ref_B": "Maybe you could use it as a distress signal, like \"help, my entire planet just blew up!\"  In more practical scenarios, it doesn't seem useable for communications because the masses required to generate a detectable signal are too large. In the way distant future, our techniques to detect them might be refined enough to allow a few practical applications, but any applications that regular old electromagnetic waves couldn't do way better?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13596.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d07c8i0", "c_root_id_B": "d079h50", "created_at_utc_A": 1455998939, "created_at_utc_B": 1455993970, "score_A": 117, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Maybe you could use it as a distress signal, like \"help, my entire planet just blew up!\"  In more practical scenarios, it doesn't seem useable for communications because the masses required to generate a detectable signal are too large. In the way distant future, our techniques to detect them might be refined enough to allow a few practical applications, but any applications that regular old electromagnetic waves couldn't do way better?", "human_ref_B": "Probably not. It doesn't seem too practical  Like, if I wanted a chicken sandwich one way I could get one would be to go to a restaurant and order one. Another way I could get one would be to buy and round up the entire planet's supply of chickens, choose one, and make it into a sandwich. But it's not very practical to gather all of the world's chickens into one place", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4969.0, "score_ratio": 19.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d07c8i0", "c_root_id_B": "d07c4dh", "created_at_utc_A": 1455998939, "created_at_utc_B": 1455998727, "score_A": 117, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Maybe you could use it as a distress signal, like \"help, my entire planet just blew up!\"  In more practical scenarios, it doesn't seem useable for communications because the masses required to generate a detectable signal are too large. In the way distant future, our techniques to detect them might be refined enough to allow a few practical applications, but any applications that regular old electromagnetic waves couldn't do way better?", "human_ref_B": "one point about the GWs that were detected.  That was from a billion light years away.  One would assume there is an inverse square law on the power of those waves,  so the amplitude drops off as 1 billion light years^2.  so, you wouldn't need to convert 3 solar masses into GWs in order for it to be detectable,  just be closer than a billion light years.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 212.0, "score_ratio": 23.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d079h50", "c_root_id_B": "d07dpby", "created_at_utc_A": 1455993970, "created_at_utc_B": 1456001630, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Probably not. It doesn't seem too practical  Like, if I wanted a chicken sandwich one way I could get one would be to go to a restaurant and order one. Another way I could get one would be to buy and round up the entire planet's supply of chickens, choose one, and make it into a sandwich. But it's not very practical to gather all of the world's chickens into one place", "human_ref_B": "We're not even to the point that Mahlon Loomis was at in 1866.  It would be like discussing a communication system made by flying kites.    We need a way of creating gravity waves - other than wiggling a black hole around.  We need better gravity wave detectors - better than a huge structure.  Heck, at this point, a kite-based antenna would be a great improvement!  And once we have all of that, what do we have?  A communication device that sends signals at the speed of light.  We have that, it's called \"radio\".  Maybe there are properties that could be of use to us - maybe it could easily communicate through matter - underwater perhaps.    There is a hypothesis that gravity is so weak because it travels through more than the usual 3+1 dimensions... perhaps if we get a bit of a Star Trekkan level discovery, we will find that gravity waves could be used to communicate with beings in other dimensions.  But we would need to prove lots of things to get this beyond a science fiction soap opera's script.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7660.0, "score_ratio": 2.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d07c4dh", "c_root_id_B": "d07dpby", "created_at_utc_A": 1455998727, "created_at_utc_B": 1456001630, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "one point about the GWs that were detected.  That was from a billion light years away.  One would assume there is an inverse square law on the power of those waves,  so the amplitude drops off as 1 billion light years^2.  so, you wouldn't need to convert 3 solar masses into GWs in order for it to be detectable,  just be closer than a billion light years.", "human_ref_B": "We're not even to the point that Mahlon Loomis was at in 1866.  It would be like discussing a communication system made by flying kites.    We need a way of creating gravity waves - other than wiggling a black hole around.  We need better gravity wave detectors - better than a huge structure.  Heck, at this point, a kite-based antenna would be a great improvement!  And once we have all of that, what do we have?  A communication device that sends signals at the speed of light.  We have that, it's called \"radio\".  Maybe there are properties that could be of use to us - maybe it could easily communicate through matter - underwater perhaps.    There is a hypothesis that gravity is so weak because it travels through more than the usual 3+1 dimensions... perhaps if we get a bit of a Star Trekkan level discovery, we will find that gravity waves could be used to communicate with beings in other dimensions.  But we would need to prove lots of things to get this beyond a science fiction soap opera's script.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2903.0, "score_ratio": 3.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d079h50", "c_root_id_B": "d07jih1", "created_at_utc_A": 1455993970, "created_at_utc_B": 1456011612, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Probably not. It doesn't seem too practical  Like, if I wanted a chicken sandwich one way I could get one would be to go to a restaurant and order one. Another way I could get one would be to buy and round up the entire planet's supply of chickens, choose one, and make it into a sandwich. But it's not very practical to gather all of the world's chickens into one place", "human_ref_B": "Gravitational waves are quadrapole radiation, while EM waves (like RF) are dipole radiation.  Dipole radiation sources delay in power with the inverse square law while quadrapole sources decay according the to inverse cube. If you double your distance from a radio transmitter, you are receiving a quarter of the intensity, but if you doubled the distance from a gravitational wave source, you'd receive an eighth the intensity.  What this means is that EM remains a much more suitable communication medium, especially through vacuum. The only advantage of gravity waves would be that they can penetrate pretty much anything in the typical human environment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17642.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d07c4dh", "c_root_id_B": "d07jih1", "created_at_utc_A": 1455998727, "created_at_utc_B": 1456011612, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "one point about the GWs that were detected.  That was from a billion light years away.  One would assume there is an inverse square law on the power of those waves,  so the amplitude drops off as 1 billion light years^2.  so, you wouldn't need to convert 3 solar masses into GWs in order for it to be detectable,  just be closer than a billion light years.", "human_ref_B": "Gravitational waves are quadrapole radiation, while EM waves (like RF) are dipole radiation.  Dipole radiation sources delay in power with the inverse square law while quadrapole sources decay according the to inverse cube. If you double your distance from a radio transmitter, you are receiving a quarter of the intensity, but if you doubled the distance from a gravitational wave source, you'd receive an eighth the intensity.  What this means is that EM remains a much more suitable communication medium, especially through vacuum. The only advantage of gravity waves would be that they can penetrate pretty much anything in the typical human environment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12885.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d07jih1", "c_root_id_B": "d07hjyx", "created_at_utc_A": 1456011612, "created_at_utc_B": 1456008303, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Gravitational waves are quadrapole radiation, while EM waves (like RF) are dipole radiation.  Dipole radiation sources delay in power with the inverse square law while quadrapole sources decay according the to inverse cube. If you double your distance from a radio transmitter, you are receiving a quarter of the intensity, but if you doubled the distance from a gravitational wave source, you'd receive an eighth the intensity.  What this means is that EM remains a much more suitable communication medium, especially through vacuum. The only advantage of gravity waves would be that they can penetrate pretty much anything in the typical human environment.", "human_ref_B": "Gravity waves propagate at the speed of light, so there's no speed benefit.   Gravity waves are impacted by intermediate mass and energy so there's a good chance they wouldn't be any more incorruptible.   Gravity waves are HUGELY more difficult to generate than an RF signal, not to mention detect, so there wouldn't appear to be a technological advantage.   In short, there's probably no benefit to gravity waves over RF in any way that matters - except maybe to tell the receiver how cool we are that we can use gravity waves for communication ;)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3309.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "46q8ho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Would gravitational waves be a suitable replacement for RF in communications in the distant future?", "c_root_id_A": "d07hjyx", "c_root_id_B": "d07c4dh", "created_at_utc_A": 1456008303, "created_at_utc_B": 1455998727, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Gravity waves propagate at the speed of light, so there's no speed benefit.   Gravity waves are impacted by intermediate mass and energy so there's a good chance they wouldn't be any more incorruptible.   Gravity waves are HUGELY more difficult to generate than an RF signal, not to mention detect, so there wouldn't appear to be a technological advantage.   In short, there's probably no benefit to gravity waves over RF in any way that matters - except maybe to tell the receiver how cool we are that we can use gravity waves for communication ;)", "human_ref_B": "one point about the GWs that were detected.  That was from a billion light years away.  One would assume there is an inverse square law on the power of those waves,  so the amplitude drops off as 1 billion light years^2.  so, you wouldn't need to convert 3 solar masses into GWs in order for it to be detectable,  just be closer than a billion light years.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9576.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wmc272", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why is it relatively cheap and easy to make Canine Rabies Vaccines while it is very hard and expensive to get a human Rabies Vaccine?", "c_root_id_A": "ik219y8", "c_root_id_B": "ik165ah", "created_at_utc_A": 1660343607, "created_at_utc_B": 1660330962, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "For one, low-cost rabies vaccinations for animals is a mandatory requirement in some places (in California, each county is required to provide this low-cost service). I doubt there is a requirement for humans in the same manner as animals.", "human_ref_B": "What do you mean, hard and expensive? You got bit, you get to the nearest hospital, they give you a shot, plus several more in a sequence some days later, like after 1-3-5 and 7 days. Thats it, and it is anyhow covered by insurance.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12645.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "s3i7wt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why can I see the wheel spokes on a car as it goes by if I'm not looking directly at it, but if I try to follow the wheels with my eyest hey are all blurred together ? Does the the brain only sample vision outside the center periodically so I get a strobe type affect? Waiting at a stoplight and seeing the cars go by, if I just look at the intersection I can tell that the wheels of cars going by have spokes.  But if I look at a car's wheels themselves and follow them as they go by, the spokes are just a blur.  Does the the brain only sample vision outside the center periodically, so I get a strobe type affect?", "c_root_id_A": "hsl983o", "c_root_id_B": "hslb4up", "created_at_utc_A": 1642136470, "created_at_utc_B": 1642137470, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "I believe the answer is quite different to the optical/nervous system answers here (other than persistence of vision). When a wheel rolls on a road, the bottom parts of the wheel effectively are stopped on that part of the road, before being picked up and put down a circumference ahead on the next revolution. Interestingly a piece of tyre tread goes from stationary to twice the car's speed and back again to stopped, every time the wheel spins 360 degrees. Stopped on the ground, and at double speed when it's at the top.  When looking at the unmoving road, your eye sees all the spokes at the bottom that also mostly aren't moving. When you track the moving car, all the spokes are all spinning together in your vision and blur.  Note I've seen exactly what you're describing watching race cars pass at top speed, and it is always the bottom half of the wheel that is most clear.", "human_ref_B": "There are a lot of good comments on peripheral vision and rods and cones.  However, another possible explanation of this observable phenomenon is your visual frame of reference.  If you are focused on a point in the road and a car tire rolls by, you will see the middle of the wheel moving along at the same speed as the car, the top of the tire moving forward twice as fast as the car, and the bottom of the tire absolutely motionless against the street you are staring at. The spokes on the bottom of the wheel should be easy to resolve.  The spokes at the top of the wheel may be more difficult to focus on in that split second.  Now imagine your eyes are not focused on the road but following along with the car. The center of the wheel is motionless (a side from the rotation obviously), but the top an bottom of the wheel are both have an apparent speed equal to the speed of the car itself.  The top, bottom,  and side spokes should all appear equally blurry.  Next time you observe this, see if the bottom of the tire is the sharpest.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1000.0, "score_ratio": 2.3888888889, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "117en3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why is there dangerous radioactive waste left over from nuclear reactors?  If the waste that comes out of a nuclear plant is still dangerously radioactive, why can't we keep using it to provide energy until it's no longer significantly radioactive?", "c_root_id_A": "c6jylyy", "c_root_id_B": "c6jz73g", "created_at_utc_A": 1349805126, "created_at_utc_B": 1349807292, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "1. Nuclear plants don't get their energy from pure radiation. The energy comes from the immense heat released when a uranium nucleus splits apart.  2. Using radioactive decay heat to produce electricity isn't economical. At this point, we don't have a practical way to turn gamma radiation into electricity. ' 3. 'until it's no longer significantly radioactive.' Yeah, waiting for it to stop bring radioactive works for some of the waste products, but some of them remain dangerously radioactive for hundreds of thousands, even millions of years.", "human_ref_B": "It no longer becomes energy profitable to keep \"burning\" those very radioactive nuclei in a power plant.  Lets go to basics of nuclear fission:  Neutrons are the currency of a nuclear reactor.  They cause fission reactions, which in turn make more nuclear reactions.  There are certain nuclei that are have large \"targets\" or cross sections for neutron based reactions in a reactor.  The bigger the cross section the more likely the nucleus is to fission when it sees a neutron.  We choose uranium 235 to run our nuclear reactors due to its large cross section and natural abundance (.07% of all uranium on earth is this isotope).    The next part of fission that you need to understand is that energy is let off which is just determined as (with a few assumptions)  E=Mass of first nucleus+Mass of Neutron-(Mass of Fission Products).  These are all linked due to E=MC^2.  Let's put the basics together now.   The waste from the nuclear power plants is just a mixture of Uranium 238, unspent Uranium 235, and fission products.  First, if you look up the fission product cross sections and the uranium 238 cross sections, you will find its very small---meaning a low chance of a neutron reaction.  Secondly, you'll find that burning up the fission products through neutron reactions releases less and less energy, remember capital E, due to the Binding Energy Curve.  As you get to the top of the curve, which all fission/fusion based reactions move towards, you release less energy per event.  Lastly, there is a size factor.  Nuclear reactors have several TONS of material in them and a same scale level of waste (let's not get into a CO2-Rad Waste talk here).  To completely deplete that using basically modern-day alchemy would be very difficult......not to say it cant be done.  TLDR: Economics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2166.0, "score_ratio": 6000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "117en3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why is there dangerous radioactive waste left over from nuclear reactors?  If the waste that comes out of a nuclear plant is still dangerously radioactive, why can't we keep using it to provide energy until it's no longer significantly radioactive?", "c_root_id_A": "c6jynxi", "c_root_id_B": "c6jz73g", "created_at_utc_A": 1349805323, "created_at_utc_B": 1349807292, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "We can get rid of it; cost and politics are the biggest impediments. There are a number of reactors and methods used to achieve this. The United States has banned a portion of it for some reasons (which people debate heavily). Europe has been far more proactive and employs many of them. \"A breeder reactor can employ not only the recycled plutonium and uranium in spent fuel, but all the actinides, closing the nuclear fuel cycle and potentially multiplying the energy extracted from natural uranium by about 60 times.\" Yes, there are still some byproducts, but we can get rid of a lot of it.  For the exact processes used, check out wikipedia.  * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing", "human_ref_B": "It no longer becomes energy profitable to keep \"burning\" those very radioactive nuclei in a power plant.  Lets go to basics of nuclear fission:  Neutrons are the currency of a nuclear reactor.  They cause fission reactions, which in turn make more nuclear reactions.  There are certain nuclei that are have large \"targets\" or cross sections for neutron based reactions in a reactor.  The bigger the cross section the more likely the nucleus is to fission when it sees a neutron.  We choose uranium 235 to run our nuclear reactors due to its large cross section and natural abundance (.07% of all uranium on earth is this isotope).    The next part of fission that you need to understand is that energy is let off which is just determined as (with a few assumptions)  E=Mass of first nucleus+Mass of Neutron-(Mass of Fission Products).  These are all linked due to E=MC^2.  Let's put the basics together now.   The waste from the nuclear power plants is just a mixture of Uranium 238, unspent Uranium 235, and fission products.  First, if you look up the fission product cross sections and the uranium 238 cross sections, you will find its very small---meaning a low chance of a neutron reaction.  Secondly, you'll find that burning up the fission products through neutron reactions releases less and less energy, remember capital E, due to the Binding Energy Curve.  As you get to the top of the curve, which all fission/fusion based reactions move towards, you release less energy per event.  Lastly, there is a size factor.  Nuclear reactors have several TONS of material in them and a same scale level of waste (let's not get into a CO2-Rad Waste talk here).  To completely deplete that using basically modern-day alchemy would be very difficult......not to say it cant be done.  TLDR: Economics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1969.0, "score_ratio": -6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "117en3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why is there dangerous radioactive waste left over from nuclear reactors?  If the waste that comes out of a nuclear plant is still dangerously radioactive, why can't we keep using it to provide energy until it's no longer significantly radioactive?", "c_root_id_A": "c6jylyy", "c_root_id_B": "c6k1lj8", "created_at_utc_A": 1349805126, "created_at_utc_B": 1349815797, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "1. Nuclear plants don't get their energy from pure radiation. The energy comes from the immense heat released when a uranium nucleus splits apart.  2. Using radioactive decay heat to produce electricity isn't economical. At this point, we don't have a practical way to turn gamma radiation into electricity. ' 3. 'until it's no longer significantly radioactive.' Yeah, waiting for it to stop bring radioactive works for some of the waste products, but some of them remain dangerously radioactive for hundreds of thousands, even millions of years.", "human_ref_B": "Only certain types of radioactive materials, called *fissile*, are useful in large scale power production.  The decay rate of fissile materials can be sped up or slowed down, to the point they are almost turned off.  The other materials decay as fast or as slow as they feel like, and give off energy no matter what.  In fact, some of the waste products make it harder for the fissile materials to react.  So what is are asking is roughly equivalent to saying \"Why can't you put TNT or wood chips in a gasoline energy...you are just burning stuff, right?\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10671.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "117en3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why is there dangerous radioactive waste left over from nuclear reactors?  If the waste that comes out of a nuclear plant is still dangerously radioactive, why can't we keep using it to provide energy until it's no longer significantly radioactive?", "c_root_id_A": "c6jynxi", "c_root_id_B": "c6k1lj8", "created_at_utc_A": 1349805323, "created_at_utc_B": 1349815797, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "We can get rid of it; cost and politics are the biggest impediments. There are a number of reactors and methods used to achieve this. The United States has banned a portion of it for some reasons (which people debate heavily). Europe has been far more proactive and employs many of them. \"A breeder reactor can employ not only the recycled plutonium and uranium in spent fuel, but all the actinides, closing the nuclear fuel cycle and potentially multiplying the energy extracted from natural uranium by about 60 times.\" Yes, there are still some byproducts, but we can get rid of a lot of it.  For the exact processes used, check out wikipedia.  * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing", "human_ref_B": "Only certain types of radioactive materials, called *fissile*, are useful in large scale power production.  The decay rate of fissile materials can be sped up or slowed down, to the point they are almost turned off.  The other materials decay as fast or as slow as they feel like, and give off energy no matter what.  In fact, some of the waste products make it harder for the fissile materials to react.  So what is are asking is roughly equivalent to saying \"Why can't you put TNT or wood chips in a gasoline energy...you are just burning stuff, right?\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10474.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "117en3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why is there dangerous radioactive waste left over from nuclear reactors?  If the waste that comes out of a nuclear plant is still dangerously radioactive, why can't we keep using it to provide energy until it's no longer significantly radioactive?", "c_root_id_A": "c6ke6mg", "c_root_id_B": "c6jylyy", "created_at_utc_A": 1349882476, "created_at_utc_B": 1349805126, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Generally, for use in a nuclear reactor, the material has to release *neutrons*, an especially potent form of radiation.   Most of the waste only emits gamma rays, or beta (electrons).  Which, while harmful to people, etc.; is not much use for power production.  Some are actually 'poisons' in the sense that they absorb neutrons which could otherwise be used for power.    There are only a few (generally rare) materials suitable for nuclear 'fuel', and 'burning' them generally creates lots of *other* atoms.  Even nuclear fuel has to be precisely concentrated, blended, and arranged.", "human_ref_B": "1. Nuclear plants don't get their energy from pure radiation. The energy comes from the immense heat released when a uranium nucleus splits apart.  2. Using radioactive decay heat to produce electricity isn't economical. At this point, we don't have a practical way to turn gamma radiation into electricity. ' 3. 'until it's no longer significantly radioactive.' Yeah, waiting for it to stop bring radioactive works for some of the waste products, but some of them remain dangerously radioactive for hundreds of thousands, even millions of years.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 77350.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "117en3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why is there dangerous radioactive waste left over from nuclear reactors?  If the waste that comes out of a nuclear plant is still dangerously radioactive, why can't we keep using it to provide energy until it's no longer significantly radioactive?", "c_root_id_A": "c6jynxi", "c_root_id_B": "c6ke6mg", "created_at_utc_A": 1349805323, "created_at_utc_B": 1349882476, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "We can get rid of it; cost and politics are the biggest impediments. There are a number of reactors and methods used to achieve this. The United States has banned a portion of it for some reasons (which people debate heavily). Europe has been far more proactive and employs many of them. \"A breeder reactor can employ not only the recycled plutonium and uranium in spent fuel, but all the actinides, closing the nuclear fuel cycle and potentially multiplying the energy extracted from natural uranium by about 60 times.\" Yes, there are still some byproducts, but we can get rid of a lot of it.  For the exact processes used, check out wikipedia.  * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing", "human_ref_B": "Generally, for use in a nuclear reactor, the material has to release *neutrons*, an especially potent form of radiation.   Most of the waste only emits gamma rays, or beta (electrons).  Which, while harmful to people, etc.; is not much use for power production.  Some are actually 'poisons' in the sense that they absorb neutrons which could otherwise be used for power.    There are only a few (generally rare) materials suitable for nuclear 'fuel', and 'burning' them generally creates lots of *other* atoms.  Even nuclear fuel has to be precisely concentrated, blended, and arranged.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 77153.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4uscw", "c_root_id_B": "er4wemp", "created_at_utc_A": 1560510427, "created_at_utc_B": 1560511726, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 105, "human_ref_A": ">research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory.   -Military wise what would be the best use for the spider glue?   -how expensive would it be to mass produce spider glue?  Also how do extract this stuff from such small creatures?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any genetic differences between wild and domestic silkworms, and can those changes be implemented in spiders to allow easier spider silk production?  Also, what ever happened to those silk-producing  genetically modified goats that I heard about in the early 2000s?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1299.0, "score_ratio": 2.3863636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4wemp", "c_root_id_B": "er4vzgz", "created_at_utc_A": 1560511726, "created_at_utc_B": 1560511390, "score_A": 105, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Are there any genetic differences between wild and domestic silkworms, and can those changes be implemented in spiders to allow easier spider silk production?  Also, what ever happened to those silk-producing  genetically modified goats that I heard about in the early 2000s?", "human_ref_B": "Have you worked on spider silk in general, and if so, how versatile would the material be, if scaled up to let's say 5mm in diameter?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 336.0, "score_ratio": 8.0769230769, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4ydne", "c_root_id_B": "er4x8d1", "created_at_utc_A": 1560513241, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512367, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Know of any other interesting animal-produced materials being looked at by fellow geneticists that catch your attention? I hear Hagfish slime has some interesting properties.", "human_ref_B": "Great research, wonderful to see all the potential applications! Do you already have some thoughts on the large scale production of the glue? What kind of hosts do you think would be suited for producing the compound and what do you think about the downstream processing? If the glue is excreted I can imagine it would result in a mixture that is pretty difficult to separate. Keep up the good work!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 874.0, "score_ratio": 1.5333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4ydne", "c_root_id_B": "er4vzgz", "created_at_utc_A": 1560513241, "created_at_utc_B": 1560511390, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Know of any other interesting animal-produced materials being looked at by fellow geneticists that catch your attention? I hear Hagfish slime has some interesting properties.", "human_ref_B": "Have you worked on spider silk in general, and if so, how versatile would the material be, if scaled up to let's say 5mm in diameter?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1851.0, "score_ratio": 1.7692307692, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4ydne", "c_root_id_B": "er4x3fy", "created_at_utc_A": 1560513241, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512261, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Know of any other interesting animal-produced materials being looked at by fellow geneticists that catch your attention? I hear Hagfish slime has some interesting properties.", "human_ref_B": "Do scientists have a theory as to why some genes are so long?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 980.0, "score_ratio": 2.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4ydne", "c_root_id_B": "er4xoqx", "created_at_utc_A": 1560513241, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512716, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Know of any other interesting animal-produced materials being looked at by fellow geneticists that catch your attention? I hear Hagfish slime has some interesting properties.", "human_ref_B": "It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 525.0, "score_ratio": 5.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4yxol", "c_root_id_B": "er4x8d1", "created_at_utc_A": 1560513663, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512367, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Think about a more specific AMA? impossible :)  Congrats on your science, I have no clue what could I ask you. But you sure know about your spiderman stuff!", "human_ref_B": "Great research, wonderful to see all the potential applications! Do you already have some thoughts on the large scale production of the glue? What kind of hosts do you think would be suited for producing the compound and what do you think about the downstream processing? If the glue is excreted I can imagine it would result in a mixture that is pretty difficult to separate. Keep up the good work!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1296.0, "score_ratio": 1.0666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4vzgz", "c_root_id_B": "er4yxol", "created_at_utc_A": 1560511390, "created_at_utc_B": 1560513663, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Have you worked on spider silk in general, and if so, how versatile would the material be, if scaled up to let's say 5mm in diameter?", "human_ref_B": "Think about a more specific AMA? impossible :)  Congrats on your science, I have no clue what could I ask you. But you sure know about your spiderman stuff!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2273.0, "score_ratio": 1.2307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4yxol", "c_root_id_B": "er4x3fy", "created_at_utc_A": 1560513663, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512261, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Think about a more specific AMA? impossible :)  Congrats on your science, I have no clue what could I ask you. But you sure know about your spiderman stuff!", "human_ref_B": "Do scientists have a theory as to why some genes are so long?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1402.0, "score_ratio": 1.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4xoqx", "c_root_id_B": "er4yxol", "created_at_utc_A": 1560512716, "created_at_utc_B": 1560513663, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?", "human_ref_B": "Think about a more specific AMA? impossible :)  Congrats on your science, I have no clue what could I ask you. But you sure know about your spiderman stuff!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 947.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4x8d1", "c_root_id_B": "er4vzgz", "created_at_utc_A": 1560512367, "created_at_utc_B": 1560511390, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Great research, wonderful to see all the potential applications! Do you already have some thoughts on the large scale production of the glue? What kind of hosts do you think would be suited for producing the compound and what do you think about the downstream processing? If the glue is excreted I can imagine it would result in a mixture that is pretty difficult to separate. Keep up the good work!", "human_ref_B": "Have you worked on spider silk in general, and if so, how versatile would the material be, if scaled up to let's say 5mm in diameter?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 977.0, "score_ratio": 1.1538461538, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4x3fy", "c_root_id_B": "er4x8d1", "created_at_utc_A": 1560512261, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512367, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Do scientists have a theory as to why some genes are so long?", "human_ref_B": "Great research, wonderful to see all the potential applications! Do you already have some thoughts on the large scale production of the glue? What kind of hosts do you think would be suited for producing the compound and what do you think about the downstream processing? If the glue is excreted I can imagine it would result in a mixture that is pretty difficult to separate. Keep up the good work!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 106.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4zfe4", "c_root_id_B": "er4x3fy", "created_at_utc_A": 1560514023, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512261, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "In the article (umbc.edu/go/spider-glue) linked it mentioned there are tens of thousands of different species of spiders  > There are more than 45,000 known species of spiders, each of which makes between one and seven types of silk. However, despite many partial sequences, less is known about the full genetic structure of spider silk: Only about 20 complete genes have been sequenced.  Do different species of spiders produce glue and silk in different ways or did they evolve a kind of uniform method to do it?  If spiders do have different ways of producing silk and glue did you have to choose a certain species to investigate genetically over other species?", "human_ref_B": "Do scientists have a theory as to why some genes are so long?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1762.0, "score_ratio": 1.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4xoqx", "c_root_id_B": "er4zfe4", "created_at_utc_A": 1560512716, "created_at_utc_B": 1560514023, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?", "human_ref_B": "In the article (umbc.edu/go/spider-glue) linked it mentioned there are tens of thousands of different species of spiders  > There are more than 45,000 known species of spiders, each of which makes between one and seven types of silk. However, despite many partial sequences, less is known about the full genetic structure of spider silk: Only about 20 complete genes have been sequenced.  Do different species of spiders produce glue and silk in different ways or did they evolve a kind of uniform method to do it?  If spiders do have different ways of producing silk and glue did you have to choose a certain species to investigate genetically over other species?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1307.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4xoqx", "c_root_id_B": "er50uqy", "created_at_utc_A": 1560512716, "created_at_utc_B": 1560515112, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?", "human_ref_B": "Hey Dr. Stellwagen,  Congrats again to you and Dr. Renberg on this accomplishment. I am a UMBC alum and have a question for you about the sequence.   1) Were there any coding regions that were similar to silk sequences within the same spider species?  2) Have you manufactured this glue yet now that you know the sequence?  If not, how do you plan to mass produce it?  3) Do you envision it being sprayed directly over crops as a insect deterrent, or as part of a dome-like composite for crop protection?  4) What are the military applications of this sequence?  Thanks slot and keep up the great work!!!!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2396.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4zliq", "c_root_id_B": "er50uqy", "created_at_utc_A": 1560514146, "created_at_utc_B": 1560515112, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "You say that this could be used as an insecticide for crops.  How would it be mass produced?  Surely by not extracting from thousands of spiders.  When and if applied to crops in the future, how long does the spider glue remain sticky?  Would it need to be reapplied often?  Are there any potential negative affects that you can foresee with its application to crops such as preventing cross pollination, etc.?Thanks for taking to the time here to answer everyone\u2019s questions!", "human_ref_B": "Hey Dr. Stellwagen,  Congrats again to you and Dr. Renberg on this accomplishment. I am a UMBC alum and have a question for you about the sequence.   1) Were there any coding regions that were similar to silk sequences within the same spider species?  2) Have you manufactured this glue yet now that you know the sequence?  If not, how do you plan to mass produce it?  3) Do you envision it being sprayed directly over crops as a insect deterrent, or as part of a dome-like composite for crop protection?  4) What are the military applications of this sequence?  Thanks slot and keep up the great work!!!!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 966.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er50uqy", "c_root_id_B": "er4zlyo", "created_at_utc_A": 1560515112, "created_at_utc_B": 1560514155, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hey Dr. Stellwagen,  Congrats again to you and Dr. Renberg on this accomplishment. I am a UMBC alum and have a question for you about the sequence.   1) Were there any coding regions that were similar to silk sequences within the same spider species?  2) Have you manufactured this glue yet now that you know the sequence?  If not, how do you plan to mass produce it?  3) Do you envision it being sprayed directly over crops as a insect deterrent, or as part of a dome-like composite for crop protection?  4) What are the military applications of this sequence?  Thanks slot and keep up the great work!!!!", "human_ref_B": "Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 957.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er53vsy", "c_root_id_B": "er5598q", "created_at_utc_A": 1560517393, "created_at_utc_B": 1560518358, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "What kind of post-transcriptional processing occurs?  What roadblocks remain in order to use the DNA sequence to manufacture spider silk in the laboratory?  At present, we are using silk as a scaffold for tissue engineering, and I am wondering what will be needed to get new samples with unique properties in quantities sufficient for use.", "human_ref_B": "Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 965.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5598q", "c_root_id_B": "er4xoqx", "created_at_utc_A": 1560518358, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512716, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!", "human_ref_B": "It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5642.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5598q", "c_root_id_B": "er4zliq", "created_at_utc_A": 1560518358, "created_at_utc_B": 1560514146, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!", "human_ref_B": "You say that this could be used as an insecticide for crops.  How would it be mass produced?  Surely by not extracting from thousands of spiders.  When and if applied to crops in the future, how long does the spider glue remain sticky?  Would it need to be reapplied often?  Are there any potential negative affects that you can foresee with its application to crops such as preventing cross pollination, etc.?Thanks for taking to the time here to answer everyone\u2019s questions!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4212.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4zlyo", "c_root_id_B": "er5598q", "created_at_utc_A": 1560514155, "created_at_utc_B": 1560518358, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?", "human_ref_B": "Hey guys, I love your work.  As someone who works with Drosophila genetics, I work with an organism that already has a fully sequenced genome and countless mutations from years of service as a model organism.  As genome sequencing becomes more easy for more species, do you see model organisms like Drosophila becoming less important?  More fun question: what\u2019s the dumbest reason you\u2019ve ever had to throw away the results of an experiment? (for me it was not getting the results of a key experimental group in an 8 day sleep study with a super specific cross because I forgot to plug in the monitor fml).  Thanks!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4203.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er53vsy", "c_root_id_B": "er4xoqx", "created_at_utc_A": 1560517393, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512716, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What kind of post-transcriptional processing occurs?  What roadblocks remain in order to use the DNA sequence to manufacture spider silk in the laboratory?  At present, we are using silk as a scaffold for tissue engineering, and I am wondering what will be needed to get new samples with unique properties in quantities sufficient for use.", "human_ref_B": "It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4677.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er53vsy", "c_root_id_B": "er4zliq", "created_at_utc_A": 1560517393, "created_at_utc_B": 1560514146, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What kind of post-transcriptional processing occurs?  What roadblocks remain in order to use the DNA sequence to manufacture spider silk in the laboratory?  At present, we are using silk as a scaffold for tissue engineering, and I am wondering what will be needed to get new samples with unique properties in quantities sufficient for use.", "human_ref_B": "You say that this could be used as an insecticide for crops.  How would it be mass produced?  Surely by not extracting from thousands of spiders.  When and if applied to crops in the future, how long does the spider glue remain sticky?  Would it need to be reapplied often?  Are there any potential negative affects that you can foresee with its application to crops such as preventing cross pollination, etc.?Thanks for taking to the time here to answer everyone\u2019s questions!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3247.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er53vsy", "c_root_id_B": "er4zlyo", "created_at_utc_A": 1560517393, "created_at_utc_B": 1560514155, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What kind of post-transcriptional processing occurs?  What roadblocks remain in order to use the DNA sequence to manufacture spider silk in the laboratory?  At present, we are using silk as a scaffold for tissue engineering, and I am wondering what will be needed to get new samples with unique properties in quantities sufficient for use.", "human_ref_B": "Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3238.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5cacj", "c_root_id_B": "er4xoqx", "created_at_utc_A": 1560522990, "created_at_utc_B": 1560512716, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!", "human_ref_B": "It seems like tissue engineering scaffolds are massively on the rise at the moment as far as implantable materials go, so aside from tools and instruments, what kind of biomaterial applications could this have?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10274.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er4zliq", "c_root_id_B": "er5cacj", "created_at_utc_A": 1560514146, "created_at_utc_B": 1560522990, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "You say that this could be used as an insecticide for crops.  How would it be mass produced?  Surely by not extracting from thousands of spiders.  When and if applied to crops in the future, how long does the spider glue remain sticky?  Would it need to be reapplied often?  Are there any potential negative affects that you can foresee with its application to crops such as preventing cross pollination, etc.?Thanks for taking to the time here to answer everyone\u2019s questions!", "human_ref_B": "Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8844.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5bbss", "c_root_id_B": "er5cacj", "created_at_utc_A": 1560522375, "created_at_utc_B": 1560522990, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Working with a 42 kb CDS seems very annoying. How do you approach cloning?", "human_ref_B": "Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 615.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5bbss", "c_root_id_B": "er4zlyo", "created_at_utc_A": 1560522375, "created_at_utc_B": 1560514155, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Working with a 42 kb CDS seems very annoying. How do you approach cloning?", "human_ref_B": "Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8220.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5bbss", "c_root_id_B": "er59557", "created_at_utc_A": 1560522375, "created_at_utc_B": 1560520916, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Working with a 42 kb CDS seems very annoying. How do you approach cloning?", "human_ref_B": "Congrats on the cool paper. Could you talk a bit about your experience with the MinION? What kind of read length do you get, and is the error rate really so bad that you can't reliably overcome it by increasing the coverage? I'm wondering when we'll be able to sequence long repetitive regions with the MinION alone, without using short read sequencing for error correction... Also, why did you use Illumina sequencing of mRNA, rather than genomic DNA?  As for the proteins themselves, as a biochemist who knows nothing about spider silk, I have to wonder: have you tried using the sequence for some kind of structural prediction? Or are these megadalton-monsters entirely unstructured? And can you speculate why they are so big to begin with? If I understand correctly, they are thought to polymerize mostly through hydrophobic interactions; do you think that a huge protein with lots of repeats forms a stronger elastic material than a smaller protein would with stronger inter-monomer bonding?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1459.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5cacj", "c_root_id_B": "er4zlyo", "created_at_utc_A": 1560522990, "created_at_utc_B": 1560514155, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!", "human_ref_B": "Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8835.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er59557", "c_root_id_B": "er5cacj", "created_at_utc_A": 1560520916, "created_at_utc_B": 1560522990, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Congrats on the cool paper. Could you talk a bit about your experience with the MinION? What kind of read length do you get, and is the error rate really so bad that you can't reliably overcome it by increasing the coverage? I'm wondering when we'll be able to sequence long repetitive regions with the MinION alone, without using short read sequencing for error correction... Also, why did you use Illumina sequencing of mRNA, rather than genomic DNA?  As for the proteins themselves, as a biochemist who knows nothing about spider silk, I have to wonder: have you tried using the sequence for some kind of structural prediction? Or are these megadalton-monsters entirely unstructured? And can you speculate why they are so big to begin with? If I understand correctly, they are thought to polymerize mostly through hydrophobic interactions; do you think that a huge protein with lots of repeats forms a stronger elastic material than a smaller protein would with stronger inter-monomer bonding?", "human_ref_B": "Go UMBC! It is a fantastic school for research and I\u2019m glad more findings are originating from my college!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2074.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5g3kg", "c_root_id_B": "er4zlyo", "created_at_utc_A": 1560525316, "created_at_utc_B": 1560514155, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hey Saray and Rebecca, awesome to have you guys here talking about a really cool paper!  Our lab is interested in doing a similar technique with hagfish slime, but its come with its own problems. Reading through your methods, it seems like you guys extracted RNA from the glands instead of a proteomic analysis of the glue itself. Honestly, it feels like proteomics is bring outpaced by advances in transcriptomics. Do you think it has a viable future in material studies like this?", "human_ref_B": "Any interest from NASA ESA SpaceX etc yet? I can see light strong bio materials being an enormous boon for the space sector. Space lift cables, perhaps?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11161.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c0ir5e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're Sarah Stellwagen (UMBC) and Rebecca Renberg (ARL), authors of a G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics article on sequencing spider glue genes. They're massive - the largest has a coding sequence over 42,000 bases long, and could lead to exciting advances in biomaterials. AUA! Hello, Reddit. We are Sarah Stellwagen, a biology postdoc at UMBC, and Rebecca Renberg, a research scientist at the United States Army Research Laboratory. We're excited to share how we figured out how to sequence two incredibly challenging spider glue genes for the first time, and the possibilities this opens up for science.  Spider glue is a modified version of spider silk that keeps a spider's prey stuck in its web. Unlike silk, it's a liquid both inside and outside of the spider. Because of this, spider glue might be easier to produce in the lab than silk, which could lead to major advances in biomaterials. There are so many potential applications to explore in the future, such as using it to protect crops from pests instead of using insecticides.   We'll be here to answer your questions at 11:30 a.m. EDT / 8:30 a.m. PDT  Learn more about this work at umbc.edu/go/spider-glue Read the study at https://www.g3journal.org/content/9/6/1909", "c_root_id_A": "er5g3kg", "c_root_id_B": "er59557", "created_at_utc_A": 1560525316, "created_at_utc_B": 1560520916, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hey Saray and Rebecca, awesome to have you guys here talking about a really cool paper!  Our lab is interested in doing a similar technique with hagfish slime, but its come with its own problems. Reading through your methods, it seems like you guys extracted RNA from the glands instead of a proteomic analysis of the glue itself. Honestly, it feels like proteomics is bring outpaced by advances in transcriptomics. Do you think it has a viable future in material studies like this?", "human_ref_B": "Congrats on the cool paper. Could you talk a bit about your experience with the MinION? What kind of read length do you get, and is the error rate really so bad that you can't reliably overcome it by increasing the coverage? I'm wondering when we'll be able to sequence long repetitive regions with the MinION alone, without using short read sequencing for error correction... Also, why did you use Illumina sequencing of mRNA, rather than genomic DNA?  As for the proteins themselves, as a biochemist who knows nothing about spider silk, I have to wonder: have you tried using the sequence for some kind of structural prediction? Or are these megadalton-monsters entirely unstructured? And can you speculate why they are so big to begin with? If I understand correctly, they are thought to polymerize mostly through hydrophobic interactions; do you think that a huge protein with lots of repeats forms a stronger elastic material than a smaller protein would with stronger inter-monomer bonding?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4400.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rewox5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How big of a difference does it make to wash your hands with warm water vs. cold water? Assume you wash thoroughly regardless of water temp (i.e., 20+ seconds, under fingernails, \u201cscraping\u201d your palms, etc.)", "c_root_id_A": "hohgt1k", "c_root_id_B": "hogobny", "created_at_utc_A": 1639466097, "created_at_utc_B": 1639450345, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The reason is, surface tension. The higher the temperature, the lower the surface tension of water, thus water can penetrate the dirt particles better, thus the cleaning effect is better. Detergents lower the surface tension too, in addition to the solubilization of fatty stuff. That's all.", "human_ref_B": "When you're washing your hands, you have to use soap. Soap is what loosens the debris and water is what washes that debris off your hands. This is why antibacterial gels are not enough to get debris off your hands. They may kill the bacteria and/or viruses that are on there but what gets the dirt and other junk off your hands is water and soap. Given this explanation, hot vs cold water does not matter. But most people don't like the feeling of having cold water running over their skin.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15752.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pdle47", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Do fully vaccinated people who still get COVID have the same level of infection as an unvaccinated person? Just wondering if there\u2019s any research on whether or not symptoms are milder for fully vaccinated people. Me and my girl are double vaxxed and both shots were moderna", "c_root_id_A": "har37r1", "c_root_id_B": "has7j2u", "created_at_utc_A": 1630200365, "created_at_utc_B": 1630227130, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 56, "human_ref_A": "\u201cWith Delta, infections occurring following two vaccinations had similar peak viral burden to those in unvaccinated individuals.\u201d Wasn\u2019t able to tell if the duration and ramp down from peak viral burden is different in the vaccinated vs. unvaccinated: https://www.ndm.ox.ac.uk/files/coronavirus/covid-19-infection-survey/finalfinalcombinedve20210816.pdf", "human_ref_B": ">Just wondering if there\u2019s any research on whether or not symptoms are milder for fully vaccinated people.  Just to clarify, because I feel like most of the conversation has drifted on to tangential topics about spread and all that....  The answer is yes, yes, there is research on whether or not the symptoms are milder and yes they are in fact milder.  In fact this is the function of the vaccine, and this is what all those phase 3 trials were about, and  research since has kept going since then.  The function of a vaccine usually isn't to stop viral spread, although that's a nice bonus that often happens.  The purpose of a vaccine is usually to prevent disease, eg, to prevent the harmful symptoms caused by a virus.  The vaccines got approved in the first place only because they showed a reduction in symptoms, and they continue to show a reduction in symptoms and protection against severe illness with the delta variant.    Here's a paper, for example  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/mm7034e2.htm#F2_down  Vaccine effectiveness is around 85% at preventing hospitalization (this dataset includes moderna and delta variant cases)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26765.0, "score_ratio": 3.2941176471, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pdle47", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Do fully vaccinated people who still get COVID have the same level of infection as an unvaccinated person? Just wondering if there\u2019s any research on whether or not symptoms are milder for fully vaccinated people. Me and my girl are double vaxxed and both shots were moderna", "c_root_id_A": "hat6l0t", "c_root_id_B": "har37r1", "created_at_utc_A": 1630249520, "created_at_utc_B": 1630200365, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Symptoms are definitely less severe when vaccinated people get infected with COVID. About 85% of COVID hospitalizations, as well as people in the ICU with COVID right now are not fully vaccinated (at OHSU, a hospital here in Oregon). That's the clearest proof I've seen in the protection afforded by vaccines.", "human_ref_B": "\u201cWith Delta, infections occurring following two vaccinations had similar peak viral burden to those in unvaccinated individuals.\u201d Wasn\u2019t able to tell if the duration and ramp down from peak viral burden is different in the vaccinated vs. unvaccinated: https://www.ndm.ox.ac.uk/files/coronavirus/covid-19-infection-survey/finalfinalcombinedve20210816.pdf", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 49155.0, "score_ratio": 1.4705882353, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pdle47", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Do fully vaccinated people who still get COVID have the same level of infection as an unvaccinated person? Just wondering if there\u2019s any research on whether or not symptoms are milder for fully vaccinated people. Me and my girl are double vaxxed and both shots were moderna", "c_root_id_A": "har37r1", "c_root_id_B": "hatmnav", "created_at_utc_A": 1630200365, "created_at_utc_B": 1630256196, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "\u201cWith Delta, infections occurring following two vaccinations had similar peak viral burden to those in unvaccinated individuals.\u201d Wasn\u2019t able to tell if the duration and ramp down from peak viral burden is different in the vaccinated vs. unvaccinated: https://www.ndm.ox.ac.uk/files/coronavirus/covid-19-infection-survey/finalfinalcombinedve20210816.pdf", "human_ref_B": "The latest numbers out of New South Wales hospitals are as follows: (as of 29 August 2021)  126 ICU cases. 1 had both shots for covid. 13 had 1 of the two shots. 113 were unvaccinated. Numbers speak for themselves.    Source NSW Health - Australia.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 55831.0, "score_ratio": 1.1764705882, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pdle47", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Do fully vaccinated people who still get COVID have the same level of infection as an unvaccinated person? Just wondering if there\u2019s any research on whether or not symptoms are milder for fully vaccinated people. Me and my girl are double vaxxed and both shots were moderna", "c_root_id_A": "hata0az", "c_root_id_B": "hatmnav", "created_at_utc_A": 1630251004, "created_at_utc_B": 1630256196, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "Symptoms are almost always milder because your immune system is better trained to recognize the infection so it catches it earlier and successfully combats it before the worst of symptoms set in. Of course there are statistical anomalies and 1 out of 30 people in the hospital with COVID in the United Atates are vaccinated. But that constitutes excellent protection.", "human_ref_B": "The latest numbers out of New South Wales hospitals are as follows: (as of 29 August 2021)  126 ICU cases. 1 had both shots for covid. 13 had 1 of the two shots. 113 were unvaccinated. Numbers speak for themselves.    Source NSW Health - Australia.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5192.0, "score_ratio": 2.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qwwp2o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Blood bank pioneer Charles Drew was killed in a car crash in 1950. His injuries were too severe for him to be saved. Per wiki a passenger says a blood transfusion might have killed him sooner. Are there any reasons/conditions why a blood transfusion could kill a trauma victim sooner ? If so, how ? By 1950, the major blood groups and RH would surely have been known  for transfusion, (eg in North Carolina where the crash occurred)", "c_root_id_A": "hl5w04y", "c_root_id_B": "hl5tqpd", "created_at_utc_A": 1637266267, "created_at_utc_B": 1637265388, "score_A": 2424, "score_B": 176, "human_ref_A": "Blood transfusions increase blood pressure. Since his superior vena cava was blocked, blood flow from the head/neck/chest was blocked. But blood flow to the head/neck/chest continued.  This causes a spike in blood pressure localized to these regions. A further  increase of blood pressure from the transfusion could  result in a cerebral edema, throat swelling, or hemorrhaging", "human_ref_B": "According to a link in the Wikipedia article you mentioned:  *Drew didn\u2019t receive a transfusion because his injuries wouldn\u2019t permit it. \u201cHe had a superior vena cava syndrome \u2014 blood was blocked getting back to his heart from his brain and upper extremities,\u201d Ford said. \u201cTo give him a transfusion would have killed him sooner.*  I can't vouch for the veracity of this statement.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 879.0, "score_ratio": 13.7727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g941uqh", "c_root_id_B": "g9406ku", "created_at_utc_A": 1602949537, "created_at_utc_B": 1602948670, "score_A": 2453, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "To do a medical trial, you need to have it approved by an ethics board. Among many other steps, you need to assure the board you will be providing enough information that the subjects will have informed consent.  Among other things, informed consent needs to outline all the known and suspected potential hazards of undergoing the trial.  Getting kids to understand informed consent is hard. Hell, for some the question is *whether* a minor is even capable of informed consent, and if parental consent suffices instead.   Moreover, because it's kids, the trial has to be extremely confident it has minimized the potential harms. Kids are the last group tested partly because it usually has to go through adult trials first. Also because dosage is often by body weight and so kids are at risk due to lower tolerances for the drug. Also because kids are still developing, with brain and hormonal changes, which significantly screws with the ability for anyone to predict what harms the child will be exposed to and whether it will impact their development (because even if they tested it on adults first, adults have already finished development, and so testers will have no real clue how it will work on kids).  Testing on kids is such a tangled knot of concerns and risks and consent issues and the potential harms (and legal risks to the drug company should they make a mistake and get sued) that many drugs are never tested on kids.", "human_ref_B": "Basically for it to be ethical to trial drugs or vaccines in kids for COVID-19 it has to be essentially flawless to be less risky than the virus. The risk of severe disease in children is the same or lower than common viruses like flu and RSV.  This is obviously in stark contrast to the effects on older adults which is why the trials have focused on them.  It's a good sign for the Pfizer vaccine that they have extended their trial recruiting down to age 12. It means at the very least that they have no safety concerns yet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 867.0, "score_ratio": 102.2083333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g941uqh", "c_root_id_B": "g93y31i", "created_at_utc_A": 1602949537, "created_at_utc_B": 1602947586, "score_A": 2453, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "To do a medical trial, you need to have it approved by an ethics board. Among many other steps, you need to assure the board you will be providing enough information that the subjects will have informed consent.  Among other things, informed consent needs to outline all the known and suspected potential hazards of undergoing the trial.  Getting kids to understand informed consent is hard. Hell, for some the question is *whether* a minor is even capable of informed consent, and if parental consent suffices instead.   Moreover, because it's kids, the trial has to be extremely confident it has minimized the potential harms. Kids are the last group tested partly because it usually has to go through adult trials first. Also because dosage is often by body weight and so kids are at risk due to lower tolerances for the drug. Also because kids are still developing, with brain and hormonal changes, which significantly screws with the ability for anyone to predict what harms the child will be exposed to and whether it will impact their development (because even if they tested it on adults first, adults have already finished development, and so testers will have no real clue how it will work on kids).  Testing on kids is such a tangled knot of concerns and risks and consent issues and the potential harms (and legal risks to the drug company should they make a mistake and get sued) that many drugs are never tested on kids.", "human_ref_B": "Children are least effected by covid-19. This is easily found in numerous research articles across Europe and the U.S., there have been many statements out from pediatric doctor societies saying kids are safe going to schools etc. The reason they would be put through trials last is due to the ability they have to not contract, not show symptoms, and not spread the virus. They are a population that is grossly unaffected. Therefore, it makes more sense to increase the at-risk population in the trials because THOSE are the numbers that we NEED to see.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1951.0, "score_ratio": 153.3125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g940djk", "c_root_id_B": "g941uqh", "created_at_utc_A": 1602948767, "created_at_utc_B": 1602949537, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2453, "human_ref_A": "Once efficacy of a drug/vaccine is established in those who are able to give their *own* informed consent, then it would be reasonable to move on to those who have the most to lose and can't legally consent themselves. We don't need another thalidomide-type crisis where kids are harmed through no fault of their own if something unexpected happens.", "human_ref_B": "To do a medical trial, you need to have it approved by an ethics board. Among many other steps, you need to assure the board you will be providing enough information that the subjects will have informed consent.  Among other things, informed consent needs to outline all the known and suspected potential hazards of undergoing the trial.  Getting kids to understand informed consent is hard. Hell, for some the question is *whether* a minor is even capable of informed consent, and if parental consent suffices instead.   Moreover, because it's kids, the trial has to be extremely confident it has minimized the potential harms. Kids are the last group tested partly because it usually has to go through adult trials first. Also because dosage is often by body weight and so kids are at risk due to lower tolerances for the drug. Also because kids are still developing, with brain and hormonal changes, which significantly screws with the ability for anyone to predict what harms the child will be exposed to and whether it will impact their development (because even if they tested it on adults first, adults have already finished development, and so testers will have no real clue how it will work on kids).  Testing on kids is such a tangled knot of concerns and risks and consent issues and the potential harms (and legal risks to the drug company should they make a mistake and get sued) that many drugs are never tested on kids.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 770.0, "score_ratio": 306.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g9406ku", "c_root_id_B": "g94blqj", "created_at_utc_A": 1602948670, "created_at_utc_B": 1602954703, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 91, "human_ref_A": "Basically for it to be ethical to trial drugs or vaccines in kids for COVID-19 it has to be essentially flawless to be less risky than the virus. The risk of severe disease in children is the same or lower than common viruses like flu and RSV.  This is obviously in stark contrast to the effects on older adults which is why the trials have focused on them.  It's a good sign for the Pfizer vaccine that they have extended their trial recruiting down to age 12. It means at the very least that they have no safety concerns yet.", "human_ref_B": "The death rate (IFR) for those under 18 is about 1800 times lower than for someone over 75 yrs of age according to the CDC (0.00003 vs 0.054) .  This means the vaccine would have to be known to be far safer in order to justify its use in children vs those at much higher risk of death.  https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/planning-scenarios.html", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6033.0, "score_ratio": 3.7916666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g94blqj", "c_root_id_B": "g93y31i", "created_at_utc_A": 1602954703, "created_at_utc_B": 1602947586, "score_A": 91, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "The death rate (IFR) for those under 18 is about 1800 times lower than for someone over 75 yrs of age according to the CDC (0.00003 vs 0.054) .  This means the vaccine would have to be known to be far safer in order to justify its use in children vs those at much higher risk of death.  https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/planning-scenarios.html", "human_ref_B": "Children are least effected by covid-19. This is easily found in numerous research articles across Europe and the U.S., there have been many statements out from pediatric doctor societies saying kids are safe going to schools etc. The reason they would be put through trials last is due to the ability they have to not contract, not show symptoms, and not spread the virus. They are a population that is grossly unaffected. Therefore, it makes more sense to increase the at-risk population in the trials because THOSE are the numbers that we NEED to see.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7117.0, "score_ratio": 5.6875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g94blqj", "c_root_id_B": "g946zcy", "created_at_utc_A": 1602954703, "created_at_utc_B": 1602952179, "score_A": 91, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "The death rate (IFR) for those under 18 is about 1800 times lower than for someone over 75 yrs of age according to the CDC (0.00003 vs 0.054) .  This means the vaccine would have to be known to be far safer in order to justify its use in children vs those at much higher risk of death.  https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/planning-scenarios.html", "human_ref_B": "Children belong to vulnerable populations - they do not have sufficient capacity to give informed consent yet. In spite of that, informed consent can be obtained from the parent/legal representative. Assent form can be used for minors.  Apart from ethical reasons in general for minors, there could be COVID-19 specific reasons as well.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2524.0, "score_ratio": 11.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g94blqj", "c_root_id_B": "g940djk", "created_at_utc_A": 1602954703, "created_at_utc_B": 1602948767, "score_A": 91, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "The death rate (IFR) for those under 18 is about 1800 times lower than for someone over 75 yrs of age according to the CDC (0.00003 vs 0.054) .  This means the vaccine would have to be known to be far safer in order to justify its use in children vs those at much higher risk of death.  https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/planning-scenarios.html", "human_ref_B": "Once efficacy of a drug/vaccine is established in those who are able to give their *own* informed consent, then it would be reasonable to move on to those who have the most to lose and can't legally consent themselves. We don't need another thalidomide-type crisis where kids are harmed through no fault of their own if something unexpected happens.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5936.0, "score_ratio": 11.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g93y31i", "c_root_id_B": "g9406ku", "created_at_utc_A": 1602947586, "created_at_utc_B": 1602948670, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Children are least effected by covid-19. This is easily found in numerous research articles across Europe and the U.S., there have been many statements out from pediatric doctor societies saying kids are safe going to schools etc. The reason they would be put through trials last is due to the ability they have to not contract, not show symptoms, and not spread the virus. They are a population that is grossly unaffected. Therefore, it makes more sense to increase the at-risk population in the trials because THOSE are the numbers that we NEED to see.", "human_ref_B": "Basically for it to be ethical to trial drugs or vaccines in kids for COVID-19 it has to be essentially flawless to be less risky than the virus. The risk of severe disease in children is the same or lower than common viruses like flu and RSV.  This is obviously in stark contrast to the effects on older adults which is why the trials have focused on them.  It's a good sign for the Pfizer vaccine that they have extended their trial recruiting down to age 12. It means at the very least that they have no safety concerns yet.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1084.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g946zcy", "c_root_id_B": "g95ysp5", "created_at_utc_A": 1602952179, "created_at_utc_B": 1602984155, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Children belong to vulnerable populations - they do not have sufficient capacity to give informed consent yet. In spite of that, informed consent can be obtained from the parent/legal representative. Assent form can be used for minors.  Apart from ethical reasons in general for minors, there could be COVID-19 specific reasons as well.", "human_ref_B": "I know this question was asked a bit ago but I\u2019m a pediatric medical researcher (oncology) and we are starting some COVID stuff, but I do know other researchers who are infectious disease peds researchers, so here is the summary 1. Safety and efficacy will be evaluated just like every other clinical trial, so that means looking at various SAEs (serious adverse events) throughout the study. Usually there is a board / committee that monitors this and if something bad happens, the trial gets halted until further investigation. This happened with one of the vaccines and it was determined to be unrelated.  2) Clinical trials are evaluated in stages so safety will be first, then efficacy.  3) Kids are last because on the whole, they are fairing a LOT better than adults. But also unless it\u2019s a child specific disease, most clinical trials actually start with an adult population and then move to kids. Sometimes in tandem but not always.   What people should be more concerned about is the disproportionate # of kids who are getting severely sick / dying and are POCs. It\u2019s startling and incredibly upsetting.  And to clarify, these trials are already happening.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31976.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g95ysp5", "c_root_id_B": "g940djk", "created_at_utc_A": 1602984155, "created_at_utc_B": 1602948767, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I know this question was asked a bit ago but I\u2019m a pediatric medical researcher (oncology) and we are starting some COVID stuff, but I do know other researchers who are infectious disease peds researchers, so here is the summary 1. Safety and efficacy will be evaluated just like every other clinical trial, so that means looking at various SAEs (serious adverse events) throughout the study. Usually there is a board / committee that monitors this and if something bad happens, the trial gets halted until further investigation. This happened with one of the vaccines and it was determined to be unrelated.  2) Clinical trials are evaluated in stages so safety will be first, then efficacy.  3) Kids are last because on the whole, they are fairing a LOT better than adults. But also unless it\u2019s a child specific disease, most clinical trials actually start with an adult population and then move to kids. Sometimes in tandem but not always.   What people should be more concerned about is the disproportionate # of kids who are getting severely sick / dying and are POCs. It\u2019s startling and incredibly upsetting.  And to clarify, these trials are already happening.", "human_ref_B": "Once efficacy of a drug/vaccine is established in those who are able to give their *own* informed consent, then it would be reasonable to move on to those who have the most to lose and can't legally consent themselves. We don't need another thalidomide-type crisis where kids are harmed through no fault of their own if something unexpected happens.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 35388.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g95ysp5", "c_root_id_B": "g94g3kj", "created_at_utc_A": 1602984155, "created_at_utc_B": 1602957141, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I know this question was asked a bit ago but I\u2019m a pediatric medical researcher (oncology) and we are starting some COVID stuff, but I do know other researchers who are infectious disease peds researchers, so here is the summary 1. Safety and efficacy will be evaluated just like every other clinical trial, so that means looking at various SAEs (serious adverse events) throughout the study. Usually there is a board / committee that monitors this and if something bad happens, the trial gets halted until further investigation. This happened with one of the vaccines and it was determined to be unrelated.  2) Clinical trials are evaluated in stages so safety will be first, then efficacy.  3) Kids are last because on the whole, they are fairing a LOT better than adults. But also unless it\u2019s a child specific disease, most clinical trials actually start with an adult population and then move to kids. Sometimes in tandem but not always.   What people should be more concerned about is the disproportionate # of kids who are getting severely sick / dying and are POCs. It\u2019s startling and incredibly upsetting.  And to clarify, these trials are already happening.", "human_ref_B": "No we will not see trials in children. They are currently testing for immunogenicity as one of their end points in the trials. They want to see if you develop antibodies with the vaccines.   Children are usually not used in trials for ethical reasons. Plus from a business standpoint, they are harder to recruit due to there just being less of them. Typically drugs are approved in adults first and given to children off label. I work with cancer drugs and I can\u2019t think of many drugs that have been tested in children. They know they work on this disease in this way and if a child meets that the docs usually give the drug without a major trial to say it works in kids.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27014.0, "score_ratio": 2.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jcw2kn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "When can we expect COVID-19 trials for children? What criteria will be used to determine effectiveness and safety? Why are children being put in trials last?", "c_root_id_A": "g973i69", "c_root_id_B": "g94g3kj", "created_at_utc_A": 1603009753, "created_at_utc_B": 1602957141, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m a paediatric clinical researcher who does clinical trials in children  This area is complex but I\u2019ll try to outline a few main points:  Firstly, children can be enrolled in the RECOVERY trial for COVID-19 which is running in the UK; this is both for acute respiratory infection with SARS-CoV-2 and for the new hyperinflammatory syndrome (MIS-C)  Children are also enrolled in the Oxford/Astrazenica COVID vaccine trial in phase II (children aged 5-12)  Children are usually enrolled in clinical trials for new medicines once data in adults has confirmed that new medicines are safe (and hopefully effective) - this is less important for existing medicines which are being repurposed  Proving efficacy in children for most conditions is difficult because it\u2019s so rare for children to have poor outcomes anyway (I.e. few children die) so you need many more  It is particularly difficult for COVID because so few children even become unwell enough to enrol into a clinical trial  It is difficult to get drug companies to run trials for children because they rarely recover the cost of running the trial in what they would make in sales for the drugs to treat children (but new legislation is helping make this more equitable)  Hope that is helpful!", "human_ref_B": "No we will not see trials in children. They are currently testing for immunogenicity as one of their end points in the trials. They want to see if you develop antibodies with the vaccines.   Children are usually not used in trials for ethical reasons. Plus from a business standpoint, they are harder to recruit due to there just being less of them. Typically drugs are approved in adults first and given to children off label. I work with cancer drugs and I can\u2019t think of many drugs that have been tested in children. They know they work on this disease in this way and if a child meets that the docs usually give the drug without a major trial to say it works in kids.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 52612.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pzblv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why does the shower curtain pull inward when I turn the shower on?", "c_root_id_A": "cn1saeq", "c_root_id_B": "cn1tg22", "created_at_utc_A": 1419210473, "created_at_utc_B": 1419212923, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Search of Shower Curtain in askscience", "human_ref_B": "The other responses here are saying 'hot water', which probably has some affect, but does not explain the 'shower-curtain effect' given it still occurs when the water is cold.   This is actually a well discussed phenomena with no definite conclusion. Have a read.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2450.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pzblv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why does the shower curtain pull inward when I turn the shower on?", "c_root_id_A": "cn1tg22", "c_root_id_B": "cn1sdyb", "created_at_utc_A": 1419212923, "created_at_utc_B": 1419210680, "score_A": 12, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "The other responses here are saying 'hot water', which probably has some affect, but does not explain the 'shower-curtain effect' given it still occurs when the water is cold.   This is actually a well discussed phenomena with no definite conclusion. Have a read.", "human_ref_B": "Your shower has a curtain. This means it has a gap at the top where air can move through.  Hot water from your shower increases the heat and humidity of the air present in your shower. This affected air is highly buoyant due to its heat and moisture, and thus rises to the top of the shower - where it leaves through the aforementioned gap.  So now we have a region of slightly less pressure due to air leaving it. Colder and drier air will replace it - not through the top, since that gap is being monopolized by hot, humid air - but through the bottom (and probably some on the sides). This pressure differential pushes on your shower curtain inward, creating a gap where cold and dry air can rush through.  There are some more factors, which include the falling water from the showerhead (either creating a vortex or adding to the pressure differential) and steam condensation, but that's the general gist.  Tl;dr - Shower produces hot humid air which leaves, cold air replaces it by making an entry gap (probably)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2243.0, "score_ratio": -12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pzblv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why does the shower curtain pull inward when I turn the shower on?", "c_root_id_A": "cn2cu3g", "c_root_id_B": "cn1y4tc", "created_at_utc_A": 1419270270, "created_at_utc_B": 1419222815, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "A physicist by the name of David Schmidt won a sort of joke Nobel prize for his research in this area. He ran a simulation of the fluid dynamics within a bath with a shower curtain and found that a \"horizontal vortex\" formed inside.  Basically, the running water causes the air in the bath to rotate on a plane parallel to the shower curtain, forming a vortex. The middle of a vortex is a low pressure zone, which sucks the shower curtain inward.  The other theories probably contribute to the effect as well, it's most likely that it's produced by a combination of mechanisms rather than just one.  Article on Wikipedia", "human_ref_B": "The answer to this question remains a mystery but I just completed this experiment and here are my results:  TLDR version: 2 vortexes on each side of the water stream collide, pushing air upwards to the ceiling. Once it hits the ceiling, it moves outward in all directions, and some of it flows out of the shower. Air flows inward from the bottom, pushing the curtain in, to replace air that has flown outward.  Longer version: Picture the shower running right before you step in. The shower head (located top right corner) is angled so the stream hits the opposite (bottom left) corner of the shower. The stream of water separates the air in half (diagonally across the middle). The leftward portion of the half is all the above the stream of water. The rightward portion is everything under the stream. The air in the right portion flows clockwise. The air in the left portion flows counterclockwise. Simply imagine this symbol [ % ]. The line represents the flowing water, the circles represent the rotation of the vortexes. The stream of water is spaced out allowing air to flow freely between the individual streams of the shower. This allows the air to pass through the water stream easily and collide with air on the opposite side of the stream. Air, from the top of each vortex, collides and this causes it to spread outward from the point of collision. Some of it goes down, some goes up. The portion of air the does go up, hits the ceiling and spreads outward and out of the top of the curtain. The air that leaves from the top is replaced by air moving in from the bottom.   Edit (to clarify orientation of flowing air): the vortexes of air are shaped like a barrel laying on its side with the top facing you. The rotation of air is parallel to the curtain but the vortex is perpendicular to the curtain.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 47455.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pzblv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why does the shower curtain pull inward when I turn the shower on?", "c_root_id_A": "cn1saeq", "c_root_id_B": "cn2cu3g", "created_at_utc_A": 1419210473, "created_at_utc_B": 1419270270, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Search of Shower Curtain in askscience", "human_ref_B": "A physicist by the name of David Schmidt won a sort of joke Nobel prize for his research in this area. He ran a simulation of the fluid dynamics within a bath with a shower curtain and found that a \"horizontal vortex\" formed inside.  Basically, the running water causes the air in the bath to rotate on a plane parallel to the shower curtain, forming a vortex. The middle of a vortex is a low pressure zone, which sucks the shower curtain inward.  The other theories probably contribute to the effect as well, it's most likely that it's produced by a combination of mechanisms rather than just one.  Article on Wikipedia", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 59797.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pzblv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why does the shower curtain pull inward when I turn the shower on?", "c_root_id_A": "cn2cu3g", "c_root_id_B": "cn1sdyb", "created_at_utc_A": 1419270270, "created_at_utc_B": 1419210680, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "A physicist by the name of David Schmidt won a sort of joke Nobel prize for his research in this area. He ran a simulation of the fluid dynamics within a bath with a shower curtain and found that a \"horizontal vortex\" formed inside.  Basically, the running water causes the air in the bath to rotate on a plane parallel to the shower curtain, forming a vortex. The middle of a vortex is a low pressure zone, which sucks the shower curtain inward.  The other theories probably contribute to the effect as well, it's most likely that it's produced by a combination of mechanisms rather than just one.  Article on Wikipedia", "human_ref_B": "Your shower has a curtain. This means it has a gap at the top where air can move through.  Hot water from your shower increases the heat and humidity of the air present in your shower. This affected air is highly buoyant due to its heat and moisture, and thus rises to the top of the shower - where it leaves through the aforementioned gap.  So now we have a region of slightly less pressure due to air leaving it. Colder and drier air will replace it - not through the top, since that gap is being monopolized by hot, humid air - but through the bottom (and probably some on the sides). This pressure differential pushes on your shower curtain inward, creating a gap where cold and dry air can rush through.  There are some more factors, which include the falling water from the showerhead (either creating a vortex or adding to the pressure differential) and steam condensation, but that's the general gist.  Tl;dr - Shower produces hot humid air which leaves, cold air replaces it by making an entry gap (probably)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 59590.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pzblv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why does the shower curtain pull inward when I turn the shower on?", "c_root_id_A": "cn1y4tc", "c_root_id_B": "cn1saeq", "created_at_utc_A": 1419222815, "created_at_utc_B": 1419210473, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The answer to this question remains a mystery but I just completed this experiment and here are my results:  TLDR version: 2 vortexes on each side of the water stream collide, pushing air upwards to the ceiling. Once it hits the ceiling, it moves outward in all directions, and some of it flows out of the shower. Air flows inward from the bottom, pushing the curtain in, to replace air that has flown outward.  Longer version: Picture the shower running right before you step in. The shower head (located top right corner) is angled so the stream hits the opposite (bottom left) corner of the shower. The stream of water separates the air in half (diagonally across the middle). The leftward portion of the half is all the above the stream of water. The rightward portion is everything under the stream. The air in the right portion flows clockwise. The air in the left portion flows counterclockwise. Simply imagine this symbol [ % ]. The line represents the flowing water, the circles represent the rotation of the vortexes. The stream of water is spaced out allowing air to flow freely between the individual streams of the shower. This allows the air to pass through the water stream easily and collide with air on the opposite side of the stream. Air, from the top of each vortex, collides and this causes it to spread outward from the point of collision. Some of it goes down, some goes up. The portion of air the does go up, hits the ceiling and spreads outward and out of the top of the curtain. The air that leaves from the top is replaced by air moving in from the bottom.   Edit (to clarify orientation of flowing air): the vortexes of air are shaped like a barrel laying on its side with the top facing you. The rotation of air is parallel to the curtain but the vortex is perpendicular to the curtain.", "human_ref_B": "Search of Shower Curtain in askscience", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12342.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pzblv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why does the shower curtain pull inward when I turn the shower on?", "c_root_id_A": "cn1sdyb", "c_root_id_B": "cn1y4tc", "created_at_utc_A": 1419210680, "created_at_utc_B": 1419222815, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Your shower has a curtain. This means it has a gap at the top where air can move through.  Hot water from your shower increases the heat and humidity of the air present in your shower. This affected air is highly buoyant due to its heat and moisture, and thus rises to the top of the shower - where it leaves through the aforementioned gap.  So now we have a region of slightly less pressure due to air leaving it. Colder and drier air will replace it - not through the top, since that gap is being monopolized by hot, humid air - but through the bottom (and probably some on the sides). This pressure differential pushes on your shower curtain inward, creating a gap where cold and dry air can rush through.  There are some more factors, which include the falling water from the showerhead (either creating a vortex or adding to the pressure differential) and steam condensation, but that's the general gist.  Tl;dr - Shower produces hot humid air which leaves, cold air replaces it by making an entry gap (probably)", "human_ref_B": "The answer to this question remains a mystery but I just completed this experiment and here are my results:  TLDR version: 2 vortexes on each side of the water stream collide, pushing air upwards to the ceiling. Once it hits the ceiling, it moves outward in all directions, and some of it flows out of the shower. Air flows inward from the bottom, pushing the curtain in, to replace air that has flown outward.  Longer version: Picture the shower running right before you step in. The shower head (located top right corner) is angled so the stream hits the opposite (bottom left) corner of the shower. The stream of water separates the air in half (diagonally across the middle). The leftward portion of the half is all the above the stream of water. The rightward portion is everything under the stream. The air in the right portion flows clockwise. The air in the left portion flows counterclockwise. Simply imagine this symbol [ % ]. The line represents the flowing water, the circles represent the rotation of the vortexes. The stream of water is spaced out allowing air to flow freely between the individual streams of the shower. This allows the air to pass through the water stream easily and collide with air on the opposite side of the stream. Air, from the top of each vortex, collides and this causes it to spread outward from the point of collision. Some of it goes down, some goes up. The portion of air the does go up, hits the ceiling and spreads outward and out of the top of the curtain. The air that leaves from the top is replaced by air moving in from the bottom.   Edit (to clarify orientation of flowing air): the vortexes of air are shaped like a barrel laying on its side with the top facing you. The rotation of air is parallel to the curtain but the vortex is perpendicular to the curtain.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12135.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r5kdui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does COVID-19 seem to have so many more variants than other pandemic-inducing pathogens? To clarify, the title is merely my perception of the situation, not an assertion of fact!     Basically it feels like compared to other pandemics in history, such as Spanish flu, the pandemic resulting from this particular coronavirus has included many more variants and possibly is more long lasting.  My guess is that compared to former pandemics, we are simply a lot better at identifying new variants, so prior similar episodes were lumped into one single pathogen? As for the longevity, it may be because we're actually a lot better at preventing death and spread than in previous pandemics, there are more uninfected people for a longer period of time leaving them open to infection for longer?  These are just some of my guesses, but i'm curious if my perception is just simply incorrect or if not, what the actual reasons are behind these phenomena.", "c_root_id_A": "hmoquwb", "c_root_id_B": "hmoj3pn", "created_at_utc_A": 1638294048, "created_at_utc_B": 1638291025, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "Covid actually has probably less variants  than other pathogens. For instance the flu virus mutates very easily and any given time there are several variants in circulation, this is why a new flu vaccine is needed every year and still only prevents against around half of influenza infections.  Coronaviruses on the other hand have a mechanism in them that limits how fast they mutate. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127101/ ) This is why we\u2019ve only seen 13 distinct variance despite over 200 million people being infected.  There\u2019s also some evidence that the variants we have seen are the result of immunocompromise people becoming infected and having the virus stay in their bodies for extended periods of time, allowing it to undergo several simultaneous mutations before it eventually lands on a more infectious outcome and spreads to other people. (E.g. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/27/9/21-1159_article)", "human_ref_B": "A few people are correctly touching on advances in sequencing that allows us to get a larger survey of genomic variance during this pandemic compared to previous ones, but I'll also point out that Sars-Cov-2 has been a lot more widespread than other pandemics.  The Sars outbreak in 2002-2004 is estimated to have infected 8000 people. Swine flu (the influenza behind the 2009 outbreak) is estimated to have infected 100 million people in the 10 years following its emergence. Compared to Sars-Cov-2: in two years, we've seen 262 million global infections. This is a bigger pandemic than before.  Effective population size is directly proportional to genetic diversity. The bigger a population is, the more standing variation exists in that population. We let this virus get to a big, big population size, and because mutations accumulate independently in each person infected, it leads to a highly diverse population of viruses. (Edit: Relative to a hypothetical scenario of Sars-Cov-2 at a smaller population size -- mutational rate differs between viruses, so a small population of a different virus with a high mutation rate can be more diverse than Sars-Cov-2 at a larger population.)  As an aside, the efficacy of selection is also proportional to population size (because there's more variation in the population, it's more likely that a 'winner' pre-exists that can thrive under selection). A vaccine is a selective pressure imposed on the virus by humans. If Omicron is a 'winner' versus the selection pressure of our vaccines is yet to be seen, though language from Moderna seems a bit grim at the moment...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3023.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r5kdui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does COVID-19 seem to have so many more variants than other pandemic-inducing pathogens? To clarify, the title is merely my perception of the situation, not an assertion of fact!     Basically it feels like compared to other pandemics in history, such as Spanish flu, the pandemic resulting from this particular coronavirus has included many more variants and possibly is more long lasting.  My guess is that compared to former pandemics, we are simply a lot better at identifying new variants, so prior similar episodes were lumped into one single pathogen? As for the longevity, it may be because we're actually a lot better at preventing death and spread than in previous pandemics, there are more uninfected people for a longer period of time leaving them open to infection for longer?  These are just some of my guesses, but i'm curious if my perception is just simply incorrect or if not, what the actual reasons are behind these phenomena.", "c_root_id_A": "hmnhcs3", "c_root_id_B": "hmoquwb", "created_at_utc_A": 1638272542, "created_at_utc_B": 1638294048, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 52, "human_ref_A": "It probably feels like that because the lay press covers CoVID-19 pretty much all the time and is willing to amplify all sorts of unsubstantiated information for clicks.  Also consider the technology: genetic sequencing wasn\u2019t even invented until the 1970s, and the type of rapid, high-throughput genetic sequencing that is useful for investigating viral variants has only been around for like 20 years. The technology became cheap and widespread only in the past decade, and everyone is sequencing this virus, so it can\u2019t change even one base without someone noticing and writing a preprint about it.  I found this cool article about the 1918 influenza virus. if you\u2019re interested.", "human_ref_B": "Covid actually has probably less variants  than other pathogens. For instance the flu virus mutates very easily and any given time there are several variants in circulation, this is why a new flu vaccine is needed every year and still only prevents against around half of influenza infections.  Coronaviruses on the other hand have a mechanism in them that limits how fast they mutate. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127101/ ) This is why we\u2019ve only seen 13 distinct variance despite over 200 million people being infected.  There\u2019s also some evidence that the variants we have seen are the result of immunocompromise people becoming infected and having the virus stay in their bodies for extended periods of time, allowing it to undergo several simultaneous mutations before it eventually lands on a more infectious outcome and spreads to other people. (E.g. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/27/9/21-1159_article)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21506.0, "score_ratio": 1.3684210526, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r5kdui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does COVID-19 seem to have so many more variants than other pandemic-inducing pathogens? To clarify, the title is merely my perception of the situation, not an assertion of fact!     Basically it feels like compared to other pandemics in history, such as Spanish flu, the pandemic resulting from this particular coronavirus has included many more variants and possibly is more long lasting.  My guess is that compared to former pandemics, we are simply a lot better at identifying new variants, so prior similar episodes were lumped into one single pathogen? As for the longevity, it may be because we're actually a lot better at preventing death and spread than in previous pandemics, there are more uninfected people for a longer period of time leaving them open to infection for longer?  These are just some of my guesses, but i'm curious if my perception is just simply incorrect or if not, what the actual reasons are behind these phenomena.", "c_root_id_A": "hmo1njb", "c_root_id_B": "hmoquwb", "created_at_utc_A": 1638283861, "created_at_utc_B": 1638294048, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 52, "human_ref_A": "The plague has had variants and has caused multiple pandemics (roughly 500 AD, 1300-1700ish AD, 1894AD) and lasted hundreds of years. It is still out there today with about 1000-2000 cases per year. It is a bacteria, rather than a virus, but definitely long lasting! Of course, we now have treatments for it, so the circumstances are a bit different.      There are some very interesting books out there about the history of pandemics. Great reading and very fascinating to look at similarities in society's responses across centuries.", "human_ref_B": "Covid actually has probably less variants  than other pathogens. For instance the flu virus mutates very easily and any given time there are several variants in circulation, this is why a new flu vaccine is needed every year and still only prevents against around half of influenza infections.  Coronaviruses on the other hand have a mechanism in them that limits how fast they mutate. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127101/ ) This is why we\u2019ve only seen 13 distinct variance despite over 200 million people being infected.  There\u2019s also some evidence that the variants we have seen are the result of immunocompromise people becoming infected and having the virus stay in their bodies for extended periods of time, allowing it to undergo several simultaneous mutations before it eventually lands on a more infectious outcome and spreads to other people. (E.g. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/27/9/21-1159_article)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10187.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r5kdui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does COVID-19 seem to have so many more variants than other pandemic-inducing pathogens? To clarify, the title is merely my perception of the situation, not an assertion of fact!     Basically it feels like compared to other pandemics in history, such as Spanish flu, the pandemic resulting from this particular coronavirus has included many more variants and possibly is more long lasting.  My guess is that compared to former pandemics, we are simply a lot better at identifying new variants, so prior similar episodes were lumped into one single pathogen? As for the longevity, it may be because we're actually a lot better at preventing death and spread than in previous pandemics, there are more uninfected people for a longer period of time leaving them open to infection for longer?  These are just some of my guesses, but i'm curious if my perception is just simply incorrect or if not, what the actual reasons are behind these phenomena.", "c_root_id_A": "hmo4zbf", "c_root_id_B": "hmoquwb", "created_at_utc_A": 1638285324, "created_at_utc_B": 1638294048, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 52, "human_ref_A": "follow up question: are all positive swabs being sequenced?   ie: if a vaccinated american (where this new variant (i forget the name) has not yet been reported in high numbers) tests positive for covid, will their swab be sequenced? will they be informed they have the new variant?   TYIA!", "human_ref_B": "Covid actually has probably less variants  than other pathogens. For instance the flu virus mutates very easily and any given time there are several variants in circulation, this is why a new flu vaccine is needed every year and still only prevents against around half of influenza infections.  Coronaviruses on the other hand have a mechanism in them that limits how fast they mutate. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127101/ ) This is why we\u2019ve only seen 13 distinct variance despite over 200 million people being infected.  There\u2019s also some evidence that the variants we have seen are the result of immunocompromise people becoming infected and having the virus stay in their bodies for extended periods of time, allowing it to undergo several simultaneous mutations before it eventually lands on a more infectious outcome and spreads to other people. (E.g. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/27/9/21-1159_article)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8724.0, "score_ratio": 4.7272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r5kdui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does COVID-19 seem to have so many more variants than other pandemic-inducing pathogens? To clarify, the title is merely my perception of the situation, not an assertion of fact!     Basically it feels like compared to other pandemics in history, such as Spanish flu, the pandemic resulting from this particular coronavirus has included many more variants and possibly is more long lasting.  My guess is that compared to former pandemics, we are simply a lot better at identifying new variants, so prior similar episodes were lumped into one single pathogen? As for the longevity, it may be because we're actually a lot better at preventing death and spread than in previous pandemics, there are more uninfected people for a longer period of time leaving them open to infection for longer?  These are just some of my guesses, but i'm curious if my perception is just simply incorrect or if not, what the actual reasons are behind these phenomena.", "c_root_id_A": "hmoquwb", "c_root_id_B": "hmopmfo", "created_at_utc_A": 1638294048, "created_at_utc_B": 1638293564, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Covid actually has probably less variants  than other pathogens. For instance the flu virus mutates very easily and any given time there are several variants in circulation, this is why a new flu vaccine is needed every year and still only prevents against around half of influenza infections.  Coronaviruses on the other hand have a mechanism in them that limits how fast they mutate. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127101/ ) This is why we\u2019ve only seen 13 distinct variance despite over 200 million people being infected.  There\u2019s also some evidence that the variants we have seen are the result of immunocompromise people becoming infected and having the virus stay in their bodies for extended periods of time, allowing it to undergo several simultaneous mutations before it eventually lands on a more infectious outcome and spreads to other people. (E.g. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/27/9/21-1159_article)", "human_ref_B": "An important part of why this virus in particular mutates so much is it's very high transmission factor. It is very contagious and has very low mortality, which results in both many carriers (symptomless covid-positive individuals) and the fact people stay alive longer with it, so it spreads a lot more easily than other viruses, giving it more chances to mutate. Think it like you can't spread a virus if you're dead or bedridden.  The points others have given are very valid too, we've never really had the chance to verify it before like now, and it didn't get that much press coverage.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 484.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r5kdui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does COVID-19 seem to have so many more variants than other pandemic-inducing pathogens? To clarify, the title is merely my perception of the situation, not an assertion of fact!     Basically it feels like compared to other pandemics in history, such as Spanish flu, the pandemic resulting from this particular coronavirus has included many more variants and possibly is more long lasting.  My guess is that compared to former pandemics, we are simply a lot better at identifying new variants, so prior similar episodes were lumped into one single pathogen? As for the longevity, it may be because we're actually a lot better at preventing death and spread than in previous pandemics, there are more uninfected people for a longer period of time leaving them open to infection for longer?  These are just some of my guesses, but i'm curious if my perception is just simply incorrect or if not, what the actual reasons are behind these phenomena.", "c_root_id_A": "hmoj3pn", "c_root_id_B": "hmnhcs3", "created_at_utc_A": 1638291025, "created_at_utc_B": 1638272542, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "A few people are correctly touching on advances in sequencing that allows us to get a larger survey of genomic variance during this pandemic compared to previous ones, but I'll also point out that Sars-Cov-2 has been a lot more widespread than other pandemics.  The Sars outbreak in 2002-2004 is estimated to have infected 8000 people. Swine flu (the influenza behind the 2009 outbreak) is estimated to have infected 100 million people in the 10 years following its emergence. Compared to Sars-Cov-2: in two years, we've seen 262 million global infections. This is a bigger pandemic than before.  Effective population size is directly proportional to genetic diversity. The bigger a population is, the more standing variation exists in that population. We let this virus get to a big, big population size, and because mutations accumulate independently in each person infected, it leads to a highly diverse population of viruses. (Edit: Relative to a hypothetical scenario of Sars-Cov-2 at a smaller population size -- mutational rate differs between viruses, so a small population of a different virus with a high mutation rate can be more diverse than Sars-Cov-2 at a larger population.)  As an aside, the efficacy of selection is also proportional to population size (because there's more variation in the population, it's more likely that a 'winner' pre-exists that can thrive under selection). A vaccine is a selective pressure imposed on the virus by humans. If Omicron is a 'winner' versus the selection pressure of our vaccines is yet to be seen, though language from Moderna seems a bit grim at the moment...", "human_ref_B": "It probably feels like that because the lay press covers CoVID-19 pretty much all the time and is willing to amplify all sorts of unsubstantiated information for clicks.  Also consider the technology: genetic sequencing wasn\u2019t even invented until the 1970s, and the type of rapid, high-throughput genetic sequencing that is useful for investigating viral variants has only been around for like 20 years. The technology became cheap and widespread only in the past decade, and everyone is sequencing this virus, so it can\u2019t change even one base without someone noticing and writing a preprint about it.  I found this cool article about the 1918 influenza virus. if you\u2019re interested.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18483.0, "score_ratio": 1.1578947368, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r5kdui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does COVID-19 seem to have so many more variants than other pandemic-inducing pathogens? To clarify, the title is merely my perception of the situation, not an assertion of fact!     Basically it feels like compared to other pandemics in history, such as Spanish flu, the pandemic resulting from this particular coronavirus has included many more variants and possibly is more long lasting.  My guess is that compared to former pandemics, we are simply a lot better at identifying new variants, so prior similar episodes were lumped into one single pathogen? As for the longevity, it may be because we're actually a lot better at preventing death and spread than in previous pandemics, there are more uninfected people for a longer period of time leaving them open to infection for longer?  These are just some of my guesses, but i'm curious if my perception is just simply incorrect or if not, what the actual reasons are behind these phenomena.", "c_root_id_A": "hmo1njb", "c_root_id_B": "hmoj3pn", "created_at_utc_A": 1638283861, "created_at_utc_B": 1638291025, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "The plague has had variants and has caused multiple pandemics (roughly 500 AD, 1300-1700ish AD, 1894AD) and lasted hundreds of years. It is still out there today with about 1000-2000 cases per year. It is a bacteria, rather than a virus, but definitely long lasting! Of course, we now have treatments for it, so the circumstances are a bit different.      There are some very interesting books out there about the history of pandemics. Great reading and very fascinating to look at similarities in society's responses across centuries.", "human_ref_B": "A few people are correctly touching on advances in sequencing that allows us to get a larger survey of genomic variance during this pandemic compared to previous ones, but I'll also point out that Sars-Cov-2 has been a lot more widespread than other pandemics.  The Sars outbreak in 2002-2004 is estimated to have infected 8000 people. Swine flu (the influenza behind the 2009 outbreak) is estimated to have infected 100 million people in the 10 years following its emergence. Compared to Sars-Cov-2: in two years, we've seen 262 million global infections. This is a bigger pandemic than before.  Effective population size is directly proportional to genetic diversity. The bigger a population is, the more standing variation exists in that population. We let this virus get to a big, big population size, and because mutations accumulate independently in each person infected, it leads to a highly diverse population of viruses. (Edit: Relative to a hypothetical scenario of Sars-Cov-2 at a smaller population size -- mutational rate differs between viruses, so a small population of a different virus with a high mutation rate can be more diverse than Sars-Cov-2 at a larger population.)  As an aside, the efficacy of selection is also proportional to population size (because there's more variation in the population, it's more likely that a 'winner' pre-exists that can thrive under selection). A vaccine is a selective pressure imposed on the virus by humans. If Omicron is a 'winner' versus the selection pressure of our vaccines is yet to be seen, though language from Moderna seems a bit grim at the moment...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7164.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r5kdui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does COVID-19 seem to have so many more variants than other pandemic-inducing pathogens? To clarify, the title is merely my perception of the situation, not an assertion of fact!     Basically it feels like compared to other pandemics in history, such as Spanish flu, the pandemic resulting from this particular coronavirus has included many more variants and possibly is more long lasting.  My guess is that compared to former pandemics, we are simply a lot better at identifying new variants, so prior similar episodes were lumped into one single pathogen? As for the longevity, it may be because we're actually a lot better at preventing death and spread than in previous pandemics, there are more uninfected people for a longer period of time leaving them open to infection for longer?  These are just some of my guesses, but i'm curious if my perception is just simply incorrect or if not, what the actual reasons are behind these phenomena.", "c_root_id_A": "hmoj3pn", "c_root_id_B": "hmo4zbf", "created_at_utc_A": 1638291025, "created_at_utc_B": 1638285324, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "A few people are correctly touching on advances in sequencing that allows us to get a larger survey of genomic variance during this pandemic compared to previous ones, but I'll also point out that Sars-Cov-2 has been a lot more widespread than other pandemics.  The Sars outbreak in 2002-2004 is estimated to have infected 8000 people. Swine flu (the influenza behind the 2009 outbreak) is estimated to have infected 100 million people in the 10 years following its emergence. Compared to Sars-Cov-2: in two years, we've seen 262 million global infections. This is a bigger pandemic than before.  Effective population size is directly proportional to genetic diversity. The bigger a population is, the more standing variation exists in that population. We let this virus get to a big, big population size, and because mutations accumulate independently in each person infected, it leads to a highly diverse population of viruses. (Edit: Relative to a hypothetical scenario of Sars-Cov-2 at a smaller population size -- mutational rate differs between viruses, so a small population of a different virus with a high mutation rate can be more diverse than Sars-Cov-2 at a larger population.)  As an aside, the efficacy of selection is also proportional to population size (because there's more variation in the population, it's more likely that a 'winner' pre-exists that can thrive under selection). A vaccine is a selective pressure imposed on the virus by humans. If Omicron is a 'winner' versus the selection pressure of our vaccines is yet to be seen, though language from Moderna seems a bit grim at the moment...", "human_ref_B": "follow up question: are all positive swabs being sequenced?   ie: if a vaccinated american (where this new variant (i forget the name) has not yet been reported in high numbers) tests positive for covid, will their swab be sequenced? will they be informed they have the new variant?   TYIA!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5701.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p5qvsi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "When a vaccinated person is infected with a strain of a virus different from the one they were vaccinated against, do they create different anitbodies? So with Covid-19, the vaccines are made with the original strain, so are antibodies work against the original strain. But when a vaccinated person gets infected with the Delta variant, in addition to making the OG antibodies, will the immune system also make antibodies specific to the Delta variant? Or will it just produce the OG antibodies?   And to a further extent, if we made a vaccine against the Delta variant specifically, would it help at all with already vaccinated people or will it just reinforce the main strain antibodies?", "c_root_id_A": "h97unye", "c_root_id_B": "h97uy18", "created_at_utc_A": 1629153744, "created_at_utc_B": 1629153867, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "I asked the infectious disease dr at work (I do cardiovascular ultrasound) about this a couple months ago.  The vaccinated person makes new antibodies, a Delta vaccine or any vaccine will only work if around 90% (varies with virus') of the population gets it, if not the virus keeps mutating. So without compliance there will need to be a new vaccine or treatment for every strain (this is likely our reality now) every few months. We just got lucky the OG vaccines dull down the delta variant. The next variant may not have that.", "human_ref_B": "The goal of most vaccines is to target things called conserved regions, these are proteins or parts of proteins that tend to be the same (conserved) across multiple strains. In the case of Covid they used the spike protein and most likely a specific region that they found to be highly conserved across the strains known at the time of development.   This means that your body will be trained to react to this specific protein and the initial response produced will be to the same one regardless of strain. If the strain has sufficiently altered the spike protein, then your body will produce a lesser or no reaction to it based on what was learned from the vaccine. In the case that the protein is only a partial match you will still get a reaction and a process called affinity maturation will further increase the specificity of your immune response for the new variation. If this is the case then you are more likely to get sick because your immune response while better if unvaccinated will still be slower/less aggressive and you will be more likely to reach a viral load where you become symptomatic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 123.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p5qvsi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "When a vaccinated person is infected with a strain of a virus different from the one they were vaccinated against, do they create different anitbodies? So with Covid-19, the vaccines are made with the original strain, so are antibodies work against the original strain. But when a vaccinated person gets infected with the Delta variant, in addition to making the OG antibodies, will the immune system also make antibodies specific to the Delta variant? Or will it just produce the OG antibodies?   And to a further extent, if we made a vaccine against the Delta variant specifically, would it help at all with already vaccinated people or will it just reinforce the main strain antibodies?", "c_root_id_A": "h97uoq3", "c_root_id_B": "h97uy18", "created_at_utc_A": 1629153754, "created_at_utc_B": 1629153867, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Are you referring to a specific vaccine, because the vaccines were made with different formulas and the one that was actually made from deactivated virus doesn't appear to be readily available in North America, nor as effective as the mrna vaccine.", "human_ref_B": "The goal of most vaccines is to target things called conserved regions, these are proteins or parts of proteins that tend to be the same (conserved) across multiple strains. In the case of Covid they used the spike protein and most likely a specific region that they found to be highly conserved across the strains known at the time of development.   This means that your body will be trained to react to this specific protein and the initial response produced will be to the same one regardless of strain. If the strain has sufficiently altered the spike protein, then your body will produce a lesser or no reaction to it based on what was learned from the vaccine. In the case that the protein is only a partial match you will still get a reaction and a process called affinity maturation will further increase the specificity of your immune response for the new variation. If this is the case then you are more likely to get sick because your immune response while better if unvaccinated will still be slower/less aggressive and you will be more likely to reach a viral load where you become symptomatic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 113.0, "score_ratio": 14000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p5qvsi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "When a vaccinated person is infected with a strain of a virus different from the one they were vaccinated against, do they create different anitbodies? So with Covid-19, the vaccines are made with the original strain, so are antibodies work against the original strain. But when a vaccinated person gets infected with the Delta variant, in addition to making the OG antibodies, will the immune system also make antibodies specific to the Delta variant? Or will it just produce the OG antibodies?   And to a further extent, if we made a vaccine against the Delta variant specifically, would it help at all with already vaccinated people or will it just reinforce the main strain antibodies?", "c_root_id_A": "h97uoq3", "c_root_id_B": "h98iuxv", "created_at_utc_A": 1629153754, "created_at_utc_B": 1629164827, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Are you referring to a specific vaccine, because the vaccines were made with different formulas and the one that was actually made from deactivated virus doesn't appear to be readily available in North America, nor as effective as the mrna vaccine.", "human_ref_B": "A vaccine is usually used for preparing the immune system for a harmful biological agent. So what it is supposed to achieve is that the immune system recognizes an infection quickly and responds to it. For this the infecting virus does not have to be the exact same version of the virus that was used in the vaccine. As long as some antibodies stick to it then the infection is recognized and the immune system tries to find antibodies that work even better. Once they are found, they are produced en masse and immunity is reached. The advantage of the vaccine is that the virus does not have as much time to replicate as it would have if there were no antibodies against it. It allows for a quicker response and therefore less severity of the infection. So to answer the question: Yes, there will be variant-specific antibodies.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11073.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dlhdy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "A question to science-minded folks about the time it takes for light emanated from stars to reach Earth, and how that time relates to the Christian belief that the universe is < 12,000 years old. Some Christians claim that the universe is 6,000 years old, some claim that that age pertains to Earth only.  At the very most, it seems fair to say that the universe is no more than 12,000 years if we believe that \"one day is like a thousand years\" as Peter says.  If we can see a star that is 1.25 billion light years away, does this not entirely crush any claim that the universe is so young?  What are the things that, as a history major that is baffled by physics, I might not be thinking of or simply do not understand?  I'm hoping for someone to explain to me in a somewhat simple manner what the reasons are that make this a sound argument  or an unsound argument.  Thanks for any help!", "c_root_id_A": "c9rh4nh", "c_root_id_B": "c9rh026", "created_at_utc_A": 1367554430, "created_at_utc_B": 1367554039, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Yep. Young Earthers get around this by claiming that the speed of light was much larger in the past. While there are cosmological theories that include a variable speed of light, I don't know of any that involve the speed of light changing by a factor of a *million*. As the speed of light is connected to the strengths of electromagnetic fields, this would completely disrupt the structure of basically everything in the universe.  I've seen a study where they collated measurements of the speed of light over time to show that the speed of light is increasing, but when I looked into their sources is was clear that they had ignored a large number of studies that would contradict their claim. Also, in some older reports (i.e. even before the 19th century), it's not entirely clear what the original author was doing, and this allowed them to make assumptions to twist the result into what they wanted. In reality, there is always a scatter of measurements for the speed of light, and this scatter has tightened up as time goes on. This means the lower limit for the speed of light has been increasing (while of course, the upper limit has been *decreasing* at the same time), so you can select data points near the lower limit to make it look like the speed is increasing.", "human_ref_B": "Yeah the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 391.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dlhdy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "A question to science-minded folks about the time it takes for light emanated from stars to reach Earth, and how that time relates to the Christian belief that the universe is < 12,000 years old. Some Christians claim that the universe is 6,000 years old, some claim that that age pertains to Earth only.  At the very most, it seems fair to say that the universe is no more than 12,000 years if we believe that \"one day is like a thousand years\" as Peter says.  If we can see a star that is 1.25 billion light years away, does this not entirely crush any claim that the universe is so young?  What are the things that, as a history major that is baffled by physics, I might not be thinking of or simply do not understand?  I'm hoping for someone to explain to me in a somewhat simple manner what the reasons are that make this a sound argument  or an unsound argument.  Thanks for any help!", "c_root_id_A": "c9tbqtz", "c_root_id_B": "c9rh8qb", "created_at_utc_A": 1367828044, "created_at_utc_B": 1367554774, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Just saying, the vast majority of young-earthers aren't thinking that hard about the universe. >Fucking ~~magnets~~ light, how do they work? And I don\u2019t wanna talk to a scientist Y\u2019all motherfuckers lying, and getting me pissed.", "human_ref_B": ">At the very most, it seems fair to say that the universe is no more than 12,000 years  Was that a blanket statement for all Christians? Because there are definitely more than a few who believe in old earth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 273270.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dlhdy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "A question to science-minded folks about the time it takes for light emanated from stars to reach Earth, and how that time relates to the Christian belief that the universe is < 12,000 years old. Some Christians claim that the universe is 6,000 years old, some claim that that age pertains to Earth only.  At the very most, it seems fair to say that the universe is no more than 12,000 years if we believe that \"one day is like a thousand years\" as Peter says.  If we can see a star that is 1.25 billion light years away, does this not entirely crush any claim that the universe is so young?  What are the things that, as a history major that is baffled by physics, I might not be thinking of or simply do not understand?  I'm hoping for someone to explain to me in a somewhat simple manner what the reasons are that make this a sound argument  or an unsound argument.  Thanks for any help!", "c_root_id_A": "c9tbqtz", "c_root_id_B": "c9rm0tv", "created_at_utc_A": 1367828044, "created_at_utc_B": 1367582245, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Just saying, the vast majority of young-earthers aren't thinking that hard about the universe. >Fucking ~~magnets~~ light, how do they work? And I don\u2019t wanna talk to a scientist Y\u2019all motherfuckers lying, and getting me pissed.", "human_ref_B": "A traditional philosophical / theological discussion about this - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omphalos_hypothesis", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 245799.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q6n8y2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What would happen if we removed too much CO2 from the atmosphere? How much would be too much? Earth is a very fragile ecosystem and everything is about balance. One relatively minor event (on a planetary scale) can drastically alter our climate for countless years. We're starting to see this with global warming.  Carbon capture is currently possible, however at the moment it's prohibitively expensive and not used very much. What would happen if we were started being carbon negative? Would we see an initial reversal in climate change to where we were pre-industrial revolution? What would happen if we kept going after that though? Would we have a slow global cooling?", "c_root_id_A": "hgd67xh", "c_root_id_B": "hgd1gb6", "created_at_utc_A": 1634053156, "created_at_utc_B": 1634051220, "score_A": 1627, "score_B": 156, "human_ref_A": "The same natural feedback processes that (partially) counteract CO2 increase today would act in reverse to counteract CO2 removal below natural equilibrium.  In particular, plants grow slower when CO2 is scarce, but animals keep doing their thing, so biology would create a net CO2 source.  There is vast amounts of CO2 stored in seawater: if atmospheric CO2 dropped, some of it would move from ocean to atmosphere to replace what was lost.  These two processes together remove about half the CO2 we are currently adding to the atmosphere, and would be equally effective in reverse.  But the CO2 removal process wouldn\u2019t be.  All known free-air carbon capture technologies get less efficient the less CO2 there is.  So your removal plan would reach a point of diminishing returns, where you\u2019re spending huge amounts of energy just to keep up with an ocean and biosphere that are working against you rather than for you ... a wasted effort.", "human_ref_B": "The greenhouse effect is essential for life on Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, the average temperatures would drop by over 30 degrees Celsius to about -18 C.  So we need some amount of greenhouse effect to keep the Earth livable (note: CO2 is not the only greenhouse gas), so removing too much CO2 would be a problem. Not only because of the temperature, but also because plants need CO2 to survive. If we remove too much CO2, it might negatively impact plant life on the planet.  As for how much CO2 is needed for life on Earth to continue the way it does now, I'll leave that up to someone with more expert knowledge in this area.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1936.0, "score_ratio": 10.4294871795, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q6n8y2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What would happen if we removed too much CO2 from the atmosphere? How much would be too much? Earth is a very fragile ecosystem and everything is about balance. One relatively minor event (on a planetary scale) can drastically alter our climate for countless years. We're starting to see this with global warming.  Carbon capture is currently possible, however at the moment it's prohibitively expensive and not used very much. What would happen if we were started being carbon negative? Would we see an initial reversal in climate change to where we were pre-industrial revolution? What would happen if we kept going after that though? Would we have a slow global cooling?", "c_root_id_A": "hgd8qu5", "c_root_id_B": "hgeg6ev", "created_at_utc_A": 1634054183, "created_at_utc_B": 1634071946, "score_A": 70, "score_B": 95, "human_ref_A": "All plants are different.  The current concentration of CO^(2) in the atmosphere is around 420 ppm (parts per million). As an aside, in 1980 it was 340 ppm.  We know from greenhouse studies that most plants will survive at levels as low as 150 ppm.  Some will survive down to about 50 ppm.  Below those levels most plant's can't photosynthesize.  So we could more than half the CO^(2) in our atmosphere and plants would still grow, although not as fast as they currently do.  You see, we know from closed greenhouse studies that plants grow faster if there is more carbon dioxide available.  The growth rates are pretty proportional right up to around the 1000 to 1500 ppm levels (depending on the plant), after which growth rate levels off and then starts to decline.  At around 2000 ppm CO^(2) actually starts to become harmful to plants.  It becomes harmful to people at around 5000 ppm.", "human_ref_B": "Earth went through several \"Snowball Earth\" phases. Low greenhouse gas levels played a part. Exactly how big a part is debatable.   > The other possibility, which is the one that Kasting leans toward now, is that the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere fell low enough so that over millions of years, glaciers gradually encroached from the poles to 30 degrees from the equator. Then, in about 1,000 years, the remainder of the Earth rapidly froze due to the great reflectivity of the already ice-covered areas and their inability to capture heat from the sun. The entire Earth became a snowball with oceans frozen to more than a half mile deep.  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/10/991029071656.htm", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17763.0, "score_ratio": 1.3571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q6n8y2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What would happen if we removed too much CO2 from the atmosphere? How much would be too much? Earth is a very fragile ecosystem and everything is about balance. One relatively minor event (on a planetary scale) can drastically alter our climate for countless years. We're starting to see this with global warming.  Carbon capture is currently possible, however at the moment it's prohibitively expensive and not used very much. What would happen if we were started being carbon negative? Would we see an initial reversal in climate change to where we were pre-industrial revolution? What would happen if we kept going after that though? Would we have a slow global cooling?", "c_root_id_A": "hgeg6ev", "c_root_id_B": "hgda343", "created_at_utc_A": 1634071946, "created_at_utc_B": 1634054736, "score_A": 95, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Earth went through several \"Snowball Earth\" phases. Low greenhouse gas levels played a part. Exactly how big a part is debatable.   > The other possibility, which is the one that Kasting leans toward now, is that the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere fell low enough so that over millions of years, glaciers gradually encroached from the poles to 30 degrees from the equator. Then, in about 1,000 years, the remainder of the Earth rapidly froze due to the great reflectivity of the already ice-covered areas and their inability to capture heat from the sun. The entire Earth became a snowball with oceans frozen to more than a half mile deep.  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/10/991029071656.htm", "human_ref_B": "Never going to happen.  But yes.  300 million years ago, during Earth\u2019s Carboniferous period, researchers know that Earth\u2019s oxygen levels peaked at some 31 percent. Carbon dioxide concentrations dropped as low as 180 parts per million. Even at that level Plants grew so big and thick they ended up as the coal we know today. Carbon-Carboniferous The cooling and drying of the climate is what led to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse.  In May 2021 it was at average of 419 parts per million. That is not including what is stored in the ocean.  It takes millions of years to make changes like that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17210.0, "score_ratio": 3.9583333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q6n8y2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What would happen if we removed too much CO2 from the atmosphere? How much would be too much? Earth is a very fragile ecosystem and everything is about balance. One relatively minor event (on a planetary scale) can drastically alter our climate for countless years. We're starting to see this with global warming.  Carbon capture is currently possible, however at the moment it's prohibitively expensive and not used very much. What would happen if we were started being carbon negative? Would we see an initial reversal in climate change to where we were pre-industrial revolution? What would happen if we kept going after that though? Would we have a slow global cooling?", "c_root_id_A": "hgf2ldq", "c_root_id_B": "hgda343", "created_at_utc_A": 1634081687, "created_at_utc_B": 1634054736, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "There are examples of this if you look back in the earth\u2019s geologic history.  One example is the Carboniferous Era.    With the advent of a new organic compound called lignin, which makes up the woody structure of vascular (upward growing) plants, there came a problem\u2014when plants die and fall to the forest floor they get munched on by microbes and fungi, in a process we know as \u2018decay\u2019.  These organisms use enzymes to break down the plant matter in order to make it palatable.    These organisms then fart greenhouse gases like methane and CO2 back into the air.  The problem was, no organisms had yet evolved which had an enzyme capable of breaking down this new lignin compound.  Plants take in CO2 from the atmosphere and use the C (carbon) atoms to make organic compounds (like lignin) and they release the O2 (oxygen) back into the atmosphere.  So now we had all these plants taking CO2 out of the air, but there weren\u2019t any organisms that could break down lignin and return the CO2.  As a result we got this great big deposit of organic matter which now makes up a lot of the oil deposits we tap into, today.  This is also why we call that period the \u201ccarbon\u201diferous.  So, getting back to OP\u2019s question\u2026 what happened?  Well, it turns out several things happen when you turn up the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere relative to other gases.  For starters, oxygen feeds fire.  So you would get so pretty gnarly forest fires!  These would release some CO2 back into the atmosphere.  Another side effect\u2014many insects breath through holes in their skin\u2026 not with lungs, but by the slow permeation of air through these holes.  It turns out the size of insects is limited by how much air can pass through these holes.  But by turning up the oxygen you make it easier for insects to breath.  And as a result you get bigger insects!  Say hello to foot long dragonflies!  In summary, some things happen that counteract some of the change, almost like nature has ways of stabilizing the atmosphere.  The problem we face today is that if the level gets TOO high, the opposite can happen, and we can get a feedback loop that continues to make things worse.  The earth will ultimately survive climate change.  But life (as we currently know it) is at risk.  Many people don\u2019t like to let nature change.  Others might see it as a natural evolution cycle.  But either way I think we can all agree that it is important to try and take care of our planet, regardless of which side of that argument you stand on.", "human_ref_B": "Never going to happen.  But yes.  300 million years ago, during Earth\u2019s Carboniferous period, researchers know that Earth\u2019s oxygen levels peaked at some 31 percent. Carbon dioxide concentrations dropped as low as 180 parts per million. Even at that level Plants grew so big and thick they ended up as the coal we know today. Carbon-Carboniferous The cooling and drying of the climate is what led to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse.  In May 2021 it was at average of 419 parts per million. That is not including what is stored in the ocean.  It takes millions of years to make changes like that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26951.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q6n8y2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What would happen if we removed too much CO2 from the atmosphere? How much would be too much? Earth is a very fragile ecosystem and everything is about balance. One relatively minor event (on a planetary scale) can drastically alter our climate for countless years. We're starting to see this with global warming.  Carbon capture is currently possible, however at the moment it's prohibitively expensive and not used very much. What would happen if we were started being carbon negative? Would we see an initial reversal in climate change to where we were pre-industrial revolution? What would happen if we kept going after that though? Would we have a slow global cooling?", "c_root_id_A": "hgf2ldq", "c_root_id_B": "hgelr6u", "created_at_utc_A": 1634081687, "created_at_utc_B": 1634074254, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "There are examples of this if you look back in the earth\u2019s geologic history.  One example is the Carboniferous Era.    With the advent of a new organic compound called lignin, which makes up the woody structure of vascular (upward growing) plants, there came a problem\u2014when plants die and fall to the forest floor they get munched on by microbes and fungi, in a process we know as \u2018decay\u2019.  These organisms use enzymes to break down the plant matter in order to make it palatable.    These organisms then fart greenhouse gases like methane and CO2 back into the air.  The problem was, no organisms had yet evolved which had an enzyme capable of breaking down this new lignin compound.  Plants take in CO2 from the atmosphere and use the C (carbon) atoms to make organic compounds (like lignin) and they release the O2 (oxygen) back into the atmosphere.  So now we had all these plants taking CO2 out of the air, but there weren\u2019t any organisms that could break down lignin and return the CO2.  As a result we got this great big deposit of organic matter which now makes up a lot of the oil deposits we tap into, today.  This is also why we call that period the \u201ccarbon\u201diferous.  So, getting back to OP\u2019s question\u2026 what happened?  Well, it turns out several things happen when you turn up the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere relative to other gases.  For starters, oxygen feeds fire.  So you would get so pretty gnarly forest fires!  These would release some CO2 back into the atmosphere.  Another side effect\u2014many insects breath through holes in their skin\u2026 not with lungs, but by the slow permeation of air through these holes.  It turns out the size of insects is limited by how much air can pass through these holes.  But by turning up the oxygen you make it easier for insects to breath.  And as a result you get bigger insects!  Say hello to foot long dragonflies!  In summary, some things happen that counteract some of the change, almost like nature has ways of stabilizing the atmosphere.  The problem we face today is that if the level gets TOO high, the opposite can happen, and we can get a feedback loop that continues to make things worse.  The earth will ultimately survive climate change.  But life (as we currently know it) is at risk.  Many people don\u2019t like to let nature change.  Others might see it as a natural evolution cycle.  But either way I think we can all agree that it is important to try and take care of our planet, regardless of which side of that argument you stand on.", "human_ref_B": "A CO2 reduction beyond a certain point starts heavily affecting flora growth. Less plants mean mega fauna will go extinct (bison, elephants, cows, etc) as they are out competed by smaller herbivores. Likewise, there will be a large drop in predators for the same reason.   Our current amount of CO2 isn't great but it's not terrible. The real problem is runaway CO2 generation, and being carbon neutral is the best way to balance against that scenario", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7433.0, "score_ratio": 3.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m8qnk", "c_root_id_B": "c1m9qfz", "created_at_utc_A": 1301033476, "created_at_utc_B": 1301060586, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 420, "human_ref_A": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(length)  Yep, looks like your intuition is correct.", "human_ref_B": "I don't mind telling you, I'm a bit baffled. Seven hours, a hundred votes in support, thirty-two comments and *no actual answers.*  It gets rather meaningless to talk about the *size* of elementary particles. Yes, it makes perfect sense to imagine them as little bits of stuff and thus having basic physical properties like size, density, location and so on. But it actually turns out that this isn't a very good description of reality.  On the other hand, considering them to be little dimensionless points is equally problematic. If they're dimensionless points, then they can get arbitrarily close to each other without actually touching, which means it shouldn't ever be possible for anything to interact with anything else. Particle accelerators would be impossible. Also stars. And hedgehogs. And you.  The closest thing an elementary particle has to a \"size\" is a property called the *interaction cross-section.* That's a measure of how close to a thing you have to put another thing before the two things interact. But it's not absolute. It's probabilistic. If you put a thing *this close* to another thing, then the *probability* that they'll interact is such-and-so. Generally the probability is a pretty straightforward function of distance, but it's never *totally* simple. Among other things, there's a relationship between interaction cross-section and energy, so it's not really possible to give a straightforward, unqualified answer.  To make matters even worse, the interaction cross-section of the various quarks is not yet known with certainty. Quarks can't be observed directly. They can only be inferred. If you manage to get a free quark, it'll be energetically favorable for an antiquark to appear, and they'll pair up to create a meson. This tendency for quarks to exist only as part of hadrons is called *quark confinement.*  So what can we say with certainty? Well, quarks are small. We can say that for certain. Beyond that, there's just not enough data yet.  Well, what *can* we say? There was a fairly famous experiment regarding neutron decay in the 1950s, conducted by two boffins named Cowan and Reines. In that experiment, they first conclusively detected the electron neutrino. In that *particular experiment,* the neutrino's interaction cross section \u2014 which again, is a function of a lot of things \u2014 was found to be on the order 10^\u201352 square meters, giving it an effective diameter on the order of 10^\u201326 meters.  Is that the smallest possible thing? No, of course not. But it's an example of a small thing for which we have some fairly good data to look at.  Now, what about the other side of the problem? Well, that turns out not to be straightforward either. See, there are a variety of ways to measure distance on cosmological scales, each equally valid in principle but not equivalent. There's light-travel distance, which is the speed of light times the time it takes light to cross a given interval. Then there's comoving distance, which is the distance as you'd measure it with a very long ruler if you froze time *right now* and conducted the measurement. Then there's proper distance, which is the same as comoving distance except relative to some other time in the history of the universe. You can describe the size of the observable universe in all three of these ways, but you get different numbers each time.  For example, the *radius* of the observable universe *in light-travel distance* is about thirteen-and-three-quarters billion light-years, for a diameter of twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. But in *comoving* distance, the radius is closer to forty-six-and-a-half billion light-years, for a diameter of about ninety-three billion light-years.  Which is correct? Well, both are. They're just different ways of measuring. And if you wanted to imagine getting in a rocket ship and flying out to where the boundary of the observable universe is as seen from Earth, you'd need yet another way of measuring it, because the universe will have *e*-folded many times in the time it takes you to make the trip, so the boundary won't actually be there any more by then.  For that reason, it's pretty customary among cosmologists to use light-travel distance most of the time, and comoving distance when necessary, just to keep things simple. So sticking with that, we'll use the light-travel figure for the diameter of the observable universe: about twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. Which is on the order of 10^26 meters.  Which is nice. Because it means, to within an order of magnitude or two, we're right smack in the middle, between the smallest things we can meaningfully talk about right now and the largest things we can meaningfully talk about right now.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27110.0, "score_ratio": 9.5454545455, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m97hh", "c_root_id_B": "c1m9qfz", "created_at_utc_A": 1301046037, "created_at_utc_B": 1301060586, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 420, "human_ref_A": "I have always found it fascinating that we're so much in the *middle*, so that we can have a bit of a grasp of both scales.  (badgeless physicist here :))", "human_ref_B": "I don't mind telling you, I'm a bit baffled. Seven hours, a hundred votes in support, thirty-two comments and *no actual answers.*  It gets rather meaningless to talk about the *size* of elementary particles. Yes, it makes perfect sense to imagine them as little bits of stuff and thus having basic physical properties like size, density, location and so on. But it actually turns out that this isn't a very good description of reality.  On the other hand, considering them to be little dimensionless points is equally problematic. If they're dimensionless points, then they can get arbitrarily close to each other without actually touching, which means it shouldn't ever be possible for anything to interact with anything else. Particle accelerators would be impossible. Also stars. And hedgehogs. And you.  The closest thing an elementary particle has to a \"size\" is a property called the *interaction cross-section.* That's a measure of how close to a thing you have to put another thing before the two things interact. But it's not absolute. It's probabilistic. If you put a thing *this close* to another thing, then the *probability* that they'll interact is such-and-so. Generally the probability is a pretty straightforward function of distance, but it's never *totally* simple. Among other things, there's a relationship between interaction cross-section and energy, so it's not really possible to give a straightforward, unqualified answer.  To make matters even worse, the interaction cross-section of the various quarks is not yet known with certainty. Quarks can't be observed directly. They can only be inferred. If you manage to get a free quark, it'll be energetically favorable for an antiquark to appear, and they'll pair up to create a meson. This tendency for quarks to exist only as part of hadrons is called *quark confinement.*  So what can we say with certainty? Well, quarks are small. We can say that for certain. Beyond that, there's just not enough data yet.  Well, what *can* we say? There was a fairly famous experiment regarding neutron decay in the 1950s, conducted by two boffins named Cowan and Reines. In that experiment, they first conclusively detected the electron neutrino. In that *particular experiment,* the neutrino's interaction cross section \u2014 which again, is a function of a lot of things \u2014 was found to be on the order 10^\u201352 square meters, giving it an effective diameter on the order of 10^\u201326 meters.  Is that the smallest possible thing? No, of course not. But it's an example of a small thing for which we have some fairly good data to look at.  Now, what about the other side of the problem? Well, that turns out not to be straightforward either. See, there are a variety of ways to measure distance on cosmological scales, each equally valid in principle but not equivalent. There's light-travel distance, which is the speed of light times the time it takes light to cross a given interval. Then there's comoving distance, which is the distance as you'd measure it with a very long ruler if you froze time *right now* and conducted the measurement. Then there's proper distance, which is the same as comoving distance except relative to some other time in the history of the universe. You can describe the size of the observable universe in all three of these ways, but you get different numbers each time.  For example, the *radius* of the observable universe *in light-travel distance* is about thirteen-and-three-quarters billion light-years, for a diameter of twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. But in *comoving* distance, the radius is closer to forty-six-and-a-half billion light-years, for a diameter of about ninety-three billion light-years.  Which is correct? Well, both are. They're just different ways of measuring. And if you wanted to imagine getting in a rocket ship and flying out to where the boundary of the observable universe is as seen from Earth, you'd need yet another way of measuring it, because the universe will have *e*-folded many times in the time it takes you to make the trip, so the boundary won't actually be there any more by then.  For that reason, it's pretty customary among cosmologists to use light-travel distance most of the time, and comoving distance when necessary, just to keep things simple. So sticking with that, we'll use the light-travel figure for the diameter of the observable universe: about twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. Which is on the order of 10^26 meters.  Which is nice. Because it means, to within an order of magnitude or two, we're right smack in the middle, between the smallest things we can meaningfully talk about right now and the largest things we can meaningfully talk about right now.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14549.0, "score_ratio": 30.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m9qfz", "c_root_id_B": "c1m9ijp", "created_at_utc_A": 1301060586, "created_at_utc_B": 1301056435, "score_A": 420, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I don't mind telling you, I'm a bit baffled. Seven hours, a hundred votes in support, thirty-two comments and *no actual answers.*  It gets rather meaningless to talk about the *size* of elementary particles. Yes, it makes perfect sense to imagine them as little bits of stuff and thus having basic physical properties like size, density, location and so on. But it actually turns out that this isn't a very good description of reality.  On the other hand, considering them to be little dimensionless points is equally problematic. If they're dimensionless points, then they can get arbitrarily close to each other without actually touching, which means it shouldn't ever be possible for anything to interact with anything else. Particle accelerators would be impossible. Also stars. And hedgehogs. And you.  The closest thing an elementary particle has to a \"size\" is a property called the *interaction cross-section.* That's a measure of how close to a thing you have to put another thing before the two things interact. But it's not absolute. It's probabilistic. If you put a thing *this close* to another thing, then the *probability* that they'll interact is such-and-so. Generally the probability is a pretty straightforward function of distance, but it's never *totally* simple. Among other things, there's a relationship between interaction cross-section and energy, so it's not really possible to give a straightforward, unqualified answer.  To make matters even worse, the interaction cross-section of the various quarks is not yet known with certainty. Quarks can't be observed directly. They can only be inferred. If you manage to get a free quark, it'll be energetically favorable for an antiquark to appear, and they'll pair up to create a meson. This tendency for quarks to exist only as part of hadrons is called *quark confinement.*  So what can we say with certainty? Well, quarks are small. We can say that for certain. Beyond that, there's just not enough data yet.  Well, what *can* we say? There was a fairly famous experiment regarding neutron decay in the 1950s, conducted by two boffins named Cowan and Reines. In that experiment, they first conclusively detected the electron neutrino. In that *particular experiment,* the neutrino's interaction cross section \u2014 which again, is a function of a lot of things \u2014 was found to be on the order 10^\u201352 square meters, giving it an effective diameter on the order of 10^\u201326 meters.  Is that the smallest possible thing? No, of course not. But it's an example of a small thing for which we have some fairly good data to look at.  Now, what about the other side of the problem? Well, that turns out not to be straightforward either. See, there are a variety of ways to measure distance on cosmological scales, each equally valid in principle but not equivalent. There's light-travel distance, which is the speed of light times the time it takes light to cross a given interval. Then there's comoving distance, which is the distance as you'd measure it with a very long ruler if you froze time *right now* and conducted the measurement. Then there's proper distance, which is the same as comoving distance except relative to some other time in the history of the universe. You can describe the size of the observable universe in all three of these ways, but you get different numbers each time.  For example, the *radius* of the observable universe *in light-travel distance* is about thirteen-and-three-quarters billion light-years, for a diameter of twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. But in *comoving* distance, the radius is closer to forty-six-and-a-half billion light-years, for a diameter of about ninety-three billion light-years.  Which is correct? Well, both are. They're just different ways of measuring. And if you wanted to imagine getting in a rocket ship and flying out to where the boundary of the observable universe is as seen from Earth, you'd need yet another way of measuring it, because the universe will have *e*-folded many times in the time it takes you to make the trip, so the boundary won't actually be there any more by then.  For that reason, it's pretty customary among cosmologists to use light-travel distance most of the time, and comoving distance when necessary, just to keep things simple. So sticking with that, we'll use the light-travel figure for the diameter of the observable universe: about twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. Which is on the order of 10^26 meters.  Which is nice. Because it means, to within an order of magnitude or two, we're right smack in the middle, between the smallest things we can meaningfully talk about right now and the largest things we can meaningfully talk about right now.", "human_ref_B": "Not enough is known about the size of quarks or the universe to answer this question.  The wikipedia link provided by linkn11 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_\\(length\\), roughly speaking, states that quark diameters are unknown, but are somewhere between 0 and 10^-15, and that the diameter of the universe is between 10^24 and infinity.  So it could be either way.  Edit: added \"roughly speaking\" because my paraphrase isn't exact, but the underlying concept is the same -- not clear we have full present knowledge of the relative sizes in question here.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4151.0, "score_ratio": 60.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m9qfz", "c_root_id_B": "c1m96le", "created_at_utc_A": 1301060586, "created_at_utc_B": 1301045085, "score_A": 420, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I don't mind telling you, I'm a bit baffled. Seven hours, a hundred votes in support, thirty-two comments and *no actual answers.*  It gets rather meaningless to talk about the *size* of elementary particles. Yes, it makes perfect sense to imagine them as little bits of stuff and thus having basic physical properties like size, density, location and so on. But it actually turns out that this isn't a very good description of reality.  On the other hand, considering them to be little dimensionless points is equally problematic. If they're dimensionless points, then they can get arbitrarily close to each other without actually touching, which means it shouldn't ever be possible for anything to interact with anything else. Particle accelerators would be impossible. Also stars. And hedgehogs. And you.  The closest thing an elementary particle has to a \"size\" is a property called the *interaction cross-section.* That's a measure of how close to a thing you have to put another thing before the two things interact. But it's not absolute. It's probabilistic. If you put a thing *this close* to another thing, then the *probability* that they'll interact is such-and-so. Generally the probability is a pretty straightforward function of distance, but it's never *totally* simple. Among other things, there's a relationship between interaction cross-section and energy, so it's not really possible to give a straightforward, unqualified answer.  To make matters even worse, the interaction cross-section of the various quarks is not yet known with certainty. Quarks can't be observed directly. They can only be inferred. If you manage to get a free quark, it'll be energetically favorable for an antiquark to appear, and they'll pair up to create a meson. This tendency for quarks to exist only as part of hadrons is called *quark confinement.*  So what can we say with certainty? Well, quarks are small. We can say that for certain. Beyond that, there's just not enough data yet.  Well, what *can* we say? There was a fairly famous experiment regarding neutron decay in the 1950s, conducted by two boffins named Cowan and Reines. In that experiment, they first conclusively detected the electron neutrino. In that *particular experiment,* the neutrino's interaction cross section \u2014 which again, is a function of a lot of things \u2014 was found to be on the order 10^\u201352 square meters, giving it an effective diameter on the order of 10^\u201326 meters.  Is that the smallest possible thing? No, of course not. But it's an example of a small thing for which we have some fairly good data to look at.  Now, what about the other side of the problem? Well, that turns out not to be straightforward either. See, there are a variety of ways to measure distance on cosmological scales, each equally valid in principle but not equivalent. There's light-travel distance, which is the speed of light times the time it takes light to cross a given interval. Then there's comoving distance, which is the distance as you'd measure it with a very long ruler if you froze time *right now* and conducted the measurement. Then there's proper distance, which is the same as comoving distance except relative to some other time in the history of the universe. You can describe the size of the observable universe in all three of these ways, but you get different numbers each time.  For example, the *radius* of the observable universe *in light-travel distance* is about thirteen-and-three-quarters billion light-years, for a diameter of twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. But in *comoving* distance, the radius is closer to forty-six-and-a-half billion light-years, for a diameter of about ninety-three billion light-years.  Which is correct? Well, both are. They're just different ways of measuring. And if you wanted to imagine getting in a rocket ship and flying out to where the boundary of the observable universe is as seen from Earth, you'd need yet another way of measuring it, because the universe will have *e*-folded many times in the time it takes you to make the trip, so the boundary won't actually be there any more by then.  For that reason, it's pretty customary among cosmologists to use light-travel distance most of the time, and comoving distance when necessary, just to keep things simple. So sticking with that, we'll use the light-travel figure for the diameter of the observable universe: about twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. Which is on the order of 10^26 meters.  Which is nice. Because it means, to within an order of magnitude or two, we're right smack in the middle, between the smallest things we can meaningfully talk about right now and the largest things we can meaningfully talk about right now.", "human_ref_B": "I think we had this same conversation a few week ago. But it could have been on a different subreddit. I need to spend less time on reddit. :(  I think we are about midway between the largest and the smallest things. Even with all its limitation I think its a good vantage point to take in the universe from. But I sometimes wonder would being a million times bigger/smaller have given us any special advantages that we dont have right now.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15501.0, "score_ratio": 60.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m9ok2", "c_root_id_B": "c1m9qfz", "created_at_utc_A": 1301059764, "created_at_utc_B": 1301060586, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 420, "human_ref_A": "From my quick wikipedia-ing:   Quarks ~ 10^-19 m  Humans ~ 10^0 m  Universe ~ 10^26 m  So we're closer in size to quarks by a pretty large factor, ~ 10^7", "human_ref_B": "I don't mind telling you, I'm a bit baffled. Seven hours, a hundred votes in support, thirty-two comments and *no actual answers.*  It gets rather meaningless to talk about the *size* of elementary particles. Yes, it makes perfect sense to imagine them as little bits of stuff and thus having basic physical properties like size, density, location and so on. But it actually turns out that this isn't a very good description of reality.  On the other hand, considering them to be little dimensionless points is equally problematic. If they're dimensionless points, then they can get arbitrarily close to each other without actually touching, which means it shouldn't ever be possible for anything to interact with anything else. Particle accelerators would be impossible. Also stars. And hedgehogs. And you.  The closest thing an elementary particle has to a \"size\" is a property called the *interaction cross-section.* That's a measure of how close to a thing you have to put another thing before the two things interact. But it's not absolute. It's probabilistic. If you put a thing *this close* to another thing, then the *probability* that they'll interact is such-and-so. Generally the probability is a pretty straightforward function of distance, but it's never *totally* simple. Among other things, there's a relationship between interaction cross-section and energy, so it's not really possible to give a straightforward, unqualified answer.  To make matters even worse, the interaction cross-section of the various quarks is not yet known with certainty. Quarks can't be observed directly. They can only be inferred. If you manage to get a free quark, it'll be energetically favorable for an antiquark to appear, and they'll pair up to create a meson. This tendency for quarks to exist only as part of hadrons is called *quark confinement.*  So what can we say with certainty? Well, quarks are small. We can say that for certain. Beyond that, there's just not enough data yet.  Well, what *can* we say? There was a fairly famous experiment regarding neutron decay in the 1950s, conducted by two boffins named Cowan and Reines. In that experiment, they first conclusively detected the electron neutrino. In that *particular experiment,* the neutrino's interaction cross section \u2014 which again, is a function of a lot of things \u2014 was found to be on the order 10^\u201352 square meters, giving it an effective diameter on the order of 10^\u201326 meters.  Is that the smallest possible thing? No, of course not. But it's an example of a small thing for which we have some fairly good data to look at.  Now, what about the other side of the problem? Well, that turns out not to be straightforward either. See, there are a variety of ways to measure distance on cosmological scales, each equally valid in principle but not equivalent. There's light-travel distance, which is the speed of light times the time it takes light to cross a given interval. Then there's comoving distance, which is the distance as you'd measure it with a very long ruler if you froze time *right now* and conducted the measurement. Then there's proper distance, which is the same as comoving distance except relative to some other time in the history of the universe. You can describe the size of the observable universe in all three of these ways, but you get different numbers each time.  For example, the *radius* of the observable universe *in light-travel distance* is about thirteen-and-three-quarters billion light-years, for a diameter of twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. But in *comoving* distance, the radius is closer to forty-six-and-a-half billion light-years, for a diameter of about ninety-three billion light-years.  Which is correct? Well, both are. They're just different ways of measuring. And if you wanted to imagine getting in a rocket ship and flying out to where the boundary of the observable universe is as seen from Earth, you'd need yet another way of measuring it, because the universe will have *e*-folded many times in the time it takes you to make the trip, so the boundary won't actually be there any more by then.  For that reason, it's pretty customary among cosmologists to use light-travel distance most of the time, and comoving distance when necessary, just to keep things simple. So sticking with that, we'll use the light-travel figure for the diameter of the observable universe: about twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. Which is on the order of 10^26 meters.  Which is nice. Because it means, to within an order of magnitude or two, we're right smack in the middle, between the smallest things we can meaningfully talk about right now and the largest things we can meaningfully talk about right now.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 822.0, "score_ratio": 70.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m8u5l", "c_root_id_B": "c1m9qfz", "created_at_utc_A": 1301035373, "created_at_utc_B": 1301060586, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 420, "human_ref_A": "Great Question", "human_ref_B": "I don't mind telling you, I'm a bit baffled. Seven hours, a hundred votes in support, thirty-two comments and *no actual answers.*  It gets rather meaningless to talk about the *size* of elementary particles. Yes, it makes perfect sense to imagine them as little bits of stuff and thus having basic physical properties like size, density, location and so on. But it actually turns out that this isn't a very good description of reality.  On the other hand, considering them to be little dimensionless points is equally problematic. If they're dimensionless points, then they can get arbitrarily close to each other without actually touching, which means it shouldn't ever be possible for anything to interact with anything else. Particle accelerators would be impossible. Also stars. And hedgehogs. And you.  The closest thing an elementary particle has to a \"size\" is a property called the *interaction cross-section.* That's a measure of how close to a thing you have to put another thing before the two things interact. But it's not absolute. It's probabilistic. If you put a thing *this close* to another thing, then the *probability* that they'll interact is such-and-so. Generally the probability is a pretty straightforward function of distance, but it's never *totally* simple. Among other things, there's a relationship between interaction cross-section and energy, so it's not really possible to give a straightforward, unqualified answer.  To make matters even worse, the interaction cross-section of the various quarks is not yet known with certainty. Quarks can't be observed directly. They can only be inferred. If you manage to get a free quark, it'll be energetically favorable for an antiquark to appear, and they'll pair up to create a meson. This tendency for quarks to exist only as part of hadrons is called *quark confinement.*  So what can we say with certainty? Well, quarks are small. We can say that for certain. Beyond that, there's just not enough data yet.  Well, what *can* we say? There was a fairly famous experiment regarding neutron decay in the 1950s, conducted by two boffins named Cowan and Reines. In that experiment, they first conclusively detected the electron neutrino. In that *particular experiment,* the neutrino's interaction cross section \u2014 which again, is a function of a lot of things \u2014 was found to be on the order 10^\u201352 square meters, giving it an effective diameter on the order of 10^\u201326 meters.  Is that the smallest possible thing? No, of course not. But it's an example of a small thing for which we have some fairly good data to look at.  Now, what about the other side of the problem? Well, that turns out not to be straightforward either. See, there are a variety of ways to measure distance on cosmological scales, each equally valid in principle but not equivalent. There's light-travel distance, which is the speed of light times the time it takes light to cross a given interval. Then there's comoving distance, which is the distance as you'd measure it with a very long ruler if you froze time *right now* and conducted the measurement. Then there's proper distance, which is the same as comoving distance except relative to some other time in the history of the universe. You can describe the size of the observable universe in all three of these ways, but you get different numbers each time.  For example, the *radius* of the observable universe *in light-travel distance* is about thirteen-and-three-quarters billion light-years, for a diameter of twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. But in *comoving* distance, the radius is closer to forty-six-and-a-half billion light-years, for a diameter of about ninety-three billion light-years.  Which is correct? Well, both are. They're just different ways of measuring. And if you wanted to imagine getting in a rocket ship and flying out to where the boundary of the observable universe is as seen from Earth, you'd need yet another way of measuring it, because the universe will have *e*-folded many times in the time it takes you to make the trip, so the boundary won't actually be there any more by then.  For that reason, it's pretty customary among cosmologists to use light-travel distance most of the time, and comoving distance when necessary, just to keep things simple. So sticking with that, we'll use the light-travel figure for the diameter of the observable universe: about twenty-seven-and-a-half billion light-years. Which is on the order of 10^26 meters.  Which is nice. Because it means, to within an order of magnitude or two, we're right smack in the middle, between the smallest things we can meaningfully talk about right now and the largest things we can meaningfully talk about right now.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 25213.0, "score_ratio": 105.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m96le", "c_root_id_B": "c1m97hh", "created_at_utc_A": 1301045085, "created_at_utc_B": 1301046037, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "I think we had this same conversation a few week ago. But it could have been on a different subreddit. I need to spend less time on reddit. :(  I think we are about midway between the largest and the smallest things. Even with all its limitation I think its a good vantage point to take in the universe from. But I sometimes wonder would being a million times bigger/smaller have given us any special advantages that we dont have right now.", "human_ref_B": "I have always found it fascinating that we're so much in the *middle*, so that we can have a bit of a grasp of both scales.  (badgeless physicist here :))", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 952.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m97hh", "c_root_id_B": "c1m8u5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1301046037, "created_at_utc_B": 1301035373, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I have always found it fascinating that we're so much in the *middle*, so that we can have a bit of a grasp of both scales.  (badgeless physicist here :))", "human_ref_B": "Great Question", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10664.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1mbdt7", "c_root_id_B": "c1m9ijp", "created_at_utc_A": 1301079680, "created_at_utc_B": 1301056435, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "A quark. You're only about a person bigger than a quark, but you're a whole universe smaller than the universe.  /s", "human_ref_B": "Not enough is known about the size of quarks or the universe to answer this question.  The wikipedia link provided by linkn11 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_\\(length\\), roughly speaking, states that quark diameters are unknown, but are somewhere between 0 and 10^-15, and that the diameter of the universe is between 10^24 and infinity.  So it could be either way.  Edit: added \"roughly speaking\" because my paraphrase isn't exact, but the underlying concept is the same -- not clear we have full present knowledge of the relative sizes in question here.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23245.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m96le", "c_root_id_B": "c1mbdt7", "created_at_utc_A": 1301045085, "created_at_utc_B": 1301079680, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I think we had this same conversation a few week ago. But it could have been on a different subreddit. I need to spend less time on reddit. :(  I think we are about midway between the largest and the smallest things. Even with all its limitation I think its a good vantage point to take in the universe from. But I sometimes wonder would being a million times bigger/smaller have given us any special advantages that we dont have right now.", "human_ref_B": "A quark. You're only about a person bigger than a quark, but you're a whole universe smaller than the universe.  /s", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34595.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m9ok2", "c_root_id_B": "c1mbdt7", "created_at_utc_A": 1301059764, "created_at_utc_B": 1301079680, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "From my quick wikipedia-ing:   Quarks ~ 10^-19 m  Humans ~ 10^0 m  Universe ~ 10^26 m  So we're closer in size to quarks by a pretty large factor, ~ 10^7", "human_ref_B": "A quark. You're only about a person bigger than a quark, but you're a whole universe smaller than the universe.  /s", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19916.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m9xoh", "c_root_id_B": "c1mbdt7", "created_at_utc_A": 1301063512, "created_at_utc_B": 1301079680, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I'm glad you stated \"average\" to qualify this question... because, as we know, there are some people on the bell curve that are much much closer to being the size of the known universe and other people on the bell curve who kick quarks around for fun.", "human_ref_B": "A quark. You're only about a person bigger than a quark, but you're a whole universe smaller than the universe.  /s", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16168.0, "score_ratio": 2.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1mbdt7", "c_root_id_B": "c1m8u5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1301079680, "created_at_utc_B": 1301035373, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "A quark. You're only about a person bigger than a quark, but you're a whole universe smaller than the universe.  /s", "human_ref_B": "Great Question", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 44307.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m8u5l", "c_root_id_B": "c1m9ijp", "created_at_utc_A": 1301035373, "created_at_utc_B": 1301056435, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Great Question", "human_ref_B": "Not enough is known about the size of quarks or the universe to answer this question.  The wikipedia link provided by linkn11 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_\\(length\\), roughly speaking, states that quark diameters are unknown, but are somewhere between 0 and 10^-15, and that the diameter of the universe is between 10^24 and infinity.  So it could be either way.  Edit: added \"roughly speaking\" because my paraphrase isn't exact, but the underlying concept is the same -- not clear we have full present knowledge of the relative sizes in question here.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21062.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m8u5l", "c_root_id_B": "c1m96le", "created_at_utc_A": 1301035373, "created_at_utc_B": 1301045085, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Great Question", "human_ref_B": "I think we had this same conversation a few week ago. But it could have been on a different subreddit. I need to spend less time on reddit. :(  I think we are about midway between the largest and the smallest things. Even with all its limitation I think its a good vantage point to take in the universe from. But I sometimes wonder would being a million times bigger/smaller have given us any special advantages that we dont have right now.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9712.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m8u5l", "c_root_id_B": "c1m9ok2", "created_at_utc_A": 1301035373, "created_at_utc_B": 1301059764, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Great Question", "human_ref_B": "From my quick wikipedia-ing:   Quarks ~ 10^-19 m  Humans ~ 10^0 m  Universe ~ 10^26 m  So we're closer in size to quarks by a pretty large factor, ~ 10^7", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24391.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gb30h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is an average human being closer in size to a quark or to the known universe? I would guess a quark, but I've got nothing better than a guess.", "c_root_id_A": "c1m9xoh", "c_root_id_B": "c1m8u5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1301063512, "created_at_utc_B": 1301035373, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I'm glad you stated \"average\" to qualify this question... because, as we know, there are some people on the bell curve that are much much closer to being the size of the known universe and other people on the bell curve who kick quarks around for fun.", "human_ref_B": "Great Question", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28139.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sa535n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "What are the gravity related functions of the human body and how they are effected and overcome in a zero gravity environments?", "c_root_id_A": "htrw8ru", "c_root_id_B": "htrhqv3", "created_at_utc_A": 1642876940, "created_at_utc_B": 1642871316, "score_A": 485, "score_B": 333, "human_ref_A": "There are many we know of and almost certainly many we still don\u2019t. It\u2019s fascinating the things our body does in space. Don\u2019t recall which astronaut said it in an interview but the very first time you pee in space your body \u201csheds\u201d significant amounts of calcium. So essentially with no prior \u201cknowledge\u201d of microgravity your body decides to pretty much turn you into a fish/bird as soon as you escape Earth\u2019s immediate gravity. Your hips shed the most calcium, followed by your spine (as far as I remember). Your calluses will fall off (and even start growing on the upper part of your foot because you use your feet to change direction and \u201cgrab\u201d rails).  Blood circulation is a mess with no gravity, sometimes going as far as starting to circulate the other way (or stagnating). Blood pools in your head and chest, causing congestion. Your sense of taste is almost gone, which is why hot sauce is as far as I\u2019m aware the most popular condiment on the ISS (and odd, strong tasting food in general). Something similar happens to vision (presumably because of intracranial pressure?) with prolonged time in space - most astronauts report nearsightedness in the immediate months after return to Earth. There are many more things I forgot and likely even more stuff I never knew.", "human_ref_B": "Here's an interesting one I learned.lately...... You know when your bladder is full and you desperately need to wee ? Well, turns out your bladder cannot feel \" full\" it can only feel \"heavy\". So astronaut s in space HAVE to go per every couple of hours...'cos without gravity...they simply do not know if they need to or not !!!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5624.0, "score_ratio": 1.4564564565, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sa535n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "What are the gravity related functions of the human body and how they are effected and overcome in a zero gravity environments?", "c_root_id_A": "htrjotg", "c_root_id_B": "htrw8ru", "created_at_utc_A": 1642872073, "created_at_utc_B": 1642876940, "score_A": 140, "score_B": 485, "human_ref_A": "Your legs have a support system for pumping blood up, basically when you walk, through the contraction and relaxation of your leg muscles, blood is pumped up. This removes strain from the heart, but as in zero gravity the effort required to pump blood is much lower this leg pump mechanism is basically redundant.", "human_ref_B": "There are many we know of and almost certainly many we still don\u2019t. It\u2019s fascinating the things our body does in space. Don\u2019t recall which astronaut said it in an interview but the very first time you pee in space your body \u201csheds\u201d significant amounts of calcium. So essentially with no prior \u201cknowledge\u201d of microgravity your body decides to pretty much turn you into a fish/bird as soon as you escape Earth\u2019s immediate gravity. Your hips shed the most calcium, followed by your spine (as far as I remember). Your calluses will fall off (and even start growing on the upper part of your foot because you use your feet to change direction and \u201cgrab\u201d rails).  Blood circulation is a mess with no gravity, sometimes going as far as starting to circulate the other way (or stagnating). Blood pools in your head and chest, causing congestion. Your sense of taste is almost gone, which is why hot sauce is as far as I\u2019m aware the most popular condiment on the ISS (and odd, strong tasting food in general). Something similar happens to vision (presumably because of intracranial pressure?) with prolonged time in space - most astronauts report nearsightedness in the immediate months after return to Earth. There are many more things I forgot and likely even more stuff I never knew.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4867.0, "score_ratio": 3.4642857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sa535n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "What are the gravity related functions of the human body and how they are effected and overcome in a zero gravity environments?", "c_root_id_A": "htrw8ru", "c_root_id_B": "htro4aa", "created_at_utc_A": 1642876940, "created_at_utc_B": 1642873795, "score_A": 485, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "There are many we know of and almost certainly many we still don\u2019t. It\u2019s fascinating the things our body does in space. Don\u2019t recall which astronaut said it in an interview but the very first time you pee in space your body \u201csheds\u201d significant amounts of calcium. So essentially with no prior \u201cknowledge\u201d of microgravity your body decides to pretty much turn you into a fish/bird as soon as you escape Earth\u2019s immediate gravity. Your hips shed the most calcium, followed by your spine (as far as I remember). Your calluses will fall off (and even start growing on the upper part of your foot because you use your feet to change direction and \u201cgrab\u201d rails).  Blood circulation is a mess with no gravity, sometimes going as far as starting to circulate the other way (or stagnating). Blood pools in your head and chest, causing congestion. Your sense of taste is almost gone, which is why hot sauce is as far as I\u2019m aware the most popular condiment on the ISS (and odd, strong tasting food in general). Something similar happens to vision (presumably because of intracranial pressure?) with prolonged time in space - most astronauts report nearsightedness in the immediate months after return to Earth. There are many more things I forgot and likely even more stuff I never knew.", "human_ref_B": "Some parts of the vestibular system perceives our spacial orientation (mostly sewing front and back, up and down and to some extend sideways). They are called the utricule and the saccule and you can read about them here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10792/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3145.0, "score_ratio": 28.5294117647, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sa535n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "What are the gravity related functions of the human body and how they are effected and overcome in a zero gravity environments?", "c_root_id_A": "htro4aa", "c_root_id_B": "hts4duo", "created_at_utc_A": 1642873795, "created_at_utc_B": 1642880139, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 113, "human_ref_A": "Some parts of the vestibular system perceives our spacial orientation (mostly sewing front and back, up and down and to some extend sideways). They are called the utricule and the saccule and you can read about them here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10792/", "human_ref_B": "I read the other day that being in space causes a form of anemia. Being in low gravity reduces the amount of fluid required in your blood vessels which in turn increases the destruction rate of red blood cells by roughly 50% to maintain the right concentration. This increased destruction rate continues on earth after the volume of fluid is restored causing anemia.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6344.0, "score_ratio": 6.6470588235, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sa535n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "What are the gravity related functions of the human body and how they are effected and overcome in a zero gravity environments?", "c_root_id_A": "htt0mgk", "c_root_id_B": "htswamd", "created_at_utc_A": 1642893255, "created_at_utc_B": 1642891478, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Shout-out to Osteoblasts, one of the coolest cells in the body, that require gravitational force to make bone. In essence, this is why walking on a treadmill or even centripetal acceleration induced \"gravity\" like in 2001: A Space Odyssey is helpful to prevent bone loss.  ScienceDirect link for more info: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/osteoblast  Nice article: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2012.0286 (doesn't appear to have a paywall on my view....)  Osteoblasts are the cells that grow new bone, and they hang out on little \"beams\" of bone called spicules. The coolest part? They have proteins that attach to the spicule of bone, and sense when the spicule stretches and strains when a load is applied.  These little proteins cross the cell membrane, so that when the spicule of bone stretches and compresses outside of the cell, that change is \"sensed\" within the cell and the cell reads this as a signal to make more bone.  Simply put, osteoblasts have a naturally-occurring strain-gauge that \"reads\" when a bone is loaded by gravity, stimulating the creation of new bone. Pretty wild.   Strain gauge: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain\\_gauge  Bone Structure: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone", "human_ref_B": "The most known and common problem with prolonged exposure to microgravity is atrophy and loss of bone density, that's why astronauts need to do a lot of exercise before going to space so that when they return they won't be too weak to stand up.  I think there are some machines to do exercise on the ISS but you still lose a lot of muscle. Also your bones become extremely brittle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1777.0, "score_ratio": 1.0740740741, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sa535n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "What are the gravity related functions of the human body and how they are effected and overcome in a zero gravity environments?", "c_root_id_A": "htro4aa", "c_root_id_B": "htt0mgk", "created_at_utc_A": 1642873795, "created_at_utc_B": 1642893255, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Some parts of the vestibular system perceives our spacial orientation (mostly sewing front and back, up and down and to some extend sideways). They are called the utricule and the saccule and you can read about them here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10792/", "human_ref_B": "Shout-out to Osteoblasts, one of the coolest cells in the body, that require gravitational force to make bone. In essence, this is why walking on a treadmill or even centripetal acceleration induced \"gravity\" like in 2001: A Space Odyssey is helpful to prevent bone loss.  ScienceDirect link for more info: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/osteoblast  Nice article: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2012.0286 (doesn't appear to have a paywall on my view....)  Osteoblasts are the cells that grow new bone, and they hang out on little \"beams\" of bone called spicules. The coolest part? They have proteins that attach to the spicule of bone, and sense when the spicule stretches and strains when a load is applied.  These little proteins cross the cell membrane, so that when the spicule of bone stretches and compresses outside of the cell, that change is \"sensed\" within the cell and the cell reads this as a signal to make more bone.  Simply put, osteoblasts have a naturally-occurring strain-gauge that \"reads\" when a bone is loaded by gravity, stimulating the creation of new bone. Pretty wild.   Strain gauge: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain\\_gauge  Bone Structure: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19460.0, "score_ratio": 1.7058823529, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sa535n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "What are the gravity related functions of the human body and how they are effected and overcome in a zero gravity environments?", "c_root_id_A": "htswamd", "c_root_id_B": "htro4aa", "created_at_utc_A": 1642891478, "created_at_utc_B": 1642873795, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "The most known and common problem with prolonged exposure to microgravity is atrophy and loss of bone density, that's why astronauts need to do a lot of exercise before going to space so that when they return they won't be too weak to stand up.  I think there are some machines to do exercise on the ISS but you still lose a lot of muscle. Also your bones become extremely brittle.", "human_ref_B": "Some parts of the vestibular system perceives our spacial orientation (mostly sewing front and back, up and down and to some extend sideways). They are called the utricule and the saccule and you can read about them here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10792/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17683.0, "score_ratio": 1.5882352941, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "81fbd6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why is the moon just the right size to block the sun during a solar eclipse? Is there some reason other than coincidence that the moon and the sun take up so close to the same amount of space on our retinas?", "c_root_id_A": "dv2v2la", "c_root_id_B": "dv2v3bx", "created_at_utc_A": 1520010901, "created_at_utc_B": 1520010920, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Coincidence.", "human_ref_B": "It is a coincidence that the sun is 400 times wider but also 400 times farther than the moon. Both of them fluctuate in apparent size due to the elliptical orbits of the Earth and moon (hence the \"supermoon\" phenomenon), and sometimes the moon won't appear big enough to block the entire sun and you get an annular eclipse.  In general though the moon has been getting farther away for the past few billion years and the sun is gradually getting bigger, so in the past the moon could easily cover the sun without being \"just right\" and in the future it will be too small to cover it completely. We just happen to be living at the right time to see the sizes match up.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19.0, "score_ratio": 2.1538461538, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "81fbd6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why is the moon just the right size to block the sun during a solar eclipse? Is there some reason other than coincidence that the moon and the sun take up so close to the same amount of space on our retinas?", "c_root_id_A": "dv4su3d", "c_root_id_B": "dv45en6", "created_at_utc_A": 1520106754, "created_at_utc_B": 1520070380, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Science Fiction author Fredrick Pohl called these the \"Gosh Numbers\" in his novel Gateway.   Gosh numbers are numbers that represent more than one quantity so that when you perceive the coincidence you say Gosh.   I found the following which may or may not be quoted from said book  Some gosh numbers are:  .5 degrees is the angular diameter of both the sun and the moon as seen from earth. Gosh, how strange that they should be the same but also how useful, because it is partly because of this coincidence that earth has eclipses.   Minus 40 degrees is the temperature which is the same in both the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales. Gosh   Ten to the 39th is a measure of the weakness of the gravitational force as compared with the electromagnetic. It is also the age of the universe expressed as a dimensionless number. It is also the square root of the number of particles in the observable universe, that is, that part of the universe relative to earth in which Hubbles constant is less than .5. Gosh  Most gosh numbers are dimensionless because they are the same in any units you measure. Infinity is also a dimensionless number, since you will get the same value no matter what unit of measurement you use.", "human_ref_B": "As others have pointed out, it is total coincidence.  But do you realise it's a double coincidence?  It would be highly unusual on any world, but for it to happen to a planet that has intelligent life that can a) understand what it is seeing, and b) appreciate the enormity of the coincidence, is really quite staggering.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 36374.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "81fbd6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why is the moon just the right size to block the sun during a solar eclipse? Is there some reason other than coincidence that the moon and the sun take up so close to the same amount of space on our retinas?", "c_root_id_A": "dv4su3d", "c_root_id_B": "dv4bbah", "created_at_utc_A": 1520106754, "created_at_utc_B": 1520084783, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Science Fiction author Fredrick Pohl called these the \"Gosh Numbers\" in his novel Gateway.   Gosh numbers are numbers that represent more than one quantity so that when you perceive the coincidence you say Gosh.   I found the following which may or may not be quoted from said book  Some gosh numbers are:  .5 degrees is the angular diameter of both the sun and the moon as seen from earth. Gosh, how strange that they should be the same but also how useful, because it is partly because of this coincidence that earth has eclipses.   Minus 40 degrees is the temperature which is the same in both the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales. Gosh   Ten to the 39th is a measure of the weakness of the gravitational force as compared with the electromagnetic. It is also the age of the universe expressed as a dimensionless number. It is also the square root of the number of particles in the observable universe, that is, that part of the universe relative to earth in which Hubbles constant is less than .5. Gosh  Most gosh numbers are dimensionless because they are the same in any units you measure. Infinity is also a dimensionless number, since you will get the same value no matter what unit of measurement you use.", "human_ref_B": "It's coincidence, but not really that unlikely to happen as the exact distance can vary and it's rarely perfectly the right size. Jupiter for example also experiences total solar eclipses since some of the larger moons are larger enough.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21971.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vlls90", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "How do Spacecraft and Satellite Electronics Deal With the Inability to Ground Themselves? I know that electronics can function without grounding, but I am curious how high-reliability electronics are made when grounding isn't an option.", "c_root_id_A": "idwwbp0", "c_root_id_B": "idww3fj", "created_at_utc_A": 1656325605, "created_at_utc_B": 1656325421, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Voltages are relative. Everything will function with reference to the chassis regardless of what that is relative anything else on the planet or in orbit.  It's just same as aircraft. Sometimes you will see a grounding wire being attached to a helicopter when it touches down to equalize the charge before anybody touches it. Up until then it functions perfectly well with whatever it has collected.", "human_ref_B": "The way you do it with an airplane is to have wires coming out of the back of the plane called static wicks. That allow charges to dissipate in the air. Your charged wick will be neutralized by oppositely charged ions in the passing airflow. I may be incorrect but I think you can do the same thing in space because, though there isn't any air, there are a lot of charged particles hanging around in space that can neutralize your charge.  Edit: I looked into this a bit more and it seems that with some care in electrical design, spacecraft can operate with a charged ground. The current goes into the \"ground\" which in this special case is called the \"reference\" and the ground stays charged instead of dissipating.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 184.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6j7ii1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "When my garden soil is too alkaline, I'm told to add sulphur or other somewhat noxious chemicals. Why can't I just pour a bottle of vinegar into the garden bed? What would go wrong?", "c_root_id_A": "djceizs", "c_root_id_B": "djcev5q", "created_at_utc_A": 1498319405, "created_at_utc_B": 1498319854, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "Sulphur is no more noxious than acetic acid in the right concentrations. Vinegar is less than 5%. Generally the best way to change soil PH is to use a high acid fertilizer, like ones made for hydrangea,  dogwood, ezalia, gardinia, or rhododendron. Use them as often as possible for a couple years. Changing soil acidity is a slow process.  Edit: almost all fertilizer is acidic, except lawn fertilizer. Most plants absorb nutrients most efficiently at a PH between 5.2 and 6.2.", "human_ref_B": "Sulfur is only noxious in  excessive amounts, and in appropriate amounts is actually a vital nutrient for plants. Beans and peas need sulfur for their nitrogen fixing symbiotic bacteria to thrive. All plants need sulfur to make chlorophyll and some vitamins. The characteristic smell of onions  is  because of some sulfur compounds the onion plant makes, and some compounds in broccoli that seem to fight cancer are sulfur compounds.    Also, adding a little elemental sulfur to the soil will provide a slow, but long lasting change to the PH of the soil as beneficial bacteria slowly convert it to a form the plants will use. Pouring vinegar on the dirt with cause a shocking but very temporary change that will kill many plants, but leave the soil just as alkaline as it was before, once the vinegar breaks down. Which doesn't take long.  Vinegar actually makes a good weed killer, because it's pretty toxic to plants but breaks down completely into harmless compounds in a fairly short time. From a plants point of view, vinegar is the noxious chemical, not sulfur.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 449.0, "score_ratio": 2.4375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6j7ii1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "When my garden soil is too alkaline, I'm told to add sulphur or other somewhat noxious chemicals. Why can't I just pour a bottle of vinegar into the garden bed? What would go wrong?", "c_root_id_A": "djcdiaq", "c_root_id_B": "djcev5q", "created_at_utc_A": 1498318001, "created_at_utc_B": 1498319854, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "My extension office recommended ammonium sulfate on my lawn because my soil has a high alkalinity. It doesn't last as long as extended-release fertilizers but it does make a difference. I also had to auger some holes around a yellowing maple (iron chlorosis) and add sulfur to the soil with iron chelate. Tree is fine now with annual treatments.", "human_ref_B": "Sulfur is only noxious in  excessive amounts, and in appropriate amounts is actually a vital nutrient for plants. Beans and peas need sulfur for their nitrogen fixing symbiotic bacteria to thrive. All plants need sulfur to make chlorophyll and some vitamins. The characteristic smell of onions  is  because of some sulfur compounds the onion plant makes, and some compounds in broccoli that seem to fight cancer are sulfur compounds.    Also, adding a little elemental sulfur to the soil will provide a slow, but long lasting change to the PH of the soil as beneficial bacteria slowly convert it to a form the plants will use. Pouring vinegar on the dirt with cause a shocking but very temporary change that will kill many plants, but leave the soil just as alkaline as it was before, once the vinegar breaks down. Which doesn't take long.  Vinegar actually makes a good weed killer, because it's pretty toxic to plants but breaks down completely into harmless compounds in a fairly short time. From a plants point of view, vinegar is the noxious chemical, not sulfur.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1853.0, "score_ratio": 7.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6j7ii1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "When my garden soil is too alkaline, I'm told to add sulphur or other somewhat noxious chemicals. Why can't I just pour a bottle of vinegar into the garden bed? What would go wrong?", "c_root_id_A": "djceizs", "c_root_id_B": "djcdiaq", "created_at_utc_A": 1498319405, "created_at_utc_B": 1498318001, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Sulphur is no more noxious than acetic acid in the right concentrations. Vinegar is less than 5%. Generally the best way to change soil PH is to use a high acid fertilizer, like ones made for hydrangea,  dogwood, ezalia, gardinia, or rhododendron. Use them as often as possible for a couple years. Changing soil acidity is a slow process.  Edit: almost all fertilizer is acidic, except lawn fertilizer. Most plants absorb nutrients most efficiently at a PH between 5.2 and 6.2.", "human_ref_B": "My extension office recommended ammonium sulfate on my lawn because my soil has a high alkalinity. It doesn't last as long as extended-release fertilizers but it does make a difference. I also had to auger some holes around a yellowing maple (iron chlorosis) and add sulfur to the soil with iron chelate. Tree is fine now with annual treatments.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1404.0, "score_ratio": 3.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6j7ii1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "When my garden soil is too alkaline, I'm told to add sulphur or other somewhat noxious chemicals. Why can't I just pour a bottle of vinegar into the garden bed? What would go wrong?", "c_root_id_A": "djcjuzp", "c_root_id_B": "djcdiaq", "created_at_utc_A": 1498326612, "created_at_utc_B": 1498318001, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Sulfur isn't noxious, you could eat some elemental sulfur with probably no major effects. (apparently it's a mild laxative) Concentrated acetic acid is pretty nasty stuff and needs to be handled under a fume hood.", "human_ref_B": "My extension office recommended ammonium sulfate on my lawn because my soil has a high alkalinity. It doesn't last as long as extended-release fertilizers but it does make a difference. I also had to auger some holes around a yellowing maple (iron chlorosis) and add sulfur to the soil with iron chelate. Tree is fine now with annual treatments.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8611.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yj283o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why do we get \"ear worms\" (music or sounds stuck in one's mind playing on repeat) but not for the other senses? I've had jingles and short musical tunes stuck in my head for hours, but I've never had the same for smells, tastes, or sights. What makes hearing so different from the other senses?      Relatedly, I should ask too what are the characteristics of an ear worm (I've noticed that they are never very long, for instance), why we even get them, and how they're engineered!", "c_root_id_A": "iulu38j", "c_root_id_B": "iulmxe4", "created_at_utc_A": 1667296045, "created_at_utc_B": 1667289316, "score_A": 53, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "In the absence of other opinions, I'll offer a perspective. In short, this is probably beyond the limits of our current understanding of neuroscience, but we have some guesses.  When people have lesions in the dominant temporal lobe they have trouble with recognising or linking the meanings of sounds and words. There is an equivalent semantic agnosis for some kinds of visual stimuli usually associated with lesions in the parietal lobe. In general, the brain tends to infer a pattern that explains disparate stimuli. The term for this is \"gestalt\". This is a high level function that is quite sensitive to lesional disruption - see The Man Who Mistook Hos Wife for a Hat for examples.  Semantic content in auditory stimuli, processed by the temporal lobe, is far more temporally dependent than other stimuli. Note that the term 'temporal' is shared between the lobe and the nature of it's processing is purely coincidental - it was named for the tendency of the hair of the overlying scalp to gray, showing age, before other areas of hair.  In any case, when the temporal lobe receives a segment of data that activates a specific semantic 'gestalt', it likely continues to seek confirmation of that 'gestalt'. For smells or tactile senses, or visual stimuli, it's simpler, because you just sniff or feel more, or double take. For songs, the new stimuli only adds to the gestalt if it occurs in a specific temporal sequence. As such, you need to continue the tune, either in your head, by humming, or listening to the song.  Edit: Source - I'm a neuropsychiatry registrar in an epilepsy unit, and I've read the first few chapters of Lishman's?", "human_ref_B": "Im offering my perspective as a music scholar here but there is a specific terminology for the element of music that  becomes an ear worm. You can call it a theme, melody, or hook but entire pieces are planned around it. In classical music the entire genre of symphony is devoted to exploring the possibilities of said theme.  Hop this helps or something whatevs ams a 40oz deep... discover classical music!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6729.0, "score_ratio": 3.3125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yj283o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why do we get \"ear worms\" (music or sounds stuck in one's mind playing on repeat) but not for the other senses? I've had jingles and short musical tunes stuck in my head for hours, but I've never had the same for smells, tastes, or sights. What makes hearing so different from the other senses?      Relatedly, I should ask too what are the characteristics of an ear worm (I've noticed that they are never very long, for instance), why we even get them, and how they're engineered!", "c_root_id_A": "iulnf2v", "c_root_id_B": "iulu38j", "created_at_utc_A": 1667289780, "created_at_utc_B": 1667296045, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 53, "human_ref_A": "I have something else. When I listen to music in my car, if I get out in the middle of a song, even if I didn't really take care, the song will continue to play in my head. I can comeback in my car the next day and boom : The song continue at near the exact good moment I was singing in my head. My best was 3 days while playing \"Kids with guns\" from \"Gorillaz' (Demon day). During 2 days the part where you hear \"Sooooo that daaaaaay...\"  was ringing in my head. And when I took my car, it was exactly it.  Ps : using Spotify app in car.", "human_ref_B": "In the absence of other opinions, I'll offer a perspective. In short, this is probably beyond the limits of our current understanding of neuroscience, but we have some guesses.  When people have lesions in the dominant temporal lobe they have trouble with recognising or linking the meanings of sounds and words. There is an equivalent semantic agnosis for some kinds of visual stimuli usually associated with lesions in the parietal lobe. In general, the brain tends to infer a pattern that explains disparate stimuli. The term for this is \"gestalt\". This is a high level function that is quite sensitive to lesional disruption - see The Man Who Mistook Hos Wife for a Hat for examples.  Semantic content in auditory stimuli, processed by the temporal lobe, is far more temporally dependent than other stimuli. Note that the term 'temporal' is shared between the lobe and the nature of it's processing is purely coincidental - it was named for the tendency of the hair of the overlying scalp to gray, showing age, before other areas of hair.  In any case, when the temporal lobe receives a segment of data that activates a specific semantic 'gestalt', it likely continues to seek confirmation of that 'gestalt'. For smells or tactile senses, or visual stimuli, it's simpler, because you just sniff or feel more, or double take. For songs, the new stimuli only adds to the gestalt if it occurs in a specific temporal sequence. As such, you need to continue the tune, either in your head, by humming, or listening to the song.  Edit: Source - I'm a neuropsychiatry registrar in an epilepsy unit, and I've read the first few chapters of Lishman's?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6265.0, "score_ratio": 5.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zpnrv8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Can someone explain how Q is calculated with different fusion systems and why some parts of the energy inputs can be ignored? I am trying to understand more about fusion energy given the recent news. I don\u2019t really understand how they calculate the Q scores and why some of the energy input is ignored. For example with the laser system they used at LLNL I read they used 500MJ for the lasers to deliver 1.8MJ to the target. Why isn\u2019t that 500MJ part of the Q calculation?", "c_root_id_A": "j0ut5mm", "c_root_id_B": "j0vass3", "created_at_utc_A": 1671466471, "created_at_utc_B": 1671473426, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Follow up question.  Does anyone know what percent of deuterium and tritium actually fused together?  Everyone is talking about decreasing the input energies but I am wondering how much more room is left on the output side of the equation.", "human_ref_B": "Cause that's how it is with every input/output analysis in the world. You draw a little box around your system diagram according to what you want to analyze, and call this your \"control volume\". Nuclear fusion is now a black box that transforms inputs to outputs agnostically. Only analyze direct inputs and outputs to that box to calculate its efficiency. We don't worry about losses along transmission lines that power the laser, we don't worry about the energy it took to compress the hydrogen in the first place, and we don't care about wasted energy in the laser machines, that would be a discussion for a DIFFERENT control volume around the laser (which would reveal their own inefficiency without impact that of the fusion).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6955.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zpnrv8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Can someone explain how Q is calculated with different fusion systems and why some parts of the energy inputs can be ignored? I am trying to understand more about fusion energy given the recent news. I don\u2019t really understand how they calculate the Q scores and why some of the energy input is ignored. For example with the laser system they used at LLNL I read they used 500MJ for the lasers to deliver 1.8MJ to the target. Why isn\u2019t that 500MJ part of the Q calculation?", "c_root_id_A": "j0uvvdt", "c_root_id_B": "j0vass3", "created_at_utc_A": 1671467581, "created_at_utc_B": 1671473426, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Because you don\u2019t need to worry about the inefficiency of a starter motor once the engine turns over\u2026  You don\u2019t worry about how much electricity the starter motor uses even, you only care about how much torque it delivers to the engine, as a certain amount is needed to \u201cturn over\u201d or \u201cignite\u201d the fuel.  This analogy holds true for this fusion experiment.", "human_ref_B": "Cause that's how it is with every input/output analysis in the world. You draw a little box around your system diagram according to what you want to analyze, and call this your \"control volume\". Nuclear fusion is now a black box that transforms inputs to outputs agnostically. Only analyze direct inputs and outputs to that box to calculate its efficiency. We don't worry about losses along transmission lines that power the laser, we don't worry about the energy it took to compress the hydrogen in the first place, and we don't care about wasted energy in the laser machines, that would be a discussion for a DIFFERENT control volume around the laser (which would reveal their own inefficiency without impact that of the fusion).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5845.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eu47n", "c_root_id_B": "c2eu40s", "created_at_utc_A": 1314194004, "created_at_utc_B": 1314193953, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The *Dune* book series is actually based on Frank Herbert's experience writing about scientists trying to make deserts habitable. The edition I had included an appendix with citations of scientific articles on the process that you may find interesting.", "human_ref_B": "I would recommend this talk by Michael Pawlcyn.  The most relevant bit of the talk starts around the 9 minute mark - but I liked the whole thing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 51.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ewnk6", "c_root_id_B": "c2eux7r", "created_at_utc_A": 1314211706, "created_at_utc_B": 1314200518, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantropa", "human_ref_B": "I don't think you'd even need utopian power sources.  Determined people now could slow and reverse desert growth by irrigating and planting trees.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11188.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2evx9v", "c_root_id_B": "c2ewnk6", "created_at_utc_A": 1314207038, "created_at_utc_B": 1314211706, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It would be a hell of a lot easier than doing it on Mars, that's for sure.", "human_ref_B": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantropa", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4668.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ewn04", "c_root_id_B": "c2ewnk6", "created_at_utc_A": 1314211607, "created_at_utc_B": 1314211706, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hasn't Israel been \"terraformed\" to a large extent? I've heard this before, but don't know much in the way of details. Anyone?", "human_ref_B": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantropa", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 99.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ex3me", "c_root_id_B": "c2eux7r", "created_at_utc_A": 1314214539, "created_at_utc_B": 1314200518, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There's a lot of good replies here already so I'll just provide some related reading. **Ascension Island** is a small volcanic island in the Atlantic Ocean. It was completely desolate until the **19th century**, when it was terraformed with plants and animals from across the globe thanks to efforts by Joseph Hooker and Charles Darwin.", "human_ref_B": "I don't think you'd even need utopian power sources.  Determined people now could slow and reverse desert growth by irrigating and planting trees.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14021.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ex3me", "c_root_id_B": "c2evx9v", "created_at_utc_A": 1314214539, "created_at_utc_B": 1314207038, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There's a lot of good replies here already so I'll just provide some related reading. **Ascension Island** is a small volcanic island in the Atlantic Ocean. It was completely desolate until the **19th century**, when it was terraformed with plants and animals from across the globe thanks to efforts by Joseph Hooker and Charles Darwin.", "human_ref_B": "It would be a hell of a lot easier than doing it on Mars, that's for sure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7501.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ewn04", "c_root_id_B": "c2ex3me", "created_at_utc_A": 1314211607, "created_at_utc_B": 1314214539, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hasn't Israel been \"terraformed\" to a large extent? I've heard this before, but don't know much in the way of details. Anyone?", "human_ref_B": "There's a lot of good replies here already so I'll just provide some related reading. **Ascension Island** is a small volcanic island in the Atlantic Ocean. It was completely desolate until the **19th century**, when it was terraformed with plants and animals from across the globe thanks to efforts by Joseph Hooker and Charles Darwin.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2932.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2expoy", "c_root_id_B": "c2eux7r", "created_at_utc_A": 1314218378, "created_at_utc_B": 1314200518, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Easier method (still very hard):  Move a lot of earth around to create mountains and deep valleys. The mountains will capture more water, and the valleys will retain it. You could create a self-sustaining ecosystem by introducing water into the area through a natural process.", "human_ref_B": "I don't think you'd even need utopian power sources.  Determined people now could slow and reverse desert growth by irrigating and planting trees.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17860.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2evx9v", "c_root_id_B": "c2expoy", "created_at_utc_A": 1314207038, "created_at_utc_B": 1314218378, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It would be a hell of a lot easier than doing it on Mars, that's for sure.", "human_ref_B": "Easier method (still very hard):  Move a lot of earth around to create mountains and deep valleys. The mountains will capture more water, and the valleys will retain it. You could create a self-sustaining ecosystem by introducing water into the area through a natural process.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11340.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2expoy", "c_root_id_B": "c2ewn04", "created_at_utc_A": 1314218378, "created_at_utc_B": 1314211607, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Easier method (still very hard):  Move a lot of earth around to create mountains and deep valleys. The mountains will capture more water, and the valleys will retain it. You could create a self-sustaining ecosystem by introducing water into the area through a natural process.", "human_ref_B": "Hasn't Israel been \"terraformed\" to a large extent? I've heard this before, but don't know much in the way of details. Anyone?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6771.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jsqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Will it ever be feasible for humanity to 'terraform' areas like the Sahara Desert into fertile, habitable land with the aid of geoengineering? Let's suppose we live 100 years ahead in a utopian future where nuclear fusion is commercially exploitable, electricity is very cheap, and our dependence on fossil fuels is a relic of history. Let's also suppose, for argument's sake, that nuclear fusion is so common that it's cost-effective for every country to rely on, and that we can use our new limitless power to solve the world's freshwater crisis by building large-scale desalination plants all over the place.  Now suppose you built large-scale fusion plants - say, many gigawatts each - all along the West African coastline. This isn't r/politics, so assume the political will and stability exists there. These new coastal plants have one job - producing fresh water through desalination, and pumping it inland to the arid desert.   In school geography, we were taught that rainforests are so wet *because* of the vegetation - cut down the trees, and eventually the soil literally turns to sand and the climate becomes arid, because moisture isn't exchanged between the vegetation and the atmosphere anymore. Could we ever reverse the process to eventually influence the Sahara climate, provide richer soils, etc - and hopefully, eventually create a self-sustaining landscape? What would that do to the rest of the world's weather?  How long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "c2expoy", "c_root_id_B": "c2exjrv", "created_at_utc_A": 1314218378, "created_at_utc_B": 1314217338, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Easier method (still very hard):  Move a lot of earth around to create mountains and deep valleys. The mountains will capture more water, and the valleys will retain it. You could create a self-sustaining ecosystem by introducing water into the area through a natural process.", "human_ref_B": "Correct me if I'm wrong but wouldn't this promote more storms to come off the African west coast, thus more hurricanes for the Western hemisphere?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1040.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dbg2va", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If electrons behave as waves when they\u2019re not observed and behave as particles when observed at microscopic scale, how can they behave as waves observed at eye scale? (Young experiment)", "c_root_id_A": "f21hq1n", "c_root_id_B": "f21ki8m", "created_at_utc_A": 1569872363, "created_at_utc_B": 1569873293, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Electrons behave as their own new 'thing' that we don't really have words to describe yet. This thing has some properties of waves, and it also has some properties that particles have, but it is neither a particle nor a wave.", "human_ref_B": "The \"particles when observed, waves when not\" is a bit of an over simplification.   I prefer the term stochastic wave to describe electrons.   To understand stochastic: Imagine a machine gun shooting a target. It will have some sort of spread on the target. The shots got the target one by one (stochasticly), but eventually you can work out a probably for it hitting each spot. This gives you a probability distribution.   To get the wave part: Imagine a wave hitting a shoreline. It hits with different amount of force at different places. You can graph this force to get a function. Note it hits everywhere in the function an the same time (so not stochastic)   Waves and probably distributions behave differently. For example waves interfere while probably distributions don't.   Now for electrons, electrons behave stochasticly, creating a probably distribution. Except the probability distribution follows the rules of waves instead of the rules that govern classical probability distributions.   Thus the term, stochastic wave.   You typically get good results in QM if you treat the electron as a wave for all of your calculations until the end where whatever you're measuring results in a stochastic probability distribution. This is where the \"wave if not observed, particles if observed\" oversimplification comes from.  Then to make things more complicated, there is wave function collapse that messes up attempts to probe deeper into the probability distribution vs wave nature when you try to probe mid experiment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 930.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dbg2va", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If electrons behave as waves when they\u2019re not observed and behave as particles when observed at microscopic scale, how can they behave as waves observed at eye scale? (Young experiment)", "c_root_id_A": "f21hq1n", "c_root_id_B": "f21s9ri", "created_at_utc_A": 1569872363, "created_at_utc_B": 1569876129, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Electrons behave as their own new 'thing' that we don't really have words to describe yet. This thing has some properties of waves, and it also has some properties that particles have, but it is neither a particle nor a wave.", "human_ref_B": "The concept that unifies particles and waves is that of the *field*.  A field can be wave-shaped or particle-shaped (concentrated in a small region).  Depending on how your instrument interacts with the field, either form gets amplified and macroscopically manifest.  The uncertainty principle is a universal property of fields (even classical ones).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3766.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dbg2va", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If electrons behave as waves when they\u2019re not observed and behave as particles when observed at microscopic scale, how can they behave as waves observed at eye scale? (Young experiment)", "c_root_id_A": "f231j2s", "c_root_id_B": "f22z654", "created_at_utc_A": 1569902897, "created_at_utc_B": 1569900838, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "This is quite old, so I suspect my answer will stay buried, but...  There are a lot of good answers here that go beyond the \"wave/particle duality\" model, but I believe you can do a fair bit of justice to the principles of quantum mechanics in this example without ditching that model. Consider three parts to your example; the light going through a double slit, the light travelling through the air, and the light hitting your retina.  First, a brief but important note... Observation in quantum mechanics isn't about a conscious being seeing something -- it's about a quantum system (a few particles or whatever) interacting with one that's very not quantum (a detector, the walls of a box, your dog). Any time that there's a strong interaction with a whole bunch of particles that in turn strongly interact amongst themselves, the whole quantum thing is in a sense broken, and stuff starts behaving classically. That's not a perfect way of seeing things, but it's decent.  As it goes through the slit, then, the light it doesn't really interact strongly with anything -- the light that does interact with the slit doesn't hasn't gone through it, it's hit the barrier to either side. That's what \"interacting strongly\" would mean. So the light that goes through gets to stay wavey.  As it travels through the air, it again doesn't interact strongly with anything. It's maybe bent gently, but it's not absorbed, for example. It stays wavey.  Then it hits your eye. There, it \\*is\\* absorbed. It interacts very strongly with the particles in your retina, behaving more like a particle and exciting the electrons somewhere from one energy level to another. It sets off a sequence of events that changes all kinds of macroscopic stuff, ending in an unimaginably large number of particles being affected as you \"see something\".  To answer your question, then, the light kept behaving like a wave \"out there\" because out there, it wasn't interacting strongly with anything. When it hit your retina, \\*then\\* it interacted strongly with something and started behaving a bunch more like a particle.  You could change that, of course, and the standard \"Young's double slit experiment\" showed that if you somehow detect the light as it travels through the slit, it no longer behaves like a wave there. But, of course, that's what we'd expect, because being detected is again this cascade of events that changes the macroscopic world, forcing the light to behave like a particle as it travels through the slit.", "human_ref_B": "It looks like everyone else just about answered the question, but the way I understand it, and this is oversimplifying it (please correct me if I'm wrong) is that at those tiny levels, it requires a large amount of energy \"observe\" the electrons. This energy you're providing is enough to disrupt the electrons themselves. It's like if the only way to observe a stream of water is by sticking your hand in there. The very act of sticking your hand in there was enough to alter the flow, thus giving the \"you changed the outcome by observing it\" deal", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2059.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dbg2va", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If electrons behave as waves when they\u2019re not observed and behave as particles when observed at microscopic scale, how can they behave as waves observed at eye scale? (Young experiment)", "c_root_id_A": "f231j2s", "c_root_id_B": "f21hq1n", "created_at_utc_A": 1569902897, "created_at_utc_B": 1569872363, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "This is quite old, so I suspect my answer will stay buried, but...  There are a lot of good answers here that go beyond the \"wave/particle duality\" model, but I believe you can do a fair bit of justice to the principles of quantum mechanics in this example without ditching that model. Consider three parts to your example; the light going through a double slit, the light travelling through the air, and the light hitting your retina.  First, a brief but important note... Observation in quantum mechanics isn't about a conscious being seeing something -- it's about a quantum system (a few particles or whatever) interacting with one that's very not quantum (a detector, the walls of a box, your dog). Any time that there's a strong interaction with a whole bunch of particles that in turn strongly interact amongst themselves, the whole quantum thing is in a sense broken, and stuff starts behaving classically. That's not a perfect way of seeing things, but it's decent.  As it goes through the slit, then, the light it doesn't really interact strongly with anything -- the light that does interact with the slit doesn't hasn't gone through it, it's hit the barrier to either side. That's what \"interacting strongly\" would mean. So the light that goes through gets to stay wavey.  As it travels through the air, it again doesn't interact strongly with anything. It's maybe bent gently, but it's not absorbed, for example. It stays wavey.  Then it hits your eye. There, it \\*is\\* absorbed. It interacts very strongly with the particles in your retina, behaving more like a particle and exciting the electrons somewhere from one energy level to another. It sets off a sequence of events that changes all kinds of macroscopic stuff, ending in an unimaginably large number of particles being affected as you \"see something\".  To answer your question, then, the light kept behaving like a wave \"out there\" because out there, it wasn't interacting strongly with anything. When it hit your retina, \\*then\\* it interacted strongly with something and started behaving a bunch more like a particle.  You could change that, of course, and the standard \"Young's double slit experiment\" showed that if you somehow detect the light as it travels through the slit, it no longer behaves like a wave there. But, of course, that's what we'd expect, because being detected is again this cascade of events that changes the macroscopic world, forcing the light to behave like a particle as it travels through the slit.", "human_ref_B": "Electrons behave as their own new 'thing' that we don't really have words to describe yet. This thing has some properties of waves, and it also has some properties that particles have, but it is neither a particle nor a wave.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30534.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dbg2va", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If electrons behave as waves when they\u2019re not observed and behave as particles when observed at microscopic scale, how can they behave as waves observed at eye scale? (Young experiment)", "c_root_id_A": "f21hq1n", "c_root_id_B": "f22z654", "created_at_utc_A": 1569872363, "created_at_utc_B": 1569900838, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Electrons behave as their own new 'thing' that we don't really have words to describe yet. This thing has some properties of waves, and it also has some properties that particles have, but it is neither a particle nor a wave.", "human_ref_B": "It looks like everyone else just about answered the question, but the way I understand it, and this is oversimplifying it (please correct me if I'm wrong) is that at those tiny levels, it requires a large amount of energy \"observe\" the electrons. This energy you're providing is enough to disrupt the electrons themselves. It's like if the only way to observe a stream of water is by sticking your hand in there. The very act of sticking your hand in there was enough to alter the flow, thus giving the \"you changed the outcome by observing it\" deal", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28475.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dbg2va", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If electrons behave as waves when they\u2019re not observed and behave as particles when observed at microscopic scale, how can they behave as waves observed at eye scale? (Young experiment)", "c_root_id_A": "f21hq1n", "c_root_id_B": "f237wod", "created_at_utc_A": 1569872363, "created_at_utc_B": 1569909835, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Electrons behave as their own new 'thing' that we don't really have words to describe yet. This thing has some properties of waves, and it also has some properties that particles have, but it is neither a particle nor a wave.", "human_ref_B": "Electrons are neither wave nor particles, that's the first thing to know.  Depending on the experiment, they'll behave like a wave or like a particule. It also work at eye scale.  A pretty good analogy that worked for me is : Think about a cylinder. Depinding on which side you're looking at it, it can be shaped like a rectangle or like a circle, yet it's neither of them.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37472.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xjv5jb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If you\u2019re born with all your eggs at birth, why is there more risk for having kids after 30? Sorry if this has been asked somewhere else, but what about the process of pregnancy and labor in older age causes more health defects in kids if all the genetics is already there? Is the age of the eggs? Pregnancy itself? What if you have a surrogate with 30 year old eggs?", "c_root_id_A": "ipbmefl", "c_root_id_B": "ipavij4", "created_at_utc_A": 1663763406, "created_at_utc_B": 1663744160, "score_A": 744, "score_B": 215, "human_ref_A": "Some Egg Basics:   There are about 1 million eggs that a female baby is born with. By puberty there may be only 300,000-400,000 remaining. She will only have about 300-400 during years of ovulation. A woman produces 1 egg during her monthly cycle, 12 eggs each year.   P.S. I feel like a chicken today \ud83d\udc25", "human_ref_B": "Med student here!  Its because the eggs get old.  Your eggs are hanging out  in metaphase, which is a part of cell replication where your chromosomes/genetic info are lined up in the middle of the cell.  There are microtubules connecting each of them to either side of the cell.    Think of 2 balls stuck together.  Each ball is attached to a rope and each rope is held by a person on opposite ends of a room.  When a whistle blows, both people yank the ropes and the balls become unstuck and fly to opposite ends of the room. That's kind of how it works - the chromosomes are the balls and the microtubules are the ropes and when its time to divide, the microtubules yank the chromosomes to the right location.  Now imagine if you left those ropes attached to the ball for 30 years.  They would start to fray and get damaged.  The same thing happens to the microtubules - they get damaged and break.  So when the time comes to replicate and the rope gets yanked, if one of the ropes breaks, the balls stay stuck together and end up in the wrong spot.  This is called a nondisjunction event.  All this to say - the older you are, the more likely you are to end up with a fetus that has the wrong number of chromosomes (too few or too many).  Often this causes miscarriage as the abnormality isn't compatible with life.  But this is why a huge risk factor for Down Syndrome (an extra chromosome 21) is older maternal age.  There's also higher risk of pre-eclampsia and other health issues with older mothers.  I hope that makes sense?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19246.0, "score_ratio": 3.4604651163, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xjv5jb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If you\u2019re born with all your eggs at birth, why is there more risk for having kids after 30? Sorry if this has been asked somewhere else, but what about the process of pregnancy and labor in older age causes more health defects in kids if all the genetics is already there? Is the age of the eggs? Pregnancy itself? What if you have a surrogate with 30 year old eggs?", "c_root_id_A": "ipan98r", "c_root_id_B": "ipbmefl", "created_at_utc_A": 1663738254, "created_at_utc_B": 1663763406, "score_A": 159, "score_B": 744, "human_ref_A": "People who have babies later in life also are at higher risk of complications such as high blood pressure and preeclampsia. Older people also have higher chances for multiple pregnancies, as when the ovaries age their odds of releasing numerous eggs at once increases. There are just more compounding risks the older people generally in over 35. On top of all this, early life stress is a factor in children\u2019s risk for physical and psychological issues, so having the healthiest pregnancy and labour is important to optimize health of all.", "human_ref_B": "Some Egg Basics:   There are about 1 million eggs that a female baby is born with. By puberty there may be only 300,000-400,000 remaining. She will only have about 300-400 during years of ovulation. A woman produces 1 egg during her monthly cycle, 12 eggs each year.   P.S. I feel like a chicken today \ud83d\udc25", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 25152.0, "score_ratio": 4.679245283, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xjv5jb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If you\u2019re born with all your eggs at birth, why is there more risk for having kids after 30? Sorry if this has been asked somewhere else, but what about the process of pregnancy and labor in older age causes more health defects in kids if all the genetics is already there? Is the age of the eggs? Pregnancy itself? What if you have a surrogate with 30 year old eggs?", "c_root_id_A": "ipbno5j", "c_root_id_B": "ipavij4", "created_at_utc_A": 1663764032, "created_at_utc_B": 1663744160, "score_A": 517, "score_B": 215, "human_ref_A": "The 30 years old is kinda arbitrary and based on very old data. Eggs get \"old\" and prone to errors in cell division over time, it's true, but nowadays it's considered really \"risky\" a bit later, more like when the person is closer to 40 years old.  The data about \"prime reproductive age\" is several decades old, people have better health now so it's not that bad to get pregnant after your 30s.", "human_ref_B": "Med student here!  Its because the eggs get old.  Your eggs are hanging out  in metaphase, which is a part of cell replication where your chromosomes/genetic info are lined up in the middle of the cell.  There are microtubules connecting each of them to either side of the cell.    Think of 2 balls stuck together.  Each ball is attached to a rope and each rope is held by a person on opposite ends of a room.  When a whistle blows, both people yank the ropes and the balls become unstuck and fly to opposite ends of the room. That's kind of how it works - the chromosomes are the balls and the microtubules are the ropes and when its time to divide, the microtubules yank the chromosomes to the right location.  Now imagine if you left those ropes attached to the ball for 30 years.  They would start to fray and get damaged.  The same thing happens to the microtubules - they get damaged and break.  So when the time comes to replicate and the rope gets yanked, if one of the ropes breaks, the balls stay stuck together and end up in the wrong spot.  This is called a nondisjunction event.  All this to say - the older you are, the more likely you are to end up with a fetus that has the wrong number of chromosomes (too few or too many).  Often this causes miscarriage as the abnormality isn't compatible with life.  But this is why a huge risk factor for Down Syndrome (an extra chromosome 21) is older maternal age.  There's also higher risk of pre-eclampsia and other health issues with older mothers.  I hope that makes sense?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19872.0, "score_ratio": 2.4046511628, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xjv5jb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If you\u2019re born with all your eggs at birth, why is there more risk for having kids after 30? Sorry if this has been asked somewhere else, but what about the process of pregnancy and labor in older age causes more health defects in kids if all the genetics is already there? Is the age of the eggs? Pregnancy itself? What if you have a surrogate with 30 year old eggs?", "c_root_id_A": "ipbno5j", "c_root_id_B": "ipan98r", "created_at_utc_A": 1663764032, "created_at_utc_B": 1663738254, "score_A": 517, "score_B": 159, "human_ref_A": "The 30 years old is kinda arbitrary and based on very old data. Eggs get \"old\" and prone to errors in cell division over time, it's true, but nowadays it's considered really \"risky\" a bit later, more like when the person is closer to 40 years old.  The data about \"prime reproductive age\" is several decades old, people have better health now so it's not that bad to get pregnant after your 30s.", "human_ref_B": "People who have babies later in life also are at higher risk of complications such as high blood pressure and preeclampsia. Older people also have higher chances for multiple pregnancies, as when the ovaries age their odds of releasing numerous eggs at once increases. There are just more compounding risks the older people generally in over 35. On top of all this, early life stress is a factor in children\u2019s risk for physical and psychological issues, so having the healthiest pregnancy and labour is important to optimize health of all.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25778.0, "score_ratio": 3.251572327, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xjv5jb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If you\u2019re born with all your eggs at birth, why is there more risk for having kids after 30? Sorry if this has been asked somewhere else, but what about the process of pregnancy and labor in older age causes more health defects in kids if all the genetics is already there? Is the age of the eggs? Pregnancy itself? What if you have a surrogate with 30 year old eggs?", "c_root_id_A": "ipan98r", "c_root_id_B": "ipavij4", "created_at_utc_A": 1663738254, "created_at_utc_B": 1663744160, "score_A": 159, "score_B": 215, "human_ref_A": "People who have babies later in life also are at higher risk of complications such as high blood pressure and preeclampsia. Older people also have higher chances for multiple pregnancies, as when the ovaries age their odds of releasing numerous eggs at once increases. There are just more compounding risks the older people generally in over 35. On top of all this, early life stress is a factor in children\u2019s risk for physical and psychological issues, so having the healthiest pregnancy and labour is important to optimize health of all.", "human_ref_B": "Med student here!  Its because the eggs get old.  Your eggs are hanging out  in metaphase, which is a part of cell replication where your chromosomes/genetic info are lined up in the middle of the cell.  There are microtubules connecting each of them to either side of the cell.    Think of 2 balls stuck together.  Each ball is attached to a rope and each rope is held by a person on opposite ends of a room.  When a whistle blows, both people yank the ropes and the balls become unstuck and fly to opposite ends of the room. That's kind of how it works - the chromosomes are the balls and the microtubules are the ropes and when its time to divide, the microtubules yank the chromosomes to the right location.  Now imagine if you left those ropes attached to the ball for 30 years.  They would start to fray and get damaged.  The same thing happens to the microtubules - they get damaged and break.  So when the time comes to replicate and the rope gets yanked, if one of the ropes breaks, the balls stay stuck together and end up in the wrong spot.  This is called a nondisjunction event.  All this to say - the older you are, the more likely you are to end up with a fetus that has the wrong number of chromosomes (too few or too many).  Often this causes miscarriage as the abnormality isn't compatible with life.  But this is why a huge risk factor for Down Syndrome (an extra chromosome 21) is older maternal age.  There's also higher risk of pre-eclampsia and other health issues with older mothers.  I hope that makes sense?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5906.0, "score_ratio": 1.3522012579, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xjv5jb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If you\u2019re born with all your eggs at birth, why is there more risk for having kids after 30? Sorry if this has been asked somewhere else, but what about the process of pregnancy and labor in older age causes more health defects in kids if all the genetics is already there? Is the age of the eggs? Pregnancy itself? What if you have a surrogate with 30 year old eggs?", "c_root_id_A": "ipbrvsh", "c_root_id_B": "ipc1hb9", "created_at_utc_A": 1663766021, "created_at_utc_B": 1663770090, "score_A": 48, "score_B": 61, "human_ref_A": "From wikipedi.  **Risk of birth defects**\r   \r   The risk of having a Down syndrome pregnancy in relation to a mother's age.\r   A woman's risk of having a baby with chromosomal abnormalities increases with her age. Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal birth defect, and a woman's risk of having a baby with Down syndrome is:\\[16\\]\\[6\\]\r   \r   At age 20, 1 in 2000 (0.05%)\r   At age 24, 1 in 1300 (0.077%)\r   At age 25, 1 in 1200 (0.083%\r   At age 29, 1 in 950 (0.1%)\r   At age 30, 1 in 900 (0.11%)\r   At age 34, 1 in 450 (0.22%)\r   At age 35, 1 in 350 (0.29%)\r   At age 39, 1 in 150 (0.67%\r   At age 40, 1 in 100 (1.0%)\r   At age 44, 1 in 40 (2.5%)\r   At age 45, 1 in 30 (3.33%)\r   At age 49, 1 in 10 (10%)  (I calculated the percentages)", "human_ref_B": "One study pegged the ideal age to have your first child at 30.5. Other commenters have mentioned how eggs age, but it\u2019s not like at age 30 a woman is decrepit and her uterus is a barren wasteland. There are advantages to waiting until your 30s to have kids: you\u2019re settled into your career and earning more, more likely to have a steady partner to help you raise them, wiser and more mature\u2026 These researchers concluded that it\u2019s best to start at 30.5 and have a few kids throughout your 30s, because the benefits of stable parenting outweigh the small increase in risk of pregnancy complications and birth defects.  https://academic.oup.com/sf/article-abstract/81/1/315/2234500  Pregnancy is also the leading cause of death for girls 15-19 worldwide according to WHO. So any discussion of the risks of pregnancy should also mention that getting pregnant too young is far, far more dangerous than getting pregnant too old for most women. But on Reddit and in Western popular culture in general, we seem obsessed with reminding women that \u201cTick tock, your biological clock is winding down\u201d instead of encouraging them to be sensible about timing the pregnancy for when they are in good condition, not just health-wise but also economically and relationally. If you search Reddit, for every 20 posts concerned about late motherhood, you\u2019ll maybe see 1 post about early motherhood, which does not correspond with the real-world numbers.  https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/may/16/pregnancy-problems-are-leading-global-killer-of-females-aged-15-to-19", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4069.0, "score_ratio": 1.2708333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2nst1m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How does vegetation survive in radiation-heavy zones like Chernobyl while humans cannot? After watching the video of drone footage above Chernobyl, I've been curious as to how the plant-life has managed to overtake the city with such high levels of radiation?", "c_root_id_A": "cmgw11y", "c_root_id_B": "cmgwql0", "created_at_utc_A": 1417346225, "created_at_utc_B": 1417350621, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Not only plant but also bacteria and other wild life in the region itself, it has been irking me for a while was it the force of the environment that has changed those species to adapt, or were they capable of survival in those very same environments from the beginning.", "human_ref_B": "There will be other good posts about how radiation affects plants vs. animals, but also keep in mind survivorship bias in what you see. You are seeing plants that can tolerate higher levels of radiation, and you aren't seeing all the usual species (for that region) which cannot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4396.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2nst1m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How does vegetation survive in radiation-heavy zones like Chernobyl while humans cannot? After watching the video of drone footage above Chernobyl, I've been curious as to how the plant-life has managed to overtake the city with such high levels of radiation?", "c_root_id_A": "cmgxkfb", "c_root_id_B": "cmgz7ib", "created_at_utc_A": 1417355030, "created_at_utc_B": 1417361135, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "The embarrassing truth is that humans are more destructive to animals and plants than anything else, up to and apparently including nuclear disaster. Chernobyl is a land without humans, and this is such a massive survival benefit to plants and animals that it makes up for the radiation. (We don't only intentionally kill animals and plants intentionally, our activities and our absolute iron-fisted redesign of every aspect of our spaces squeezes plants and animals out of areas we inhabit.)  Also remember that people can survive in Chernobyl, it's just quite unhealthy to do so. At this point, quarter of a century after the disaster, the danger is cancer, not radiation poisoning, ie you would elevate your risk of cancer and thus may die earlier than you otherwise would. This is both a reason why people don't live there, and why plants and animals can. Animals get cancer too, but often don't live long enough - they tend to die of predation, injury, disease, or starvation first.  Lastly, the radiation in Chernobyl is not evenly spread. You can be perfectly safe in one place while only a few hundred feet away the radiation is dangerously elevated (such as near buried debris from the accident). This is bad for humans, who move around their environment a lot (and live for a long time, and don't die from predators, etc), but is a non-issue to a tree, which stays in the same place it's always been.", "human_ref_B": "Chernobyl, and Pripyat, really isn't very radiation-heavy anymore.  At this point, the radiation levels are so low that it's more like \"well, you probably could survive, but just to be safe, don't build a house here\".  But there are people in the surrounding area who refused to evacuate, and they're still alive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6105.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2nst1m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How does vegetation survive in radiation-heavy zones like Chernobyl while humans cannot? After watching the video of drone footage above Chernobyl, I've been curious as to how the plant-life has managed to overtake the city with such high levels of radiation?", "c_root_id_A": "cmgw11y", "c_root_id_B": "cmgz7ib", "created_at_utc_A": 1417346225, "created_at_utc_B": 1417361135, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Not only plant but also bacteria and other wild life in the region itself, it has been irking me for a while was it the force of the environment that has changed those species to adapt, or were they capable of survival in those very same environments from the beginning.", "human_ref_B": "Chernobyl, and Pripyat, really isn't very radiation-heavy anymore.  At this point, the radiation levels are so low that it's more like \"well, you probably could survive, but just to be safe, don't build a house here\".  But there are people in the surrounding area who refused to evacuate, and they're still alive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14910.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2nst1m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How does vegetation survive in radiation-heavy zones like Chernobyl while humans cannot? After watching the video of drone footage above Chernobyl, I've been curious as to how the plant-life has managed to overtake the city with such high levels of radiation?", "c_root_id_A": "cmgw11y", "c_root_id_B": "cmgxkfb", "created_at_utc_A": 1417346225, "created_at_utc_B": 1417355030, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Not only plant but also bacteria and other wild life in the region itself, it has been irking me for a while was it the force of the environment that has changed those species to adapt, or were they capable of survival in those very same environments from the beginning.", "human_ref_B": "The embarrassing truth is that humans are more destructive to animals and plants than anything else, up to and apparently including nuclear disaster. Chernobyl is a land without humans, and this is such a massive survival benefit to plants and animals that it makes up for the radiation. (We don't only intentionally kill animals and plants intentionally, our activities and our absolute iron-fisted redesign of every aspect of our spaces squeezes plants and animals out of areas we inhabit.)  Also remember that people can survive in Chernobyl, it's just quite unhealthy to do so. At this point, quarter of a century after the disaster, the danger is cancer, not radiation poisoning, ie you would elevate your risk of cancer and thus may die earlier than you otherwise would. This is both a reason why people don't live there, and why plants and animals can. Animals get cancer too, but often don't live long enough - they tend to die of predation, injury, disease, or starvation first.  Lastly, the radiation in Chernobyl is not evenly spread. You can be perfectly safe in one place while only a few hundred feet away the radiation is dangerously elevated (such as near buried debris from the accident). This is bad for humans, who move around their environment a lot (and live for a long time, and don't die from predators, etc), but is a non-issue to a tree, which stays in the same place it's always been.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8805.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2nst1m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How does vegetation survive in radiation-heavy zones like Chernobyl while humans cannot? After watching the video of drone footage above Chernobyl, I've been curious as to how the plant-life has managed to overtake the city with such high levels of radiation?", "c_root_id_A": "cmgw11y", "c_root_id_B": "cmh1rf8", "created_at_utc_A": 1417346225, "created_at_utc_B": 1417367764, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Not only plant but also bacteria and other wild life in the region itself, it has been irking me for a while was it the force of the environment that has changed those species to adapt, or were they capable of survival in those very same environments from the beginning.", "human_ref_B": "Observational Bias.     Even at the height of the disaster, the majority of victims didn't just drop dead on the spot like one would expect to see in a movie. They died hours, days, weeks and months later.      Now that radiation levels are lower in most areas, symptoms of radiation poisoning will take longer and in most cases not be obviously due to radiation poisoning unless diagnosed after examination.      So, for example, suppose we have forgotten about the accident and the dangers of radiation and large numbers of people move back. Many of the people would live long enough to be killed by something other than radiation poisoning. Many more would die of radiation poisoning, but unless you were familiar with the symptoms, you would likely shrug and think, \"hmm.. Must have been cancer.\"  Only if you were familiar with expected death rates in non-radiation zones would you think, \"Man, 25% of my neighbors are dying of cancer??? That's much higher than normal.  We need to get out of here!\"      Now take this and apply it to plants:     - the death rates are much higher than normal, but most casual observers don't know the expected death rates of plants and don't stick around long enough to track this data over the lifetime of a particular plant or group of plants.     - most people don't examine dead plants for cause of death. They simply think, \"Hmmm.  Dead plant.\", not \"Holey moley! 25% of the plants are dying of radiation sickness!\"     - most people's reaction to a 25% death rate amongst plants might think, \"Hmm. Dead plants\", while a similar death rate amongst humans would be much more striking and ghastly.  Disclaimers:     - Rates given are for illustrative purposes only. I have no idea of the actual rates.  TL;DR: The rate of death is much lower than 100%, so at any given time, there are more living than dead. The death rates are still much higher than acceptable for humans (and plants, for that matter.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21539.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ekix4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why are earthquakes always depicted on a map as radiating outwards from a central point? Shouldn\u2019t the strongest vibrations occur in some sort of line, such as along a fault line? The earthquake in Hokkaido, Japan got me thinking about this.", "c_root_id_A": "e5qjxr7", "c_root_id_B": "e5q89vi", "created_at_utc_A": 1536604093, "created_at_utc_B": 1536594146, "score_A": 4, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "This article from Nature clear states in the abstract that there was an earthquake resulting from slippage of the entire length of the Cascadia subduction zone, some hundreds of miles long: https://www.nature.com/articles/379246a0  I\u2019m not sure if this is normal for earthquakes (which do tend to be described as having \u201cepicenters\u201d), but the Cascadia subduction zone at least can produce earthquakes which originate from lines rather than points.", "human_ref_B": "Earthquakes create various waves(i.e. P-waves, S-waves etc) that move away from the focal point(where the earthquake occurs beneath the earth's surface) in a spherical manner(some linear)... similiar akin when you throwing a pebble in a pond the vibrations(or waves) move away from the point of impact. With distance the strength of a wave declines which is why usually when depicted on a map the circle of the earthquake has different shading of magnitude circles.  Also, it is important to note where the earthquake Is happening at depth. Japan sits on a subduction zone where the more dense oceanic plate is subducting underneath another plate, Because of the angled boundary the deeper the earthquake occurs the farther inland the epicenter Will be (The point at earth's surface above) conversely the more shallow the closer to the ocean and land boundary at the surface, it will be  Important note, there are different systems that act differently, but in the case of Japan that in a nut shell is why  I hope I answered your question, I was a bit unclear what you were asking for", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9947.0, "score_ratio": -4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ekix4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why are earthquakes always depicted on a map as radiating outwards from a central point? Shouldn\u2019t the strongest vibrations occur in some sort of line, such as along a fault line? The earthquake in Hokkaido, Japan got me thinking about this.", "c_root_id_A": "e5qo4zx", "c_root_id_B": "e5q89vi", "created_at_utc_A": 1536607697, "created_at_utc_B": 1536594146, "score_A": 4, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "A quake starts at a point of  locally maximumal stress along the fault line.  A very good model for earthquakes along faults is a large foam cushion  with an irregular, zig-zagging tear separating it into two pieces. The two pieces are smooshed against each other and dragged in opposite directions. The irregular edges drag and catch on each other, snagging in some places and sliding in others so there is an uneven distribution of places where it is caught, stretched at lot ,  loosely caught and only  slightly stretched. Eventually one of the high stress spots slips past the place where it was caught on the other cushion half. The slip spreads out along the fault line, releasing the stress in some places and loading up places that were caught/stuck but were not stretched as much as the place that slipped. Animations of earthquakes tend to show waves emanating from that spot that slipped the most, but waves also spread out from along the length of the fault that slipped (between spots that remain caught). The highest displacement tends to be at the spot that initially slipped and moved the furthest (like the initial \"crack\" of thunder) but the waves moving out from the rest of the aread of the fault that slipped are like the continuing rumble of thunder as the lightning channel though the air collapses", "human_ref_B": "Earthquakes create various waves(i.e. P-waves, S-waves etc) that move away from the focal point(where the earthquake occurs beneath the earth's surface) in a spherical manner(some linear)... similiar akin when you throwing a pebble in a pond the vibrations(or waves) move away from the point of impact. With distance the strength of a wave declines which is why usually when depicted on a map the circle of the earthquake has different shading of magnitude circles.  Also, it is important to note where the earthquake Is happening at depth. Japan sits on a subduction zone where the more dense oceanic plate is subducting underneath another plate, Because of the angled boundary the deeper the earthquake occurs the farther inland the epicenter Will be (The point at earth's surface above) conversely the more shallow the closer to the ocean and land boundary at the surface, it will be  Important note, there are different systems that act differently, but in the case of Japan that in a nut shell is why  I hope I answered your question, I was a bit unclear what you were asking for", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13551.0, "score_ratio": -4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ekix4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why are earthquakes always depicted on a map as radiating outwards from a central point? Shouldn\u2019t the strongest vibrations occur in some sort of line, such as along a fault line? The earthquake in Hokkaido, Japan got me thinking about this.", "c_root_id_A": "e5s5zfg", "c_root_id_B": "e5q89vi", "created_at_utc_A": 1536671451, "created_at_utc_B": 1536594146, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "The simple answer is that representing an Earthquake as occurring at a central point can be a useful approximation, in particular in terms of the way that the Earthquake is detected by long-range seismometers.   The more complex answer is that of course you're correct, Earthquakes do _not_ occur at a single point. They occur along a fault line (or in the case of very large earthquakes, fault lines). The earthquake will originate at a certain point and the slip will then propagate along the fault plane, a bit like unzipping a zip. You can describe the amount of offset that occurs in an Earthquake with a quantity called the _seismic moment_, but there are a lot of different ways you can represent it. The most accurate way of representing the seismic moment of an Earthquake is as a tensor distribution across the entire complex surface of a fault plane in three-dimensional space. The problem is that this is an extremely difficult thing to do (it requires a huge amount of computational power, is only possible to do in retrospect, and generally relies on computer models which are then compared with comparatively sparse observations).   So we rely on simplifications, in particular when the earthquake first occurs. The biggest simplification you can reasonably do is to collapse all of the slip that occurs across a fault plane down to a single point, and to represent the entire earthquake as a single moment tensor (essentially a description of how the two sides of the fault move relative to one another). Whilst this description is not very useful for predicting things like the damage on the surface, it is important for rapidly working out where the Earthquake occurred, and how big it is. As for why, that's difficult to explain without an introductory understanding of seismology, but essentially, the initial waves from an earthquake radiate out energy in a certain predictable pattern, and by looking at the signals that different seismometers around the world receive, you can reconstruct the location and magnitude of the earthquake (approximately). This approximation is valid when the seismic wavelength is larger than the fault dimensions, and when the seismic period is larger than the rupture duration. So for the largest earthquakes it can become problematic, but for most earthquakes it's fine for preliminary measurements.  For a more detailed introduction to this topic I'd advise reading through this document, although only if you've got some understanding of vector calculus.", "human_ref_B": "Earthquakes create various waves(i.e. P-waves, S-waves etc) that move away from the focal point(where the earthquake occurs beneath the earth's surface) in a spherical manner(some linear)... similiar akin when you throwing a pebble in a pond the vibrations(or waves) move away from the point of impact. With distance the strength of a wave declines which is why usually when depicted on a map the circle of the earthquake has different shading of magnitude circles.  Also, it is important to note where the earthquake Is happening at depth. Japan sits on a subduction zone where the more dense oceanic plate is subducting underneath another plate, Because of the angled boundary the deeper the earthquake occurs the farther inland the epicenter Will be (The point at earth's surface above) conversely the more shallow the closer to the ocean and land boundary at the surface, it will be  Important note, there are different systems that act differently, but in the case of Japan that in a nut shell is why  I hope I answered your question, I was a bit unclear what you were asking for", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 77305.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4avbsp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Besides Humans, are there any other organisms that cook or use/make recipes?", "c_root_id_A": "d13yinn", "c_root_id_B": "d13ydlp", "created_at_utc_A": 1458260732, "created_at_utc_B": 1458260495, "score_A": 77, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Cooking is out as we're the only animals to have mastered fire.  That being said, there is a captive Bonobo chimp called Kanzi who has been taught how to set fires and cook over the fire (marshmallows). Admittedly he does need to have matches provided. So it's not out of the realm of possibility that some higher apes could cook if they had access to the all tools needed. But that isn't an option in the wild.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EMbWDRzqNhc  So this leaves us with only the option combining foods so they taste nice.   At least one troupe of Japanese Macques has learnt to season their food. Over a couple of generations they first learnt to wash sweet potatoes clean in running freshwater, later they switched to washing them in the sea seemingly as they prefer the taste of them with the salt. The macques will re-dip the food in the seawater as they are eating again suggesting they are using it for seasoning. They'll also wash rice and cassava in salt water. Alongside this they also peel potatoes and discard the skins before eating. So they are certainly some way to deliberately preparing food to making it more palatable.  http://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Macaca_fuscata.html  In general, processing foods to make them palatable is seen across most monkey and ape species, and plenty of other animals. What is apparently quite rare is combining foods together in to something you might consider a recipe.  http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02735286  Red colobus monkeys in Zanzibar add charcoal to the mango and almond leaves they like to eat. The leaves would be toxic but the addition of charcoal neutralises the toxins.  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1997/09/970901072246.htm", "human_ref_B": "except for this one tribe of Japanese macaques.  As researchers lured these wild monkeys out with food to study and observe them, they no longer had to hunt as much, freeing up a significant amount of time. With time comes experimenting, and with their newfound food source, some monkeys began experimenting with their food. One female started washing and dipping her potatoes in salty water rather than simply brushing them, apparently found the taste much improved and, soon enough, her mother and then most of the tribe started dipping their potatoes in the ocean to add salt and flavor to them.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 237.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "78x881", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Are there any other elements besides carbon capable of forming the bonds needed for complex life? If not, then if we ever came across intelligent life could we safely assume it'll be carbon based and have undergone evolutionary pressures similar to what our ancestors would have faced and be biologically understandable?", "c_root_id_A": "doxkm6s", "c_root_id_B": "doydyrb", "created_at_utc_A": 1509047435, "created_at_utc_B": 1509084387, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Freshman biochemistry student here. From what I've learned, we need carbon and hydrogen to make organic compounds. I have not heard about anything else being able to create them except of the silicon theory already mentioned in this thread.", "human_ref_B": "No, long chain silicon molecules spontaneously decompose, silicon hydrogen bonds are decomposed by water, silicon has a really difficult time forming double bonds   You will find this page interesting probably https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 36952.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uhxd5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has Earth always been in the Sun\u2019s habitable zone? If not, when did it start to occupy the Goldilocks zone?", "c_root_id_A": "i79ij57", "c_root_id_B": "i79criz", "created_at_utc_A": 1651647499, "created_at_utc_B": 1651643181, "score_A": 590, "score_B": 53, "human_ref_A": "Earth\u2019s orbit has not changed since its creation, though that is basically by definition as something is not a planet until it has cleared out everything from its orbit. That said, you may be interested in the faint young sun paradox. The sun was  dim early in earth\u2019s history, and so liquid water shouldn\u2019t have been possible as early as we find evidence for it. So in a way the earth wasn\u2019t always in the Goldilocks, but not due to orbits but solar output.", "human_ref_B": "Pretty sure its always been there. Life started some 3.7 billion years ago, and Earth is 4.5 billion years old. For the first 800 million years, Earth was likely in the habitable zone but just too hot from asteroid and comet bombardment for life to form. Then it took awhile for the oceans and other life essentials to form.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4318.0, "score_ratio": 11.1320754717, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uhxd5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has Earth always been in the Sun\u2019s habitable zone? If not, when did it start to occupy the Goldilocks zone?", "c_root_id_A": "i79ij57", "c_root_id_B": "i79hzw8", "created_at_utc_A": 1651647499, "created_at_utc_B": 1651647072, "score_A": 590, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Earth\u2019s orbit has not changed since its creation, though that is basically by definition as something is not a planet until it has cleared out everything from its orbit. That said, you may be interested in the faint young sun paradox. The sun was  dim early in earth\u2019s history, and so liquid water shouldn\u2019t have been possible as early as we find evidence for it. So in a way the earth wasn\u2019t always in the Goldilocks, but not due to orbits but solar output.", "human_ref_B": "The sun has been around about 500 million years longer than the earth. So effectively, yes. By the time the earth came about, the sun was already pretty stable in its output.  With that said, it won't always be like that. When the sun turns into a red giant the earth will definitely not be in the goldilocks zone anymore.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 427.0, "score_ratio": 98.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uhxd5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has Earth always been in the Sun\u2019s habitable zone? If not, when did it start to occupy the Goldilocks zone?", "c_root_id_A": "i79hzw8", "c_root_id_B": "i79la8z", "created_at_utc_A": 1651647072, "created_at_utc_B": 1651649780, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "The sun has been around about 500 million years longer than the earth. So effectively, yes. By the time the earth came about, the sun was already pretty stable in its output.  With that said, it won't always be like that. When the sun turns into a red giant the earth will definitely not be in the goldilocks zone anymore.", "human_ref_B": "The sun is slightly brighter and hotter than it was 4 billion years ago.  But then, there was more CO2 and little oxygen in the atmosphere.  We've likely had a \"snowball Earth\" in our past, where the vast majority of the surface was ice - far more than the ice ages of the last million years.  But even that is considered generally in the habitable zone, as the ocean wasn't completely frozen over and anaerobic. There's some give.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2708.0, "score_ratio": 7.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uhxd5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has Earth always been in the Sun\u2019s habitable zone? If not, when did it start to occupy the Goldilocks zone?", "c_root_id_A": "i7aefht", "c_root_id_B": "i79r0fd", "created_at_utc_A": 1651670278, "created_at_utc_B": 1651654788, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "To be honest, the entire idea of a \u201cGoldilocks zone\u201d is a logical fallacy. We do not have enough information to really make a call on if it is a thing or not.  We do not have proof of life in other solar systems that have conditions that would match the Goldilocks zone. We do not have any proof of life that is outside of a Goldilocks zone. We do not currently have any proof of life outside of the Earth, so we have a sample size of 1, which is not enough to draw firm conclusions.  Since we evolved in these conditions, to us, these conditions seem perfect. Because we were literally made for them. Every step in our evolution was made because it was comparable with life in our environment. If a creature had a mutation that made them unfit to live in our environment, then that creature died because no other environment was available for them to live in. And every culture which is capable of running this analysis would likely have the same conclusion, regardless of their local environmental conditions.   Unfortunately, until we have a much, much larger sample size of independently evolved life form clusters, we won\u2019t know if there are chemical and physics reasons why life similar to ours is more common, or even if life outside of these constraints is feasible. (I would also be willing to concede defeat if we explore a substantial portion of the universe and find no other life forms. We probably need to start testing that as a null hypothesis.)", "human_ref_B": "Follow up question.  Aren't Venus and Mars theorized to have once supported life?  Wouldn't that mean that they were in the habitable zone once?  Does that mean that the Habitable Zone used to be larger if Earth was always inside it?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15490.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uhxd5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has Earth always been in the Sun\u2019s habitable zone? If not, when did it start to occupy the Goldilocks zone?", "c_root_id_A": "i79hzw8", "c_root_id_B": "i7aefht", "created_at_utc_A": 1651647072, "created_at_utc_B": 1651670278, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "The sun has been around about 500 million years longer than the earth. So effectively, yes. By the time the earth came about, the sun was already pretty stable in its output.  With that said, it won't always be like that. When the sun turns into a red giant the earth will definitely not be in the goldilocks zone anymore.", "human_ref_B": "To be honest, the entire idea of a \u201cGoldilocks zone\u201d is a logical fallacy. We do not have enough information to really make a call on if it is a thing or not.  We do not have proof of life in other solar systems that have conditions that would match the Goldilocks zone. We do not have any proof of life that is outside of a Goldilocks zone. We do not currently have any proof of life outside of the Earth, so we have a sample size of 1, which is not enough to draw firm conclusions.  Since we evolved in these conditions, to us, these conditions seem perfect. Because we were literally made for them. Every step in our evolution was made because it was comparable with life in our environment. If a creature had a mutation that made them unfit to live in our environment, then that creature died because no other environment was available for them to live in. And every culture which is capable of running this analysis would likely have the same conclusion, regardless of their local environmental conditions.   Unfortunately, until we have a much, much larger sample size of independently evolved life form clusters, we won\u2019t know if there are chemical and physics reasons why life similar to ours is more common, or even if life outside of these constraints is feasible. (I would also be willing to concede defeat if we explore a substantial portion of the universe and find no other life forms. We probably need to start testing that as a null hypothesis.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23206.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uhxd5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has Earth always been in the Sun\u2019s habitable zone? If not, when did it start to occupy the Goldilocks zone?", "c_root_id_A": "i7aefht", "c_root_id_B": "i7a6eiv", "created_at_utc_A": 1651670278, "created_at_utc_B": 1651666170, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "To be honest, the entire idea of a \u201cGoldilocks zone\u201d is a logical fallacy. We do not have enough information to really make a call on if it is a thing or not.  We do not have proof of life in other solar systems that have conditions that would match the Goldilocks zone. We do not have any proof of life that is outside of a Goldilocks zone. We do not currently have any proof of life outside of the Earth, so we have a sample size of 1, which is not enough to draw firm conclusions.  Since we evolved in these conditions, to us, these conditions seem perfect. Because we were literally made for them. Every step in our evolution was made because it was comparable with life in our environment. If a creature had a mutation that made them unfit to live in our environment, then that creature died because no other environment was available for them to live in. And every culture which is capable of running this analysis would likely have the same conclusion, regardless of their local environmental conditions.   Unfortunately, until we have a much, much larger sample size of independently evolved life form clusters, we won\u2019t know if there are chemical and physics reasons why life similar to ours is more common, or even if life outside of these constraints is feasible. (I would also be willing to concede defeat if we explore a substantial portion of the universe and find no other life forms. We probably need to start testing that as a null hypothesis.)", "human_ref_B": "The suns habitable zone moves while it ages, the suns getting hotter and the edges of the habitable zone are moving outward.  Over time Mars will move more into the habitable zone, while Venus has already been pushed out.  Then of course eventually the sun will become a red giant and all the inner planets will be consumed, leaving Jupiter and is moons in the habitable zone", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4108.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jd83ue", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why is it that the Hubble telescope can capture images of other galaxies, but allegedly can\u2019t see the flags on the moon? My source is an article from 2019 that says, \u201cEven the powerful Hubble Space Telescope isn't strong enough to capture pictures of the flags on the moon.\u201d  https://www.google.com/amp/s/amp.azcentral.com/amp/1361261001  What is it that causes it to not be able to capture these images?", "c_root_id_A": "g99vra1", "c_root_id_B": "g99vqai", "created_at_utc_A": 1603065361, "created_at_utc_B": 1603065344, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "To add to this, while Hubble was never meant to photograph things like that, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter was. The following is from a Wikipedia article on the lunar flags.   \"Since the nylon flag was purchased from a government catalog, it was not designed to handle the harsh conditions of space. Some experts theorize that the colors of some flags may have turned white due to sunlight and space radiation, or that the fabric might have disintegrated entirely.[18]\u00a0A review of photographs taken by the\u00a0Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter\u00a0(LRO) indicates that flags placed during the Apollo 12, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17 missions were still standing as of 2012.[12]\u00a0Due to the resolution of the LRO cameras, shadows from the fabric of the flag can be seen but the pole cannot, showing that the flags did not disintegrate entirely.[19] A photo review of the Apollo 11 site shows that Aldrin's observation that the flag fell over was likely correct, as no flag was seen in the images.[20]\u00a0As of 2012, experts were unable to determine if the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 flags were still standing.[21]\"", "human_ref_B": "Other galaxies are millions of miles across, even though they're a great distance. Flags on the moon are what, 3x5 feet? The flags simply don't cover enough angular distance to be visible.  Other thought is that the article is simply wrong and the Hubble is never pointed at the moon because it reflects too much light and could damage the Hubble's sensitive instruments. I look at the moon with an 8\" telescope. Viewing it without a light filter is like jamming a finger in your eye.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qi8tt7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How do vaccine manufactures plan to test new COVID vaccines such as ones designed for the Delta variant now that a large portion of the population is vaccinated and those that aren't are hesitant to take approved vaccines?", "c_root_id_A": "hiigovk", "c_root_id_B": "hijkahu", "created_at_utc_A": 1635515537, "created_at_utc_B": 1635531269, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 34, "human_ref_A": "They\u2019ll just test it as a booster for people who have been vaccinated. That is how any covid vaccine developed from now on is mostly going to be used anyways. If a new vaccine is being developed for a market where people are mostly vaccinated, then they need to test the new vaccine for that market.", "human_ref_B": "Clinical researcher here. They\u2019ll administer it to some number of vaxxed and non vaxxed folks and others will receive placebo as a control group. Or they\u2019ll follow a sample of nonvaxxers as the control and forego the placebo group. There are still enough of both groups to run the study. $$$ is a powerful motivator.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15732.0, "score_ratio": 1.7894736842, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qi8tt7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How do vaccine manufactures plan to test new COVID vaccines such as ones designed for the Delta variant now that a large portion of the population is vaccinated and those that aren't are hesitant to take approved vaccines?", "c_root_id_A": "hij8sqn", "c_root_id_B": "hijkahu", "created_at_utc_A": 1635526835, "created_at_utc_B": 1635531269, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 34, "human_ref_A": "It should also be noted that while first time vaccinations have slowed down due to vaccine hesitancy the number is not 0. this article from the mayo clinic shows around .1% of the population is getting their first dose each day. that is hundreds of thousands of people.   https://www.mayoclinic.org/coronavirus-covid-19/vaccine-tracker", "human_ref_B": "Clinical researcher here. They\u2019ll administer it to some number of vaxxed and non vaxxed folks and others will receive placebo as a control group. Or they\u2019ll follow a sample of nonvaxxers as the control and forego the placebo group. There are still enough of both groups to run the study. $$$ is a powerful motivator.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4434.0, "score_ratio": 11.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpd956", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Vaccine Efficacy After Manufacturer Recommended Booster Period?  My FIL brought up a good point as we were discussing the vaccine I received. Our provincial government has mandated that we push back booster shots well beyond the recommended period, in this case, it's four months from twenty-one days for Pfizer. He said that the manufacturer has set twenty-one days for a reason, so how effective is the booster after four months. His position is that it's pointless to even get it if the booster shot is worthless after even twenty-two days.", "c_root_id_A": "gu91kin", "c_root_id_B": "gu9a4yn", "created_at_utc_A": 1618233366, "created_at_utc_B": 1618237685, "score_A": 103, "score_B": 313, "human_ref_A": "There's a difference between being \"worthless\" and gradually becoming less effective over time. Some places have decided more people and less (but still very high) potency is better than less people vaccinated at an extra high potency.   The 3 week date isn't necessarily set because it starts to lose potency at that point, but more due to a limitation of studies since they haven't been around that long. As we get more information over a longer period of time they'll determine if the current recommendation is necessary or if a longer wait is still acceptable.   With the Pfizer vaccine they're trying to decide if a second dose is even necessary in some cases, as people that have already had covid produced 6x more antibodies after the first dose than someone that hasn't had covid", "human_ref_B": "You gotta realize that the \"manufacturer recommended\" period is literally the **only** one they tested to get the vaccine approved. There is no evidence its the optimal one, in fact its very unlikely to be as the optimal period is much longer for practically all vaccines.  Why did they pick 21 days? They had to start somewhere, they were in a hurry to get the vaccine approved and 21 days was about the shortest period that was worth trying.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4319.0, "score_ratio": 3.0388349515, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpd956", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Vaccine Efficacy After Manufacturer Recommended Booster Period?  My FIL brought up a good point as we were discussing the vaccine I received. Our provincial government has mandated that we push back booster shots well beyond the recommended period, in this case, it's four months from twenty-one days for Pfizer. He said that the manufacturer has set twenty-one days for a reason, so how effective is the booster after four months. His position is that it's pointless to even get it if the booster shot is worthless after even twenty-two days.", "c_root_id_A": "gu9hdrn", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dhrt", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241007, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239247, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There is a video floating around that brings up the point of \"what is vaccine efficacy\" - and it turns out that question is pretty important to answering your question.    We boil the studies that were done down to a single numerical percent, i.e. the two-dose vaccine on a 21-day schedule is 95% effective at stopping a corona virus infection.  This often gets compared to the Johnson and Johnson one-dose vaccine, which has something like a 66% efficacy rate.   That sounds a lot worse than the two-dose, although *much* better than \"pointless\" as your uncle would suggest.  But the bar here is \"tests positive for coronavirus.\"  Corona virus can have an affect anywhere from \"asymptomatic carrier\" to \"death\" and this number doesn't tell us anything about how bad the cases are.  So what happens to those efficacy rates if look at the broader range of symptoms.  What about how many people die?  Or are hospitalized?  Is the one-dose vaccine better, or worse, than it's 66% efficacy rate at preventing these serious cases?  Well, in those initial studies, all the vaccines - two dose and one dose alike - were *100% effective* at stopping hospitalizations.  Zero people in the test groups had severe, life-threatening cases of covid 19.  Now, the study groups weren't huge; and actual effectiveness is likely to be a bit less than 100%.  But that should give you an idea of how effective the single dose of vaccine, without the booster, will be:  it should be almost certain to prevent you from being killed or hospitalized by corona.  You might still be at risk of getting a mild case.  That sounds a lot better than \"pointless\" to me.  You're talking about getting one shot of the two-dose vaccine, and we don't have big studies on that yet.  But I've heard initial evidence is that its efficacy is similar to the one-dose J&J vaccine, so you can probably expect similar results.", "human_ref_B": "The vaccine without the booster is currently (to my best knowledge) 85% effective after 2 weeks. The booster shot, if you take it immediately after raises it to 95% effective. You can't possibly go down from getting the booster shot from the 85% (obv peoples obdies are different but this is an average so whatever). From my perspective then, there is no reason to not get the booster shot as it cant possibly hurt you in any way, the only loss would be some of your time, and thats worth losing imo. As for the original point, its not like after 21 days the shot just stops working, its going to be a gradual loss of effectiveness over a pretty long time, the vaccine needs to be effective otherwise it wouldnt have been cleared for use.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1760.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpd956", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Vaccine Efficacy After Manufacturer Recommended Booster Period?  My FIL brought up a good point as we were discussing the vaccine I received. Our provincial government has mandated that we push back booster shots well beyond the recommended period, in this case, it's four months from twenty-one days for Pfizer. He said that the manufacturer has set twenty-one days for a reason, so how effective is the booster after four months. His position is that it's pointless to even get it if the booster shot is worthless after even twenty-two days.", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dhrt", "c_root_id_B": "gubgyc3", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239247, "created_at_utc_B": 1618274218, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The vaccine without the booster is currently (to my best knowledge) 85% effective after 2 weeks. The booster shot, if you take it immediately after raises it to 95% effective. You can't possibly go down from getting the booster shot from the 85% (obv peoples obdies are different but this is an average so whatever). From my perspective then, there is no reason to not get the booster shot as it cant possibly hurt you in any way, the only loss would be some of your time, and thats worth losing imo. As for the original point, its not like after 21 days the shot just stops working, its going to be a gradual loss of effectiveness over a pretty long time, the vaccine needs to be effective otherwise it wouldnt have been cleared for use.", "human_ref_B": "It's very likely the vaccine second does would be effective if administered quite a long time after the minimum period.  With other vaccines, boosters are often administered months or even years apart and they work fine.  The 21 days is the time they actually tested because they had to pick some time period to test, getting vaccine testing complete quickly was important, and there's a minimum spacing at which vaccines and boosters have to be administered or the response to the original vaccine won't be finished by the time the booster comes along.  Their preliminary testing indicated 21 days was long enough, so they went with that and it worked.   The 21 days is more of a minimum...try to cut it shorter than that and the booster won't work as well, but going longer is less likely to be a problem.    There's no data on this for Pfizer, but one study with Oxford-Astrozenica showed an _increased_ level of immunity for those who waited 3 months vs 6 weeks.    https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2021/02/delaying-2nd-astrazeneca-covid-shot-may-boost-efficacy   However, Pfizer is so good to start with there's not exactly a lot of room for improvement.   The main downside of delaying a shot isn't that the second shot won't work just as well, the main downside is that you have a longer wait before getting the benefit of the second shot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34971.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpd956", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Vaccine Efficacy After Manufacturer Recommended Booster Period?  My FIL brought up a good point as we were discussing the vaccine I received. Our provincial government has mandated that we push back booster shots well beyond the recommended period, in this case, it's four months from twenty-one days for Pfizer. He said that the manufacturer has set twenty-one days for a reason, so how effective is the booster after four months. His position is that it's pointless to even get it if the booster shot is worthless after even twenty-two days.", "c_root_id_A": "gu9hkyh", "c_root_id_B": "gubgyc3", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241096, "created_at_utc_B": 1618274218, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "While there isn't data to guide delaying a booster or not, the premise that the vaccine on its own is 'worthless' ignores the fact that you get some protection even after the first dose. Also, that protection level is probably different for 'mild to moderate' vs 'severe'.   The booster probably works by stimulating a response from memory B cells. I thought that maybe vaccines given to people who had already had Covid might be a point of comparison for delayed boosters (since it's pretty likely they had it more than 21 days prior to the vaccine). This preprint (https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.03.03.21252872v1) shows a difference in memory B cell response between people who had Covid prior to vaccination and those who didn't. So, maybe delaying will still work? But it's hard to know how well - we can guess that memory B cells are actually indicating protection, but we don't really know. Also, we probably won't have data on how *well* it works for quite a time.", "human_ref_B": "It's very likely the vaccine second does would be effective if administered quite a long time after the minimum period.  With other vaccines, boosters are often administered months or even years apart and they work fine.  The 21 days is the time they actually tested because they had to pick some time period to test, getting vaccine testing complete quickly was important, and there's a minimum spacing at which vaccines and boosters have to be administered or the response to the original vaccine won't be finished by the time the booster comes along.  Their preliminary testing indicated 21 days was long enough, so they went with that and it worked.   The 21 days is more of a minimum...try to cut it shorter than that and the booster won't work as well, but going longer is less likely to be a problem.    There's no data on this for Pfizer, but one study with Oxford-Astrozenica showed an _increased_ level of immunity for those who waited 3 months vs 6 weeks.    https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2021/02/delaying-2nd-astrazeneca-covid-shot-may-boost-efficacy   However, Pfizer is so good to start with there's not exactly a lot of room for improvement.   The main downside of delaying a shot isn't that the second shot won't work just as well, the main downside is that you have a longer wait before getting the benefit of the second shot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33122.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15aemu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "If fevers help our bodies fight infection, why do doctors recommend we take fever-reducing medicine?", "c_root_id_A": "c7kx836", "c_root_id_B": "c7kq8xf", "created_at_utc_A": 1356243305, "created_at_utc_B": 1356212051, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Fevers, if over a short duration and not excessively high have a beneficial function. Firstly, the T cells of your immune system are more active between 38-40 C. Secondly, the higher temperature decreases iron content in your blood, bacteria need iron to survive and decreasing the blood's iron content makes them less likely to survive. Thirdly, many bacteria/viruses have a more difficult time surviving at a higher temperature because like human cells most of their enzymes function optimally at ~36.6 C. These 3 factors combined allow you to fight off infection more readily and is why temporary low-grade fevers are beneficial. If the fever escalates out of control or is persistently high you begin to have damage to your own cells.  These persistent or exceedingly high fevers can cause seizures among other things.  When you are told to take fever-reducing medicines it is to avoid those potentially fatal outcomes.", "human_ref_B": "Fevers help against infection by making the body too hot for the bacteria to survive. Basically, once you get to a certain temperature, proteins that make bacteria able to live denature and become useless.   The problem is that our bodies also use the same proteins, and so fevers harm you as well as the infection. So, if a fever gets too hot it can threaten your health, and fever reducing medicine is given.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31254.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15aemu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "If fevers help our bodies fight infection, why do doctors recommend we take fever-reducing medicine?", "c_root_id_A": "c7kp7n5", "c_root_id_B": "c7kx836", "created_at_utc_A": 1356207458, "created_at_utc_B": 1356243305, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I've never heard a fever helps your body. Anyone have a link to an article on this?", "human_ref_B": "Fevers, if over a short duration and not excessively high have a beneficial function. Firstly, the T cells of your immune system are more active between 38-40 C. Secondly, the higher temperature decreases iron content in your blood, bacteria need iron to survive and decreasing the blood's iron content makes them less likely to survive. Thirdly, many bacteria/viruses have a more difficult time surviving at a higher temperature because like human cells most of their enzymes function optimally at ~36.6 C. These 3 factors combined allow you to fight off infection more readily and is why temporary low-grade fevers are beneficial. If the fever escalates out of control or is persistently high you begin to have damage to your own cells.  These persistent or exceedingly high fevers can cause seizures among other things.  When you are told to take fever-reducing medicines it is to avoid those potentially fatal outcomes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 35847.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15aemu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "If fevers help our bodies fight infection, why do doctors recommend we take fever-reducing medicine?", "c_root_id_A": "c7kq8xf", "c_root_id_B": "c7kp7n5", "created_at_utc_A": 1356212051, "created_at_utc_B": 1356207458, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Fevers help against infection by making the body too hot for the bacteria to survive. Basically, once you get to a certain temperature, proteins that make bacteria able to live denature and become useless.   The problem is that our bodies also use the same proteins, and so fevers harm you as well as the infection. So, if a fever gets too hot it can threaten your health, and fever reducing medicine is given.", "human_ref_B": "I've never heard a fever helps your body. Anyone have a link to an article on this?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4593.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vfyn78", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Does fighting a viral infection use up minerals and vitamins like zinc and vitamin D, leading to low levels of them? If so how severely?", "c_root_id_A": "id0cqce", "c_root_id_B": "id0qw5a", "created_at_utc_A": 1655688096, "created_at_utc_B": 1655696108, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Having proper nutrition leads to a better immune system - if you don't have a vitamin deficiency, taking extra vitamins will do exactly nothing special, specially if you're already fighting the infection when you take them.  Lack of vitamins can cause some problems, and might make recovery from illnesses harder and take a longer time. But that's if you're lacking any of several types of vitamins and minerals, not only C and Zinc. You don't need more of them than other nutrients.  TL;DR: you need to have your vitamins and minerals before you get sick, and taking supplements when you don't need them do nothing.", "human_ref_B": "There are some good answers here already, but another thing to think about is the impact of inflammation and how this can lead to sequestration of certain nutrients. Essentially, when there are high enough levels of inflammation in the body (which could be from an infection or injury), the liver modifies how much of certain carrier proteins are produced. Some of these are the binding proteins that either store or transport certain nutrients in the blood. This is done deliberately and helps fight viruses by depriving them of nutrients that they might need to replicate. Levels may be \"low\" on a blood test, but those low levels are interpreted alongside markers of inflammation which would change the need for treatment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8012.0, "score_ratio": 1.0588235294, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nwl00r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Do Geothermal power plants need to be built in geologically active areas, or can you build them anywhere if you dig deep enough?", "c_root_id_A": "h1arhbn", "c_root_id_B": "h1az9pg", "created_at_utc_A": 1623343410, "created_at_utc_B": 1623346585, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 50, "human_ref_A": "Geothermal wells wont last forever because hot water and metal well casing only need to fail at one of thousands of feet of position to wreck the well, and the metal could corrode, be damaged by mineral deposits, or become parted by tectonic movement. Costs will increase exponentially with depth also. Finally, water heated at depth will cool as it rises to with the metal well casing acting as a heat sink so the deeper you have to go the more heat you would lose coming back up.", "human_ref_B": "Great explanation about the geothermal gradient by u/CrustalTrudger. In conventional geothermal systems, you also need fluid and/or steam to spin a turbine. Porosity/permeability and fluid play a huge role as well as just heat.  Tons of geothermal exploration wells have been drilled into hot dry rock, but the absence of any fluid flow usually proves the well a failure.  The most productive fields today are extremely hot (600\u00b0F), and have either a porous reservoir or extensive interconnected fracture network, and fluid.  Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), which attempts to use hydraulic fracturing to stimulate a reservoir, has yet to be successfully implemented on an economically viable scale. It's a promising idea though. Hypothetically if you had a good geothermal gradient, you could create your own system and boom, megawatts.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3175.0, "score_ratio": 3.8461538462, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nwl00r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Do Geothermal power plants need to be built in geologically active areas, or can you build them anywhere if you dig deep enough?", "c_root_id_A": "h1b02cr", "c_root_id_B": "h1arhbn", "created_at_utc_A": 1623346913, "created_at_utc_B": 1623343410, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Essentially yes, geothermal can be constructed anywhere. It isn't necessary to build geothermal in tectonic or volcanic areas since you can build geothermal power that uses a thermal exchanger to vaporize a low boiling point fluid and spin a turbine e.g. 75C works iirc. That means the temperature of the water below doesn't need to be very hot. It's also an earthquake/ eruption hazard  to drill and especially fracture or enhance your well by pumping water back underground at volcanic or fault line sites making them often a point of political deadlocking.  When picking sites groundwater flow should be considered. Since for bigger diameters bore holes and for deeper wells (increased pressure) you get more flow to exit the well, you can therefore adjust the output power level by drilling wider or deeper. But if you build a well that depletes the thermal groundwater resource then a new lower subterranean hydraulic equilibrium could take hold and reduce your power extraction permanently. A good target location takes into consideration watershed not just temperature gradient so that output will be sustainable.  Also, a great number of acids and chemicals come up from deep groundwater. One of these is valuable, methane, aka natural gas. The way natural gas is extracted is from high pressure ground water and that is similar to boring a geothermal well. Also importantly natural gas occurs at a depth where the earth's temperature warms the extracted water enough to extract heat using a thermal exchange fluid. The opportunity to combine natural gas extraction projects with geothermal energy extraction was noted in MIT's study of geothermal development. This means good geothermal opportunities can also target natural gas sites. (find the MIT report at this link MIT-FutureofGeothermalEnergy)  In Iceland, they are experimenting with drilling a super deep hole towards magma where water is >400C in a state called supercritical. This technology is experimental and stands to evolve geothermal technology but to my knowledge it is not operational let alone widespread. If it became very effective then supercritical geothermal would target specifically volcanic sites to get close to magma while only drilling 10-15km deep (continental crust \\~30-65km).", "human_ref_B": "Geothermal wells wont last forever because hot water and metal well casing only need to fail at one of thousands of feet of position to wreck the well, and the metal could corrode, be damaged by mineral deposits, or become parted by tectonic movement. Costs will increase exponentially with depth also. Finally, water heated at depth will cool as it rises to with the metal well casing acting as a heat sink so the deeper you have to go the more heat you would lose coming back up.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3503.0, "score_ratio": 2.3846153846, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii1ndwt", "c_root_id_B": "ii1r8zm", "created_at_utc_A": 1659044208, "created_at_utc_B": 1659045768, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 154, "human_ref_A": "Muscle memory can mean different things, depending on who you ask.  If you ask a non-scientist, they\u2019ll say, is when your brain has learnt a motor task so well that you can perform the task without conscious effort.  Now, if you ask a scientist, a neuroscientist or someone that studies muscles, they\u2019ll tell you that muscle memory is the cellular memory of individual muscle cells. The term refers to the changes in muscles cells caused by exercise. It is as if the muscles remember the effects of exercise, even if you no longer regularly exercise.  https://www.scienceabc.com/humans/what-is-muscle-memory-new.html", "human_ref_B": "\"muscle memory\" is what neuroscientists call \"procedural memory\" and resides in the brain.  It's a part of our unconscious memory (aka non declarative memory): the more often you do an action (eg. Tie your shoelaces, play an instrument, play video games...) The more you stimulate the same neurones in your brain. With enough time and repetition it becomes automated, immediate and unconscious, as to use less cognitive energy.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1560.0, "score_ratio": 10.2666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii1vu7n", "c_root_id_B": "ii1ndwt", "created_at_utc_A": 1659047693, "created_at_utc_B": 1659044208, "score_A": 40, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "I have encountered 2 definitions of muscle memory.  One involves remembering how to do certain motions so that they become automatic almost like the subconscious is able to do them.  I have also heard it refer to people who used to be muscular who retain muscle mass even though they don't spend much time weightlifting.  Arnold Schwarzenegger might be an example of this.  I'm pretty sure that his current workouts are anemic compared to what he used to do, but he still retains a fair amount of muscle mass.", "human_ref_B": "Muscle memory can mean different things, depending on who you ask.  If you ask a non-scientist, they\u2019ll say, is when your brain has learnt a motor task so well that you can perform the task without conscious effort.  Now, if you ask a scientist, a neuroscientist or someone that studies muscles, they\u2019ll tell you that muscle memory is the cellular memory of individual muscle cells. The term refers to the changes in muscles cells caused by exercise. It is as if the muscles remember the effects of exercise, even if you no longer regularly exercise.  https://www.scienceabc.com/humans/what-is-muscle-memory-new.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3485.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii2d4u3", "c_root_id_B": "ii2t9rh", "created_at_utc_A": 1659055482, "created_at_utc_B": 1659062925, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Muscle memory is a misnomer, or perhaps more accurately a \u201clayman\u2019s term\u201d. The scientific term is \u201cprocedural memory\u201d or \u201cimplicit memory\u201d. The meaning should be more clear from that alone but there\u2019s plenty written on the topic", "human_ref_B": "None of these other answers are painting the full picture here.    There are a lot of names for this that all have different nuance - \"muscle memory\" when talking about being better at a given repetitive task, \"mind muscle connection\" when talking about being able to consciously target a specific muscle effectively in the gym, and so on.    What all of these terms are, is CNS (central nervous system) adaptation.    CNS adaptation is how you get better at physical tasks, both for fine and gross motor skills as well as strength.    There are **two** main factors in this:    - **Motor unit recruitment**    - **Rate coding**     #Motor Unit Recruitment    So, muscle tissue is *innervated*, which is to say you have filaments of nerves pervading through the tissue.   Bundles of muscle fibers are controlled by specific regions/sections of the nerves running through them, called **motor units.**    Like many things, in order for your brain to most efficiently fire *all* of these motor units, you need to *practice.* You need to keep doing that specific activity, or keep lifting that weight, or whatever so that your brain starts to learn to fire, or *recruit,* all of the motor units available to it for that movement.    Consider a leg extension (the thing where you sit and lift the bar across your ankles connected to a weight stack). You have hundreds of thousands of motor units in your quadriceps, the target muscle of this exercise, but in your daily life outside the gym you don't need to activate hardly any of them. If, for example, you work a fairly sedentary job and the most strength-intensive activity you normally do with your legs is walk or climb the stairs at your house, you might only be using 10% (for example) of your quads' potential active strength. In regular use, yohr brain doesn't *need* to activate the rest of those fibers, so those motor units in control of them don't get recruited and your brain doesn't really know how. To hit them you need to give them a direct stimulus, like that leg extension, and as you start adding weight and repeating rep after rep day after day, those synapses form and your brain gets better at firing them.    This applies to anything. Typing, catching a frisbee, etc., both with fine motor skills and with strength activities. Further, this is also where the majority of your strength comes from as you improve in the gym - not tissue accrual.     #Rate Coding    This isn't as directly adaptable so I won't go into it much, but rate coding is essentially the refresh rate with which you can fire those motor units. This can be improved with practice somewhat and is also influenced by nutrition (electrolytes and fats, mostly). For true optimization, like for a high level bodybuilder (which is where my background on this stuff is from), this becomes a concern, but for getting better at video games or whatever it's not nearly as relevant as improving your ability to fire the ~80,000 motor units that control your thumb in the first place.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7443.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii25rme", "c_root_id_B": "ii2t9rh", "created_at_utc_A": 1659052069, "created_at_utc_B": 1659062925, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Look up satellite cells and muscle memory. Basically you make them as you workout and the muscles never lose them even if you quit. When you go back to lifting the satellite cells are still there which helps to build the muscle back quicker than it took originally", "human_ref_B": "None of these other answers are painting the full picture here.    There are a lot of names for this that all have different nuance - \"muscle memory\" when talking about being better at a given repetitive task, \"mind muscle connection\" when talking about being able to consciously target a specific muscle effectively in the gym, and so on.    What all of these terms are, is CNS (central nervous system) adaptation.    CNS adaptation is how you get better at physical tasks, both for fine and gross motor skills as well as strength.    There are **two** main factors in this:    - **Motor unit recruitment**    - **Rate coding**     #Motor Unit Recruitment    So, muscle tissue is *innervated*, which is to say you have filaments of nerves pervading through the tissue.   Bundles of muscle fibers are controlled by specific regions/sections of the nerves running through them, called **motor units.**    Like many things, in order for your brain to most efficiently fire *all* of these motor units, you need to *practice.* You need to keep doing that specific activity, or keep lifting that weight, or whatever so that your brain starts to learn to fire, or *recruit,* all of the motor units available to it for that movement.    Consider a leg extension (the thing where you sit and lift the bar across your ankles connected to a weight stack). You have hundreds of thousands of motor units in your quadriceps, the target muscle of this exercise, but in your daily life outside the gym you don't need to activate hardly any of them. If, for example, you work a fairly sedentary job and the most strength-intensive activity you normally do with your legs is walk or climb the stairs at your house, you might only be using 10% (for example) of your quads' potential active strength. In regular use, yohr brain doesn't *need* to activate the rest of those fibers, so those motor units in control of them don't get recruited and your brain doesn't really know how. To hit them you need to give them a direct stimulus, like that leg extension, and as you start adding weight and repeating rep after rep day after day, those synapses form and your brain gets better at firing them.    This applies to anything. Typing, catching a frisbee, etc., both with fine motor skills and with strength activities. Further, this is also where the majority of your strength comes from as you improve in the gym - not tissue accrual.     #Rate Coding    This isn't as directly adaptable so I won't go into it much, but rate coding is essentially the refresh rate with which you can fire those motor units. This can be improved with practice somewhat and is also influenced by nutrition (electrolytes and fats, mostly). For true optimization, like for a high level bodybuilder (which is where my background on this stuff is from), this becomes a concern, but for getting better at video games or whatever it's not nearly as relevant as improving your ability to fire the ~80,000 motor units that control your thumb in the first place.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10856.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii25rme", "c_root_id_B": "ii3hok7", "created_at_utc_A": 1659052069, "created_at_utc_B": 1659077033, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Look up satellite cells and muscle memory. Basically you make them as you workout and the muscles never lose them even if you quit. When you go back to lifting the satellite cells are still there which helps to build the muscle back quicker than it took originally", "human_ref_B": "there are 2 kinds of muscle memory  1 - the one you are born with, usually in a result to pain. for example if you touch a hot stove, the nerve signal will not go all the way to your brain, but it will go to the core, and then straight to the muscle to flick your arm away. (it is like that to save time, and make you less likely to suffer damage from the heat)    One of them is also in the knee, the one doctors test with the small hammer.  2 - the one you learn. your brain forms connection so when you want to use a specific motion you've learned before (for example riding a bike) your brain will already have pre-set instructions to send to the muscles, without you having to conciously think about every move", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24964.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii2xk5u", "c_root_id_B": "ii3hok7", "created_at_utc_A": 1659065037, "created_at_utc_B": 1659077033, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "It just means the process is automated in your brain. Like throwing a fast pitch. You no longer have the think about the wind up, the release point, the order in which you engage different muscles, etc. In simple terms, you imagine the end result you want and it\u2019ll happen.", "human_ref_B": "there are 2 kinds of muscle memory  1 - the one you are born with, usually in a result to pain. for example if you touch a hot stove, the nerve signal will not go all the way to your brain, but it will go to the core, and then straight to the muscle to flick your arm away. (it is like that to save time, and make you less likely to suffer damage from the heat)    One of them is also in the knee, the one doctors test with the small hammer.  2 - the one you learn. your brain forms connection so when you want to use a specific motion you've learned before (for example riding a bike) your brain will already have pre-set instructions to send to the muscles, without you having to conciously think about every move", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11996.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii3hok7", "c_root_id_B": "ii34jjd", "created_at_utc_A": 1659077033, "created_at_utc_B": 1659068743, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "there are 2 kinds of muscle memory  1 - the one you are born with, usually in a result to pain. for example if you touch a hot stove, the nerve signal will not go all the way to your brain, but it will go to the core, and then straight to the muscle to flick your arm away. (it is like that to save time, and make you less likely to suffer damage from the heat)    One of them is also in the knee, the one doctors test with the small hammer.  2 - the one you learn. your brain forms connection so when you want to use a specific motion you've learned before (for example riding a bike) your brain will already have pre-set instructions to send to the muscles, without you having to conciously think about every move", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is no muscles don't have anything to do with it and yes this is a subconscious process. This is a great question that opens an extremely interesting can of worms about decision making systems.  The long answer is that muscle memory is a non-technical term that falls under procedural memory. Preeminent researchers in the field of decision making systems are quick to mention that muscle memory is a misnomer and doesn't exist in the way the general public understands it, i.e. it is entirely neuronal in nature and it isn't restricted to movement alone.  Okay to understand 'muscle memory' and how it compares to other ways we take action we need to take a step back and think about how the brain makes decisions.  The brain has four decision making systems:  1. Reflexes 2. Instinctual (sometimes called pavlovian action selection) 3. Deliberation 4. Procedural  In neuroscience a decision can be thought of as the brain selecting an action based off of sensory information and  memory. For example if you unexpectedly get poked in the arm by a needle a signal will be sent to your spinal cord which processes that information and sends back a signal that jerks your arm away. This is the reflexual decision making system in action, the brain recieves information then selects an action. The decision is not necessarily a conscious one.   In fact the only system that allows us to make a conscious decision is the deliberative system. This is the system used when you're actively picking between options. Your prefrontal cortex picks the potential options, the future outcome of each option is then imagined in your hippocampus, and those outcomes are then evaluated in your nucleus accumbens core picking the 'best' option.  A procedural decision can be thought of as a decision that releases a chain of actions and is entirely memory dependent. Examples include things like hitting a baseball, or typing on a keyboard without looking. Your brain is taking in information and if that information lines up with a memory associated with taking a specific learned action your brain initiates that action. However, these actions (like hitting a baseball) involve many smaller actions (such as bending your knees, twisting your hips, adjusting the angle of your swing to account for the balls flight path, etc.). These actions are actually chained together so when the neurons that tell you to swing fire they also activate the neurons associated with the next step in the action chain, i.e. bend your knees etc. The concept of 'flow', where one is in a heightened state of focus and executing tasks quickly, occurs when you are in this action chain during a procedural decision, I think that's kinda wack to think about.  Often times there is conflict between the procedural decision making system and the deliberative. When you're performing a task \"from muscle memory\" you can screw it up by thinking about it too much, something I think everyone can relate with. Maybe your playing golf and feeling anxious. You're about to swing and your thinking about your technique, 'twist the club, adjust my feet, am I aiming in the right spot?' you swing and have a terrible shot, you say 'damn I was thinking about it too much'. Yes, actually you were. You're deliberation impeded your ability to fall into your procedural action chain. What this shows us is that things like small rituals before actions can actually really aid you in getting the perfect shot each time. For a golfer that may be stepping up to there shot the same way every time. Eventual you learn that the steps are a part of the action chain and can execute the shot perfectly each time, you just need to step up to your shot. I find this one of the most interesting aspects of neuroscience,  we can leverage our knowledge of how we learn and make decisions to TO MAKE US LEARN AND DECIDE BETTER. Dope.  I can go more depth on any of these topics if anyone's interested. I left out an explanation of instinctual so I'd be happy to explain that too.  Also, If you'd like more information or find these topics interesting I recommend the books Changing How We Choose: The New Science of Morality by David Redish as well as The Mind Within The Brain also by David Redish. He's one of the top minds in the field.  Also look at the works of Ann Greybiel at MIT for current research on the procedural system.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8290.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii2d4u3", "c_root_id_B": "ii25rme", "created_at_utc_A": 1659055482, "created_at_utc_B": 1659052069, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Muscle memory is a misnomer, or perhaps more accurately a \u201clayman\u2019s term\u201d. The scientific term is \u201cprocedural memory\u201d or \u201cimplicit memory\u201d. The meaning should be more clear from that alone but there\u2019s plenty written on the topic", "human_ref_B": "Look up satellite cells and muscle memory. Basically you make them as you workout and the muscles never lose them even if you quit. When you go back to lifting the satellite cells are still there which helps to build the muscle back quicker than it took originally", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3413.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wad6lz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How is \u201cmuscle memory\u201d understood scientifically? Do muscles have anything to do with it? Or is it some function of the subconscious?", "c_root_id_A": "ii34jjd", "c_root_id_B": "ii2xk5u", "created_at_utc_A": 1659068743, "created_at_utc_B": 1659065037, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is no muscles don't have anything to do with it and yes this is a subconscious process. This is a great question that opens an extremely interesting can of worms about decision making systems.  The long answer is that muscle memory is a non-technical term that falls under procedural memory. Preeminent researchers in the field of decision making systems are quick to mention that muscle memory is a misnomer and doesn't exist in the way the general public understands it, i.e. it is entirely neuronal in nature and it isn't restricted to movement alone.  Okay to understand 'muscle memory' and how it compares to other ways we take action we need to take a step back and think about how the brain makes decisions.  The brain has four decision making systems:  1. Reflexes 2. Instinctual (sometimes called pavlovian action selection) 3. Deliberation 4. Procedural  In neuroscience a decision can be thought of as the brain selecting an action based off of sensory information and  memory. For example if you unexpectedly get poked in the arm by a needle a signal will be sent to your spinal cord which processes that information and sends back a signal that jerks your arm away. This is the reflexual decision making system in action, the brain recieves information then selects an action. The decision is not necessarily a conscious one.   In fact the only system that allows us to make a conscious decision is the deliberative system. This is the system used when you're actively picking between options. Your prefrontal cortex picks the potential options, the future outcome of each option is then imagined in your hippocampus, and those outcomes are then evaluated in your nucleus accumbens core picking the 'best' option.  A procedural decision can be thought of as a decision that releases a chain of actions and is entirely memory dependent. Examples include things like hitting a baseball, or typing on a keyboard without looking. Your brain is taking in information and if that information lines up with a memory associated with taking a specific learned action your brain initiates that action. However, these actions (like hitting a baseball) involve many smaller actions (such as bending your knees, twisting your hips, adjusting the angle of your swing to account for the balls flight path, etc.). These actions are actually chained together so when the neurons that tell you to swing fire they also activate the neurons associated with the next step in the action chain, i.e. bend your knees etc. The concept of 'flow', where one is in a heightened state of focus and executing tasks quickly, occurs when you are in this action chain during a procedural decision, I think that's kinda wack to think about.  Often times there is conflict between the procedural decision making system and the deliberative. When you're performing a task \"from muscle memory\" you can screw it up by thinking about it too much, something I think everyone can relate with. Maybe your playing golf and feeling anxious. You're about to swing and your thinking about your technique, 'twist the club, adjust my feet, am I aiming in the right spot?' you swing and have a terrible shot, you say 'damn I was thinking about it too much'. Yes, actually you were. You're deliberation impeded your ability to fall into your procedural action chain. What this shows us is that things like small rituals before actions can actually really aid you in getting the perfect shot each time. For a golfer that may be stepping up to there shot the same way every time. Eventual you learn that the steps are a part of the action chain and can execute the shot perfectly each time, you just need to step up to your shot. I find this one of the most interesting aspects of neuroscience,  we can leverage our knowledge of how we learn and make decisions to TO MAKE US LEARN AND DECIDE BETTER. Dope.  I can go more depth on any of these topics if anyone's interested. I left out an explanation of instinctual so I'd be happy to explain that too.  Also, If you'd like more information or find these topics interesting I recommend the books Changing How We Choose: The New Science of Morality by David Redish as well as The Mind Within The Brain also by David Redish. He's one of the top minds in the field.  Also look at the works of Ann Greybiel at MIT for current research on the procedural system.", "human_ref_B": "It just means the process is automated in your brain. Like throwing a fast pitch. You no longer have the think about the wind up, the release point, the order in which you engage different muscles, etc. In simple terms, you imagine the end result you want and it\u2019ll happen.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3706.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itslzc6", "c_root_id_B": "itrw6uj", "created_at_utc_A": 1666743457, "created_at_utc_B": 1666732162, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Fluid intelligence is a term created in the 1950s in the field of psychometry which is a controversial branch of psychology focused an attaching quantifiable measurements to psychological characteristics. It\u2019s controversial because it\u2019s based entirely on correlation and there is no way to demonstrate that the characteristics are actually caused by the thing being measured.  Fluid intelligence is one half of a theory of intelligence put forward in the 60s which posited that general intelligence can be reduced into two subcategories: fluid intelligence which is the ability to solve novel problems and crystalized intelligence which is the capacity to store and execute known solutions to a problem.  Creativity is not a part of that model.", "human_ref_B": "I think you are making some great points and open up for an interesting discussion.  The way i see it is like this. Feel free to critisize or develope my ideas, id be happy to discuss this subject.  Fluid intelligence refers to the potential capacity for manipulation of information using cognitive working memory tools within the psyche (The psyche being the abstract realm in which we percive ourselves to live from). The psyches working memory is highly connected with functions such as perception, consciousness and long term memory, all playing a role in fluid intelligence potential.   Creativity is the ability to infer realistic abstractions upon a perception. It is the capacity for realising relationships and arrangments that fulfill a real purpose to whatever context in which it (creativity) is being used.  To me it appears that one (fluid intelligence) refers to the real cognitive functionality and one (creativity) refers to the reach of cognitive working memory processes.  In creative people fluid intelligence will be of great use, since it allows for greater association and linking between abstract concepts. However in non creative people, fluid intelligence still performs its function of processing information in sofisticated representations allowing for a deeper understanding of whatever they are trying to comprehend.  An argument which can be made is that a high fluid intelligence perhaps can perform the function of creativity to a limited extent. Since it allows for greater representability of perceptions making it easier to discover relationships. The difference then being that relationships are discoverd, rather than inferd.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11295.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itqo1s6", "c_root_id_B": "itslzc6", "created_at_utc_A": 1666715270, "created_at_utc_B": 1666743457, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Fluid intelligence is kind of an iffy concept in psychology. There are definitions, but the measuring methods are still under dispute. It's hard to discern fluid intelligence from everything else, especially what we call aptitudes. Basically, take it with a grain of salt, we're still working on it.", "human_ref_B": "Fluid intelligence is a term created in the 1950s in the field of psychometry which is a controversial branch of psychology focused an attaching quantifiable measurements to psychological characteristics. It\u2019s controversial because it\u2019s based entirely on correlation and there is no way to demonstrate that the characteristics are actually caused by the thing being measured.  Fluid intelligence is one half of a theory of intelligence put forward in the 60s which posited that general intelligence can be reduced into two subcategories: fluid intelligence which is the ability to solve novel problems and crystalized intelligence which is the capacity to store and execute known solutions to a problem.  Creativity is not a part of that model.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28187.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itrg54z", "c_root_id_B": "itslzc6", "created_at_utc_A": 1666726072, "created_at_utc_B": 1666743457, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "The only physical difference is the neurological pathways that develop over the course of development, but both intelligence and creativity arise from our relatively high functioning prefrontal cortex.  The real difference is the creative's pathways are not derived or favored by the survival functionality of abstract thought.   General intelligence provides a measurable survival enhancement and artistic creativity is the result of not needing to use all available resources to survive.", "human_ref_B": "Fluid intelligence is a term created in the 1950s in the field of psychometry which is a controversial branch of psychology focused an attaching quantifiable measurements to psychological characteristics. It\u2019s controversial because it\u2019s based entirely on correlation and there is no way to demonstrate that the characteristics are actually caused by the thing being measured.  Fluid intelligence is one half of a theory of intelligence put forward in the 60s which posited that general intelligence can be reduced into two subcategories: fluid intelligence which is the ability to solve novel problems and crystalized intelligence which is the capacity to store and execute known solutions to a problem.  Creativity is not a part of that model.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17385.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itslzc6", "c_root_id_B": "itqynfu", "created_at_utc_A": 1666743457, "created_at_utc_B": 1666719372, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Fluid intelligence is a term created in the 1950s in the field of psychometry which is a controversial branch of psychology focused an attaching quantifiable measurements to psychological characteristics. It\u2019s controversial because it\u2019s based entirely on correlation and there is no way to demonstrate that the characteristics are actually caused by the thing being measured.  Fluid intelligence is one half of a theory of intelligence put forward in the 60s which posited that general intelligence can be reduced into two subcategories: fluid intelligence which is the ability to solve novel problems and crystalized intelligence which is the capacity to store and execute known solutions to a problem.  Creativity is not a part of that model.", "human_ref_B": "(High) Fluid intelligence is measured by how much complexity can be dealt with in terms of patterns, sequences of elements, and depth to said elements and patterns (learn faster, learn more, learn what others can't).  Creativity is something else. It's related to consciousness, and altering it. When that happens, differing thought patterns emerge. Mental dispositions (disorders) are probably the strongest cases for this as well as drugs such as alcohol or psychedelics (discoverer of DNA strand). The risk is insanity at the extremes.   For just lower grades of creativity, personality features matter. Divergent thinking comes to mind as well.   In the brain they are also opposites, high intelligence means efficient networks. Highly creative persons have more of the opposite.   Getting them both is rare. Most smart people are just intelligent.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24085.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itqo1s6", "c_root_id_B": "itrw6uj", "created_at_utc_A": 1666715270, "created_at_utc_B": 1666732162, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Fluid intelligence is kind of an iffy concept in psychology. There are definitions, but the measuring methods are still under dispute. It's hard to discern fluid intelligence from everything else, especially what we call aptitudes. Basically, take it with a grain of salt, we're still working on it.", "human_ref_B": "I think you are making some great points and open up for an interesting discussion.  The way i see it is like this. Feel free to critisize or develope my ideas, id be happy to discuss this subject.  Fluid intelligence refers to the potential capacity for manipulation of information using cognitive working memory tools within the psyche (The psyche being the abstract realm in which we percive ourselves to live from). The psyches working memory is highly connected with functions such as perception, consciousness and long term memory, all playing a role in fluid intelligence potential.   Creativity is the ability to infer realistic abstractions upon a perception. It is the capacity for realising relationships and arrangments that fulfill a real purpose to whatever context in which it (creativity) is being used.  To me it appears that one (fluid intelligence) refers to the real cognitive functionality and one (creativity) refers to the reach of cognitive working memory processes.  In creative people fluid intelligence will be of great use, since it allows for greater association and linking between abstract concepts. However in non creative people, fluid intelligence still performs its function of processing information in sofisticated representations allowing for a deeper understanding of whatever they are trying to comprehend.  An argument which can be made is that a high fluid intelligence perhaps can perform the function of creativity to a limited extent. Since it allows for greater representability of perceptions making it easier to discover relationships. The difference then being that relationships are discoverd, rather than inferd.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16892.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itrg54z", "c_root_id_B": "itrw6uj", "created_at_utc_A": 1666726072, "created_at_utc_B": 1666732162, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The only physical difference is the neurological pathways that develop over the course of development, but both intelligence and creativity arise from our relatively high functioning prefrontal cortex.  The real difference is the creative's pathways are not derived or favored by the survival functionality of abstract thought.   General intelligence provides a measurable survival enhancement and artistic creativity is the result of not needing to use all available resources to survive.", "human_ref_B": "I think you are making some great points and open up for an interesting discussion.  The way i see it is like this. Feel free to critisize or develope my ideas, id be happy to discuss this subject.  Fluid intelligence refers to the potential capacity for manipulation of information using cognitive working memory tools within the psyche (The psyche being the abstract realm in which we percive ourselves to live from). The psyches working memory is highly connected with functions such as perception, consciousness and long term memory, all playing a role in fluid intelligence potential.   Creativity is the ability to infer realistic abstractions upon a perception. It is the capacity for realising relationships and arrangments that fulfill a real purpose to whatever context in which it (creativity) is being used.  To me it appears that one (fluid intelligence) refers to the real cognitive functionality and one (creativity) refers to the reach of cognitive working memory processes.  In creative people fluid intelligence will be of great use, since it allows for greater association and linking between abstract concepts. However in non creative people, fluid intelligence still performs its function of processing information in sofisticated representations allowing for a deeper understanding of whatever they are trying to comprehend.  An argument which can be made is that a high fluid intelligence perhaps can perform the function of creativity to a limited extent. Since it allows for greater representability of perceptions making it easier to discover relationships. The difference then being that relationships are discoverd, rather than inferd.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6090.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itqynfu", "c_root_id_B": "itrw6uj", "created_at_utc_A": 1666719372, "created_at_utc_B": 1666732162, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "(High) Fluid intelligence is measured by how much complexity can be dealt with in terms of patterns, sequences of elements, and depth to said elements and patterns (learn faster, learn more, learn what others can't).  Creativity is something else. It's related to consciousness, and altering it. When that happens, differing thought patterns emerge. Mental dispositions (disorders) are probably the strongest cases for this as well as drugs such as alcohol or psychedelics (discoverer of DNA strand). The risk is insanity at the extremes.   For just lower grades of creativity, personality features matter. Divergent thinking comes to mind as well.   In the brain they are also opposites, high intelligence means efficient networks. Highly creative persons have more of the opposite.   Getting them both is rare. Most smart people are just intelligent.", "human_ref_B": "I think you are making some great points and open up for an interesting discussion.  The way i see it is like this. Feel free to critisize or develope my ideas, id be happy to discuss this subject.  Fluid intelligence refers to the potential capacity for manipulation of information using cognitive working memory tools within the psyche (The psyche being the abstract realm in which we percive ourselves to live from). The psyches working memory is highly connected with functions such as perception, consciousness and long term memory, all playing a role in fluid intelligence potential.   Creativity is the ability to infer realistic abstractions upon a perception. It is the capacity for realising relationships and arrangments that fulfill a real purpose to whatever context in which it (creativity) is being used.  To me it appears that one (fluid intelligence) refers to the real cognitive functionality and one (creativity) refers to the reach of cognitive working memory processes.  In creative people fluid intelligence will be of great use, since it allows for greater association and linking between abstract concepts. However in non creative people, fluid intelligence still performs its function of processing information in sofisticated representations allowing for a deeper understanding of whatever they are trying to comprehend.  An argument which can be made is that a high fluid intelligence perhaps can perform the function of creativity to a limited extent. Since it allows for greater representability of perceptions making it easier to discover relationships. The difference then being that relationships are discoverd, rather than inferd.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12790.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itqo1s6", "c_root_id_B": "itrg54z", "created_at_utc_A": 1666715270, "created_at_utc_B": 1666726072, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Fluid intelligence is kind of an iffy concept in psychology. There are definitions, but the measuring methods are still under dispute. It's hard to discern fluid intelligence from everything else, especially what we call aptitudes. Basically, take it with a grain of salt, we're still working on it.", "human_ref_B": "The only physical difference is the neurological pathways that develop over the course of development, but both intelligence and creativity arise from our relatively high functioning prefrontal cortex.  The real difference is the creative's pathways are not derived or favored by the survival functionality of abstract thought.   General intelligence provides a measurable survival enhancement and artistic creativity is the result of not needing to use all available resources to survive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10802.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yd636j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what is the Difference between fluid intelligence and creativity?   I have read that creativity is the ability to perceive something in a novel manner and thus create something new out of it while intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and utilise it accordingly. This means you can be intelligent without being creative but how can this be since high fluid intelligence is related to solving novel problems independent of previously acquired knowledge isn't this just creativity?", "c_root_id_A": "itqynfu", "c_root_id_B": "itrg54z", "created_at_utc_A": 1666719372, "created_at_utc_B": 1666726072, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "(High) Fluid intelligence is measured by how much complexity can be dealt with in terms of patterns, sequences of elements, and depth to said elements and patterns (learn faster, learn more, learn what others can't).  Creativity is something else. It's related to consciousness, and altering it. When that happens, differing thought patterns emerge. Mental dispositions (disorders) are probably the strongest cases for this as well as drugs such as alcohol or psychedelics (discoverer of DNA strand). The risk is insanity at the extremes.   For just lower grades of creativity, personality features matter. Divergent thinking comes to mind as well.   In the brain they are also opposites, high intelligence means efficient networks. Highly creative persons have more of the opposite.   Getting them both is rare. Most smart people are just intelligent.", "human_ref_B": "The only physical difference is the neurological pathways that develop over the course of development, but both intelligence and creativity arise from our relatively high functioning prefrontal cortex.  The real difference is the creative's pathways are not derived or favored by the survival functionality of abstract thought.   General intelligence provides a measurable survival enhancement and artistic creativity is the result of not needing to use all available resources to survive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6700.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u882ok", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is the CoVID19 mRNA vaccine species specific? What would happen in other species? I've been wondering if the mRNA based CoVID19 vaccines (from Pfizer and Moderna) are specific only to humans but I can't really find anything about it.  Is the mRNA vaccine specific to only the human species? What would happen if a different species, like a dog or cat, received the vaccine?", "c_root_id_A": "i5jn5lp", "c_root_id_B": "i5jkum9", "created_at_utc_A": 1650495737, "created_at_utc_B": 1650494731, "score_A": 82, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The answer, like those to most scientific questions, is yes and no (in this case *mostly* yes).  For the vast majority of mammals, these vaccines would be expected to work similarly to how they work in humans. Before vaccines are tested in humans (including Covid vaccines) they are tested in various animal models such as mice or non-human primates.. So broadly speaking, these vaccines are not species specific.  However, typical lab mice don't have the same kind of ACE2 receptor that SARS CoV2 recognizes, so unless you genetically modify the mouse to have a humanized ACE2 it doesn't even get infected in the first place. So whether you consider the vaccine to \"work\" in such a case is a matter of debate.  And there may be some mammalian species that have unknown differences in their immune response or reaction to vaccine components that we haven't discovered yet.  Lastly, if you broaden the question beyond mammals, there are species out there that would have different genetic codes (or are single cell organisms!) that would not be expected to respond to the vaccine like mammals.", "human_ref_B": "I suspect that the mRNA vaccines would have similar effects in other mammals as their immune system resembles ours. However, there might be slight differences that could make a  difference in how the immune system and translation machinery responds to the lipids and/or the mRNA itself.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1006.0, "score_ratio": 20.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u882ok", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is the CoVID19 mRNA vaccine species specific? What would happen in other species? I've been wondering if the mRNA based CoVID19 vaccines (from Pfizer and Moderna) are specific only to humans but I can't really find anything about it.  Is the mRNA vaccine specific to only the human species? What would happen if a different species, like a dog or cat, received the vaccine?", "c_root_id_A": "i5jn5lp", "c_root_id_B": "i5jl63t", "created_at_utc_A": 1650495737, "created_at_utc_B": 1650494868, "score_A": 82, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The answer, like those to most scientific questions, is yes and no (in this case *mostly* yes).  For the vast majority of mammals, these vaccines would be expected to work similarly to how they work in humans. Before vaccines are tested in humans (including Covid vaccines) they are tested in various animal models such as mice or non-human primates.. So broadly speaking, these vaccines are not species specific.  However, typical lab mice don't have the same kind of ACE2 receptor that SARS CoV2 recognizes, so unless you genetically modify the mouse to have a humanized ACE2 it doesn't even get infected in the first place. So whether you consider the vaccine to \"work\" in such a case is a matter of debate.  And there may be some mammalian species that have unknown differences in their immune response or reaction to vaccine components that we haven't discovered yet.  Lastly, if you broaden the question beyond mammals, there are species out there that would have different genetic codes (or are single cell organisms!) that would not be expected to respond to the vaccine like mammals.", "human_ref_B": "Not specific to humans. The mRNA codes for a protein on the virus, so other animals immune systems would detect it. However, not all animals get infected.   https://www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/role-animal-research-mrna-covid-19-vaccine-development", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 869.0, "score_ratio": 41.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u882ok", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is the CoVID19 mRNA vaccine species specific? What would happen in other species? I've been wondering if the mRNA based CoVID19 vaccines (from Pfizer and Moderna) are specific only to humans but I can't really find anything about it.  Is the mRNA vaccine specific to only the human species? What would happen if a different species, like a dog or cat, received the vaccine?", "c_root_id_A": "i5jkum9", "c_root_id_B": "i5k9n7s", "created_at_utc_A": 1650494731, "created_at_utc_B": 1650505575, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I suspect that the mRNA vaccines would have similar effects in other mammals as their immune system resembles ours. However, there might be slight differences that could make a  difference in how the immune system and translation machinery responds to the lipids and/or the mRNA itself.", "human_ref_B": "The structure of mRNA is conserved in all eukaryotes.      A mRNA will generally have a methyl-guanosine cap at the 5' end and a poly-adenine tail at the 3' end. So in theory mRNA that enters a host cell should be translated by the ribosomes regardless of eukaryotic species. What kind of immune response the species has will vary.      You can successfully transfect a protozoan with Covid spike protein mRNA from the vaccine and it will likely manufacture spike protein, but a single cell organism like a protozoa doesn't have an immune system. If we're talking about species closer to humans like mammals, then yes it should cause an immune response if you can deliver the mRNA into cells.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10844.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u882ok", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is the CoVID19 mRNA vaccine species specific? What would happen in other species? I've been wondering if the mRNA based CoVID19 vaccines (from Pfizer and Moderna) are specific only to humans but I can't really find anything about it.  Is the mRNA vaccine specific to only the human species? What would happen if a different species, like a dog or cat, received the vaccine?", "c_root_id_A": "i5jnjzv", "c_root_id_B": "i5k9n7s", "created_at_utc_A": 1650495914, "created_at_utc_B": 1650505575, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The key factor would be how that species responds to the lipid nanoparticle delivery system. Keep in mind the mRNA vaccines don\u2019t contain spike protein, they contain LNPs with mRNA in them that must first enter cells intact and then be translated. Once foreign protein is made there will be an immune response. In most cases i would suspect it would work and an immune response would be elicited, even if its protection is not needed.", "human_ref_B": "The structure of mRNA is conserved in all eukaryotes.      A mRNA will generally have a methyl-guanosine cap at the 5' end and a poly-adenine tail at the 3' end. So in theory mRNA that enters a host cell should be translated by the ribosomes regardless of eukaryotic species. What kind of immune response the species has will vary.      You can successfully transfect a protozoan with Covid spike protein mRNA from the vaccine and it will likely manufacture spike protein, but a single cell organism like a protozoa doesn't have an immune system. If we're talking about species closer to humans like mammals, then yes it should cause an immune response if you can deliver the mRNA into cells.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9661.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u882ok", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is the CoVID19 mRNA vaccine species specific? What would happen in other species? I've been wondering if the mRNA based CoVID19 vaccines (from Pfizer and Moderna) are specific only to humans but I can't really find anything about it.  Is the mRNA vaccine specific to only the human species? What would happen if a different species, like a dog or cat, received the vaccine?", "c_root_id_A": "i5k9n7s", "c_root_id_B": "i5k91h1", "created_at_utc_A": 1650505575, "created_at_utc_B": 1650505318, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The structure of mRNA is conserved in all eukaryotes.      A mRNA will generally have a methyl-guanosine cap at the 5' end and a poly-adenine tail at the 3' end. So in theory mRNA that enters a host cell should be translated by the ribosomes regardless of eukaryotic species. What kind of immune response the species has will vary.      You can successfully transfect a protozoan with Covid spike protein mRNA from the vaccine and it will likely manufacture spike protein, but a single cell organism like a protozoa doesn't have an immune system. If we're talking about species closer to humans like mammals, then yes it should cause an immune response if you can deliver the mRNA into cells.", "human_ref_B": "Ooh this is a fun question! **TL;DR: Probably!**  The mRNA vaccines contain two big components:  * The mRNA segment itself * A lipid shell  The mRNA segment contains the instructions to build the spike protein found in the original Covid strain first detected in Wuhan in late 2019. Our cells use this instruction to build the protein, which our immune system recognizes as foreign and builds defenses against. When the real virus comes along, (1) the spike protein is disabled by antibodies, preventing the Covid virus from entering human cells at all, and/or (2) infected human cells are quickly recognized and ordered to self-destruct.  The lipid shell (a helpful but not terribly accurate comparison would be \"coating of butter\" - it's not actually butter but it shares properties with butter) protects the fragile mRNA segment. It's also quite tasty looking to our cells, which happily gobble it up, absorbing the mRNA fragment into themselves in the process. This was one of the big innovations that makes mRNA vaccines possible!  The mechanisms for (1) building proteins from mRNA, (2) accepting lipids into cells, (3) recognizing the spike protein as foreign, and (4) building an immune response to it are *not in any way unique to humans*.  The idea of immune responses being shared between animals isn't uncommon either, and if I had to put money on it I would bet fairly strongly that the mRNA vaccines could be applied to other animals. Modern antivenom, for example, consists of plasma extracted from horses that contains horse antibodies against snake venom, but still works well in humans.  The target of the mRNA vaccines is very clever too, it's the part of the virus that allows it to enter human cells, and that same component *also* allows it to enter the cells of vulnerable animals. Again, if I were a gambling man, I'd put money on antibody resistance in animals being as effective as it is in humans.  **That all said! There's some nuance.** For one, the dose we picked was optimized for humans - in phase 1 trials, researchers tried multiple doses and picked the one that seemed to work the best. It's possible a horse is best suited for a different dose, and same with a cat.  We might need to make some minor adjustments - perhaps pick a different lipid shell. Going back to my earlier analogy, human cells are fine with \"butter\" but cat cells might want \"fish oil\" instead.  It's also possible that other animals have different responses and activate different systems - in humans, we've found that antibody counts lower pretty quickly. Maybe in cats they don't. Maybe in sloths the antibodies stay for life. We couldn't predict this very well for *humans* (educated guesses in early 2020 were hoping for antibody counts to stay high for decades like it seems to with SARS), so I'd imagine we'd run into all sorts of surprises trying to do this for animals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 257.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u882ok", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is the CoVID19 mRNA vaccine species specific? What would happen in other species? I've been wondering if the mRNA based CoVID19 vaccines (from Pfizer and Moderna) are specific only to humans but I can't really find anything about it.  Is the mRNA vaccine specific to only the human species? What would happen if a different species, like a dog or cat, received the vaccine?", "c_root_id_A": "i5jl63t", "c_root_id_B": "i5k9n7s", "created_at_utc_A": 1650494868, "created_at_utc_B": 1650505575, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Not specific to humans. The mRNA codes for a protein on the virus, so other animals immune systems would detect it. However, not all animals get infected.   https://www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/role-animal-research-mrna-covid-19-vaccine-development", "human_ref_B": "The structure of mRNA is conserved in all eukaryotes.      A mRNA will generally have a methyl-guanosine cap at the 5' end and a poly-adenine tail at the 3' end. So in theory mRNA that enters a host cell should be translated by the ribosomes regardless of eukaryotic species. What kind of immune response the species has will vary.      You can successfully transfect a protozoan with Covid spike protein mRNA from the vaccine and it will likely manufacture spike protein, but a single cell organism like a protozoa doesn't have an immune system. If we're talking about species closer to humans like mammals, then yes it should cause an immune response if you can deliver the mRNA into cells.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10707.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u882ok", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is the CoVID19 mRNA vaccine species specific? What would happen in other species? I've been wondering if the mRNA based CoVID19 vaccines (from Pfizer and Moderna) are specific only to humans but I can't really find anything about it.  Is the mRNA vaccine specific to only the human species? What would happen if a different species, like a dog or cat, received the vaccine?", "c_root_id_A": "i5jl63t", "c_root_id_B": "i5jnjzv", "created_at_utc_A": 1650494868, "created_at_utc_B": 1650495914, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Not specific to humans. The mRNA codes for a protein on the virus, so other animals immune systems would detect it. However, not all animals get infected.   https://www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/role-animal-research-mrna-covid-19-vaccine-development", "human_ref_B": "The key factor would be how that species responds to the lipid nanoparticle delivery system. Keep in mind the mRNA vaccines don\u2019t contain spike protein, they contain LNPs with mRNA in them that must first enter cells intact and then be translated. Once foreign protein is made there will be an immune response. In most cases i would suspect it would work and an immune response would be elicited, even if its protection is not needed.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1046.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2zsydw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why did most animals evolve to breathe oxygen instead of another element in our air? As far as I know, ALL animals breathe oxygen, but there are always outliers.  Anyways, explain why oxygen is the preferred breathing element of animals worldwide!", "c_root_id_A": "cpmbjxx", "c_root_id_B": "cpmbdyd", "created_at_utc_A": 1426971206, "created_at_utc_B": 1426970877, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "OOO something I can answer.  Simple version: It is widely abundant and reactive enough for our bodies to use for energy.  Long answer: Oxygen is about ~20% of the atmosphere. Nitrogen which is most abundant very is inert in its form. Oxygen is very reactive and perfect for reactions.  In our body we do a process called cellular respiration. We turn glucose and Oxygen gas to Carbon dioxide and water.  C6H12O6 + 9O2 -> 6CO2  + 12H2O   In reality the process is taken in many steps and not immediately which glucose gets broken down and it reduces many electron carriers in the cell. At the final stage, these carriers create an electron gradient that pumps hydrogen ions into an electrochemical gradient which in turn a spins a complex that produces ATP from ADP. ATP is an energy source that is usable by cells and turns back to ADP when it is used. These complexes are very good at accepting electrons and you need a strong chemical at the end to release the electrons. Thus Oxygen is used as an electron accepter and is paired with water which is then released.  Before Oxygen metabolism was widespread, various microbes used Hydrogen Sulfide as a place of oxygen in their metabolism.   Tl; dr It is an abundant and strong enough for our cellular reactions.", "human_ref_B": "I think when those two hydrogen atom came in contact at certain atmosphere and conditions which created a living cell, the cell adapted itself to survive with oxygen(available element at that phase) and later evolved further in different sub classes\r. So it's like oxygen was the adaptation for a purpose, of evolution...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 329.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2zsydw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why did most animals evolve to breathe oxygen instead of another element in our air? As far as I know, ALL animals breathe oxygen, but there are always outliers.  Anyways, explain why oxygen is the preferred breathing element of animals worldwide!", "c_root_id_A": "cpmbjxx", "c_root_id_B": "cpm4h19", "created_at_utc_A": 1426971206, "created_at_utc_B": 1426957223, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "OOO something I can answer.  Simple version: It is widely abundant and reactive enough for our bodies to use for energy.  Long answer: Oxygen is about ~20% of the atmosphere. Nitrogen which is most abundant very is inert in its form. Oxygen is very reactive and perfect for reactions.  In our body we do a process called cellular respiration. We turn glucose and Oxygen gas to Carbon dioxide and water.  C6H12O6 + 9O2 -> 6CO2  + 12H2O   In reality the process is taken in many steps and not immediately which glucose gets broken down and it reduces many electron carriers in the cell. At the final stage, these carriers create an electron gradient that pumps hydrogen ions into an electrochemical gradient which in turn a spins a complex that produces ATP from ADP. ATP is an energy source that is usable by cells and turns back to ADP when it is used. These complexes are very good at accepting electrons and you need a strong chemical at the end to release the electrons. Thus Oxygen is used as an electron accepter and is paired with water which is then released.  Before Oxygen metabolism was widespread, various microbes used Hydrogen Sulfide as a place of oxygen in their metabolism.   Tl; dr It is an abundant and strong enough for our cellular reactions.", "human_ref_B": "Ok let's go back a few billion years.  We had single cell organisms that took in all kinds of elements and used them for energy and this was when the earth was still young and had less oxygen in the air and these cells took in all of it.  So e cells oxygen some cells carbon dioxide.  Well the earth slowly became more oxygenated and the cells that used oxygen to live thrived and the others dwindled away.  The oxygen breathing bacteria kept breeding and evolving all the way to common man (evolution) we breath oxygen because our early ancestors were the ones that took advantage of the element.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13983.0, "score_ratio": -1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2zsydw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why did most animals evolve to breathe oxygen instead of another element in our air? As far as I know, ALL animals breathe oxygen, but there are always outliers.  Anyways, explain why oxygen is the preferred breathing element of animals worldwide!", "c_root_id_A": "cpmbdyd", "c_root_id_B": "cpm4h19", "created_at_utc_A": 1426970877, "created_at_utc_B": 1426957223, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "I think when those two hydrogen atom came in contact at certain atmosphere and conditions which created a living cell, the cell adapted itself to survive with oxygen(available element at that phase) and later evolved further in different sub classes\r. So it's like oxygen was the adaptation for a purpose, of evolution...", "human_ref_B": "Ok let's go back a few billion years.  We had single cell organisms that took in all kinds of elements and used them for energy and this was when the earth was still young and had less oxygen in the air and these cells took in all of it.  So e cells oxygen some cells carbon dioxide.  Well the earth slowly became more oxygenated and the cells that used oxygen to live thrived and the others dwindled away.  The oxygen breathing bacteria kept breeding and evolving all the way to common man (evolution) we breath oxygen because our early ancestors were the ones that took advantage of the element.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13654.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "387rv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Are plants as efficient as solar panels? If I plant grass on 1km^2 and burn it in 100% efficient engine after month, would it give me more energy than 1 km^2 of solar panels in the same time?", "c_root_id_A": "crt36e2", "c_root_id_B": "crt1m9i", "created_at_utc_A": 1433260856, "created_at_utc_B": 1433258465, "score_A": 68, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I have a bone to pick with the premise of the question.  Plants undergoing photosynthesis is pretty much *both* the generation of electricity and the use of it for downstream application. This is like including the efficiency of an air conditioner when calculating the efficiency of solar panels.  If one wants to do a real apple to apple comparison, the efficiency of photon capture to excite electrons (which is the primary solar energy conversion part of photosynthesis) should have been compared to the solar panel efficiency. On this, the conversion efficiency in an ideal setting stands at ~40% with most intrinsic factors (photons in wrong spectrums, etc.) taken into account. Solar panels are known to achieve as much as 40% efficiency in lab settings depending on the type as well (not an engineer, so somebody could correct the number if not right).", "human_ref_B": "Solar Engineer here. I can't really answer your question because I don't know how much energy is being produce from that 1km^2 of grass.  For solar modules, let use a Solarworld 315 modules 38.98\"x 78.15\" =~2m^2 per panel. You will need 500 of those modules to achieve that 1km^2.  500 x solarworld 315 =157.50 KWDC. I live in Nevada so I would be using this specific production based in that location, 1697 kwh/kwp/year x 157.50kWDC (kWp) = 267,426 kWh/year divided by 12 months = ~22,285 kWh/months  With that being said,  I would say solar would produce more energy in that one month. Unless this special grass gives off crazy amount of energy.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2391.0, "score_ratio": 68.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "387rv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Are plants as efficient as solar panels? If I plant grass on 1km^2 and burn it in 100% efficient engine after month, would it give me more energy than 1 km^2 of solar panels in the same time?", "c_root_id_A": "crtg2c9", "c_root_id_B": "crt3feb", "created_at_utc_A": 1433279981, "created_at_utc_B": 1433261234, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "One thing to keep in mind is that plants have 99.9% *quantum* efficiency. Nearly every single photon of light that is absorbed is used.   However, they only have 1-10% *energy* efficiency. This means that of the *energy* that is in each photon absorbed, most of that energy is wasted as heat.   Solar panels have lower quantum efficiency but *much* higher energy efficiency.", "human_ref_B": "I'm interested in this question as well. I'm hoping some engineers and/or physicists and/or plant biologists can answer these specific follow up questions.  1. how do you measure the energy capture efficiency of a chloroplast in a plant? it doesn't produce electricity after all. how do you do a units conversion to something comparable to the output of a photovoltaic system? 2. the OP's question assumed a 100% efficient combustion engine to convert the plants into power. we don't have such a thing in reality. what is the most efficient real world mechanism for converting plants into power?  3. what is the most efficient plant-based energy production system that can be produced using current technology? not limiting ourselves only to natural plant growth (i.e. field of grasses, or grove of trees). is it possible to engineer structures for plant growth that are significantly more efficient than naturally occurring growth?  4. previous discussion has been about the issue of solar energy conversion efficiency. what about economic efficiency? how does the cost to produce, deploy, and maintain solar panels compare to the costs to produce, deploy, and maintain energy yielding plant crops? 5. very speculative question here: are plants already at the theoretical maximum possible for solar energy capture using living cells? is it possible to bio-engineer plants to be more efficient at solar energy capture?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18747.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "387rv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Are plants as efficient as solar panels? If I plant grass on 1km^2 and burn it in 100% efficient engine after month, would it give me more energy than 1 km^2 of solar panels in the same time?", "c_root_id_A": "crtg2c9", "c_root_id_B": "crt1m9i", "created_at_utc_A": 1433279981, "created_at_utc_B": 1433258465, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "One thing to keep in mind is that plants have 99.9% *quantum* efficiency. Nearly every single photon of light that is absorbed is used.   However, they only have 1-10% *energy* efficiency. This means that of the *energy* that is in each photon absorbed, most of that energy is wasted as heat.   Solar panels have lower quantum efficiency but *much* higher energy efficiency.", "human_ref_B": "Solar Engineer here. I can't really answer your question because I don't know how much energy is being produce from that 1km^2 of grass.  For solar modules, let use a Solarworld 315 modules 38.98\"x 78.15\" =~2m^2 per panel. You will need 500 of those modules to achieve that 1km^2.  500 x solarworld 315 =157.50 KWDC. I live in Nevada so I would be using this specific production based in that location, 1697 kwh/kwp/year x 157.50kWDC (kWp) = 267,426 kWh/year divided by 12 months = ~22,285 kWh/months  With that being said,  I would say solar would produce more energy in that one month. Unless this special grass gives off crazy amount of energy.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21516.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "387rv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Are plants as efficient as solar panels? If I plant grass on 1km^2 and burn it in 100% efficient engine after month, would it give me more energy than 1 km^2 of solar panels in the same time?", "c_root_id_A": "crt36na", "c_root_id_B": "crtg2c9", "created_at_utc_A": 1433260866, "created_at_utc_B": 1433279981, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "nygreenguy hit it on the head here.  Another component to consider is that solar panels convert light into electrical energy which we find much more useful than just heat from burning stuff, in general.  If you compare to a solar thermal setup (something that absorbs light to make heat, commonly just water barrels painted black) the efficiencies are even higher (ideal efficiency of ~88% compared to ~33% for single-junction photovoltaic cell) though the actual efficiency number for that one depends a lot on assumptions (how much of the absorbed heat is actually useful)", "human_ref_B": "One thing to keep in mind is that plants have 99.9% *quantum* efficiency. Nearly every single photon of light that is absorbed is used.   However, they only have 1-10% *energy* efficiency. This means that of the *energy* that is in each photon absorbed, most of that energy is wasted as heat.   Solar panels have lower quantum efficiency but *much* higher energy efficiency.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19115.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "387rv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Are plants as efficient as solar panels? If I plant grass on 1km^2 and burn it in 100% efficient engine after month, would it give me more energy than 1 km^2 of solar panels in the same time?", "c_root_id_A": "crtg2c9", "c_root_id_B": "crt4y00", "created_at_utc_A": 1433279981, "created_at_utc_B": 1433263521, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "One thing to keep in mind is that plants have 99.9% *quantum* efficiency. Nearly every single photon of light that is absorbed is used.   However, they only have 1-10% *energy* efficiency. This means that of the *energy* that is in each photon absorbed, most of that energy is wasted as heat.   Solar panels have lower quantum efficiency but *much* higher energy efficiency.", "human_ref_B": "Burning in a 100 efficient engine would produce most energy.  Obviously,  that doesn't exist though.  Solar panels are great,  but they don't produce a lot of electricity- the selling point is no emissions.  Photosynthesis is a hope to one day emulate,  but we aren't too close yet.  It's true the light spectrum is narrowest here, but it supplies enough for plants. The true marvel is the electron transport chain.  It's a very efficient conversion.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16460.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "387rv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Are plants as efficient as solar panels? If I plant grass on 1km^2 and burn it in 100% efficient engine after month, would it give me more energy than 1 km^2 of solar panels in the same time?", "c_root_id_A": "crt3feb", "c_root_id_B": "crt1m9i", "created_at_utc_A": 1433261234, "created_at_utc_B": 1433258465, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm interested in this question as well. I'm hoping some engineers and/or physicists and/or plant biologists can answer these specific follow up questions.  1. how do you measure the energy capture efficiency of a chloroplast in a plant? it doesn't produce electricity after all. how do you do a units conversion to something comparable to the output of a photovoltaic system? 2. the OP's question assumed a 100% efficient combustion engine to convert the plants into power. we don't have such a thing in reality. what is the most efficient real world mechanism for converting plants into power?  3. what is the most efficient plant-based energy production system that can be produced using current technology? not limiting ourselves only to natural plant growth (i.e. field of grasses, or grove of trees). is it possible to engineer structures for plant growth that are significantly more efficient than naturally occurring growth?  4. previous discussion has been about the issue of solar energy conversion efficiency. what about economic efficiency? how does the cost to produce, deploy, and maintain solar panels compare to the costs to produce, deploy, and maintain energy yielding plant crops? 5. very speculative question here: are plants already at the theoretical maximum possible for solar energy capture using living cells? is it possible to bio-engineer plants to be more efficient at solar energy capture?", "human_ref_B": "Solar Engineer here. I can't really answer your question because I don't know how much energy is being produce from that 1km^2 of grass.  For solar modules, let use a Solarworld 315 modules 38.98\"x 78.15\" =~2m^2 per panel. You will need 500 of those modules to achieve that 1km^2.  500 x solarworld 315 =157.50 KWDC. I live in Nevada so I would be using this specific production based in that location, 1697 kwh/kwp/year x 157.50kWDC (kWp) = 267,426 kWh/year divided by 12 months = ~22,285 kWh/months  With that being said,  I would say solar would produce more energy in that one month. Unless this special grass gives off crazy amount of energy.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2769.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "387rv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Are plants as efficient as solar panels? If I plant grass on 1km^2 and burn it in 100% efficient engine after month, would it give me more energy than 1 km^2 of solar panels in the same time?", "c_root_id_A": "crt3feb", "c_root_id_B": "crt36na", "created_at_utc_A": 1433261234, "created_at_utc_B": 1433260866, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I'm interested in this question as well. I'm hoping some engineers and/or physicists and/or plant biologists can answer these specific follow up questions.  1. how do you measure the energy capture efficiency of a chloroplast in a plant? it doesn't produce electricity after all. how do you do a units conversion to something comparable to the output of a photovoltaic system? 2. the OP's question assumed a 100% efficient combustion engine to convert the plants into power. we don't have such a thing in reality. what is the most efficient real world mechanism for converting plants into power?  3. what is the most efficient plant-based energy production system that can be produced using current technology? not limiting ourselves only to natural plant growth (i.e. field of grasses, or grove of trees). is it possible to engineer structures for plant growth that are significantly more efficient than naturally occurring growth?  4. previous discussion has been about the issue of solar energy conversion efficiency. what about economic efficiency? how does the cost to produce, deploy, and maintain solar panels compare to the costs to produce, deploy, and maintain energy yielding plant crops? 5. very speculative question here: are plants already at the theoretical maximum possible for solar energy capture using living cells? is it possible to bio-engineer plants to be more efficient at solar energy capture?", "human_ref_B": "nygreenguy hit it on the head here.  Another component to consider is that solar panels convert light into electrical energy which we find much more useful than just heat from burning stuff, in general.  If you compare to a solar thermal setup (something that absorbs light to make heat, commonly just water barrels painted black) the efficiencies are even higher (ideal efficiency of ~88% compared to ~33% for single-junction photovoltaic cell) though the actual efficiency number for that one depends a lot on assumptions (how much of the absorbed heat is actually useful)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 368.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "387rv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Are plants as efficient as solar panels? If I plant grass on 1km^2 and burn it in 100% efficient engine after month, would it give me more energy than 1 km^2 of solar panels in the same time?", "c_root_id_A": "crt36na", "c_root_id_B": "crt1m9i", "created_at_utc_A": 1433260866, "created_at_utc_B": 1433258465, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "nygreenguy hit it on the head here.  Another component to consider is that solar panels convert light into electrical energy which we find much more useful than just heat from burning stuff, in general.  If you compare to a solar thermal setup (something that absorbs light to make heat, commonly just water barrels painted black) the efficiencies are even higher (ideal efficiency of ~88% compared to ~33% for single-junction photovoltaic cell) though the actual efficiency number for that one depends a lot on assumptions (how much of the absorbed heat is actually useful)", "human_ref_B": "Solar Engineer here. I can't really answer your question because I don't know how much energy is being produce from that 1km^2 of grass.  For solar modules, let use a Solarworld 315 modules 38.98\"x 78.15\" =~2m^2 per panel. You will need 500 of those modules to achieve that 1km^2.  500 x solarworld 315 =157.50 KWDC. I live in Nevada so I would be using this specific production based in that location, 1697 kwh/kwp/year x 157.50kWDC (kWp) = 267,426 kWh/year divided by 12 months = ~22,285 kWh/months  With that being said,  I would say solar would produce more energy in that one month. Unless this special grass gives off crazy amount of energy.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2401.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24f3s7", "c_root_id_B": "c24fks3", "created_at_utc_A": 1310153053, "created_at_utc_B": 1310156841, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "If bacteria adapted to resist alcohol, they would no longer fit any definition of 'bacteria' that we use.  If bacteria change their structure enough to protect against antibiotics, they're still bacteria.  The best drugs are ones which would require the pathogen (whether bacteria, virus, or other) to evolve away from pathogenicity in order to adapt.  For instance, currently all of the various influenza vaccines are based upon interfering with the 'head' of the flu virus, which can change a great deal and not have much impact on the pathogenicity, which is primarily determined by the 'body'.  The 'body' is hard to use for recognition because influenza has a capsid (which is just what it sounds like, a capsule-like layer that provides a barrier).  If we can develop a vaccine which enables our body to launch a cytokine response based upon the 'body' of the virus, it would be a 'universal' flu vaccine, requiring the flu virus to cease being a flu virus in order to survive.  This is, in fact, being actively researched right now with some promising progress.  We might see such a thing in testing with a couple years.  In order to protect against alcohol, a bacteria would have to change in profound, fundamental ways.  In fact, they would no longer meet certain definitions of \"alive\" (though viruses don't meet these definitions either, so it shouldn't suggest that they would be guaranteed to be harmless) and would be a very novel life form.  As far as we know, all life requires water.  Dehydrate away all the water, and everything we know of will die.", "human_ref_B": "exposing bacteria to alcohol until they develop resistance is like breeding humans in a room full of constant machine gun fire in order to breed a superhero", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3788.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24emdo", "c_root_id_B": "c24fks3", "created_at_utc_A": 1310149183, "created_at_utc_B": 1310156841, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Let me ask another question alongside this. Alcohol contains a lot of energy in it's molecules. There are bacteria that can use gasoline as an energy source, why do you think that no bacteria ever developed the ability to use alcohol as a source of energy?   Clearly it could be beneficial. Say you're in a anoxic environment alongside yeast. Yeast can use fermentation, release ethanol and therefore there is ethanol in the environment. Clearly something should use this energy source.  I understand that evolution doesn't work opportunistically, where an organism sees an opening for a source of nutrition and instantly changes to fit that, but it seems that bacteria living around other prokaryotes who are producing ethanol in survivable concentrations, might over millions of years be pressured into using that as an energy source, yet it hasn't happened yet (of my knowledge at least)", "human_ref_B": "exposing bacteria to alcohol until they develop resistance is like breeding humans in a room full of constant machine gun fire in order to breed a superhero", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7658.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24fks3", "c_root_id_B": "c24dtd7", "created_at_utc_A": 1310156841, "created_at_utc_B": 1310142132, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "exposing bacteria to alcohol until they develop resistance is like breeding humans in a room full of constant machine gun fire in order to breed a superhero", "human_ref_B": "The way it was explained to me - biological cell walls work because one side is hydrophilic, the other side is hydrophobic. This means that in water, the membrane folds around into a closed surface. This is a fundamental property of cells, deriving from how life formed.   Alcohol chemically reacts with this membrane construct to disrupt its integrity and pull it apart.   So the very thing that makes bacteria \"life\" descending directly from the first abiogenesis of cells, is what makes alcohol destroy them. So \"by definition\" if you will, alcohol has a 100% fatality rate on living cells.   Or - \"resistance is futile\"...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14709.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24fks3", "c_root_id_B": "c24ellp", "created_at_utc_A": 1310156841, "created_at_utc_B": 1310149018, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "exposing bacteria to alcohol until they develop resistance is like breeding humans in a room full of constant machine gun fire in order to breed a superhero", "human_ref_B": "It is worth noting that bacteria still *produce* a good percentage of the worlds antibiotics, ergo the genes for resistance are already in the bacterial population. Bacteria, being the generous chaps they are like to share their plasmids with each other, and resistance can be conferred upon an entire population very quickly.  Alcohol works very quickly on the existing cell membrane, where as many antibiotics work best when the cell is dividing or maintaining cell wall integrity. Antibiotics that work on the ribosome can be pumped straight back out, or neutralized by a methylase.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7823.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24emdo", "c_root_id_B": "c24f3s7", "created_at_utc_A": 1310149183, "created_at_utc_B": 1310153053, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Let me ask another question alongside this. Alcohol contains a lot of energy in it's molecules. There are bacteria that can use gasoline as an energy source, why do you think that no bacteria ever developed the ability to use alcohol as a source of energy?   Clearly it could be beneficial. Say you're in a anoxic environment alongside yeast. Yeast can use fermentation, release ethanol and therefore there is ethanol in the environment. Clearly something should use this energy source.  I understand that evolution doesn't work opportunistically, where an organism sees an opening for a source of nutrition and instantly changes to fit that, but it seems that bacteria living around other prokaryotes who are producing ethanol in survivable concentrations, might over millions of years be pressured into using that as an energy source, yet it hasn't happened yet (of my knowledge at least)", "human_ref_B": "If bacteria adapted to resist alcohol, they would no longer fit any definition of 'bacteria' that we use.  If bacteria change their structure enough to protect against antibiotics, they're still bacteria.  The best drugs are ones which would require the pathogen (whether bacteria, virus, or other) to evolve away from pathogenicity in order to adapt.  For instance, currently all of the various influenza vaccines are based upon interfering with the 'head' of the flu virus, which can change a great deal and not have much impact on the pathogenicity, which is primarily determined by the 'body'.  The 'body' is hard to use for recognition because influenza has a capsid (which is just what it sounds like, a capsule-like layer that provides a barrier).  If we can develop a vaccine which enables our body to launch a cytokine response based upon the 'body' of the virus, it would be a 'universal' flu vaccine, requiring the flu virus to cease being a flu virus in order to survive.  This is, in fact, being actively researched right now with some promising progress.  We might see such a thing in testing with a couple years.  In order to protect against alcohol, a bacteria would have to change in profound, fundamental ways.  In fact, they would no longer meet certain definitions of \"alive\" (though viruses don't meet these definitions either, so it shouldn't suggest that they would be guaranteed to be harmless) and would be a very novel life form.  As far as we know, all life requires water.  Dehydrate away all the water, and everything we know of will die.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3870.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24f3s7", "c_root_id_B": "c24dtd7", "created_at_utc_A": 1310153053, "created_at_utc_B": 1310142132, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "If bacteria adapted to resist alcohol, they would no longer fit any definition of 'bacteria' that we use.  If bacteria change their structure enough to protect against antibiotics, they're still bacteria.  The best drugs are ones which would require the pathogen (whether bacteria, virus, or other) to evolve away from pathogenicity in order to adapt.  For instance, currently all of the various influenza vaccines are based upon interfering with the 'head' of the flu virus, which can change a great deal and not have much impact on the pathogenicity, which is primarily determined by the 'body'.  The 'body' is hard to use for recognition because influenza has a capsid (which is just what it sounds like, a capsule-like layer that provides a barrier).  If we can develop a vaccine which enables our body to launch a cytokine response based upon the 'body' of the virus, it would be a 'universal' flu vaccine, requiring the flu virus to cease being a flu virus in order to survive.  This is, in fact, being actively researched right now with some promising progress.  We might see such a thing in testing with a couple years.  In order to protect against alcohol, a bacteria would have to change in profound, fundamental ways.  In fact, they would no longer meet certain definitions of \"alive\" (though viruses don't meet these definitions either, so it shouldn't suggest that they would be guaranteed to be harmless) and would be a very novel life form.  As far as we know, all life requires water.  Dehydrate away all the water, and everything we know of will die.", "human_ref_B": "The way it was explained to me - biological cell walls work because one side is hydrophilic, the other side is hydrophobic. This means that in water, the membrane folds around into a closed surface. This is a fundamental property of cells, deriving from how life formed.   Alcohol chemically reacts with this membrane construct to disrupt its integrity and pull it apart.   So the very thing that makes bacteria \"life\" descending directly from the first abiogenesis of cells, is what makes alcohol destroy them. So \"by definition\" if you will, alcohol has a 100% fatality rate on living cells.   Or - \"resistance is futile\"...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10921.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24f3s7", "c_root_id_B": "c24ellp", "created_at_utc_A": 1310153053, "created_at_utc_B": 1310149018, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "If bacteria adapted to resist alcohol, they would no longer fit any definition of 'bacteria' that we use.  If bacteria change their structure enough to protect against antibiotics, they're still bacteria.  The best drugs are ones which would require the pathogen (whether bacteria, virus, or other) to evolve away from pathogenicity in order to adapt.  For instance, currently all of the various influenza vaccines are based upon interfering with the 'head' of the flu virus, which can change a great deal and not have much impact on the pathogenicity, which is primarily determined by the 'body'.  The 'body' is hard to use for recognition because influenza has a capsid (which is just what it sounds like, a capsule-like layer that provides a barrier).  If we can develop a vaccine which enables our body to launch a cytokine response based upon the 'body' of the virus, it would be a 'universal' flu vaccine, requiring the flu virus to cease being a flu virus in order to survive.  This is, in fact, being actively researched right now with some promising progress.  We might see such a thing in testing with a couple years.  In order to protect against alcohol, a bacteria would have to change in profound, fundamental ways.  In fact, they would no longer meet certain definitions of \"alive\" (though viruses don't meet these definitions either, so it shouldn't suggest that they would be guaranteed to be harmless) and would be a very novel life form.  As far as we know, all life requires water.  Dehydrate away all the water, and everything we know of will die.", "human_ref_B": "It is worth noting that bacteria still *produce* a good percentage of the worlds antibiotics, ergo the genes for resistance are already in the bacterial population. Bacteria, being the generous chaps they are like to share their plasmids with each other, and resistance can be conferred upon an entire population very quickly.  Alcohol works very quickly on the existing cell membrane, where as many antibiotics work best when the cell is dividing or maintaining cell wall integrity. Antibiotics that work on the ribosome can be pumped straight back out, or neutralized by a methylase.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4035.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24dtd7", "c_root_id_B": "c24emdo", "created_at_utc_A": 1310142132, "created_at_utc_B": 1310149183, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The way it was explained to me - biological cell walls work because one side is hydrophilic, the other side is hydrophobic. This means that in water, the membrane folds around into a closed surface. This is a fundamental property of cells, deriving from how life formed.   Alcohol chemically reacts with this membrane construct to disrupt its integrity and pull it apart.   So the very thing that makes bacteria \"life\" descending directly from the first abiogenesis of cells, is what makes alcohol destroy them. So \"by definition\" if you will, alcohol has a 100% fatality rate on living cells.   Or - \"resistance is futile\"...", "human_ref_B": "Let me ask another question alongside this. Alcohol contains a lot of energy in it's molecules. There are bacteria that can use gasoline as an energy source, why do you think that no bacteria ever developed the ability to use alcohol as a source of energy?   Clearly it could be beneficial. Say you're in a anoxic environment alongside yeast. Yeast can use fermentation, release ethanol and therefore there is ethanol in the environment. Clearly something should use this energy source.  I understand that evolution doesn't work opportunistically, where an organism sees an opening for a source of nutrition and instantly changes to fit that, but it seems that bacteria living around other prokaryotes who are producing ethanol in survivable concentrations, might over millions of years be pressured into using that as an energy source, yet it hasn't happened yet (of my knowledge at least)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7051.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24emdo", "c_root_id_B": "c24ellp", "created_at_utc_A": 1310149183, "created_at_utc_B": 1310149018, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Let me ask another question alongside this. Alcohol contains a lot of energy in it's molecules. There are bacteria that can use gasoline as an energy source, why do you think that no bacteria ever developed the ability to use alcohol as a source of energy?   Clearly it could be beneficial. Say you're in a anoxic environment alongside yeast. Yeast can use fermentation, release ethanol and therefore there is ethanol in the environment. Clearly something should use this energy source.  I understand that evolution doesn't work opportunistically, where an organism sees an opening for a source of nutrition and instantly changes to fit that, but it seems that bacteria living around other prokaryotes who are producing ethanol in survivable concentrations, might over millions of years be pressured into using that as an energy source, yet it hasn't happened yet (of my knowledge at least)", "human_ref_B": "It is worth noting that bacteria still *produce* a good percentage of the worlds antibiotics, ergo the genes for resistance are already in the bacterial population. Bacteria, being the generous chaps they are like to share their plasmids with each other, and resistance can be conferred upon an entire population very quickly.  Alcohol works very quickly on the existing cell membrane, where as many antibiotics work best when the cell is dividing or maintaining cell wall integrity. Antibiotics that work on the ribosome can be pumped straight back out, or neutralized by a methylase.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 165.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24dtd7", "c_root_id_B": "c24h69y", "created_at_utc_A": 1310142132, "created_at_utc_B": 1310172091, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The way it was explained to me - biological cell walls work because one side is hydrophilic, the other side is hydrophobic. This means that in water, the membrane folds around into a closed surface. This is a fundamental property of cells, deriving from how life formed.   Alcohol chemically reacts with this membrane construct to disrupt its integrity and pull it apart.   So the very thing that makes bacteria \"life\" descending directly from the first abiogenesis of cells, is what makes alcohol destroy them. So \"by definition\" if you will, alcohol has a 100% fatality rate on living cells.   Or - \"resistance is futile\"...", "human_ref_B": "Well, it\u2019s a bit like adapting to diseases like smallpox (which killed north-american natives), and not adapting to 10 pounds of TNT strapped to your chest\u2026", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 29959.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24h69y", "c_root_id_B": "c24ellp", "created_at_utc_A": 1310172091, "created_at_utc_B": 1310149018, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Well, it\u2019s a bit like adapting to diseases like smallpox (which killed north-american natives), and not adapting to 10 pounds of TNT strapped to your chest\u2026", "human_ref_B": "It is worth noting that bacteria still *produce* a good percentage of the worlds antibiotics, ergo the genes for resistance are already in the bacterial population. Bacteria, being the generous chaps they are like to share their plasmids with each other, and resistance can be conferred upon an entire population very quickly.  Alcohol works very quickly on the existing cell membrane, where as many antibiotics work best when the cell is dividing or maintaining cell wall integrity. Antibiotics that work on the ribosome can be pumped straight back out, or neutralized by a methylase.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23073.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24gy0w", "c_root_id_B": "c24h69y", "created_at_utc_A": 1310169592, "created_at_utc_B": 1310172091, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There are some great comments here, but I wanted to add a few more mechanistic things.    Bacteria harbor specialized drug transporters in the cell membrane that function to efflux antibiotics and other offending chemicals.  Duplications (often on multi-copy plasmids) or activating mutations in the gene the encodes the drug transporter protein can cause bacteria to very efficiently efflux the antibiotic, thus making them resistant.  I am not aware of any mechanism by which alcohol can be effluxed out of the cell by transmembrane transporters (and I think it would have already done its damage by the time it gets into the cell).    The problem with drug transporter genes being present on plasmids (extra-chromosomal DNA pieces) is that duplication of plasmids happens readily and they can be easily swapped between and amongst bacteria of various types.  One particular type of drug transporter can also efflux multiple related drug types.", "human_ref_B": "Well, it\u2019s a bit like adapting to diseases like smallpox (which killed north-american natives), and not adapting to 10 pounds of TNT strapped to your chest\u2026", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2499.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24h8qe", "c_root_id_B": "c24dtd7", "created_at_utc_A": 1310172878, "created_at_utc_B": 1310142132, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Only certain antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (or inhibiting cell wall synthesis) - most notable being the penicillins. Antibiotics can act in other ways - by inhibiting protein synthesis, nucleic acid function, or disrupting the plasma membrane itself (the latter ones often having negative side effects on normal microbiota or somatic cells).   On to penicillin and its relatives (anything ending in -cillin). The reason that some bacterial species become immune to penicillin is that they develop an enzyme called 'penicillinase', which disrupts a functional part of the penicillin molecule. This accounts for bacteria in penicillin's spectrum (mostly gram positive cocci and spirochetes).  Gram negative bacteria become immune to antibiotics by preventing intake of antibiotic compounds. Antibiotics are relatively big molecules, and reducing the diameter of porin proteins on the outer membrane of a bacteria makes it resistant to multiple antibiotics, with one mutation (see MAR type gene mutations for more info). This is an evolutionary adaptation - there is an associated cost with not being able to control exchange with your environment.   EDIT: Other redditors have described the last mode of drug resistance better than I could have. Alteration of active sites also leads to resistance at a cost, and a good example is given as the top rated comment of this page at time of posting.  Alcohol's mechanism of action is independent of these adaptations by bacteria. It dissolves membrane lipids and denatures proteins. It is a difficult job to produce a protein to combat something that denatures protein.  Postnote: Some people will mention endospores in this discussion. That's cheating, they're nigh invulnerable.", "human_ref_B": "The way it was explained to me - biological cell walls work because one side is hydrophilic, the other side is hydrophobic. This means that in water, the membrane folds around into a closed surface. This is a fundamental property of cells, deriving from how life formed.   Alcohol chemically reacts with this membrane construct to disrupt its integrity and pull it apart.   So the very thing that makes bacteria \"life\" descending directly from the first abiogenesis of cells, is what makes alcohol destroy them. So \"by definition\" if you will, alcohol has a 100% fatality rate on living cells.   Or - \"resistance is futile\"...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30746.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24ellp", "c_root_id_B": "c24h8qe", "created_at_utc_A": 1310149018, "created_at_utc_B": 1310172878, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It is worth noting that bacteria still *produce* a good percentage of the worlds antibiotics, ergo the genes for resistance are already in the bacterial population. Bacteria, being the generous chaps they are like to share their plasmids with each other, and resistance can be conferred upon an entire population very quickly.  Alcohol works very quickly on the existing cell membrane, where as many antibiotics work best when the cell is dividing or maintaining cell wall integrity. Antibiotics that work on the ribosome can be pumped straight back out, or neutralized by a methylase.", "human_ref_B": "Only certain antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (or inhibiting cell wall synthesis) - most notable being the penicillins. Antibiotics can act in other ways - by inhibiting protein synthesis, nucleic acid function, or disrupting the plasma membrane itself (the latter ones often having negative side effects on normal microbiota or somatic cells).   On to penicillin and its relatives (anything ending in -cillin). The reason that some bacterial species become immune to penicillin is that they develop an enzyme called 'penicillinase', which disrupts a functional part of the penicillin molecule. This accounts for bacteria in penicillin's spectrum (mostly gram positive cocci and spirochetes).  Gram negative bacteria become immune to antibiotics by preventing intake of antibiotic compounds. Antibiotics are relatively big molecules, and reducing the diameter of porin proteins on the outer membrane of a bacteria makes it resistant to multiple antibiotics, with one mutation (see MAR type gene mutations for more info). This is an evolutionary adaptation - there is an associated cost with not being able to control exchange with your environment.   EDIT: Other redditors have described the last mode of drug resistance better than I could have. Alteration of active sites also leads to resistance at a cost, and a good example is given as the top rated comment of this page at time of posting.  Alcohol's mechanism of action is independent of these adaptations by bacteria. It dissolves membrane lipids and denatures proteins. It is a difficult job to produce a protein to combat something that denatures protein.  Postnote: Some people will mention endospores in this discussion. That's cheating, they're nigh invulnerable.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23860.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ik2fp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why do bacteria adapt so quickly to antibiotics, but not alcohol? I'm sure most of you science-minded fellows are familiar with the problem of bacterial resistance to antibiotics due to misuse/overuse, but it makes me wonder why they have adapted so well since penicillin was first discovered, requiring us to develop progressively stronger drugs, yet alcohol remains completely unchanged and is still an effective sterilizer in the form of rubbing alcohol, mouthwash, etc. It seems particularly unusual since, if I remember my high school science, both alcohol and antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (which is also why they are harmless to multicelled organisms like humans, whose cells do not rely on an outer wall to remain intact).  Is there something special about alcohol that prevents bacteria from developing a resistance to it, or has it just not happened yet since alcohol is less useful and therefore less used?", "c_root_id_A": "c24gy0w", "c_root_id_B": "c24h8qe", "created_at_utc_A": 1310169592, "created_at_utc_B": 1310172878, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There are some great comments here, but I wanted to add a few more mechanistic things.    Bacteria harbor specialized drug transporters in the cell membrane that function to efflux antibiotics and other offending chemicals.  Duplications (often on multi-copy plasmids) or activating mutations in the gene the encodes the drug transporter protein can cause bacteria to very efficiently efflux the antibiotic, thus making them resistant.  I am not aware of any mechanism by which alcohol can be effluxed out of the cell by transmembrane transporters (and I think it would have already done its damage by the time it gets into the cell).    The problem with drug transporter genes being present on plasmids (extra-chromosomal DNA pieces) is that duplication of plasmids happens readily and they can be easily swapped between and amongst bacteria of various types.  One particular type of drug transporter can also efflux multiple related drug types.", "human_ref_B": "Only certain antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying their cell walls (or inhibiting cell wall synthesis) - most notable being the penicillins. Antibiotics can act in other ways - by inhibiting protein synthesis, nucleic acid function, or disrupting the plasma membrane itself (the latter ones often having negative side effects on normal microbiota or somatic cells).   On to penicillin and its relatives (anything ending in -cillin). The reason that some bacterial species become immune to penicillin is that they develop an enzyme called 'penicillinase', which disrupts a functional part of the penicillin molecule. This accounts for bacteria in penicillin's spectrum (mostly gram positive cocci and spirochetes).  Gram negative bacteria become immune to antibiotics by preventing intake of antibiotic compounds. Antibiotics are relatively big molecules, and reducing the diameter of porin proteins on the outer membrane of a bacteria makes it resistant to multiple antibiotics, with one mutation (see MAR type gene mutations for more info). This is an evolutionary adaptation - there is an associated cost with not being able to control exchange with your environment.   EDIT: Other redditors have described the last mode of drug resistance better than I could have. Alteration of active sites also leads to resistance at a cost, and a good example is given as the top rated comment of this page at time of posting.  Alcohol's mechanism of action is independent of these adaptations by bacteria. It dissolves membrane lipids and denatures proteins. It is a difficult job to produce a protein to combat something that denatures protein.  Postnote: Some people will mention endospores in this discussion. That's cheating, they're nigh invulnerable.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3286.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztjf4o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Can the Doppler effect make sounds inaudible by shifting frequencies out of human hearing range? Or vice versa? Say a speaker playing a song travels away from you fast enough, would the bass part become silent?  Say you were traveling towards a whale making low frequency sounds out of hearing range, would you be able to hear them if you were traveling towards each other fast enough?", "c_root_id_A": "j1eqoqv", "c_root_id_B": "j1fohz0", "created_at_utc_A": 1671824392, "created_at_utc_B": 1671839452, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 92, "human_ref_A": "If the speaker is traveling away from you at the speed of sound, the frequency will be halved, that is, it will go down by one octave. So only the lowest bass will go out of hearing range. Also, it will be overwhelmed by the jet engine noise and will quickly fade into the distance.", "human_ref_B": "Not only can the doppler effect do this with sound, it works with light too. Red shift causes visible light waves to \"stretch\", lowering their frequency toward the red end of the spectrum. Due to the expansion of the universe the farthest and oldest light waves have undergone red shift so much that they're way past infrared into microwave territory. That's what cosmic background radiation is.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15060.0, "score_ratio": 3.0666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztjf4o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Can the Doppler effect make sounds inaudible by shifting frequencies out of human hearing range? Or vice versa? Say a speaker playing a song travels away from you fast enough, would the bass part become silent?  Say you were traveling towards a whale making low frequency sounds out of hearing range, would you be able to hear them if you were traveling towards each other fast enough?", "c_root_id_A": "j1ff2te", "c_root_id_B": "j1fohz0", "created_at_utc_A": 1671835055, "created_at_utc_B": 1671839452, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 92, "human_ref_A": "This is not a trick question, but it's a tricky situation. Sounds moving away from you become lower in volume by the inverse square law. So there's a perhaps rhetorical question whether you'd still be able to detect something moving that fast by the time it Doppler-shifted beyond processing. It absolutely works with light. Distant and fast-receding galaxies red-shift out of visible \"colors\" into infrared. You would need a very loud sound source, moving away very fast, with a starting frequency in the low end of your hearing range in the first place. There are people who can't intake below 30 or 40Hz, which is a whole octave above the typical healthy 20Hz lower limit. So results would vary across the population.", "human_ref_B": "Not only can the doppler effect do this with sound, it works with light too. Red shift causes visible light waves to \"stretch\", lowering their frequency toward the red end of the spectrum. Due to the expansion of the universe the farthest and oldest light waves have undergone red shift so much that they're way past infrared into microwave territory. That's what cosmic background radiation is.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4397.0, "score_ratio": 6.1333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kheuva", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Do we know whether the newest Covid mutations in the UK and South Africa are indeed the same virus (i.e. a traveller from either brought it to the other) or if we are dealing with two independently mutated stains that just happen to coincidentally manifest around the same time? Local government has shut down travels to and from both the UK and South Africa over the new Covid mutation highlighted by the UK government.  While I did know the UK mutation was a thing, I was quite surprised by the addition of South Africa.  If it's the same virus, shouldn't we assume it's already spread from the UK to mainland Europe (I mean, what's the chance it spread from the UK all the way down to South Africa, but not to any countries in-between?) and shut down travel between countries until we know where it will show up?", "c_root_id_A": "gglu9ed", "c_root_id_B": "ggm4k2o", "created_at_utc_A": 1608573522, "created_at_utc_B": 1608578587, "score_A": 66, "score_B": 104, "human_ref_A": "Dr Emma Hodcroft on Twitter: \"Is the new UK variant the same as the new South African variant (501Y.V2)? No. They both share the same mutation in spike: N501Y (N-&gt;Y at position 501). However, the 2 variants have arisen separately.   https://mobile.twitter.com/firefoxx66/status/1340359989395861506  >Is the new UK variant the same as the new South African variant (501Y.V2)?  >No.  >They both share the same mutation in spike: N501Y (N->Y at position 501). However, the 2 variants have arisen separately.  >1/N  https://nextstrain.org/groups/neherlab/ncov/S.N501?c=gt-S_501,69&p=grid&r=country", "human_ref_B": "Follow up question: Do we know how this mutation makes the virus more spreadable? Like, is it more resistant to alcohol-based sanitizers, is it more \"shed-able,\" are those infected asymptomatic for longer or infectious for more than 14 days, or is it somehow able to become more airborne?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5065.0, "score_ratio": 1.5757575758, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2bedd5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "It's a commonly known fact that dolphins sleep with only one hemisphere of their brains at any moment, so, if both brains are active at once, would there be any observable difference in its intelligence/behaviour? Also, how would it be possible to wake both halves at once by using a stimulant, say caffeine?", "c_root_id_A": "cj4jszx", "c_root_id_B": "cj4mgqf", "created_at_utc_A": 1406046095, "created_at_utc_B": 1406050710, "score_A": 56, "score_B": 1352, "human_ref_A": "This behavior is called unihemispheric sleep, where the separate halves of the brain alternate between being awake and being asleep.  However, just like with humans, dolphins (and other animals with this behavior) only need to sleep in this state for 8 hours per day.  Researchers think this behavior evolved so that dolphins could surface to breathe, even when sleeping.  There was actually a recent study performed by researchers in San Diego showing that even during a unihemispheric sleep state, dolphins had remarkable accuracy when using echolocation to oversee their environment and detect prey.  Source: http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0047478#s1", "human_ref_B": "Folks... what is with the \"source: me\"? That is not a scientific source....  Anyway: Contrary to some other comments, when dolphins are awake they do NOT always have both hemispheres awake. When they are calm and in a state of \"relaxed wakefulness\" it is fairly common for one hemisphere to actually be in a sort of dozing state.  Basically, EEG data show that dolphins can have 3 states of brain activity: (1) awake, (2) an intermediate state that has bursts of slow-wave sleep patterns interspersed with rapid \"awake\" brainwaves; I will call this the \"dozing\" state though that may not be the best way to think of it. (Humans do this too and I've documented it with EEGs on my students in lab who were theoretically wide awake, ha ha! You can see them dropping in and out of brief periods of slow waves for up to 3 sec at a time. Their eyes remain open, and students report it as feeling \"a little spaced out\", \"not really paying attention\"). And (3) slow-wave sleep with big, slow, synchronized bursts of neuronal activity. (If you're wondering where REM sleep, aka dreaming, is in this list: *REM sleep is weirdly rare in cetaceans* and there's debate about whether they do it at all. See pdf cite at bottom.)  OK, so, basically what we see is that in states 1 and 2, dolphins can go in and out of \"unihemispheric\" mode, sometimes having both hemispheres doing one thing (both wakeful, or both \"dozing\") and sometimes having the two hemispheres doing different things (one wakeful, the other dozing). So it's actually fairly common for a dolphin that looks awake to actually have only 1 hemisphere awake and the other one doing the \"dozing\" state. This is especially common when the dolphin is just sort of cruising around calmly and is relaxed. (edit: realized I totally failed to answer the OP's actual question, so: when both hemispheres are awake, the dolphin is typically interacting with its environment - reacting to things, doing complex maneuvers, making choices. And I don't know anybody who's tried giving them a stimulant - that sort of drug trial is really hard to get approval for, with captive cetaceans, because of uncertainty about what dose would be safe)  For slow-wave sleep though, they *always* have the two hemispheres doing different things. That is - it appears only one hemisphere can do slow-wave sleep at at time. For example see this figure from Mukhametov, the guy who really figured out the sleeping-dolphin thing; that figure's from a sleeping bottlenose dolphin, right hemisphere on top, left below. The white is \"active\" (awake), the gray is the \"dozing\" state and the black is deep \"slow wave\" sleep. Notice how often one hemisphere is white and the other is gray - half awake, half dozing. Also notice only one hemisphere goes \"black\" at a time, but sometimes both hemispheres are \"white\" at the same time. (this dolphin didn't happen to have both hemispheres \"dozing\" at the same time, but that can happen). The best guess about why only 1 hemisphere can do slow-wave sleep at a time is so that the dolphin can keep breathing. You can induce slow-wave sleep in both hemispheres with certain anesthetics, and if you do that to a dolphin, the dolphin stops breathing. (=bad). Seals seem to have the same problem; they do actually sometimes do slow-wave sleep in both hemispheres, but they hold their breath when they do this and they typically only do it when they're hauled out on shore. (edit: or some seals, the \"true seals\", can position themselves in the water so that both nostrils are out of the water while they are sleeping. e.g. the \"bottling position\". Here is a harbor seal asleep in bottling position)  cite for that figure: this great book - also has a great summary of the classic bottlenose EEG research.  Unihemispheric sleep has been demonstrated in all cetaceans tested (which so far adds up to: bottlenose dolphin, common porpoise, beluga, pilot whale, Amazonian dolphin). Also manatees. And fur seals / sea lions when they are in the water, but not when they are on land.  I have to also mention that unihemispheric sleep is very common in birds and reptiles! It's been known for a long time that birds have a habit of sleeping with \"one eye open\" (there's a famous quote from Chaucer about \"small fowls sleeping all the night with open eye\") but only recently did researchers put two and two together and realize they're doing exactly what dolphins do. Once we started putting EEGs on those little bird heads, lo and behold, it turns out many birds do unihemispheric sleep just like dolphins - verified now in mallards, chickens, gulls, pigeons and parrots. They seem to do this to help scan for predators and in some species it's now known that they stop doing it if they feel safe. A duck on the end of a row of ducks-on-a-log typically keeps one eye open, and one half its brain awake, to scan for predators; a duck in the middle of the row closes both eyes and sends both hemispheres into slow-wave sleep at once, presumably because it feels safer. AND... guess who else often sleeps with \"one eye open\"... turtles, caimans, iguanas, chameleons and lizards (though there's not good EEG data for them yet). So this may actually be an evolutionarily ancient form of sleep.  For an actual source (not just me :)  ) see this excellent review (pdf) - read it, it's awesome.  edit: thank you for the gold, stranger. And I just noticed I broke 100,000 karma on this comment, most of that from AskScience over  the last two years, so thanks everybody for 2 years of cool science questions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4615.0, "score_ratio": 24.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xsy7jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How do the alveoli maintain a different air composition to the atmosphere if they are connected to the atmosphere by an open tube? The alveoli always maintain the same pressure as the ambient air due to the open airway but they can somehow maintain a different composition of O2, CO2 etc. Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?", "c_root_id_A": "iqnwog5", "c_root_id_B": "iqnwqlh", "created_at_utc_A": 1664654548, "created_at_utc_B": 1664654574, "score_A": 60, "score_B": 456, "human_ref_A": "It does mix with outside air constantly. In fact, it mixes much more than two random samples of air connected by an open tube would, due to the ventilation of the lungs (more commonly known as breathing in and out).   But the air in the alveoli also constantly lose oxygen to the bloodstream, and gain new CO2 from the bloodstream.", "human_ref_B": "They don't maintain the same oxygen, while the air is in the alveoli, the oxygen level in the air goes down because there's a gradient that causes the oxygen in the atmosphere to diffuse into the plasma of the blood. At the same time the carbon dioxide in the blood plasma is higher than in the atmospheric air in the alveoli so it diffuses across the barrier from the blood into the air and is exhaled. The gas that you breathe out is not the same composition as the gas that you breathe in because the gas is diffused across a semi permeable barrier into and out of the bloodstream.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26.0, "score_ratio": 7.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xsy7jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How do the alveoli maintain a different air composition to the atmosphere if they are connected to the atmosphere by an open tube? The alveoli always maintain the same pressure as the ambient air due to the open airway but they can somehow maintain a different composition of O2, CO2 etc. Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?", "c_root_id_A": "iqo6253", "c_root_id_B": "iqnwog5", "created_at_utc_A": 1664658630, "created_at_utc_B": 1664654548, "score_A": 73, "score_B": 60, "human_ref_A": "This is a really good question!  So, the airway isn't always open! There's a thing called an epiglottis, which can actually block off the air tube (or trachea) from the atmosphere. You have probably noticed that you can't breathe and swallow at the same time - this is the epiglottis at work.  But let's get to the meat and potatoes of your question - since there's a tube connecting our alveoli to the outside world, why doesn't the air just follow it's concentration gradient to allow atmospheric oxygen in and allow our bodies co2 out- why do we have to physically move the old air out and bring fresh air in?  The answer is that allowing air to move passively like that would be too slow to bring us enough oxygen.  Think of adding food coloring to a bowl of water. Without actively mixing the water and food coloring together, it can take a very long time for the food coloring to mix throughout the water  Same thing for air in the lungs- without actively mixing with atmospheric air, it would take way too long for oxygen to diffuse in and carbon dioxide to diffuse out.  This same idea can be applied to our circulatory system - since our entire vasculature is also an open pipe with fluid between it, but diffusion just doesn't do the job quickly enough, so our heart has to pump the blood around.  This concept even goes all the way down to the cellular level, and even our cells have little \"pumps\" made put of protein to bring certain molecules into or out of the cell faster than regular diffusion would allow.", "human_ref_B": "It does mix with outside air constantly. In fact, it mixes much more than two random samples of air connected by an open tube would, due to the ventilation of the lungs (more commonly known as breathing in and out).   But the air in the alveoli also constantly lose oxygen to the bloodstream, and gain new CO2 from the bloodstream.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4082.0, "score_ratio": 1.2166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xsy7jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How do the alveoli maintain a different air composition to the atmosphere if they are connected to the atmosphere by an open tube? The alveoli always maintain the same pressure as the ambient air due to the open airway but they can somehow maintain a different composition of O2, CO2 etc. Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?", "c_root_id_A": "iqoqoi4", "c_root_id_B": "iqon7eb", "created_at_utc_A": 1664668130, "created_at_utc_B": 1664666475, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "> Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?  This is literally why you breathe.  There are two rooms. There's a pipe in the wall, about 20 mm in diameter, connecting the rooms through the wall. You fart in one room. It takes a while for the stink to make it to the other room, am I right? It would go faster if the other room was somehow actively sucking some air through the pipe, then pushing back out through the same pipe, then in again, then out - so as to more quickly mix the air in the two rooms.  Same with the lungs. The alveoli constantly take oxygen out of the air in them, and dump CO2 instead. That's their job. But for the O2 and CO2 levels to equalize with the outside, going through the narrow tube of your trachea, that takes time and work. The work is breathing, to make it go faster. And even then the levels don't quite equalize, because the exchange in the alveolae keeps going.  They will equalize their levels of O2 and CO2 with the outside - in some minutes or hours after you die.", "human_ref_B": "A lot of decent concepts in this thread but all are missing the mark. The following is referring to a hypothetical healthy person (ie probably 40yo male as everything in medicine is based upon them) at sea level  A few things happen with air entering the lungs:  The gas gets fully saturated by water to not dry out your mucous membranes. This provides 47mmhg of the overall 760mmhg pressure (6.2%).  At the alveoli, CO2 is constantly being released from your pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli. Normally you would equilibrate to a PaCO2 of 40mmhg  You normally breathe 21% oxygen and the oxygen in the alveoli mixes with the gas that is added by the body (ie H2O and CO2). This can be expressed as  PAO2 = FIO2 x (Patm - PH2O) - PaCO2  However, to account for the rate at which the body metabolises O2 into CO2 (because different sources of macro nutrients will require a different amount of oxygen to produce the same end amount of CO2, you need to divide Paco2 by the respiratory exchange ratio which is estimated to be 0.8 in a typical Western diet.  Thus we get  PAO2 = FiO2 x (Patm - PH2O) - PaCO2/RER  PAO2 = 21% x (760 - 47) - 40/0.8  PAO2 = 100  While you're breathing in 21% x 760 = 160mmhg oxygen, your alveoli (PAO2) only contains 100mmhg O2  By the way, this equation is called the alveolar gas equation", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1655.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xsy7jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How do the alveoli maintain a different air composition to the atmosphere if they are connected to the atmosphere by an open tube? The alveoli always maintain the same pressure as the ambient air due to the open airway but they can somehow maintain a different composition of O2, CO2 etc. Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?", "c_root_id_A": "iqo63rh", "c_root_id_B": "iqoqoi4", "created_at_utc_A": 1664658651, "created_at_utc_B": 1664668130, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Alveoli don't maintain the same pressure as the ambient air.  Anytime you close off your glottis that tube is not longer open.  Attempting to breathe in or out while it is closed will change the pressure inside the lungs.", "human_ref_B": "> Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?  This is literally why you breathe.  There are two rooms. There's a pipe in the wall, about 20 mm in diameter, connecting the rooms through the wall. You fart in one room. It takes a while for the stink to make it to the other room, am I right? It would go faster if the other room was somehow actively sucking some air through the pipe, then pushing back out through the same pipe, then in again, then out - so as to more quickly mix the air in the two rooms.  Same with the lungs. The alveoli constantly take oxygen out of the air in them, and dump CO2 instead. That's their job. But for the O2 and CO2 levels to equalize with the outside, going through the narrow tube of your trachea, that takes time and work. The work is breathing, to make it go faster. And even then the levels don't quite equalize, because the exchange in the alveolae keeps going.  They will equalize their levels of O2 and CO2 with the outside - in some minutes or hours after you die.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9479.0, "score_ratio": 2.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xsy7jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How do the alveoli maintain a different air composition to the atmosphere if they are connected to the atmosphere by an open tube? The alveoli always maintain the same pressure as the ambient air due to the open airway but they can somehow maintain a different composition of O2, CO2 etc. Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?", "c_root_id_A": "iqogmwu", "c_root_id_B": "iqoqoi4", "created_at_utc_A": 1664663414, "created_at_utc_B": 1664668130, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Because diffusion is slow. There is a much higher concentration of CO2 in the alveoli as it\u2019s diffused out of the blood but those extra CO2 molecules can\u2019t just travel instantaneously out of your trachea and into the atmosphere - there are trillions of air molecules sitting in your airways, getting in the way. It\u2019s the same reason why you don\u2019t smell a fart from across the room the instant it\u2019s emitted. To speed up gas exchange you have to generate mass transit of all the molecules in the airways, a process known as breathing. Breathing doesn\u2019t completely washout the contents of your alveoli with each breath however, so they will always contain more CO2 and less oxygen than the atmosphere.", "human_ref_B": "> Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?  This is literally why you breathe.  There are two rooms. There's a pipe in the wall, about 20 mm in diameter, connecting the rooms through the wall. You fart in one room. It takes a while for the stink to make it to the other room, am I right? It would go faster if the other room was somehow actively sucking some air through the pipe, then pushing back out through the same pipe, then in again, then out - so as to more quickly mix the air in the two rooms.  Same with the lungs. The alveoli constantly take oxygen out of the air in them, and dump CO2 instead. That's their job. But for the O2 and CO2 levels to equalize with the outside, going through the narrow tube of your trachea, that takes time and work. The work is breathing, to make it go faster. And even then the levels don't quite equalize, because the exchange in the alveolae keeps going.  They will equalize their levels of O2 and CO2 with the outside - in some minutes or hours after you die.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4716.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xsy7jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How do the alveoli maintain a different air composition to the atmosphere if they are connected to the atmosphere by an open tube? The alveoli always maintain the same pressure as the ambient air due to the open airway but they can somehow maintain a different composition of O2, CO2 etc. Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?", "c_root_id_A": "iqo63rh", "c_root_id_B": "iqon7eb", "created_at_utc_A": 1664658651, "created_at_utc_B": 1664666475, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Alveoli don't maintain the same pressure as the ambient air.  Anytime you close off your glottis that tube is not longer open.  Attempting to breathe in or out while it is closed will change the pressure inside the lungs.", "human_ref_B": "A lot of decent concepts in this thread but all are missing the mark. The following is referring to a hypothetical healthy person (ie probably 40yo male as everything in medicine is based upon them) at sea level  A few things happen with air entering the lungs:  The gas gets fully saturated by water to not dry out your mucous membranes. This provides 47mmhg of the overall 760mmhg pressure (6.2%).  At the alveoli, CO2 is constantly being released from your pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli. Normally you would equilibrate to a PaCO2 of 40mmhg  You normally breathe 21% oxygen and the oxygen in the alveoli mixes with the gas that is added by the body (ie H2O and CO2). This can be expressed as  PAO2 = FIO2 x (Patm - PH2O) - PaCO2  However, to account for the rate at which the body metabolises O2 into CO2 (because different sources of macro nutrients will require a different amount of oxygen to produce the same end amount of CO2, you need to divide Paco2 by the respiratory exchange ratio which is estimated to be 0.8 in a typical Western diet.  Thus we get  PAO2 = FiO2 x (Patm - PH2O) - PaCO2/RER  PAO2 = 21% x (760 - 47) - 40/0.8  PAO2 = 100  While you're breathing in 21% x 760 = 160mmhg oxygen, your alveoli (PAO2) only contains 100mmhg O2  By the way, this equation is called the alveolar gas equation", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7824.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xsy7jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How do the alveoli maintain a different air composition to the atmosphere if they are connected to the atmosphere by an open tube? The alveoli always maintain the same pressure as the ambient air due to the open airway but they can somehow maintain a different composition of O2, CO2 etc. Why doesn't it mix with the outside air constantly to maintain the same 20% O2 composition?", "c_root_id_A": "iqon7eb", "c_root_id_B": "iqogmwu", "created_at_utc_A": 1664666475, "created_at_utc_B": 1664663414, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "A lot of decent concepts in this thread but all are missing the mark. The following is referring to a hypothetical healthy person (ie probably 40yo male as everything in medicine is based upon them) at sea level  A few things happen with air entering the lungs:  The gas gets fully saturated by water to not dry out your mucous membranes. This provides 47mmhg of the overall 760mmhg pressure (6.2%).  At the alveoli, CO2 is constantly being released from your pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli. Normally you would equilibrate to a PaCO2 of 40mmhg  You normally breathe 21% oxygen and the oxygen in the alveoli mixes with the gas that is added by the body (ie H2O and CO2). This can be expressed as  PAO2 = FIO2 x (Patm - PH2O) - PaCO2  However, to account for the rate at which the body metabolises O2 into CO2 (because different sources of macro nutrients will require a different amount of oxygen to produce the same end amount of CO2, you need to divide Paco2 by the respiratory exchange ratio which is estimated to be 0.8 in a typical Western diet.  Thus we get  PAO2 = FiO2 x (Patm - PH2O) - PaCO2/RER  PAO2 = 21% x (760 - 47) - 40/0.8  PAO2 = 100  While you're breathing in 21% x 760 = 160mmhg oxygen, your alveoli (PAO2) only contains 100mmhg O2  By the way, this equation is called the alveolar gas equation", "human_ref_B": "Because diffusion is slow. There is a much higher concentration of CO2 in the alveoli as it\u2019s diffused out of the blood but those extra CO2 molecules can\u2019t just travel instantaneously out of your trachea and into the atmosphere - there are trillions of air molecules sitting in your airways, getting in the way. It\u2019s the same reason why you don\u2019t smell a fart from across the room the instant it\u2019s emitted. To speed up gas exchange you have to generate mass transit of all the molecules in the airways, a process known as breathing. Breathing doesn\u2019t completely washout the contents of your alveoli with each breath however, so they will always contain more CO2 and less oxygen than the atmosphere.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3061.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z8dlac", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Which species of dinosaurs had feathers, and how much do we know about them? Was it only the one family of raptors that survived the extinction and evolved into modern birds? Did only small dinosaurs have feathers? Are dinosaurs all birds or reptiles?", "c_root_id_A": "iybzqw4", "c_root_id_B": "iybbag5", "created_at_utc_A": 1669791560, "created_at_utc_B": 1669777328, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": ">Which species of dinosaurs had feathers?   It's likely all of the avian dinosaurs had feathers. Many non-avian dinosaurs are believed to have had feathers with strong evidence that some did. If you want to include filamentous pelts into the definition of feathers even more species are included. Feathers weren't exclusive to dinosaurs. Pterosaurs also had feathers.   > Did only small dinosaurs have feathers?  Yutyrannus huali is currently the largest known dinosaur with feathers. It was nearly 30 feet long and over 3000lbs. The recently extinct elephant bird stood 9 feet tall and 1600lbs.   >Are all dinosaurs birds or reptiles?  All dinosaurs are reptiles. All extant dinosaurs are birds.  Fun fact: the crocodile's closest living relatives are birds.", "human_ref_B": "I was curious about this one myself a couple months ago. The last common ancestor of all birds lived early enough that it's descendants had enough time to evolve into the four main families of birds by the time the mass extinction event that killed the dinosaurs happened. So it was multiple species of birds surviving that eventually became the birds we have today.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14232.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z8dlac", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Which species of dinosaurs had feathers, and how much do we know about them? Was it only the one family of raptors that survived the extinction and evolved into modern birds? Did only small dinosaurs have feathers? Are dinosaurs all birds or reptiles?", "c_root_id_A": "iyfe16x", "c_root_id_B": "iye2orc", "created_at_utc_A": 1669852502, "created_at_utc_B": 1669833401, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "List of feathery dinosaurs. Some are debated, like Concavenator.  Chart showing integument for each group.  Cladograms: Coelurosauria and Eumaniraptora  Note that \"feathers\" can refer to a variety of structures, ranging from simple monofilaments sometimes called dino fuzz or proto-feathers, to plumose branching structures like down feathers, and then pennaceous feathers with a rachis and interlocking barbules. Most filament impressions are found in theropods, specifically Coelurosauria, and the most complex and bird-like structures are in one of its branches, Maniraptora.   A few ornithischians like Tianyulong and Kulindadromeus were found with filamentous coats but it's debated whether it's homologous with theropod filaments and feathers. If it is, then some argue that fuzz is ancestral to dinosaurs and became secondarily lost in other lineages. If pterosaur pycnofibers are also homologous, these filaments predate dinosaurs. Early dinosaurs were small, dog sized bipeds, so one argument is they needed fuzz for thermoregulation, and then as some lineages grew large they traded fuzz for scales so they wouldn't overheat, just like elephants and rhinos mostly have bare skin. This is highly speculative, however.  The only study I know about this is Paul Barrett et al. (2015): Evolution of dinosaur epidermal structures. They concluded dinosaurs were most likely ancestrally scaly, but until there's some well preserved early dinosaurs we won't know for sure.  >Was it only the one family of raptors that survived the extinction and evolved into modern birds?  Modern birds in the sense of Aves evolved before the extinction. There were a lot of bird-like animals back then. For example, one casualty of the extinction were the closely related Enantiornithes, the opposite birds, that looked quite similar to modern perching birds, but they had teeth and clawed wings and different shoulder anatomy.  > Did only small dinosaurs have feathers?  Pennaceous feathers are mostly found in Pennaraptora, and they were mostly small to person sized, but a few were large. Utahraptor was about the size of a polar bear, and Gigantoraptor was an oviraptorosaur that weighed over a ton. However, it's assumed they had pennaceous feathers on their arms because their close relatives did. As far as I know there's no direct evidence for those two specifically.  There's some debate over whether Ornithomimosauria (the ostrich mimics) had open pennaceous feathers on their arms, but they were otherwise fluffy and plumose based on Ornithomimus. Some ornithomimids could get hefty, like Gallimimus, which weighed about 450 kg. And then there was the elephant sized Deinocheirus. It had fused vertebra at the tip of its tail, which some see as evidence for some kind of tail fan. It's debated whether such large animals would have a lot of bare skin to prevent overheating. It's possible they had reduced body cover but kept feathers on their arms and tail for other reasons like display and brooding.  Going outside of pennaceous feathers, Yutyrannus is the largest confirmed find. It measured about 9 meters long and weighed over a ton and had a long, shaggy coat of tufted filaments (longest were around 20 cm). Skin impressions from larger tyrannosaurids show scaly skin, however. Some speculate that Yutyrannus had a coat to deal with cooler climates.   Therizinosaurus is a multi-ton coelurosaur often depicted with a shaggy coat, but that's debated because of the overheating issue. Its relative Beipiaosaurus was found with a thick coat consisting of two filament types, but it was much smaller, about 90 kg.", "human_ref_B": "The myth (it turns out) is that they were scaly. Most likely is that the scales only were for reptiles and most dinosaurs were covered in feathers or feather like fur.... or fur like feathers we actually don't know.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19101.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6igf20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "is there a limitation to how small can human being get? can you shrank a person to a size of an ant while keeping all vital organs proportions the same?", "c_root_id_A": "dj67d2g", "c_root_id_B": "dj6ceov", "created_at_utc_A": 1497994982, "created_at_utc_B": 1498000869, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "No. You can't just make something orders of magnitude smaller because ultimately organs functionality relies on cells, and cells function on a molecular level, and molecules have a fixed size. There is wiggle room in the number of cells in an organ, the number of molecules in a cell, etc, but you can't just \"shrink\" a cell as much as you want because it's made up of molecules and proteins with absolutely fixed size. For instance, there is NO variation in the size of a water molecule. And even things with some distribution are fairly specific, like the size of a stable micelle.  You definitely get get a couple factors in size difference, but a person-->ant is many orders of magnitude off, and so would definitely not function correctly.  Things like shrink rays ultimately don't make any sense, because everything is made of atoms, which are identical and cannot vary in size.", "human_ref_B": "Absolutely.  There's a long list of reasons for the limit but one of the most important that would come into play for shrinking a human would be the square-cube law and the effects of scale on diffusion.  The square-cube law is simply that as the size of an object scales, the height, width and depth increase linearly, the surface area goes up by the square and the volume goes up by the third power.  This means that very small organisms have enough surface area do breathe and absorb nutrients through their outer membrane.  Large creatures like us don't have enough surface area and have to have complex, convoluted structures like lungs and intestines to do the same.  A human shrunk down would suffer many adverse effects such as losing too much body heat to be able to maintain a constant temperature, having blood vessels too small to carry enough hemoglobin molecules to feed oxygen to cells and probably a few thousand other issues.  As another poster pointed out, the atoms and molecules that make us up wouldn't shrink with us.  The other big reason that would dominate would be the effects of gas and liquid diffusion.  The behavior of gases and liquids is dominated by the Reynold's number.  To oversimplify, this number is basically a descriptor based on things like viscosity of the fluid (gas or liquid) vs the size scale in question that determines how that fluid acts.  If the Reynold's number is large, the fluid acts like how we're used to things like air and water behaving.  As the number drops, they act much more like honey or jelly.  If the fluid is constant, you tend to get down into the sort of low-Reynold's number regimes at small length scales.  This is why bacteria 'feel' water as being more like honey or semi-set jello.     If you shrunk a human, you very quickly start to get adverse effects in the lungs.  The alveoli (the tiny gas bags we use for gas exchange) would get so small that it would be difficult for gas to move in and out of them.  Further, you'd have much more viscous flow in the smaller branches of the trachea.  On the other hand, you'd get a lot more gas diffusion in and out of the lung tissues due to the low length scales.  I'm not sure which effect would dominate but your shrunk person would either suffer from far too much or too little oxygen in and CO2 out.  Either of those would quickly be fatal.  Another issue would be the increasing viscosity of blood flow.  The shrunk person's heart would eventually not be able to efficiently pump a highly viscous liquid.  However, I suspect this would be at a much smaller size than other effects would kill our theoretical person.  ***  What's the lower limit?  I have no idea but going much smaller than an inch tall is probably out since that's the lower size that you see shrews and other small mammals at.  That seems to indicate a lower floor to the size mammals can scale to and even those small mammals probably have many adaptations to survive at that size.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5887.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pd7bcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a known correlation between having sensitive skin or problematic skin in general and having a psychological disorder such as anxiety disorder? I had this (stupid) thought. Skin is the biggest organ and the nervous system is connected to our brain and our body, so i thought that people who have an extra \"nervous\" nervous system might have \"extra nervous\" skin too? Like being more prone to have skin problems?   I know there are a few known correlations like people who have OCD (and wash their hands often) are often having sensitive skin, due to all the washing, but i thought more in general..  This might be an really obvious question or a very stupid one, idk.   Thanks in advance! :)", "c_root_id_A": "haq1sj3", "c_root_id_B": "haq3c05", "created_at_utc_A": 1630182184, "created_at_utc_B": 1630182881, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 55, "human_ref_A": "Skin and the mental health are correlated. That is noticeable because skin covers the entire body. I suspect that internal organs are also affected by mental health but we can\u2019t see them and are less aware of that.", "human_ref_B": "Many with ADHD experience skin sensitivity. ADHD is caused by chronically low dopamine uptake/levels in the frontal lobe where our executive functions are controlled. The stereotype of \u201cgetting distracted\u201d might better be called \u201ceverything gets past our filter\u201d including background noise, etc.   Many ADHD folks can be found avoiding denim for their scratchy waistbands, wearing socks inside out to avoid the toe seam, and dress clothes chafing and causing great discomfort. Cold fingers, adverse weather, are often much more palpable with ADHD.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 697.0, "score_ratio": 6.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pd7bcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a known correlation between having sensitive skin or problematic skin in general and having a psychological disorder such as anxiety disorder? I had this (stupid) thought. Skin is the biggest organ and the nervous system is connected to our brain and our body, so i thought that people who have an extra \"nervous\" nervous system might have \"extra nervous\" skin too? Like being more prone to have skin problems?   I know there are a few known correlations like people who have OCD (and wash their hands often) are often having sensitive skin, due to all the washing, but i thought more in general..  This might be an really obvious question or a very stupid one, idk.   Thanks in advance! :)", "c_root_id_A": "haqg7k9", "c_root_id_B": "haq1sj3", "created_at_utc_A": 1630188863, "created_at_utc_B": 1630182184, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "The most common skin related side effect of anxiety is acne, because your body increases sweat production when you're under stress. Rashes are also very common, typically when you are under prolonged stress/ anxiety.", "human_ref_B": "Skin and the mental health are correlated. That is noticeable because skin covers the entire body. I suspect that internal organs are also affected by mental health but we can\u2019t see them and are less aware of that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6679.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pd7bcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a known correlation between having sensitive skin or problematic skin in general and having a psychological disorder such as anxiety disorder? I had this (stupid) thought. Skin is the biggest organ and the nervous system is connected to our brain and our body, so i thought that people who have an extra \"nervous\" nervous system might have \"extra nervous\" skin too? Like being more prone to have skin problems?   I know there are a few known correlations like people who have OCD (and wash their hands often) are often having sensitive skin, due to all the washing, but i thought more in general..  This might be an really obvious question or a very stupid one, idk.   Thanks in advance! :)", "c_root_id_A": "haqg7k9", "c_root_id_B": "haqfid8", "created_at_utc_A": 1630188863, "created_at_utc_B": 1630188523, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The most common skin related side effect of anxiety is acne, because your body increases sweat production when you're under stress. Rashes are also very common, typically when you are under prolonged stress/ anxiety.", "human_ref_B": "One of the symptoms for tracking various autoimmune diseases is the presence and level of depression and anxiety, and there\u2019s some early research that suggests eczema may be autoimmune-related (my dermatologist says yes, my rheumatologist says no).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 340.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pd7bcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a known correlation between having sensitive skin or problematic skin in general and having a psychological disorder such as anxiety disorder? I had this (stupid) thought. Skin is the biggest organ and the nervous system is connected to our brain and our body, so i thought that people who have an extra \"nervous\" nervous system might have \"extra nervous\" skin too? Like being more prone to have skin problems?   I know there are a few known correlations like people who have OCD (and wash their hands often) are often having sensitive skin, due to all the washing, but i thought more in general..  This might be an really obvious question or a very stupid one, idk.   Thanks in advance! :)", "c_root_id_A": "haqurmz", "c_root_id_B": "haq1sj3", "created_at_utc_A": 1630196032, "created_at_utc_B": 1630182184, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Allergic reactions can cause anxiety, because your body is stressed and reacting with immune response to an allergen. Anxiety can cause allergic reactions, too. They can increase histamine, especially if the person having the anxiety has an immune system that is reactive because of underlying autoimmune sensitive to histamine or mast cells, such as Mast Cell Activation Syndrome (MCAS). For people with this autoimmune, for example, stress or anxiety itself can cause hives, swelling, and even severe acute anaphylaxis.  You\u2019d be surprised how much your body reacts from various systems but you aren\u2019t aware of why.  I know someone with MCAS and prior to diagnosis this person thought they had an anxiety disorder, it turned out they had an allergy/immune disorder but it exacerbated anxiety. Treatment greatly diminished anxiety.  One might look into anything else that you might be reacting to and find out if you have systemic reactions causing anxiety, or anxiety that causes systemic reactions because it activates histamines.", "human_ref_B": "Skin and the mental health are correlated. That is noticeable because skin covers the entire body. I suspect that internal organs are also affected by mental health but we can\u2019t see them and are less aware of that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13848.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pd7bcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a known correlation between having sensitive skin or problematic skin in general and having a psychological disorder such as anxiety disorder? I had this (stupid) thought. Skin is the biggest organ and the nervous system is connected to our brain and our body, so i thought that people who have an extra \"nervous\" nervous system might have \"extra nervous\" skin too? Like being more prone to have skin problems?   I know there are a few known correlations like people who have OCD (and wash their hands often) are often having sensitive skin, due to all the washing, but i thought more in general..  This might be an really obvious question or a very stupid one, idk.   Thanks in advance! :)", "c_root_id_A": "haqurmz", "c_root_id_B": "haqtif6", "created_at_utc_A": 1630196032, "created_at_utc_B": 1630195393, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Allergic reactions can cause anxiety, because your body is stressed and reacting with immune response to an allergen. Anxiety can cause allergic reactions, too. They can increase histamine, especially if the person having the anxiety has an immune system that is reactive because of underlying autoimmune sensitive to histamine or mast cells, such as Mast Cell Activation Syndrome (MCAS). For people with this autoimmune, for example, stress or anxiety itself can cause hives, swelling, and even severe acute anaphylaxis.  You\u2019d be surprised how much your body reacts from various systems but you aren\u2019t aware of why.  I know someone with MCAS and prior to diagnosis this person thought they had an anxiety disorder, it turned out they had an allergy/immune disorder but it exacerbated anxiety. Treatment greatly diminished anxiety.  One might look into anything else that you might be reacting to and find out if you have systemic reactions causing anxiety, or anxiety that causes systemic reactions because it activates histamines.", "human_ref_B": "All of that could be related to thyroid issues. Nervousness, panic attacks, tremors, skin bumps, eczema, dry skin, hair texture, ocd, adhd, anxiety, depression, asthma, joint pain, inflammation, leaky gut, digestion problems, brain fog, memory problems, mental illnesses, diabetes, estrogen dominance, pcos, endometriosis, erectile dysfunction, hypersexuality are some BUT NOT ALL of the symptoms associated with thyroid disease.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 639.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pd7bcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a known correlation between having sensitive skin or problematic skin in general and having a psychological disorder such as anxiety disorder? I had this (stupid) thought. Skin is the biggest organ and the nervous system is connected to our brain and our body, so i thought that people who have an extra \"nervous\" nervous system might have \"extra nervous\" skin too? Like being more prone to have skin problems?   I know there are a few known correlations like people who have OCD (and wash their hands often) are often having sensitive skin, due to all the washing, but i thought more in general..  This might be an really obvious question or a very stupid one, idk.   Thanks in advance! :)", "c_root_id_A": "haqurmz", "c_root_id_B": "haqfid8", "created_at_utc_A": 1630196032, "created_at_utc_B": 1630188523, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Allergic reactions can cause anxiety, because your body is stressed and reacting with immune response to an allergen. Anxiety can cause allergic reactions, too. They can increase histamine, especially if the person having the anxiety has an immune system that is reactive because of underlying autoimmune sensitive to histamine or mast cells, such as Mast Cell Activation Syndrome (MCAS). For people with this autoimmune, for example, stress or anxiety itself can cause hives, swelling, and even severe acute anaphylaxis.  You\u2019d be surprised how much your body reacts from various systems but you aren\u2019t aware of why.  I know someone with MCAS and prior to diagnosis this person thought they had an anxiety disorder, it turned out they had an allergy/immune disorder but it exacerbated anxiety. Treatment greatly diminished anxiety.  One might look into anything else that you might be reacting to and find out if you have systemic reactions causing anxiety, or anxiety that causes systemic reactions because it activates histamines.", "human_ref_B": "One of the symptoms for tracking various autoimmune diseases is the presence and level of depression and anxiety, and there\u2019s some early research that suggests eczema may be autoimmune-related (my dermatologist says yes, my rheumatologist says no).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7509.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pd7bcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a known correlation between having sensitive skin or problematic skin in general and having a psychological disorder such as anxiety disorder? I had this (stupid) thought. Skin is the biggest organ and the nervous system is connected to our brain and our body, so i thought that people who have an extra \"nervous\" nervous system might have \"extra nervous\" skin too? Like being more prone to have skin problems?   I know there are a few known correlations like people who have OCD (and wash their hands often) are often having sensitive skin, due to all the washing, but i thought more in general..  This might be an really obvious question or a very stupid one, idk.   Thanks in advance! :)", "c_root_id_A": "haqfid8", "c_root_id_B": "haqtif6", "created_at_utc_A": 1630188523, "created_at_utc_B": 1630195393, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "One of the symptoms for tracking various autoimmune diseases is the presence and level of depression and anxiety, and there\u2019s some early research that suggests eczema may be autoimmune-related (my dermatologist says yes, my rheumatologist says no).", "human_ref_B": "All of that could be related to thyroid issues. Nervousness, panic attacks, tremors, skin bumps, eczema, dry skin, hair texture, ocd, adhd, anxiety, depression, asthma, joint pain, inflammation, leaky gut, digestion problems, brain fog, memory problems, mental illnesses, diabetes, estrogen dominance, pcos, endometriosis, erectile dysfunction, hypersexuality are some BUT NOT ALL of the symptoms associated with thyroid disease.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6870.0, "score_ratio": 1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipr6up9", "c_root_id_B": "iprqngl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664049166, "created_at_utc_B": 1664058077, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 180, "human_ref_A": "As u/thelambofwallstreet nicely explains, cancer isn't caused by radiation alone. In fact, susceptible cells must have multiple (possibly 15) mutations in their DNA to transform into a malignant cell. Ionizing radiation can cause some of them, others might be inherited (genetic), and others result from environmental carcinogens or certain viruses. Weinberg, Hanahan, and others have written excellent summaries of these \"hallmarks of cancer,\" and a recent version is available here:  https://aacrjournals.org/cancerdiscovery/article/12/1/31/675608/Hallmarks-of-Cancer-New-DimensionsHallmarks-of", "human_ref_B": "If a cell is irradiated, its DNA may be damaged. That damage, if not repaired, will be passed down to all the cells its divides into. As others have mentioned, one mutation is generally not enough so this can be seen as essentially jump starting the process of accumulating mutations.  If the mutation happens to be in an important gene for cell cycle regulation or DNA repair, then that cell (or its ancestors) may become cancerous much more quickly.  I'd also like to point out that that not all cells are replaced. Neurons, myocytes (muscle cells), osteocytes (bone cells), oocytes, and others may live for decades or your entire life!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8911.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipr2vgl", "c_root_id_B": "iprqngl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664047443, "created_at_utc_B": 1664058077, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 180, "human_ref_A": "Cancer is not only caused by radiation  Over the years, the cell's system to neutralize mistakes when processing your ADN gets more faulty and radiation can increase chances for such mistakes to happen  Telomeres (genetic fillers) get smaller and avoid protecting genetic material that is essential to your body function.  Its not quite directly related to long term exposure.", "human_ref_B": "If a cell is irradiated, its DNA may be damaged. That damage, if not repaired, will be passed down to all the cells its divides into. As others have mentioned, one mutation is generally not enough so this can be seen as essentially jump starting the process of accumulating mutations.  If the mutation happens to be in an important gene for cell cycle regulation or DNA repair, then that cell (or its ancestors) may become cancerous much more quickly.  I'd also like to point out that that not all cells are replaced. Neurons, myocytes (muscle cells), osteocytes (bone cells), oocytes, and others may live for decades or your entire life!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10634.0, "score_ratio": 6.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "iprfaoa", "c_root_id_B": "iprqngl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664052885, "created_at_utc_B": 1664058077, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 180, "human_ref_A": "Adding on to what others said about there being other causes to mutations in cells, a cell will often need multiple mutations to become cancerous (the number ranges quite a bit but ive heard 7-16). So say you need 16 mutations in a cell for it to become cancerous, mutations build up over time but if you are exposed to radiation then the chance of those mutations goes up. Suppose you were exposed to some serious radiation and accumulated 8 mutations from that one exposure, well you still need 16 to get cancer which normally would take quite sometime but because of the exposure you jump started the process. Now the number of mutations needed for that cell to become cancerous is 8 instead of 16, and over some years those 8 mutations could easily happen and boom now you have cancer", "human_ref_B": "If a cell is irradiated, its DNA may be damaged. That damage, if not repaired, will be passed down to all the cells its divides into. As others have mentioned, one mutation is generally not enough so this can be seen as essentially jump starting the process of accumulating mutations.  If the mutation happens to be in an important gene for cell cycle regulation or DNA repair, then that cell (or its ancestors) may become cancerous much more quickly.  I'd also like to point out that that not all cells are replaced. Neurons, myocytes (muscle cells), osteocytes (bone cells), oocytes, and others may live for decades or your entire life!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5192.0, "score_ratio": 90.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "iprqe6u", "c_root_id_B": "iprqngl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664057958, "created_at_utc_B": 1664058077, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 180, "human_ref_A": "Cells get replaced from stem cells, which don't renew. Those stem cells are purely reliant on DNA repair and if they become damaged but escape cells death, they proliferate damaged cells. So radiation is especially risky for those types of cells.", "human_ref_B": "If a cell is irradiated, its DNA may be damaged. That damage, if not repaired, will be passed down to all the cells its divides into. As others have mentioned, one mutation is generally not enough so this can be seen as essentially jump starting the process of accumulating mutations.  If the mutation happens to be in an important gene for cell cycle regulation or DNA repair, then that cell (or its ancestors) may become cancerous much more quickly.  I'd also like to point out that that not all cells are replaced. Neurons, myocytes (muscle cells), osteocytes (bone cells), oocytes, and others may live for decades or your entire life!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 119.0, "score_ratio": 90.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "iprqngl", "c_root_id_B": "ipremwl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664058077, "created_at_utc_B": 1664052589, "score_A": 180, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "If a cell is irradiated, its DNA may be damaged. That damage, if not repaired, will be passed down to all the cells its divides into. As others have mentioned, one mutation is generally not enough so this can be seen as essentially jump starting the process of accumulating mutations.  If the mutation happens to be in an important gene for cell cycle regulation or DNA repair, then that cell (or its ancestors) may become cancerous much more quickly.  I'd also like to point out that that not all cells are replaced. Neurons, myocytes (muscle cells), osteocytes (bone cells), oocytes, and others may live for decades or your entire life!", "human_ref_B": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5488.0, "score_ratio": -90.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipr6up9", "c_root_id_B": "ipr2vgl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664049166, "created_at_utc_B": 1664047443, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "As u/thelambofwallstreet nicely explains, cancer isn't caused by radiation alone. In fact, susceptible cells must have multiple (possibly 15) mutations in their DNA to transform into a malignant cell. Ionizing radiation can cause some of them, others might be inherited (genetic), and others result from environmental carcinogens or certain viruses. Weinberg, Hanahan, and others have written excellent summaries of these \"hallmarks of cancer,\" and a recent version is available here:  https://aacrjournals.org/cancerdiscovery/article/12/1/31/675608/Hallmarks-of-Cancer-New-DimensionsHallmarks-of", "human_ref_B": "Cancer is not only caused by radiation  Over the years, the cell's system to neutralize mistakes when processing your ADN gets more faulty and radiation can increase chances for such mistakes to happen  Telomeres (genetic fillers) get smaller and avoid protecting genetic material that is essential to your body function.  Its not quite directly related to long term exposure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1723.0, "score_ratio": 1.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipsi7ec", "c_root_id_B": "iprfaoa", "created_at_utc_A": 1664071701, "created_at_utc_B": 1664052885, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It ruins the way they replicate by making them repeat mistakes made by the mutations of the damaged cells. The aging body isn\u2019t as good at neutralizing the threat like it did before (you\u2019d be surprised how often your body staves off cancer on its own)", "human_ref_B": "Adding on to what others said about there being other causes to mutations in cells, a cell will often need multiple mutations to become cancerous (the number ranges quite a bit but ive heard 7-16). So say you need 16 mutations in a cell for it to become cancerous, mutations build up over time but if you are exposed to radiation then the chance of those mutations goes up. Suppose you were exposed to some serious radiation and accumulated 8 mutations from that one exposure, well you still need 16 to get cancer which normally would take quite sometime but because of the exposure you jump started the process. Now the number of mutations needed for that cell to become cancerous is 8 instead of 16, and over some years those 8 mutations could easily happen and boom now you have cancer", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18816.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "iprqe6u", "c_root_id_B": "ipsi7ec", "created_at_utc_A": 1664057958, "created_at_utc_B": 1664071701, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Cells get replaced from stem cells, which don't renew. Those stem cells are purely reliant on DNA repair and if they become damaged but escape cells death, they proliferate damaged cells. So radiation is especially risky for those types of cells.", "human_ref_B": "It ruins the way they replicate by making them repeat mistakes made by the mutations of the damaged cells. The aging body isn\u2019t as good at neutralizing the threat like it did before (you\u2019d be surprised how often your body staves off cancer on its own)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13743.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipsi7ec", "c_root_id_B": "ipscyxk", "created_at_utc_A": 1664071701, "created_at_utc_B": 1664068962, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It ruins the way they replicate by making them repeat mistakes made by the mutations of the damaged cells. The aging body isn\u2019t as good at neutralizing the threat like it did before (you\u2019d be surprised how often your body staves off cancer on its own)", "human_ref_B": "Cancer can be caused by damage to the instructions that tell your body how to build your cells, which is DNA and RNA. If damage occurs to the wrong places in those instructions it causes uncontrolled cell growth and multiplication, and the incorrect cells being produced. As you age the mycilin lining on your DNA degrades and causes your DNA strands to fray and shorten, which can lead to cancers and other types of cell malfunction.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2739.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipsi7ec", "c_root_id_B": "ips9fpw", "created_at_utc_A": 1664071701, "created_at_utc_B": 1664067147, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It ruins the way they replicate by making them repeat mistakes made by the mutations of the damaged cells. The aging body isn\u2019t as good at neutralizing the threat like it did before (you\u2019d be surprised how often your body staves off cancer on its own)", "human_ref_B": "Radiation can cause mutations which can lead to cancer, but it takes at least several mutations in certain genes to actually get cancer. And the damage needs to make it past DNA repair mechanisms and apoptosis.   There are genes called tumor suppressor genes which  need to be damaged or turned off in order for cancer cells to proliferate/survive. Radiation can damage them. Fortunately you have multiple copies of them so it can take a long time for enough damage to accumulate.   Additionally once cells are cancerous they need additional mutations and changes in gene expression to be able to spread around the body and invade other tissues/metastasize. The body is not a hospitable place for cells outside their niche, and the immune system seeks out cells with abnormalities. It is also very common to not notice cancer until it has progressed to later stages, which can also take a long time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4554.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipsi7ec", "c_root_id_B": "ipremwl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664071701, "created_at_utc_B": 1664052589, "score_A": 5, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "It ruins the way they replicate by making them repeat mistakes made by the mutations of the damaged cells. The aging body isn\u2019t as good at neutralizing the threat like it did before (you\u2019d be surprised how often your body staves off cancer on its own)", "human_ref_B": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19112.0, "score_ratio": -2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipremwl", "c_root_id_B": "iprfaoa", "created_at_utc_A": 1664052589, "created_at_utc_B": 1664052885, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "human_ref_B": "Adding on to what others said about there being other causes to mutations in cells, a cell will often need multiple mutations to become cancerous (the number ranges quite a bit but ive heard 7-16). So say you need 16 mutations in a cell for it to become cancerous, mutations build up over time but if you are exposed to radiation then the chance of those mutations goes up. Suppose you were exposed to some serious radiation and accumulated 8 mutations from that one exposure, well you still need 16 to get cancer which normally would take quite sometime but because of the exposure you jump started the process. Now the number of mutations needed for that cell to become cancerous is 8 instead of 16, and over some years those 8 mutations could easily happen and boom now you have cancer", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 296.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "iprqe6u", "c_root_id_B": "ipremwl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664057958, "created_at_utc_B": 1664052589, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Cells get replaced from stem cells, which don't renew. Those stem cells are purely reliant on DNA repair and if they become damaged but escape cells death, they proliferate damaged cells. So radiation is especially risky for those types of cells.", "human_ref_B": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5369.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ips9fpw", "c_root_id_B": "ipscyxk", "created_at_utc_A": 1664067147, "created_at_utc_B": 1664068962, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Radiation can cause mutations which can lead to cancer, but it takes at least several mutations in certain genes to actually get cancer. And the damage needs to make it past DNA repair mechanisms and apoptosis.   There are genes called tumor suppressor genes which  need to be damaged or turned off in order for cancer cells to proliferate/survive. Radiation can damage them. Fortunately you have multiple copies of them so it can take a long time for enough damage to accumulate.   Additionally once cells are cancerous they need additional mutations and changes in gene expression to be able to spread around the body and invade other tissues/metastasize. The body is not a hospitable place for cells outside their niche, and the immune system seeks out cells with abnormalities. It is also very common to not notice cancer until it has progressed to later stages, which can also take a long time.", "human_ref_B": "Cancer can be caused by damage to the instructions that tell your body how to build your cells, which is DNA and RNA. If damage occurs to the wrong places in those instructions it causes uncontrolled cell growth and multiplication, and the incorrect cells being produced. As you age the mycilin lining on your DNA degrades and causes your DNA strands to fray and shorten, which can lead to cancers and other types of cell malfunction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1815.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipremwl", "c_root_id_B": "ipscyxk", "created_at_utc_A": 1664052589, "created_at_utc_B": 1664068962, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "human_ref_B": "Cancer can be caused by damage to the instructions that tell your body how to build your cells, which is DNA and RNA. If damage occurs to the wrong places in those instructions it causes uncontrolled cell growth and multiplication, and the incorrect cells being produced. As you age the mycilin lining on your DNA degrades and causes your DNA strands to fray and shorten, which can lead to cancers and other types of cell malfunction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16373.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipremwl", "c_root_id_B": "ips9fpw", "created_at_utc_A": 1664052589, "created_at_utc_B": 1664067147, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "human_ref_B": "Radiation can cause mutations which can lead to cancer, but it takes at least several mutations in certain genes to actually get cancer. And the damage needs to make it past DNA repair mechanisms and apoptosis.   There are genes called tumor suppressor genes which  need to be damaged or turned off in order for cancer cells to proliferate/survive. Radiation can damage them. Fortunately you have multiple copies of them so it can take a long time for enough damage to accumulate.   Additionally once cells are cancerous they need additional mutations and changes in gene expression to be able to spread around the body and invade other tissues/metastasize. The body is not a hospitable place for cells outside their niche, and the immune system seeks out cells with abnormalities. It is also very common to not notice cancer until it has progressed to later stages, which can also take a long time.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14558.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipuju5a", "c_root_id_B": "ipremwl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664119084, "created_at_utc_B": 1664052589, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Each cell has a template of how to build a copy of itself inside of itself. Over time this template gets damaged, due to errors during handling it inside of the cell and copying this template to new cells. But radiation damages it faster, so technically it does not \"cause\" cancer but contributes to probability of having it. If part of the template that handles error correction and self-destruction gets damaged, you get cancer", "human_ref_B": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 66495.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipuqktc", "c_root_id_B": "ipremwl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664121939, "created_at_utc_B": 1664052589, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "As others have mentioned, cells need many mutations to become cancerous. Radiation in and of itself doesn\u2019t \u201ccause\u201d cancer decades down the line, but it is causes DNA damage, and resulting mutations which can increase likelihood of cancer further down the line. Whenever DNA is damaged, cells attempt to repair it by re-joining the broken ends. This gets harder to do perfectly the more breaks there are, so mutations happen. Mutations that occur are there forever, in every generation of cells which are made from that cell. Those cells will also be exposed to DNA damage in their lifetime (sun exposure, the general background level of radiation, oxidative stress, a whole range of carcinogens, or just the cell division process) which adds more mutations. Cancer happens when enough of the right sort of mutations build up in a cell line and the processes which control its growth don\u2019t work any more. Cancer cells also keep mutating, so a slow-growing undetectable cancer can suddenly develop further mutations that allow it to grow out of control, or metastasise.", "human_ref_B": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 69350.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipremwl", "c_root_id_B": "ipw3wd2", "created_at_utc_A": 1664052589, "created_at_utc_B": 1664140822, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "human_ref_B": "Two main reasons. First, some cell types are long-lived and don't get replaced that often. For example, neurons are not replaced that often which is why brain injury is so devastating. Second, it takes many \"hits\" to generate a cancerous cell. See the \"two-hit hypothesis\" of cancer genesis. Radiation might be one such \"hit.\" Then it takes time for another hit to take out a tumor suppressor, leading to unregulated growth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 88233.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xmytxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Since the bodies cells are replaced every so often, how can radiation cause cancer 10+ years later?", "c_root_id_A": "ipy12ef", "c_root_id_B": "ipremwl", "created_at_utc_A": 1664177739, "created_at_utc_B": 1664052589, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Those who know Human Biology can't deny existence of some Superpower in Universe. A positive force that makes everything running. It has created the greatest marvel as Human Body. Read Anat, Physio, Biochem and It will blow your mind.", "human_ref_B": "AI Elon: When radiation enters the body it interacts with the DNA of every cell    it passes through, creating breaks. These breaks can cause the cell to    malfunction and multiply uncontrollably, creating a cancer. This process    can take a long time (many years) for a cell to begin dividing    uncontrollably.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 125150.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iioamd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does the Covid Nasal Test have to be so invasive? How is it necessary to dig that deep? Ouch! Why?! I don't get it, if the germs are in the air, living on objects for days, just everywhere and insanely contagious why dig so deep to test us? If I was infected and picked my nose and wiped it on you, wouldn't you be pretty certain to contract it?  Wouldnt the boogers in the front of my nose have covid bacteria too?  So why torture us and make this whole experience that much worse???", "c_root_id_A": "g39j3qx", "c_root_id_B": "g398nmh", "created_at_utc_A": 1598724354, "created_at_utc_B": 1598719938, "score_A": 90, "score_B": 69, "human_ref_A": "The area of the nasopharynx is well suited for incubation and growth of pathogens both viral and bacterial. Best chance of a high viral load area and therefore best chance of a true result on testing. That being said, the best results are being found on days 5-9 of testing in the best powered studies we have thus far.  Source: PA  who used to run hospital lab and use molecular micro techniques to validate specimen acquisition techniques", "human_ref_B": "It\u2019s to prevent false negatives. Yes you may get positive from the nasal swab but still interference and different factors may damage the sample.  Because of the importance of the test and also how expensive it is, getting uncomfortable for a deep swab means basically nothing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4416.0, "score_ratio": 1.3043478261, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iioamd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does the Covid Nasal Test have to be so invasive? How is it necessary to dig that deep? Ouch! Why?! I don't get it, if the germs are in the air, living on objects for days, just everywhere and insanely contagious why dig so deep to test us? If I was infected and picked my nose and wiped it on you, wouldn't you be pretty certain to contract it?  Wouldnt the boogers in the front of my nose have covid bacteria too?  So why torture us and make this whole experience that much worse???", "c_root_id_A": "g39j3qx", "c_root_id_B": "g397oo3", "created_at_utc_A": 1598724354, "created_at_utc_B": 1598719511, "score_A": 90, "score_B": 31, "human_ref_A": "The area of the nasopharynx is well suited for incubation and growth of pathogens both viral and bacterial. Best chance of a high viral load area and therefore best chance of a true result on testing. That being said, the best results are being found on days 5-9 of testing in the best powered studies we have thus far.  Source: PA  who used to run hospital lab and use molecular micro techniques to validate specimen acquisition techniques", "human_ref_B": "The reason the most popular testing protocol requires the tester to reach so deep into the nasal passage is to prevent a suspected source of false negatives.  It is well-known that sneezing and nasal infections are not a major symptom of COVID-19, so there is concern that there may not be enough virus adhering to the nose itself.  The reasoning goes that by reaching further into the respiratory tract, and thus closer to the lungs, you get closer to the source of infection and are more likely to pick up viral particles.  There are other non-painful testing protocols that also work, but the trick to medical testing is that you have to follow each protocol \\*exactly\\* even if a minor adjustment seems like it wouldn't harm your results - so it the practitioner is doing a painful protocol, its that or nothing.  COVID-19 is mostly spread through breathing, so the fact that painless swabbing protocols exist suggests that its possible that the swab just has to stay in or near your nose while you exhale a couple times - the physical act of swabbing may be unnecessary.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4843.0, "score_ratio": 2.9032258065, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iioamd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does the Covid Nasal Test have to be so invasive? How is it necessary to dig that deep? Ouch! Why?! I don't get it, if the germs are in the air, living on objects for days, just everywhere and insanely contagious why dig so deep to test us? If I was infected and picked my nose and wiped it on you, wouldn't you be pretty certain to contract it?  Wouldnt the boogers in the front of my nose have covid bacteria too?  So why torture us and make this whole experience that much worse???", "c_root_id_A": "g397oo3", "c_root_id_B": "g398nmh", "created_at_utc_A": 1598719511, "created_at_utc_B": 1598719938, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 69, "human_ref_A": "The reason the most popular testing protocol requires the tester to reach so deep into the nasal passage is to prevent a suspected source of false negatives.  It is well-known that sneezing and nasal infections are not a major symptom of COVID-19, so there is concern that there may not be enough virus adhering to the nose itself.  The reasoning goes that by reaching further into the respiratory tract, and thus closer to the lungs, you get closer to the source of infection and are more likely to pick up viral particles.  There are other non-painful testing protocols that also work, but the trick to medical testing is that you have to follow each protocol \\*exactly\\* even if a minor adjustment seems like it wouldn't harm your results - so it the practitioner is doing a painful protocol, its that or nothing.  COVID-19 is mostly spread through breathing, so the fact that painless swabbing protocols exist suggests that its possible that the swab just has to stay in or near your nose while you exhale a couple times - the physical act of swabbing may be unnecessary.", "human_ref_B": "It\u2019s to prevent false negatives. Yes you may get positive from the nasal swab but still interference and different factors may damage the sample.  Because of the importance of the test and also how expensive it is, getting uncomfortable for a deep swab means basically nothing.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 427.0, "score_ratio": 2.2258064516, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iioamd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does the Covid Nasal Test have to be so invasive? How is it necessary to dig that deep? Ouch! Why?! I don't get it, if the germs are in the air, living on objects for days, just everywhere and insanely contagious why dig so deep to test us? If I was infected and picked my nose and wiped it on you, wouldn't you be pretty certain to contract it?  Wouldnt the boogers in the front of my nose have covid bacteria too?  So why torture us and make this whole experience that much worse???", "c_root_id_A": "g397oo3", "c_root_id_B": "g39kq7o", "created_at_utc_A": 1598719511, "created_at_utc_B": 1598725202, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "The reason the most popular testing protocol requires the tester to reach so deep into the nasal passage is to prevent a suspected source of false negatives.  It is well-known that sneezing and nasal infections are not a major symptom of COVID-19, so there is concern that there may not be enough virus adhering to the nose itself.  The reasoning goes that by reaching further into the respiratory tract, and thus closer to the lungs, you get closer to the source of infection and are more likely to pick up viral particles.  There are other non-painful testing protocols that also work, but the trick to medical testing is that you have to follow each protocol \\*exactly\\* even if a minor adjustment seems like it wouldn't harm your results - so it the practitioner is doing a painful protocol, its that or nothing.  COVID-19 is mostly spread through breathing, so the fact that painless swabbing protocols exist suggests that its possible that the swab just has to stay in or near your nose while you exhale a couple times - the physical act of swabbing may be unnecessary.", "human_ref_B": "They use different methodologies. The q-tip in your nose test that doesn\u2019t hurt is a rapid antigen test. It\u2019s looking for a component of the virus and as such is more prone to false negatives because it\u2019s more apt to miss the target antigen with a nasal swab.  The dig out your brain make your eyes water nasopharyngeal test is molecular. Usually it\u2019s a PCR test meaning that it\u2019s sent to a lab to amplify the DNA of the virus that causes Covid-19. Molecular assays are highly specific and more sensitive than antigen tests, so the false negative rate is much lower.   A patient with a negative antigen (nasal swab) may still be infected and would be positive from a molecular (nasopharyngeal sample) taken at the same time.   https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/coronavirus-testing-basics", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5691.0, "score_ratio": 1.4193548387, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iioamd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does the Covid Nasal Test have to be so invasive? How is it necessary to dig that deep? Ouch! Why?! I don't get it, if the germs are in the air, living on objects for days, just everywhere and insanely contagious why dig so deep to test us? If I was infected and picked my nose and wiped it on you, wouldn't you be pretty certain to contract it?  Wouldnt the boogers in the front of my nose have covid bacteria too?  So why torture us and make this whole experience that much worse???", "c_root_id_A": "g397oo3", "c_root_id_B": "g3a7cn8", "created_at_utc_A": 1598719511, "created_at_utc_B": 1598735216, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "The reason the most popular testing protocol requires the tester to reach so deep into the nasal passage is to prevent a suspected source of false negatives.  It is well-known that sneezing and nasal infections are not a major symptom of COVID-19, so there is concern that there may not be enough virus adhering to the nose itself.  The reasoning goes that by reaching further into the respiratory tract, and thus closer to the lungs, you get closer to the source of infection and are more likely to pick up viral particles.  There are other non-painful testing protocols that also work, but the trick to medical testing is that you have to follow each protocol \\*exactly\\* even if a minor adjustment seems like it wouldn't harm your results - so it the practitioner is doing a painful protocol, its that or nothing.  COVID-19 is mostly spread through breathing, so the fact that painless swabbing protocols exist suggests that its possible that the swab just has to stay in or near your nose while you exhale a couple times - the physical act of swabbing may be unnecessary.", "human_ref_B": "Are these tests really that bad? I\u2019ve had two in the past month and while they were uncomfortable, I\u2019d say doing blood work or a Pap smear are much more painful and uncomfortable.   Do others get like nose bleeds or other issues with the test? Or is it a bigger problem for folk who test a lot more frequently (eg health care workers)?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15705.0, "score_ratio": 1.2580645161, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pkvxt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any mutually predatory relationships between animal species found in nature? I know that most animals exist in relationships that are predator-prey, host-parasite, etc., but are there any examples where both animals actively compete to kill the other, with relatively even chances of success? Or is it just evolutionarily very unlikely that such a situation would last for very long without one species becoming dominant over the other and creating the predator-prey paradigm, or both species ignoring one another and both preying upon smaller prey species?", "c_root_id_A": "c3q7n7d", "c_root_id_B": "c3q7hp1", "created_at_utc_A": 1328988915, "created_at_utc_B": 1328987988, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Adults of different species competing in a fair fight for food is basically a direct violation of evolutionary biology. Predators eat things that are easy for them to kill, because they need to successfully eat repeatedly throughout their life history. Predators pretty universally stick to very low-risk prey, and will often back down from a prey animal that notices them or appears larger/healthier than anticipated. Where examples of \"fair fights\" exist at all, they probably involve desperate starving predators, animals that eat only once in their lives, a prey animal consuming a predator after successfully defending itself, and animals that substantially change behavior based on season, etc.  Going outside adults-eating-adults, there are tons of species that will eat one another under the right circumstances.  Tons of generalists (mesocarnivores, frogs, corvids and birds of prey, fish) will hunt the young of their predators. This is usually just their willingness to eat anything that fits in their mouths, and not a vengeful or territorial behavior.   It's also a common animal behavior to eat external parasites that have been removed from the body, which sort of counts as co-predation.   Scavengers of all sorts will happily eat their predators, but this is not predation. Scavengers very rarely attempt to finish off a dying animal, since waiting is much lower-risk.", "human_ref_B": "I'm not sure if this counts, but I would imagine that fights between sperm whales and giant squid would be pretty intense.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 927.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a7mrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If the universe is accelerating, and life that will exist 100 billion years from now cannot detect things that occur in the universe today, can we detect things that happened 13 billion years ago? Would they not have just disappeared? [Details Inside] According to the ending of this video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EjaGktVQdNg), Lawrence Krauss states that the universe will continue to expand in such a rate that the life on a galaxy 100 billion years from now will only see itself and will be alone. The information that they gather about the history of the universe will be false.  Today, the universe is 13.7 billion years old. Can we confidently state that we know the state of the universe 13 billion years ago? Would certain aspects of the universe's creation be possible 'extinct' in time?", "c_root_id_A": "c8uudge", "c_root_id_B": "c8utna7", "created_at_utc_A": 1363183630, "created_at_utc_B": 1363180303, "score_A": 315, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "The word \"seeing\" has two meanings here, to see as to literally receive visible light or other EM radiation from objects in the sky, and to be eventually updated on their \"current\" state.  Consider some remote galaxy, the light that it emitted 13 billion years ago is just reaching us. What happens to the light it emitted one year later? Due to the expansion of the universe it's as if the galaxy were rapidly moving away, so the light it emitted exactly one year later would have to cross 13 billion light years plus whatever distance it moved away during that year (or, actually, all additional space that appeared between us) so would take much longer time to reach us, we will be receiving its year's worth of light over the course of hundreds of years (so it's also very weak and red-shifted).   The interesting thing about the whole deal is that that galaxy probably has crossed the event horizon of the observable universe, say, 12 billion years ago: no light that it emitted later could outrace the expansion of the space between us. So we will never \"see\" that galaxy in its \"current\" state, like, being 13 billion years old.  However, we will never stop seeing the light it emitted during the billion years of its lifetime before it crossed the event horizon. It will become more and more diluted, so to speak: weaker and redder, as there's a finite amount of it that has to be spread over infinite time, but it will never just wink out of existence, it will gradually go below the level of ambient noise/our detection capabilities instead.", "human_ref_B": "We can detect cosmic microwave background radiation (400k years after the big bang), beyond which it is not even possible to detect in the same way due to the state of the universe then. Some evidence could be 'extinct' or 'inaccessible' but not in the same fashion as pointed out in the video (expansion faster than the speed of light).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3327.0, "score_ratio": 11.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a7mrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If the universe is accelerating, and life that will exist 100 billion years from now cannot detect things that occur in the universe today, can we detect things that happened 13 billion years ago? Would they not have just disappeared? [Details Inside] According to the ending of this video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EjaGktVQdNg), Lawrence Krauss states that the universe will continue to expand in such a rate that the life on a galaxy 100 billion years from now will only see itself and will be alone. The information that they gather about the history of the universe will be false.  Today, the universe is 13.7 billion years old. Can we confidently state that we know the state of the universe 13 billion years ago? Would certain aspects of the universe's creation be possible 'extinct' in time?", "c_root_id_A": "c8uub7u", "c_root_id_B": "c8uudge", "created_at_utc_A": 1363183364, "created_at_utc_B": 1363183630, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 315, "human_ref_A": "I don't know if this will make it easier or more difficult to understand but one should realize that the Universe is a sort of inside out black hole.  For a black hole we can imagine a pond and a sinkhole. The water is flowing at a certain speed towards the sink hole. Now if there's two blind frogs sitting on lily pads on the pond they won't be able to communicate once one of the frogs starts falling into the sink hole faster than the speed of sound.  This is because from a certain prospective a black hole is a sink hole for space.  At the horizon of the black hole space itself is \"falling in\" at the speed of light.  There are also cosmic horizons.  The cosmic horizon is the place where things are rushing away from you at the speed of light.  This is the sense in which you could say the region of space in an expanding universe is like an inside out black hole.  You can't communicate with objects that are too far out.  It's almost like instead of a sink hole the frogs were initially on an infinitely large dome which is always wet.  You can imagine that the frog that is further down the dome and slipping is moving faster than a from that just started slipping from the tip.  Eventually there's a point where the one from is falling faster than the speed of sound.  This latter analogy is a little less clear but I hope it helps!", "human_ref_B": "The word \"seeing\" has two meanings here, to see as to literally receive visible light or other EM radiation from objects in the sky, and to be eventually updated on their \"current\" state.  Consider some remote galaxy, the light that it emitted 13 billion years ago is just reaching us. What happens to the light it emitted one year later? Due to the expansion of the universe it's as if the galaxy were rapidly moving away, so the light it emitted exactly one year later would have to cross 13 billion light years plus whatever distance it moved away during that year (or, actually, all additional space that appeared between us) so would take much longer time to reach us, we will be receiving its year's worth of light over the course of hundreds of years (so it's also very weak and red-shifted).   The interesting thing about the whole deal is that that galaxy probably has crossed the event horizon of the observable universe, say, 12 billion years ago: no light that it emitted later could outrace the expansion of the space between us. So we will never \"see\" that galaxy in its \"current\" state, like, being 13 billion years old.  However, we will never stop seeing the light it emitted during the billion years of its lifetime before it crossed the event horizon. It will become more and more diluted, so to speak: weaker and redder, as there's a finite amount of it that has to be spread over infinite time, but it will never just wink out of existence, it will gradually go below the level of ambient noise/our detection capabilities instead.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 266.0, "score_ratio": 14.3181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a7mrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If the universe is accelerating, and life that will exist 100 billion years from now cannot detect things that occur in the universe today, can we detect things that happened 13 billion years ago? Would they not have just disappeared? [Details Inside] According to the ending of this video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EjaGktVQdNg), Lawrence Krauss states that the universe will continue to expand in such a rate that the life on a galaxy 100 billion years from now will only see itself and will be alone. The information that they gather about the history of the universe will be false.  Today, the universe is 13.7 billion years old. Can we confidently state that we know the state of the universe 13 billion years ago? Would certain aspects of the universe's creation be possible 'extinct' in time?", "c_root_id_A": "c8uud5d", "c_root_id_B": "c8uudge", "created_at_utc_A": 1363183593, "created_at_utc_B": 1363183630, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 315, "human_ref_A": "Given the research and findings of the Higgs-Boson particle, would there be a 100 billion years from now at all? From what I read, the universe has a fairly finite lifespan (10 billion years give or take) if I read it correctly.", "human_ref_B": "The word \"seeing\" has two meanings here, to see as to literally receive visible light or other EM radiation from objects in the sky, and to be eventually updated on their \"current\" state.  Consider some remote galaxy, the light that it emitted 13 billion years ago is just reaching us. What happens to the light it emitted one year later? Due to the expansion of the universe it's as if the galaxy were rapidly moving away, so the light it emitted exactly one year later would have to cross 13 billion light years plus whatever distance it moved away during that year (or, actually, all additional space that appeared between us) so would take much longer time to reach us, we will be receiving its year's worth of light over the course of hundreds of years (so it's also very weak and red-shifted).   The interesting thing about the whole deal is that that galaxy probably has crossed the event horizon of the observable universe, say, 12 billion years ago: no light that it emitted later could outrace the expansion of the space between us. So we will never \"see\" that galaxy in its \"current\" state, like, being 13 billion years old.  However, we will never stop seeing the light it emitted during the billion years of its lifetime before it crossed the event horizon. It will become more and more diluted, so to speak: weaker and redder, as there's a finite amount of it that has to be spread over infinite time, but it will never just wink out of existence, it will gradually go below the level of ambient noise/our detection capabilities instead.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37.0, "score_ratio": 315000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a7mrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If the universe is accelerating, and life that will exist 100 billion years from now cannot detect things that occur in the universe today, can we detect things that happened 13 billion years ago? Would they not have just disappeared? [Details Inside] According to the ending of this video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EjaGktVQdNg), Lawrence Krauss states that the universe will continue to expand in such a rate that the life on a galaxy 100 billion years from now will only see itself and will be alone. The information that they gather about the history of the universe will be false.  Today, the universe is 13.7 billion years old. Can we confidently state that we know the state of the universe 13 billion years ago? Would certain aspects of the universe's creation be possible 'extinct' in time?", "c_root_id_A": "c8uusa8", "c_root_id_B": "c8uud5d", "created_at_utc_A": 1363185266, "created_at_utc_B": 1363183593, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Isn't there a problem with the question itself? The age of star formation is limited by the amount of hydrogen, and light (opposite of heavy) elements in the universe. At some point there will be no more stars, but I don't know if this will occur sooner than 100 billion years or not.  On a side note... what would it mean if the expansion rate of the universe is not constant? That is, if the universe's expansion alternates between accelerating and decelerating over enormous time scales.", "human_ref_B": "Given the research and findings of the Higgs-Boson particle, would there be a 100 billion years from now at all? From what I read, the universe has a fairly finite lifespan (10 billion years give or take) if I read it correctly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1673.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a7mrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If the universe is accelerating, and life that will exist 100 billion years from now cannot detect things that occur in the universe today, can we detect things that happened 13 billion years ago? Would they not have just disappeared? [Details Inside] According to the ending of this video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EjaGktVQdNg), Lawrence Krauss states that the universe will continue to expand in such a rate that the life on a galaxy 100 billion years from now will only see itself and will be alone. The information that they gather about the history of the universe will be false.  Today, the universe is 13.7 billion years old. Can we confidently state that we know the state of the universe 13 billion years ago? Would certain aspects of the universe's creation be possible 'extinct' in time?", "c_root_id_A": "c8uvhve", "c_root_id_B": "c8uud5d", "created_at_utc_A": 1363187784, "created_at_utc_B": 1363183593, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "As has been explained in other comments, objects cannot leave the particle horizon once they are inside it. An object that has been seen once will be visible forever (although it could just stop being luminous or be obscured), even though it's observation might become nearly impossible.  However the part of your question was \"Are there things about the universe's creation that we cannot observe\". Here the answer is yes. Before the decoupling radiation could not travel freely in the universe. Therefore we cannot observe anything before that time. According to our best current model, decoupling occured at a redshift of about 1090 (so when the universe was roughly 1/1090s it's current size). Once decoupling happened, radiation could suddenly travel freely, and that radiaition is now observed as the cosmic microwave background.  To summarize: We know we can observe back to the point of decoupling because we can observe the microwave background. We cannot observe anything before that time because radiation could not travel freely before that time. So yes, there are details of the universe's creation hidden from us. But this is not because of the universe's expansion.  (Disclaimer: I'm not a professional physicist)", "human_ref_B": "Given the research and findings of the Higgs-Boson particle, would there be a 100 billion years from now at all? From what I read, the universe has a fairly finite lifespan (10 billion years give or take) if I read it correctly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4191.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a7mrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If the universe is accelerating, and life that will exist 100 billion years from now cannot detect things that occur in the universe today, can we detect things that happened 13 billion years ago? Would they not have just disappeared? [Details Inside] According to the ending of this video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EjaGktVQdNg), Lawrence Krauss states that the universe will continue to expand in such a rate that the life on a galaxy 100 billion years from now will only see itself and will be alone. The information that they gather about the history of the universe will be false.  Today, the universe is 13.7 billion years old. Can we confidently state that we know the state of the universe 13 billion years ago? Would certain aspects of the universe's creation be possible 'extinct' in time?", "c_root_id_A": "c8uud5d", "c_root_id_B": "c8v39m8", "created_at_utc_A": 1363183593, "created_at_utc_B": 1363210061, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Given the research and findings of the Higgs-Boson particle, would there be a 100 billion years from now at all? From what I read, the universe has a fairly finite lifespan (10 billion years give or take) if I read it correctly.", "human_ref_B": "Worth noting that the *expansion* of the universe is accelerating, as far as we know the universe as one massive entity is stationary.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26468.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ti5qnf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Bill Bryson in The Short History in Nearly Everything wrote, \u201cThe period immediately after the dinosaur extinction could well be known as the Age of Turtles.\u201d What is it about turtles that made them so much more advanced and deadly than other animals at the time, and have they evolved since?", "c_root_id_A": "i1duoch", "c_root_id_B": "i1fvkv0", "created_at_utc_A": 1647767376, "created_at_utc_B": 1647804958, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Large cold-blooded animals can go a long time without food.  It is possible that large warm-blooded animals died off, but a couple large cold-blooded animals like turtles and crocodiles survived.  There is debate about whether or not large dinosaurs were warm-blooded.", "human_ref_B": "Let me take a break from writing my thesis on Cenozoic turtle paleontology and ecology to compose a response.  The quote you provide is a reasonable statement, but is vastly over-generalized and simplified, and also may give the wrong impression about what it means.  \u201cThe period immediately after the dinosaur extinction\u201d is extremely vague, and could refer to a period of several hundred thousand to millions of years.  For our purposes, let\u2019s assume he\u2019s referring to the Paleocene, the first epoch of the Paleogene period of the Cenozoic, which lasted from 66.5 Ma to 56 Ma.  Now that we\u2019ve decided on our time frame, let\u2019s set the context for turtles and why this particular time would be their \u201cgolden age\u201d.  Turtles first evolved in the Triassic, about 225 Ma, during a period of intense diversification of reptiles, particularly the diapsid lineages that gave us lizards, snakes, crocodiles, and birds.  For a while we believed turtles were from a more primitive group of reptiles called anapsids, but this was incorrect.  That\u2019s a topic for another day.  The point is that turtles are extremely ancient, pre-dating mammals and birds and coexisting with the very earliest crocodilians and dinosaurs.  Some examples of these Triassic turtles are *Odontochelys* and *Proganochelys*, as well as earlier proto-turtle ancestors like *Pappochelys* and *Eunotosaurus*.  By the end of the Triassic, the complete turtle shell (carapace+plastron fused together) had appeared and the stage was set for turtle dominion.  The Jurassic was not a particularly diverse time for turtles as far as we can tell, but the fossil record of the early Jurassic is generally sparse, and as Mesozoic turtle evolution isn\u2019t my field I don\u2019t want to speak on it too much.  I can say that the late Jurassic likely saw the divergence of two major turtle lineages, the cryptodires and pleurodires, which comprise all living turtles.  In the Cretaceous, these lineages further diversified, with softshell turtles appearing in the mid-Cretaceous and the bulk of cryptodire diversity finally appearing in the late Cretaceous with the appearance of kinosternids, chelydrids, and testudinoids.  The Cretaceous was generally warm and humid, and if there is one thing turtles really appreciate it is warm aquatic habitat.  At the time of the KPg extinction event, turtles were already diverse and thriving around the world, including even in Antarctica!  Pleurodires were much more widespread than today, when they are restricted to Gondwanan continents (South America, Africa, and Australia).  The largest turtle of all time, *Archelon* lived in the later Cretaceous.  Most turtles of this period were much as they are today: small to medium-sized, aquatic, generalist omnivores.  This made them the perfect candidates to survive a cataclysmic event like a bolloid impact, which devastated marine and terrestrial environments and was apocalyptic for any animal larger than a small dog.  Turtles were likely protected by their ability to thrive in many types of environments, preference for aquatic habitats that A) provided initial protection from wildfires and other disasters, and B) have robust nutrient-rich ecosystems founded on decaying detritus and microinvertebrates rather than living plant assemblages.  Turtles are also hearty and resilient, they can hibernate underwater or in burrows for long periods of time when climatic conditions are adverse.  They have broad diets, eating just about anything they can get their little beaks on.  It\u2019s essentially impossible to find a turtle that won\u2019t happily consume plant and animal matter if available, so they aren\u2019t particularly limited by food resources the way more specialized hypercarnivores and hyperherbivores were.  The time period we\u2019re most interested in, the Paleocene, was notable for seeing average global temperatures even higher than the Cretaceous.  We\u2019re talking a real hot-house earth, tropical conditions above the Arctic circle, alligators on Greenland, forests covering nearly every terrestrial ecosystem on the planet.  This really was heaven on earth for turtles, who were one of the few lineages to survive relatively unscathed through the extinction.  They were able to thrive and diversify even further at this time, and occupied nearly every ecosystem imaginable across the globe.  Turtle fossils are so common in early Cenozoic sites that many researchers hate them, and call them \u201cturtle trash\u201d or \u201cexploded turtle\u201d, because of their prevalence and habit of spreading through everything.  They\u2019re wrong, of course.  Turtles are never trash.  The hot-house conditions lasted through the Paleocene into the Eocene, known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, and oversaw the diversification of most modern mammal groups such as rodents, even and odd-toed ungulates, carnivorans, bats, and primates.  It also saw a lot of weird and obscure extinct lineages like the pantodonts, brontotheres, creodonts, and more.  For turtles though, the Eocene sees the appearance of arguably the three most successful turtle families, all diverging from the testudinoid group.  These were the testudinids (tortoises), the geoemydids (Asian river terrapins and the Central American wood turtle), and the emydids (your standard North American pond turtles, box turtles, and teenage mutant ninja turtles).  The emydids in particular have risen to become the most diverse family of turtles alive today.  The end of the Eocene and the start of the Oligocene saw some pretty drastic changes in global climate systems, and involved significant cooling events around the world.  Forests began to recede and be replaced by more open environments, which resulted in the evolution of long-legged mammals suited to pursuing and fleeing one another.  Many mammals became larger-bodied as forest cover was no longer a viable defense against predation, and cooler climates drove more arid environments that required tougher dentition to feed on coarse, abrasive plant matter.  But we\u2019re not interested in the mammals (unlike everyone else in my department), we\u2019re interested in the turtles (unlike anyone else in my department).  Cooler, more arid environments were a disaster for turtles, and their diversity was greatly reduced during this time as part of what is called the Eocene-Oligocene extinction events.  Turtle fossils become less abundant in Oligocene fossil sites, to the joy of mammal paleontologists.  The turtle tale doesn\u2019t end here though, as they held on and survived in restricted, low-latitude environments.  They saw some flashes of diversification in the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum about 16 Ma, which lead to the arrival of subfamilies like the emydines and deirochelyines from the emydid family.  Again in the Pliocene, periods of relative warmth allowed turtles to diversify and disperse beyond their typical limits, leading to novel turtle communities that don\u2019t compare to anything we observe in the wild today (this period and these communities are the main focus of my own research).  The Pleistocene didn\u2019t do any favors for turtles, but again they were resilient and held on in southern refugia along the gulf coast and southern Appalachians (in North America, I can\u2019t speak to where they managed to hold out in Eurasia).  Today turtles are once again reasonably well-established, but their numbers are not nearly as diverse as they once were, and compared to other diapsid groups like lizards, snakes, and birds, they aren\u2019t that diverse at all.  So with all that in mind, if I was asked to name the \u201cgolden age of turtles\u201d, I would say the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum is the peak of turtle diversity.  I would call the later Cretaceous the period of the most significant turtle diversification events, as it gave us so many distinct lineages that still exist, but the PETM saw more sheer bulk of turtles, as well as the rise of emydids and geoemydids, which dominate modern turtle diversity.  To say the \u201cperiod immediately after the dinosaur extinction\u201d is a little reductionist, as it misses the point that this was a 20 million-year period of time during which turtles were thriving, but it\u2019s still more or less true.  Today, rising average global temperatures might seem like a good thing for turtles, which thrive in warm, wet conditions, but this is not the case.  Turtles are highly reliant on stable climate regimes, and require hundreds of thousands of years to adapt to new conditions.  Reproduction in particular is specifically tied to atmospheric temperatures, and throwing that out of balance at the rate we\u2019re seeing today is driving turtle populations towards extinction.  Furthermore, the reduction of habitat removes their ability to seek out refugia or change distribution patterns in response to climate change.  The introduction of invasives from the pet trade, namely the red-eared slider, is putting pressure on many endemic turtle species in western North America, Europe, and Asia.  Overharvesting for food, trophies, and the pet trade have already pushed many Asian species to the brink of extinction, or over it.  Turtles are the most threatened group of vertebrates in the world, and nothing is standing between them and extinction other than our ability to recognize this fact and take action to prevent it.  225 million years of beautiful evolution gone because we didn\u2019t know when to stop.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37582.0, "score_ratio": 7.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ti5qnf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Bill Bryson in The Short History in Nearly Everything wrote, \u201cThe period immediately after the dinosaur extinction could well be known as the Age of Turtles.\u201d What is it about turtles that made them so much more advanced and deadly than other animals at the time, and have they evolved since?", "c_root_id_A": "i1ey8c9", "c_root_id_B": "i1fvkv0", "created_at_utc_A": 1647791289, "created_at_utc_B": 1647804958, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Advanced and deadly? What's that supposed to mean? Why would you think that's something an organism would need necessarily need to be?  And evolved, well of course they did. Genetic drift doesn't randomly stop, and neither do environments stop changing. Adapt or die, simple as that. Shelly boys obviously still exist so you would assume they did evolve.", "human_ref_B": "Let me take a break from writing my thesis on Cenozoic turtle paleontology and ecology to compose a response.  The quote you provide is a reasonable statement, but is vastly over-generalized and simplified, and also may give the wrong impression about what it means.  \u201cThe period immediately after the dinosaur extinction\u201d is extremely vague, and could refer to a period of several hundred thousand to millions of years.  For our purposes, let\u2019s assume he\u2019s referring to the Paleocene, the first epoch of the Paleogene period of the Cenozoic, which lasted from 66.5 Ma to 56 Ma.  Now that we\u2019ve decided on our time frame, let\u2019s set the context for turtles and why this particular time would be their \u201cgolden age\u201d.  Turtles first evolved in the Triassic, about 225 Ma, during a period of intense diversification of reptiles, particularly the diapsid lineages that gave us lizards, snakes, crocodiles, and birds.  For a while we believed turtles were from a more primitive group of reptiles called anapsids, but this was incorrect.  That\u2019s a topic for another day.  The point is that turtles are extremely ancient, pre-dating mammals and birds and coexisting with the very earliest crocodilians and dinosaurs.  Some examples of these Triassic turtles are *Odontochelys* and *Proganochelys*, as well as earlier proto-turtle ancestors like *Pappochelys* and *Eunotosaurus*.  By the end of the Triassic, the complete turtle shell (carapace+plastron fused together) had appeared and the stage was set for turtle dominion.  The Jurassic was not a particularly diverse time for turtles as far as we can tell, but the fossil record of the early Jurassic is generally sparse, and as Mesozoic turtle evolution isn\u2019t my field I don\u2019t want to speak on it too much.  I can say that the late Jurassic likely saw the divergence of two major turtle lineages, the cryptodires and pleurodires, which comprise all living turtles.  In the Cretaceous, these lineages further diversified, with softshell turtles appearing in the mid-Cretaceous and the bulk of cryptodire diversity finally appearing in the late Cretaceous with the appearance of kinosternids, chelydrids, and testudinoids.  The Cretaceous was generally warm and humid, and if there is one thing turtles really appreciate it is warm aquatic habitat.  At the time of the KPg extinction event, turtles were already diverse and thriving around the world, including even in Antarctica!  Pleurodires were much more widespread than today, when they are restricted to Gondwanan continents (South America, Africa, and Australia).  The largest turtle of all time, *Archelon* lived in the later Cretaceous.  Most turtles of this period were much as they are today: small to medium-sized, aquatic, generalist omnivores.  This made them the perfect candidates to survive a cataclysmic event like a bolloid impact, which devastated marine and terrestrial environments and was apocalyptic for any animal larger than a small dog.  Turtles were likely protected by their ability to thrive in many types of environments, preference for aquatic habitats that A) provided initial protection from wildfires and other disasters, and B) have robust nutrient-rich ecosystems founded on decaying detritus and microinvertebrates rather than living plant assemblages.  Turtles are also hearty and resilient, they can hibernate underwater or in burrows for long periods of time when climatic conditions are adverse.  They have broad diets, eating just about anything they can get their little beaks on.  It\u2019s essentially impossible to find a turtle that won\u2019t happily consume plant and animal matter if available, so they aren\u2019t particularly limited by food resources the way more specialized hypercarnivores and hyperherbivores were.  The time period we\u2019re most interested in, the Paleocene, was notable for seeing average global temperatures even higher than the Cretaceous.  We\u2019re talking a real hot-house earth, tropical conditions above the Arctic circle, alligators on Greenland, forests covering nearly every terrestrial ecosystem on the planet.  This really was heaven on earth for turtles, who were one of the few lineages to survive relatively unscathed through the extinction.  They were able to thrive and diversify even further at this time, and occupied nearly every ecosystem imaginable across the globe.  Turtle fossils are so common in early Cenozoic sites that many researchers hate them, and call them \u201cturtle trash\u201d or \u201cexploded turtle\u201d, because of their prevalence and habit of spreading through everything.  They\u2019re wrong, of course.  Turtles are never trash.  The hot-house conditions lasted through the Paleocene into the Eocene, known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, and oversaw the diversification of most modern mammal groups such as rodents, even and odd-toed ungulates, carnivorans, bats, and primates.  It also saw a lot of weird and obscure extinct lineages like the pantodonts, brontotheres, creodonts, and more.  For turtles though, the Eocene sees the appearance of arguably the three most successful turtle families, all diverging from the testudinoid group.  These were the testudinids (tortoises), the geoemydids (Asian river terrapins and the Central American wood turtle), and the emydids (your standard North American pond turtles, box turtles, and teenage mutant ninja turtles).  The emydids in particular have risen to become the most diverse family of turtles alive today.  The end of the Eocene and the start of the Oligocene saw some pretty drastic changes in global climate systems, and involved significant cooling events around the world.  Forests began to recede and be replaced by more open environments, which resulted in the evolution of long-legged mammals suited to pursuing and fleeing one another.  Many mammals became larger-bodied as forest cover was no longer a viable defense against predation, and cooler climates drove more arid environments that required tougher dentition to feed on coarse, abrasive plant matter.  But we\u2019re not interested in the mammals (unlike everyone else in my department), we\u2019re interested in the turtles (unlike anyone else in my department).  Cooler, more arid environments were a disaster for turtles, and their diversity was greatly reduced during this time as part of what is called the Eocene-Oligocene extinction events.  Turtle fossils become less abundant in Oligocene fossil sites, to the joy of mammal paleontologists.  The turtle tale doesn\u2019t end here though, as they held on and survived in restricted, low-latitude environments.  They saw some flashes of diversification in the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum about 16 Ma, which lead to the arrival of subfamilies like the emydines and deirochelyines from the emydid family.  Again in the Pliocene, periods of relative warmth allowed turtles to diversify and disperse beyond their typical limits, leading to novel turtle communities that don\u2019t compare to anything we observe in the wild today (this period and these communities are the main focus of my own research).  The Pleistocene didn\u2019t do any favors for turtles, but again they were resilient and held on in southern refugia along the gulf coast and southern Appalachians (in North America, I can\u2019t speak to where they managed to hold out in Eurasia).  Today turtles are once again reasonably well-established, but their numbers are not nearly as diverse as they once were, and compared to other diapsid groups like lizards, snakes, and birds, they aren\u2019t that diverse at all.  So with all that in mind, if I was asked to name the \u201cgolden age of turtles\u201d, I would say the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum is the peak of turtle diversity.  I would call the later Cretaceous the period of the most significant turtle diversification events, as it gave us so many distinct lineages that still exist, but the PETM saw more sheer bulk of turtles, as well as the rise of emydids and geoemydids, which dominate modern turtle diversity.  To say the \u201cperiod immediately after the dinosaur extinction\u201d is a little reductionist, as it misses the point that this was a 20 million-year period of time during which turtles were thriving, but it\u2019s still more or less true.  Today, rising average global temperatures might seem like a good thing for turtles, which thrive in warm, wet conditions, but this is not the case.  Turtles are highly reliant on stable climate regimes, and require hundreds of thousands of years to adapt to new conditions.  Reproduction in particular is specifically tied to atmospheric temperatures, and throwing that out of balance at the rate we\u2019re seeing today is driving turtle populations towards extinction.  Furthermore, the reduction of habitat removes their ability to seek out refugia or change distribution patterns in response to climate change.  The introduction of invasives from the pet trade, namely the red-eared slider, is putting pressure on many endemic turtle species in western North America, Europe, and Asia.  Overharvesting for food, trophies, and the pet trade have already pushed many Asian species to the brink of extinction, or over it.  Turtles are the most threatened group of vertebrates in the world, and nothing is standing between them and extinction other than our ability to recognize this fact and take action to prevent it.  225 million years of beautiful evolution gone because we didn\u2019t know when to stop.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13669.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4fjkey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In the 70s we referred to non-coding DNA as junk DNA and it made up 98% out DNA structure. What do we know about that 98% nowadays? What don't we know? This has always peaked my interest. Do we know what purpose this portion of the DNA serves?", "c_root_id_A": "d29zhsb", "c_root_id_B": "d2a0ccb", "created_at_utc_A": 1461130448, "created_at_utc_B": 1461132551, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 114, "human_ref_A": "First of all, not everyone is equal in terms of genome size / number of genes / variety of isoforms. A good criteria to consider would be to look at which part of the genome are under selective pressure. To give you an idea of how much we still don't know, there are ultra conserved elements that are under tremendous selection whose functions remain very elusive. The consortium that really investigated whether most of our DNA is junk was called ENCODE. Those guys released 30 papers *simultaneously* at one point, it is hard to sum up all they did but it was an incredible effort. To give you some context, over the last 10 years it has suddenly become much easier to do sequencing, but the real difficulty is now to obtain annotations (assigning a function to a genomic region).  To sum this, you have biochemical vs evolutionary/population genetics approaches. Now, for humans: your genome size is 3Gb (3 billion of base pairs), about 3% is made of coding sequences and 2% of non-coding sequences *under selective pressure in mammals* (there are more that do not seem to be strongly selected). Some statistics on the number of genes can be found here.  Humans also have some pretty sophisticated splicing events, with a greater wealth of isoforms in the brain.... On the other hand, ENCODE affirms 80% of your genome has a biochemical function, depending on how you define what function is in terms of biochemistry. There is a huge variety on non coding DNA.  One last point is to know what the proteins even do: Craig Venter very recently tried deleting as many genes as possible from a bacteria, and one third of the 500 genes he was left with have an unknown function. We can guesstimate where a protein will be localized (cell/membrane/nucleus), what it might do (DNA binding protein, receptor, etc...), but often we don't know when or where it is present, or what it is its exact role and its partners, or how it is regulated. You also have massive issues with pleiotropy (one gene can have quite a few distinct functions), and epistasis (genes behave differently depending on what other genes are expressed). You also only express a limited subset of your genes in any given cell at any given time.  PS: if this is not enough:  * you have horrors like Oxytrichia, which builds itself a new genome from 16000 nanochromosomes. The Lamprey genome also gets a lot of interest for its position in vertebrate evolutionary history, but for some weird reasons they ditch 20% of their genome in somatic cells, have many repetitions, a weird GC content, and a high heterozygosity rate...  * we also think evolution has been marked by quite a few whole genome duplication events, where you suddenly get a lot of redundant DNA that can mutate more freely.   * we are now investigating the spatial organization of the genome within the nucleus, which is a huge new field full of promise", "human_ref_B": "Sorry to be a pedant, but it's \"piqued,\" not \"peaked.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2103.0, "score_ratio": 7.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4fjkey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In the 70s we referred to non-coding DNA as junk DNA and it made up 98% out DNA structure. What do we know about that 98% nowadays? What don't we know? This has always peaked my interest. Do we know what purpose this portion of the DNA serves?", "c_root_id_A": "d2a0ccb", "c_root_id_B": "d29w0xi", "created_at_utc_A": 1461132551, "created_at_utc_B": 1461124008, "score_A": 114, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Sorry to be a pedant, but it's \"piqued,\" not \"peaked.\"", "human_ref_B": "The amount of non-coding DNA varies from species to species, as does the size of the genome. The assumption going in was the more complex the organism, the bigger the genome. Turns out not to be the case. Look into the c-value enigma.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8543.0, "score_ratio": 22.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4fjkey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In the 70s we referred to non-coding DNA as junk DNA and it made up 98% out DNA structure. What do we know about that 98% nowadays? What don't we know? This has always peaked my interest. Do we know what purpose this portion of the DNA serves?", "c_root_id_A": "d29zl49", "c_root_id_B": "d2a0ccb", "created_at_utc_A": 1461130666, "created_at_utc_B": 1461132551, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 114, "human_ref_A": "Look at the repeated sequence of DNA in chromosome telomeres. They protect against chromosome degradation and slow the shortening over time. The rate of shortening plays a role in senescence and disease. Shortening this sequence in the chromosomes of mice typically leads to shorter life span.", "human_ref_B": "Sorry to be a pedant, but it's \"piqued,\" not \"peaked.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1885.0, "score_ratio": 57.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4fjkey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In the 70s we referred to non-coding DNA as junk DNA and it made up 98% out DNA structure. What do we know about that 98% nowadays? What don't we know? This has always peaked my interest. Do we know what purpose this portion of the DNA serves?", "c_root_id_A": "d2a1iwy", "c_root_id_B": "d29zhsb", "created_at_utc_A": 1461135836, "created_at_utc_B": 1461130448, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "I have a PhD in genetics and have written a journal article that discusses this topic in depth http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00018-012-0990-9  Almost all DNA has some kind of function. A large percentage of the non-coding parts of the genome are regulate the expression of the coding parts, and in general, the more complex an organism, the more non-coding DNA in their genome. Non coding regulation allows the transcriptome and proteome that arises from the genome to be more versatile. A good simple example of this is when we remember that all cells in the human body have the same DNA. The cells in your skin, brain, and muscle all have the same genes present in the DNA, but they are functionally very different. This is the result of specific genes being turned on or off, or different splice variants of the same gene being expressed. How the cells \"choose\" which genes/variants are expressed relies heavily on the non-coding regulation. Also if you think about it, it's much more energy/space efficient to have multiple transcripts and protein arising from the same gene rather than having a new gene for every single function/specificity.", "human_ref_B": "First of all, not everyone is equal in terms of genome size / number of genes / variety of isoforms. A good criteria to consider would be to look at which part of the genome are under selective pressure. To give you an idea of how much we still don't know, there are ultra conserved elements that are under tremendous selection whose functions remain very elusive. The consortium that really investigated whether most of our DNA is junk was called ENCODE. Those guys released 30 papers *simultaneously* at one point, it is hard to sum up all they did but it was an incredible effort. To give you some context, over the last 10 years it has suddenly become much easier to do sequencing, but the real difficulty is now to obtain annotations (assigning a function to a genomic region).  To sum this, you have biochemical vs evolutionary/population genetics approaches. Now, for humans: your genome size is 3Gb (3 billion of base pairs), about 3% is made of coding sequences and 2% of non-coding sequences *under selective pressure in mammals* (there are more that do not seem to be strongly selected). Some statistics on the number of genes can be found here.  Humans also have some pretty sophisticated splicing events, with a greater wealth of isoforms in the brain.... On the other hand, ENCODE affirms 80% of your genome has a biochemical function, depending on how you define what function is in terms of biochemistry. There is a huge variety on non coding DNA.  One last point is to know what the proteins even do: Craig Venter very recently tried deleting as many genes as possible from a bacteria, and one third of the 500 genes he was left with have an unknown function. We can guesstimate where a protein will be localized (cell/membrane/nucleus), what it might do (DNA binding protein, receptor, etc...), but often we don't know when or where it is present, or what it is its exact role and its partners, or how it is regulated. You also have massive issues with pleiotropy (one gene can have quite a few distinct functions), and epistasis (genes behave differently depending on what other genes are expressed). You also only express a limited subset of your genes in any given cell at any given time.  PS: if this is not enough:  * you have horrors like Oxytrichia, which builds itself a new genome from 16000 nanochromosomes. The Lamprey genome also gets a lot of interest for its position in vertebrate evolutionary history, but for some weird reasons they ditch 20% of their genome in somatic cells, have many repetitions, a weird GC content, and a high heterozygosity rate...  * we also think evolution has been marked by quite a few whole genome duplication events, where you suddenly get a lot of redundant DNA that can mutate more freely.   * we are now investigating the spatial organization of the genome within the nucleus, which is a huge new field full of promise", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5388.0, "score_ratio": 1.4375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4fjkey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In the 70s we referred to non-coding DNA as junk DNA and it made up 98% out DNA structure. What do we know about that 98% nowadays? What don't we know? This has always peaked my interest. Do we know what purpose this portion of the DNA serves?", "c_root_id_A": "d29w0xi", "c_root_id_B": "d2a1iwy", "created_at_utc_A": 1461124008, "created_at_utc_B": 1461135836, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "The amount of non-coding DNA varies from species to species, as does the size of the genome. The assumption going in was the more complex the organism, the bigger the genome. Turns out not to be the case. Look into the c-value enigma.", "human_ref_B": "I have a PhD in genetics and have written a journal article that discusses this topic in depth http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00018-012-0990-9  Almost all DNA has some kind of function. A large percentage of the non-coding parts of the genome are regulate the expression of the coding parts, and in general, the more complex an organism, the more non-coding DNA in their genome. Non coding regulation allows the transcriptome and proteome that arises from the genome to be more versatile. A good simple example of this is when we remember that all cells in the human body have the same DNA. The cells in your skin, brain, and muscle all have the same genes present in the DNA, but they are functionally very different. This is the result of specific genes being turned on or off, or different splice variants of the same gene being expressed. How the cells \"choose\" which genes/variants are expressed relies heavily on the non-coding regulation. Also if you think about it, it's much more energy/space efficient to have multiple transcripts and protein arising from the same gene rather than having a new gene for every single function/specificity.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11828.0, "score_ratio": 4.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4fjkey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In the 70s we referred to non-coding DNA as junk DNA and it made up 98% out DNA structure. What do we know about that 98% nowadays? What don't we know? This has always peaked my interest. Do we know what purpose this portion of the DNA serves?", "c_root_id_A": "d29zl49", "c_root_id_B": "d2a1iwy", "created_at_utc_A": 1461130666, "created_at_utc_B": 1461135836, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Look at the repeated sequence of DNA in chromosome telomeres. They protect against chromosome degradation and slow the shortening over time. The rate of shortening plays a role in senescence and disease. Shortening this sequence in the chromosomes of mice typically leads to shorter life span.", "human_ref_B": "I have a PhD in genetics and have written a journal article that discusses this topic in depth http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00018-012-0990-9  Almost all DNA has some kind of function. A large percentage of the non-coding parts of the genome are regulate the expression of the coding parts, and in general, the more complex an organism, the more non-coding DNA in their genome. Non coding regulation allows the transcriptome and proteome that arises from the genome to be more versatile. A good simple example of this is when we remember that all cells in the human body have the same DNA. The cells in your skin, brain, and muscle all have the same genes present in the DNA, but they are functionally very different. This is the result of specific genes being turned on or off, or different splice variants of the same gene being expressed. How the cells \"choose\" which genes/variants are expressed relies heavily on the non-coding regulation. Also if you think about it, it's much more energy/space efficient to have multiple transcripts and protein arising from the same gene rather than having a new gene for every single function/specificity.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5170.0, "score_ratio": 11.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4fjkey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In the 70s we referred to non-coding DNA as junk DNA and it made up 98% out DNA structure. What do we know about that 98% nowadays? What don't we know? This has always peaked my interest. Do we know what purpose this portion of the DNA serves?", "c_root_id_A": "d29w0xi", "c_root_id_B": "d29zhsb", "created_at_utc_A": 1461124008, "created_at_utc_B": 1461130448, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "The amount of non-coding DNA varies from species to species, as does the size of the genome. The assumption going in was the more complex the organism, the bigger the genome. Turns out not to be the case. Look into the c-value enigma.", "human_ref_B": "First of all, not everyone is equal in terms of genome size / number of genes / variety of isoforms. A good criteria to consider would be to look at which part of the genome are under selective pressure. To give you an idea of how much we still don't know, there are ultra conserved elements that are under tremendous selection whose functions remain very elusive. The consortium that really investigated whether most of our DNA is junk was called ENCODE. Those guys released 30 papers *simultaneously* at one point, it is hard to sum up all they did but it was an incredible effort. To give you some context, over the last 10 years it has suddenly become much easier to do sequencing, but the real difficulty is now to obtain annotations (assigning a function to a genomic region).  To sum this, you have biochemical vs evolutionary/population genetics approaches. Now, for humans: your genome size is 3Gb (3 billion of base pairs), about 3% is made of coding sequences and 2% of non-coding sequences *under selective pressure in mammals* (there are more that do not seem to be strongly selected). Some statistics on the number of genes can be found here.  Humans also have some pretty sophisticated splicing events, with a greater wealth of isoforms in the brain.... On the other hand, ENCODE affirms 80% of your genome has a biochemical function, depending on how you define what function is in terms of biochemistry. There is a huge variety on non coding DNA.  One last point is to know what the proteins even do: Craig Venter very recently tried deleting as many genes as possible from a bacteria, and one third of the 500 genes he was left with have an unknown function. We can guesstimate where a protein will be localized (cell/membrane/nucleus), what it might do (DNA binding protein, receptor, etc...), but often we don't know when or where it is present, or what it is its exact role and its partners, or how it is regulated. You also have massive issues with pleiotropy (one gene can have quite a few distinct functions), and epistasis (genes behave differently depending on what other genes are expressed). You also only express a limited subset of your genes in any given cell at any given time.  PS: if this is not enough:  * you have horrors like Oxytrichia, which builds itself a new genome from 16000 nanochromosomes. The Lamprey genome also gets a lot of interest for its position in vertebrate evolutionary history, but for some weird reasons they ditch 20% of their genome in somatic cells, have many repetitions, a weird GC content, and a high heterozygosity rate...  * we also think evolution has been marked by quite a few whole genome duplication events, where you suddenly get a lot of redundant DNA that can mutate more freely.   * we are now investigating the spatial organization of the genome within the nucleus, which is a huge new field full of promise", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6440.0, "score_ratio": 3.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4fjkey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In the 70s we referred to non-coding DNA as junk DNA and it made up 98% out DNA structure. What do we know about that 98% nowadays? What don't we know? This has always peaked my interest. Do we know what purpose this portion of the DNA serves?", "c_root_id_A": "d29zl49", "c_root_id_B": "d2a6tx8", "created_at_utc_A": 1461130666, "created_at_utc_B": 1461153688, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Look at the repeated sequence of DNA in chromosome telomeres. They protect against chromosome degradation and slow the shortening over time. The rate of shortening plays a role in senescence and disease. Shortening this sequence in the chromosomes of mice typically leads to shorter life span.", "human_ref_B": "Like every other broad conclusion dismissing large parts of biological structures it was incorrect.  While there are now many more roles identified, as the top comment shows the field still believes that large portions of this are non functional inheritance from past infections and such.  That sounds good now, but I guarantee that the future will discover more reasons to not consider anything non-essential.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23022.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2hw7re", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?", "c_root_id_A": "ckwplly", "c_root_id_B": "ckwkhn1", "created_at_utc_A": 1412100707, "created_at_utc_B": 1412090905, "score_A": 1318, "score_B": 110, "human_ref_A": "The other answers you are getting are right (yes), but I want to contrast them by pointing out that the stars you can see with your eyes are only dozens of light years away, not billions. There are a handful that are hundreds, they are ALL within out galaxy. Even with a very impressive backyard telescope you are still limited to the galactic neighbourhood.  Our nearest major neighbouring galaxy is 2 million light years away (Andromeda), far from a billion, and the individual stars are basically not discernible unless there is a major event like a supernova, or a specific pulsar we can detect. Hubble can pick out individual stars near the edges, but the middle is just too cluttered.  http://jean-baptiste-faure.blogspot.com/2011/07/hubble-sees-individual-stars-in.html  So, given that the average star [light] you see is only a couple dozen years old, and the average [star] life is many orders of magnitude greater, the chance of a single star we can see with our eyes having already expired and we just don't know it yet is extremely low. For reference I think there are around 5-6 thousand visible stars in total, maybe 9k with great eyes, and only around 1500-2000 at a given moment when looking up in perfect conditions.  On the opposite hand, I believe a large galaxy (ours) averages about 1 supernova every 100 years or so, and has a diameter of about 100k light years. Thus there are hundreds of supernovas (of stars that aren't visible pre-explosion) that have already happened in our galaxy where the light just hasn't reached us yet.", "human_ref_B": "Well, yeah. I mean...a \"reasonable rate\" really isn't scientific. However, assuming that you chose a star that exploded at the proper time, then yes, traveling towards that star would \"speed up\" (from your perspective) the explosion.  Scientists can detect the neutrino emissions from stellar supernovae a short time before seeing the visible light of a supernova. Let's say for argument's sake that this technology is \"advanced\" and you can suddenly detect a supernova about a year before it would become visible from Earth.   If you set out towards that star at say, half the speed of light and traveled for six months, you'd see the visible light explosion from the supernova sooner (a quarter sooner, I believe but I'm bad at math) than if you just sat there on Earth.   This is because the speed of light is a fixed number that doesn't change depending on where an observer is.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9802.0, "score_ratio": 11.9818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2hw7re", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?", "c_root_id_A": "ckwndlo", "c_root_id_B": "ckwplly", "created_at_utc_A": 1412096522, "created_at_utc_B": 1412100707, "score_A": 75, "score_B": 1318, "human_ref_A": "Yes. Or if you sit still you will also see it explode, a little later.   If the sun exploded right now, you could  (a) stay put and see the explosion in eight minutes, (b) move towards it and see the explosion sooner, or (c) move away and delay the moment of explosion, as experienced by you by a little.", "human_ref_B": "The other answers you are getting are right (yes), but I want to contrast them by pointing out that the stars you can see with your eyes are only dozens of light years away, not billions. There are a handful that are hundreds, they are ALL within out galaxy. Even with a very impressive backyard telescope you are still limited to the galactic neighbourhood.  Our nearest major neighbouring galaxy is 2 million light years away (Andromeda), far from a billion, and the individual stars are basically not discernible unless there is a major event like a supernova, or a specific pulsar we can detect. Hubble can pick out individual stars near the edges, but the middle is just too cluttered.  http://jean-baptiste-faure.blogspot.com/2011/07/hubble-sees-individual-stars-in.html  So, given that the average star [light] you see is only a couple dozen years old, and the average [star] life is many orders of magnitude greater, the chance of a single star we can see with our eyes having already expired and we just don't know it yet is extremely low. For reference I think there are around 5-6 thousand visible stars in total, maybe 9k with great eyes, and only around 1500-2000 at a given moment when looking up in perfect conditions.  On the opposite hand, I believe a large galaxy (ours) averages about 1 supernova every 100 years or so, and has a diameter of about 100k light years. Thus there are hundreds of supernovas (of stars that aren't visible pre-explosion) that have already happened in our galaxy where the light just hasn't reached us yet.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4185.0, "score_ratio": 17.5733333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2hw7re", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?", "c_root_id_A": "ckws29h", "c_root_id_B": "ckwx94h", "created_at_utc_A": 1412105293, "created_at_utc_B": 1412115271, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Yes, of course. I'm not sure why anyone would doubt that. Whether you travel or not, you will eventually see it explode. Unless you're travelling at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light, your travel will make very little difference to the time you see it.", "human_ref_B": "I am not sure others are reading this the same way as me, so here goes:  OP asks to pick an already dead star...not a \"dying\" star.  I assume the OP means it's already exploded at some point in our visual history of it.  Maybe the explosion happened billions of years ago, but the light came and went past Earth. The star to us, now, is dead.  Out.  A halo of dust.  Which to me, means the answer to the question is: In order to witness the explosion, we would need to move AWAY...not TOWARDS the dead star.   If your 'reasonable' speed is = faster- than-light away from the dead star...then ultimately yes, you would be able to turn around and witness the...wait for it.... birth of the universe.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9978.0, "score_ratio": 3.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2hw7re", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?", "c_root_id_A": "ckwx94h", "c_root_id_B": "ckwqjjx", "created_at_utc_A": 1412115271, "created_at_utc_B": 1412102494, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I am not sure others are reading this the same way as me, so here goes:  OP asks to pick an already dead star...not a \"dying\" star.  I assume the OP means it's already exploded at some point in our visual history of it.  Maybe the explosion happened billions of years ago, but the light came and went past Earth. The star to us, now, is dead.  Out.  A halo of dust.  Which to me, means the answer to the question is: In order to witness the explosion, we would need to move AWAY...not TOWARDS the dead star.   If your 'reasonable' speed is = faster- than-light away from the dead star...then ultimately yes, you would be able to turn around and witness the...wait for it.... birth of the universe.", "human_ref_B": "You don't have to travel at all if you pick the right one--we see them explode from time to time from our current vantage point, as the light of the explosion reaches Earth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12777.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2hw7re", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?", "c_root_id_A": "ckwus1p", "c_root_id_B": "ckwx94h", "created_at_utc_A": 1412110339, "created_at_utc_B": 1412115271, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Events don't happen until the light cone reaches you. It doesn't make sense to talk of a sun having exploded if we haven't seen it yet from a physics standpoint. From a rational standpoint, it makes sense because our minds are used to slow-speed (relative to light) events. For example, we can know an explosion has happened before the sound reaches us, but only because the light from the explosion reached us first. Well, what happens if the only information you receive IS light?   This is where light cones and causality comes in. The event doesn't actually occur until the information reaches you, and the information in the case of a star exploding will be particles (light) travelling at the speed of light.", "human_ref_B": "I am not sure others are reading this the same way as me, so here goes:  OP asks to pick an already dead star...not a \"dying\" star.  I assume the OP means it's already exploded at some point in our visual history of it.  Maybe the explosion happened billions of years ago, but the light came and went past Earth. The star to us, now, is dead.  Out.  A halo of dust.  Which to me, means the answer to the question is: In order to witness the explosion, we would need to move AWAY...not TOWARDS the dead star.   If your 'reasonable' speed is = faster- than-light away from the dead star...then ultimately yes, you would be able to turn around and witness the...wait for it.... birth of the universe.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4932.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2hw7re", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Since we see stars as they were some billions of years ago, if I picked out one that had already died, and travelled toward it at a reasonable speed, at some point would I see it explode?", "c_root_id_A": "ckws29h", "c_root_id_B": "ckwqjjx", "created_at_utc_A": 1412105293, "created_at_utc_B": 1412102494, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Yes, of course. I'm not sure why anyone would doubt that. Whether you travel or not, you will eventually see it explode. Unless you're travelling at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light, your travel will make very little difference to the time you see it.", "human_ref_B": "You don't have to travel at all if you pick the right one--we see them explode from time to time from our current vantage point, as the light of the explosion reaches Earth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2799.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e21vo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why doesn't dark matter collapse together to form black holes? If they aren't really interacting what force is stopping their collapse?", "c_root_id_A": "d1webvx", "c_root_id_B": "d1wefcb", "created_at_utc_A": 1460226903, "created_at_utc_B": 1460227056, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Dark matter has nothing slowing it down. Even if you stuck it right next to a black hole, it would just orbit. Baryonic matter will collide with other baryonic matter going in a different direction and slow down, so it collapses into galaxies and stars and planets etc. Dark matter doesn't do that.", "human_ref_B": "Ignoring any interactions, a cloud of gas of either normal or dark matter will not collapse so long as the gas has sufficient thermal energy (i.e. random motion of the particles) to maintain equilibrium with the gravitational potential energy of the cloud.  If a non-interacting cloud is too hot and/or not dense enough, it will simply disperse. If it is dense, cool, and massive enough it will undergo collapse.  With normal matter, the electromagnetic interaction helps collapse to occur, as heat energy is radiated away in the form of photons. This may cool a cloud of gas as it collapses. In this regard dark matter may be less prone to collapse than normal matter, as there may be no interaction which will produce a substantial amount of radiative cooling.  So as long as an effectively non-interacting cloud of dark matter is not overly dense, massive and/or cool, gravity will not overcome the gas pressure and it will not collapse.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 153.0, "score_ratio": 7.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uun6li", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is there a limit to the number of planets that can plausibly form around star systems of two or more stars?", "c_root_id_A": "i9hp97d", "c_root_id_B": "i9hji5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1653166774, "created_at_utc_B": 1653163912, "score_A": 13, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "It depends on how closely the stars orbit each other.   There are three types of possible orbits for planets in a binary star system:   1. Planet orbits around Star A  2. Planet orbits around Star B  3. Planet orbits around the gravitational centre of Stars A and B  In cases 1 and 2, the upper limit for how many planets can have a stable orbit around each individual star will depend a great deal on the closest distance between stars A and B as they orbit each other. If the minimum distance is several hundred AU, then functionally it\u2019s nearly the same as if the stars weren\u2019t orbiting each other at all. If the minimum distance is within a few AU or less, then neither star is likely to have planets in stable orbits around them and only them.  In case 3, it depends on the maximum distance between the stars. If the stars are close to each other and have a relatively tight orbit with low eccentricity, then stable planetary orbits will be able to exist closer to the dual-star system, which in the end means more planets will be able to form and orbit around the two stars. If instead the stars have a highly elliptical orbit around each other, they may not have any planets orbiting around the dual system at all.   As a nearby example, the Alpha Centauri system has three stars. A and B orbit around each other in an elliptical orbit. Their closest approach is distant enough for each star to have 3, maybe 4 planets each in stable orbits around each star, but no more than that. Any planets that orbit around the gravitational centre of the system would be many hundreds of AU distant and would have orbital periods of many thousands of years; these would all be uninhabitable frozen snowballs.  Proxima Centauri is extremely distant from the other two stars, so much so that their gravitational influence on it and its surroundings is negligible. So Proxima can have just as many planets around it as it could have if the other two stars weren\u2019t even there.", "human_ref_B": "I don\u2019t think there\u2019s a limit to planets that can form around any kind of star system. A binary system wouldn\u2019t be too different from a single star, especially if they are large stars with many small planets so that the gravity of their satellites don\u2019t push or pull them very hard.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2862.0, "score_ratio": -2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2u0dpg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "Are there any systems where instead of planets, smaller stars orbit a larger star or black hole? I know that there are binary star systems, but are there any systems where there is an extremely massive star, or possibly a black hole that has a few stars orbiting? If not, what is the most 'complex' system we know of? If there are none, why not?", "c_root_id_A": "co45s45", "c_root_id_B": "co4a2a7", "created_at_utc_A": 1422494394, "created_at_utc_B": 1422502119, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Depending how you want to look at it, all of the stars in our Galaxy are orbiting the black hole at the center.", "human_ref_B": "One of the more complex ones is Castor, or Alpha Geminorum. It's a visual binary with each component being a spectroscopic binary, while there's another spectroscopic binary orbiting the other pair's center of gravity; in other words, a sextuple star system.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7725.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ygt9yn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Is there a consensus among the medical community on the treatment of preteen and teens that have gender dismorphia?", "c_root_id_A": "iuawm83", "c_root_id_B": "iub03by", "created_at_utc_A": 1667083164, "created_at_utc_B": 1667084795, "score_A": 133, "score_B": 441, "human_ref_A": "Mental health treatment doesn't usually have a consensus on how to treat anything. Generally your providers will use whatever methodologies they were trained in, found to be useful, and are themselves comfortable using.   That is not to say that best practices don't exist or standards aren't enforced organization to organization, but mental health treatment is too young a science and people are far too complex to use overly generic techniques.    Additionally, not every patient will want the same things, and not all patients will be be successful with the treatments they are working towards. Some patients will come in for support with gender affirmation and realize that neither gender fits well enough to stop their symptoms, while others don't need anything other than the world around them to stop losing their minds over their choices.   The job of the therapist is to help the patient realize their best possible baseline, and if that involves lifelong issues, prepare them to meet their challenges effectively. It is always a dialogue and a moving target for the patient.", "human_ref_B": "There are guidelines and statements from, among others, the APA, AMA, and the Endocrine Society.   They are all generally in agreement about how practitioners should treat young people with gender dysphoria (with respect, nonjudgment, and supportive treatment if indicated, including potentially hormone treatment).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1631.0, "score_ratio": 3.3157894737, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ygt9yn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Is there a consensus among the medical community on the treatment of preteen and teens that have gender dismorphia?", "c_root_id_A": "iubedte", "c_root_id_B": "iuawm83", "created_at_utc_A": 1667091670, "created_at_utc_B": 1667083164, "score_A": 347, "score_B": 133, "human_ref_A": "It\u2019s \u201cgender dysphoria\u201d, actually, you might be mixing it up with Body Dysmorphic Disorder (an entirely separate thing).  In terms of consensus, this is p much it right here, there\u2019s nothing binding a given physician to these particular standards, but I\u2019d say a majority of the medical community (at least here in the US) largely agrees that these are the best guidelines for handling anyone of any age dealing with gender dysphoria (or who might be), although obviously with minors, especially pubescent minors, there are additional considerations, but the general consensus seems to be that with proper counseling and consideration, making sure that the patient understands the weight of making permanent decisions about their body, and of course parental consent, giving minors who\u2019ve been determined to likely benefit from medical transition (or even just treatment with puberty blockers, if nothing else) *should not* be barred from access to it, that proper care for people suffering from gender dysphoria can be potentially life-saving, and that trans youth especially should not be denied the care they need due to the political machinations of people who aren\u2019t even related to them (and likely don\u2019t actually have their best interests in mind).  Anyway, trans people medically transitioning has been occurring for well over a century now, it is not a new phenomenon, just one that has recently been noticed by the mainstream a lot more, and the statistics over that long period of time generally suggest that it is very important for the well-being of a substantial minority of the population.   The idea that is circulating in some circles currently that parents are somehow forcing their children to not conform to gender expectations based on their birth sex, or somehow inducing \u201cgender confusion\u201d in them, has no psychological or medical basis, and if it *were* to occur in some case, I\u2019m sure the extensive counseling that youth undergo as per the standards of care would be able to find evidence of it (to my knowledge, I have never actually heard of a case like this, unless you count the tragic story of David Reimer being forcibly raised as a girl against his will after a botched circumcision, but that case was entirely one doctor\u2019s unethical social experiment, and if anything actually demonstrates *why* gender dysphoria should be properly treated, as David always asserted he was a boy even against being told otherwise and forced to dress and behave as a girl, something that I\u2019m sure many trans men can deeply relate to).  Doctors who oppose these standards of care (usually on almost solely political grounds) make up a minority of the medical community. It\u2019s always important to remember that trans people people of all ages have existed for a long time without society falling apart at the seams, and will continue to do so. Don\u2019t let the latest politicized othering of a vulnerable group confuse you.", "human_ref_B": "Mental health treatment doesn't usually have a consensus on how to treat anything. Generally your providers will use whatever methodologies they were trained in, found to be useful, and are themselves comfortable using.   That is not to say that best practices don't exist or standards aren't enforced organization to organization, but mental health treatment is too young a science and people are far too complex to use overly generic techniques.    Additionally, not every patient will want the same things, and not all patients will be be successful with the treatments they are working towards. Some patients will come in for support with gender affirmation and realize that neither gender fits well enough to stop their symptoms, while others don't need anything other than the world around them to stop losing their minds over their choices.   The job of the therapist is to help the patient realize their best possible baseline, and if that involves lifelong issues, prepare them to meet their challenges effectively. It is always a dialogue and a moving target for the patient.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8506.0, "score_ratio": 2.6090225564, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z8uzjn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "How does black tea have more caffeine than green tea, when they come from the same plant? I know that oxidation plays a role to make it taste and look different. But does that play into the caffeine content too?", "c_root_id_A": "iyi4a3f", "c_root_id_B": "iym56y3", "created_at_utc_A": 1669910482, "created_at_utc_B": 1669984710, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "two black teas from the same region might have totally different caffeine levels. a green tea may have the exact same caffeine as a black tea, black tea having more caffeine is just a myth, albeit a half decent generalization, but that's not because of something inherent but rather due to advertising companies wanting to categorize everything. of course, the brewing method has a lot to do with caffeine level, and i think that's what you're interested in.", "human_ref_B": "Black tea and green tea are both made from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant, but they are processed differently. Black tea is made from leaves that are fully oxidized, which gives it its dark color and strong flavor. Green tea is made from leaves that are steamed or pan-fried to stop the oxidation process, which preserves the tea's natural green color and delicate flavor. The difference in processing also affects the caffeine content of the two teas. Black tea typically has a higher caffeine content than green tea because the oxidation process releases more caffeine from the leaves. However, the exact amount of caffeine in any given cup of tea can vary depending on factors such as the type of tea, the method of brewing, and the length of time it is steeped.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 74228.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z8uzjn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "How does black tea have more caffeine than green tea, when they come from the same plant? I know that oxidation plays a role to make it taste and look different. But does that play into the caffeine content too?", "c_root_id_A": "iym56y3", "c_root_id_B": "iyildpz", "created_at_utc_A": 1669984710, "created_at_utc_B": 1669917175, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Black tea and green tea are both made from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant, but they are processed differently. Black tea is made from leaves that are fully oxidized, which gives it its dark color and strong flavor. Green tea is made from leaves that are steamed or pan-fried to stop the oxidation process, which preserves the tea's natural green color and delicate flavor. The difference in processing also affects the caffeine content of the two teas. Black tea typically has a higher caffeine content than green tea because the oxidation process releases more caffeine from the leaves. However, the exact amount of caffeine in any given cup of tea can vary depending on factors such as the type of tea, the method of brewing, and the length of time it is steeped.", "human_ref_B": "When I looked into tea compositions for caffeine and theanine, the best study I found suggested teas have similar caffeine contents, but they vary in ratio of theanine to caffeine. Green tea is richer in theanine with respect to caffeine, 2:1 caffeine to theanine in green tea and 3:1 in black tea. Red, white, and oolong were in the middle.  Herbal products are always variable in how much actives they carry, but ratios of compounds tend to be fixed by genetics. I've seen this play out in cannabis a lot. I used to run science at a cannabis testing lab, hemp is *almost always* 20:1 or 30:1 CBD to THC, but very few 10:1 or 25:1. Dutch Treat is *almost always* ~17.5: THC to THCV. Then there are aroma profiles, where top-3 terpenes are highly reproducible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 67535.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q62xg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why do you feel sleepy after eating a big meal? Do nothing all day, eat big meal for dinner, wanna take a nap. Why?", "c_root_id_A": "c3v12bs", "c_root_id_B": "c3v48s7", "created_at_utc_A": 1330220211, "created_at_utc_B": 1330243776, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "General answer:  Eating a large meal activates your parasympathetic nervous system.  You body needs to stop using energy for physical activity (sympathetic) and redirect energy to the digestive system in order to break down and absorb your meal.", "human_ref_B": "Here is your answer (Post-prandial is fancy way of saying after eating):   Not due to blood flow changes: Volume Flow in the Common Carotid Artery does not Decrease Postprandially   Most likely do to changes in amino acid or hormone levels: Post-prandial changes in measures of fatigue: Effect of a mixed or a pure carbohydrate or pure fat meal", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23565.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ou8e4n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "After reading a Kff.org report on US COVID-19 vaccination rates by race/ethnicity (data pulled from the CDC), why is the vaccine adoption rate so low among Hispanics/Blacks? Is this more of a cultural disparity? or a socioeconomic issue? Report in question: https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/latest-data-on-covid-19-vaccinations-race-ethnicity/", "c_root_id_A": "h70ozz9", "c_root_id_B": "h70ococ", "created_at_utc_A": 1627601549, "created_at_utc_B": 1627601237, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The data are suggestive of a strong class/education effect. That's not to say there isn't a racial effect - there are still differences across racial lines - but much of the difference can probably be attributed to the different distributions of wealth and education across racial/ethnic lines.  The remainder of the gap is presumably at least partially explained by the history of government health programs among minority groups (e.g. the Tuskeegee experiment, where the government failed to provide an adequate standard of care to hundreds of black syphilis patients enrolled in a study, lasting until the early 1970s) and associated skepticism that government efforts to get people vaccinated are in their best interests.  But this is a question that is essentially impossible to answer definitively.", "human_ref_B": "Do people in the US get 3 hours paid leave from work to get vaccinated?  Is the vaccine provided for free? In the neighbourhood where black and Hispanic people work?  The answers to these questions will provide a framework for asking the next round of questions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 312.0, "score_ratio": 25000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gifn0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Do supermassive black holes form in the centers of galaxies because of all the stars there, or do galaxies form around supermassive black holes?", "c_root_id_A": "c1nrwgf", "c_root_id_B": "c1ns8j6", "created_at_utc_A": 1301938698, "created_at_utc_B": 1301942231, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I believe that that is still an unanswered question (based on my viewing of Science Channel)", "human_ref_B": "What fraction of our solar system's mass do you think the sun makes up? Add up the sun, all the planets, asteroids, comets, everything, and divide the sun's mass by that to get a fraction. How big do you think it is?  We can't say *exactly,* of course, because what is and what isn't a part of our solar system isn't strictly well defined. But a good estimate is that our sun makes up 99.87 percent of the mass of our solar system. In a very real sense, our solar system consists of the sun, and a rounding error. And that's all.  With that in mind, what fraction of our *galaxy* do you think Sagittarius A*, our galactic black hole, makes up? Take a guess. Most of it? Half?  Yeah, no. It's about five millionths. If our galaxy were the mass of our solar system, Sagittarius A* would be about the size of the Earth and the moon put together.  Don't think of galactic black holes as being cosmic anchors, holding our galaxy together the way our sun does our solar system. They're *tiny* things, in scale. Invisibly small specks of nothing.  There's a large black hole at the center of many, if not most, galaxies, and that's interesting, and we've got a lot to learn about how they came to be there. But to imagine that these black holes play a huge role in galaxy formation or evolution is probably not that accurate, I think.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3533.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gifn0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Do supermassive black holes form in the centers of galaxies because of all the stars there, or do galaxies form around supermassive black holes?", "c_root_id_A": "c1ns7i6", "c_root_id_B": "c1ns8j6", "created_at_utc_A": 1301941927, "created_at_utc_B": 1301942231, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "From reading The Grand Design by Hawking, I got the impression that they co-evolved. Neither really causes the other, they happen together.", "human_ref_B": "What fraction of our solar system's mass do you think the sun makes up? Add up the sun, all the planets, asteroids, comets, everything, and divide the sun's mass by that to get a fraction. How big do you think it is?  We can't say *exactly,* of course, because what is and what isn't a part of our solar system isn't strictly well defined. But a good estimate is that our sun makes up 99.87 percent of the mass of our solar system. In a very real sense, our solar system consists of the sun, and a rounding error. And that's all.  With that in mind, what fraction of our *galaxy* do you think Sagittarius A*, our galactic black hole, makes up? Take a guess. Most of it? Half?  Yeah, no. It's about five millionths. If our galaxy were the mass of our solar system, Sagittarius A* would be about the size of the Earth and the moon put together.  Don't think of galactic black holes as being cosmic anchors, holding our galaxy together the way our sun does our solar system. They're *tiny* things, in scale. Invisibly small specks of nothing.  There's a large black hole at the center of many, if not most, galaxies, and that's interesting, and we've got a lot to learn about how they came to be there. But to imagine that these black holes play a huge role in galaxy formation or evolution is probably not that accurate, I think.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 304.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gifn0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Do supermassive black holes form in the centers of galaxies because of all the stars there, or do galaxies form around supermassive black holes?", "c_root_id_A": "c1nsyi2", "c_root_id_B": "c1ns7i6", "created_at_utc_A": 1301949814, "created_at_utc_B": 1301941927, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Dark matter is dominant to both - it collapses into a massive dark halo that accretes gas that forms into stars and SMBHs and things...", "human_ref_B": "From reading The Grand Design by Hawking, I got the impression that they co-evolved. Neither really causes the other, they happen together.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7887.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b6h8ip", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is there a maximum speed the water can reach while swirling as it going down a drain if affected only by gravity, its own mass and volume?", "c_root_id_A": "ejkk7f5", "c_root_id_B": "ejkmpcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1553778696, "created_at_utc_B": 1553780527, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Yes, eventually a boundary layer will form in the pipe as the friction forces increase with velocity. In an ideal scenario, negating friction, there would still be a limit as the velocity at the pipe inlet must remain subsonic for the geometry of the sink.", "human_ref_B": "As others have pointed out, friction and capillary forces plays a key role here, and flow speeds are limited by the speed of sound.  But there's an even stricter limit based on the *depth of the water*.  In a vortex, the slope of the water surface creates a pressure gradient inward toward the center, which provides the centripetal force needed to keep the water moving in a circle.  This leads to the equation:  v^2 / r = g dh/dr  where v is the velocity at radius r, g is gravity, and dh/dr is the slope of the water surface.  v = sqrt(g r dh/dr)  Now we'd have to do calculus to actually solve for the velocity, but we can get an estimate of the *scale* of the velocity by noticing that since (r dh/dr) is the width of the vortex times the slope of its surface, it's roughly equal to the change in height of the water from the center of the vortex to the outside.  The biggest that could possibly be is the depth of the water, which we'll call D.  And so:  **v_max = sqrt(g D)**  For Earth gravity and a vortex in a tank of water 10 cm deep, this works out to about 1 m/s.  (Experts will note that sqrt(g D) is the speed of water surface waves, which makes sense given the forces at work here.  The vortex is in a state of choked or critical flow, like water flowing over a weir, but it's *azimuthal* flow rather than linear.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1831.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "38h98f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do some people see different shades of color in their left and right eyes? When I block part of my view between my left and right eye, I noticed there is a different in color between my eyes. The color my left eye see is pretty cold, but the one on my right eye is warmer.      How can that happen?", "c_root_id_A": "crvc09s", "c_root_id_B": "crvfuzm", "created_at_utc_A": 1433428883, "created_at_utc_B": 1433435155, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "I suspect it has to do with differing concentrations and arrangements of photo receptive cells in your eyes. Just as the skin on your left hand has subtle differences to the skin on your right, it simply may just be a consequence of inherent random biological imperfections. Note: I did not research this answer, Id very much like someone to confirm/disprove this.", "human_ref_B": "You might notice that the change you're experiencing is a result of light saturation. For example, when driving and the sun is on your left/side your left eye gets a lot more light then the right. Your right is more sensitive as a result. When you step out if your car into more equal lighting, your left eye will see a darker shade then your right even after your pupils adjust to equal size. It takes some time for the rods to re-adjust to equal levels in both eyes. Light deactivates rods, while the absence of light allows them to reform into the sensing proteins they are.   Pretty sure it's the rods and not the cones (affect ability to see colour, not the shades of light/dark)   Someone with a greater knowledge/detail might explain it better, but that's the gist of this one phenomenon that can explain your situation amongst others  Personally, I have fun doing this on purpose and go light dark light dark light dark in my head to myself..... I'll check into the sanitarium now", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6272.0, "score_ratio": 5.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "38h98f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do some people see different shades of color in their left and right eyes? When I block part of my view between my left and right eye, I noticed there is a different in color between my eyes. The color my left eye see is pretty cold, but the one on my right eye is warmer.      How can that happen?", "c_root_id_A": "crv85io", "c_root_id_B": "crvfuzm", "created_at_utc_A": 1433420880, "created_at_utc_B": 1433435155, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "On top of this, is this why old 3D was Red/Blue based?", "human_ref_B": "You might notice that the change you're experiencing is a result of light saturation. For example, when driving and the sun is on your left/side your left eye gets a lot more light then the right. Your right is more sensitive as a result. When you step out if your car into more equal lighting, your left eye will see a darker shade then your right even after your pupils adjust to equal size. It takes some time for the rods to re-adjust to equal levels in both eyes. Light deactivates rods, while the absence of light allows them to reform into the sensing proteins they are.   Pretty sure it's the rods and not the cones (affect ability to see colour, not the shades of light/dark)   Someone with a greater knowledge/detail might explain it better, but that's the gist of this one phenomenon that can explain your situation amongst others  Personally, I have fun doing this on purpose and go light dark light dark light dark in my head to myself..... I'll check into the sanitarium now", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14275.0, "score_ratio": 21.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "38h98f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do some people see different shades of color in their left and right eyes? When I block part of my view between my left and right eye, I noticed there is a different in color between my eyes. The color my left eye see is pretty cold, but the one on my right eye is warmer.      How can that happen?", "c_root_id_A": "crv85io", "c_root_id_B": "crvc09s", "created_at_utc_A": 1433420880, "created_at_utc_B": 1433428883, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "On top of this, is this why old 3D was Red/Blue based?", "human_ref_B": "I suspect it has to do with differing concentrations and arrangements of photo receptive cells in your eyes. Just as the skin on your left hand has subtle differences to the skin on your right, it simply may just be a consequence of inherent random biological imperfections. Note: I did not research this answer, Id very much like someone to confirm/disprove this.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8003.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "38h98f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do some people see different shades of color in their left and right eyes? When I block part of my view between my left and right eye, I noticed there is a different in color between my eyes. The color my left eye see is pretty cold, but the one on my right eye is warmer.      How can that happen?", "c_root_id_A": "crvgi9i", "c_root_id_B": "crv85io", "created_at_utc_A": 1433436165, "created_at_utc_B": 1433420880, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I asked myself the same question years ago, before I knew I needed glasses. The difference in color between my eyes is very similar to changing the saturation on a CRT TV. Turns out that the saturation mismatch disappears when my mismatched focus is corrected.  I still don't know how sharpness relates to saturation but that is definitely what is going on in my eyes.", "human_ref_B": "On top of this, is this why old 3D was Red/Blue based?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15285.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "38h98f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do some people see different shades of color in their left and right eyes? When I block part of my view between my left and right eye, I noticed there is a different in color between my eyes. The color my left eye see is pretty cold, but the one on my right eye is warmer.      How can that happen?", "c_root_id_A": "crv85io", "c_root_id_B": "crvgzva", "created_at_utc_A": 1433420880, "created_at_utc_B": 1433436918, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "On top of this, is this why old 3D was Red/Blue based?", "human_ref_B": "Once I found a pair of round Lennon style sunglasses that had one blue lens and one red lens. For a week I wore them from the second I woke up until I went to bed at night. After a week the eye with the red lens saw everything with a blue tinge, and the opposite eye saw everything in red. It seems like my eyes (or my brain) was trying to compensate. I wonder if I did it long enough everything would start to look normal. Unfortunately it freaked me out so much I ended the experiment. Thought I might have permanent 3-D eye.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16038.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17ms00", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If I start walking toward the sun as soon as it rose in the morning, and walked toward it through out the the day at the same constant speed, only pausing for a brief time when it was directly overhead, and then continued on till it set; would I eventually end up back in the same place as I started?", "c_root_id_A": "c86y40a", "c_root_id_B": "c86xgkx", "created_at_utc_A": 1359650550, "created_at_utc_B": 1359648473, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "XKCD's \"What if?\" blog recently covered a closely related topic. The post describes the path if you follow a star or planet, with various conditions and limitations.", "human_ref_B": "If you're in the northern hemisphere you would end up way south of where you started", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2077.0, "score_ratio": 3.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17ms00", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If I start walking toward the sun as soon as it rose in the morning, and walked toward it through out the the day at the same constant speed, only pausing for a brief time when it was directly overhead, and then continued on till it set; would I eventually end up back in the same place as I started?", "c_root_id_A": "c86y40a", "c_root_id_B": "c86xllh", "created_at_utc_A": 1359650550, "created_at_utc_B": 1359648925, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "XKCD's \"What if?\" blog recently covered a closely related topic. The post describes the path if you follow a star or planet, with various conditions and limitations.", "human_ref_B": "If you were near the equator, and if you moved fast enough (~1000mph) then the sun would stay in essentially a fixed spot above the horizon, assuming you start sometime in the afternoon (this would save you a lot of 'unnecessary' travel east).  I believe your path would look something like a sine wave, where you cross back and forth across the equator.  So should you arrange all of that, you could follow it forever, and you would eventually return to the place you started, assuming where you started was along the sine wave-ish path where the sun would lead you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1625.0, "score_ratio": 4.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2qck2y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "If the moon's gravity can cause the oceans to have high and low tides, could it also cause really tall structures to bend?", "c_root_id_A": "cn568k8", "c_root_id_B": "cn57j3i", "created_at_utc_A": 1419534932, "created_at_utc_B": 1419538139, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "theoretically, yes. but i'm just going to assume that builders of tall buildings aren't using materials that would flex under such low gravitational forces. that is just an assumption, however.  the moon's gravity still acts on buildings of all sizes, and everything on earth including you and me. It's just usually negligible due to how weak it is at such a distance.", "human_ref_B": "Tides are created by the difference of gravity between the side of earth facing the moon and the other side. Contrary to a popular picture, it's not directly the moon's gravity that is pulling the water ...  To emphasize that, note that the sun's gravitational pull on earth is much stronger than the moon's. But the difference in the sun's gravity between the two sides of earth is much smaller. This is why the tides are mostly related to the moon.  So for your building, the difference in altitude between the base and the summit is too small to have any noticeable effect on the structure.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3207.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2qck2y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "If the moon's gravity can cause the oceans to have high and low tides, could it also cause really tall structures to bend?", "c_root_id_A": "cn568k8", "c_root_id_B": "cn589yc", "created_at_utc_A": 1419534932, "created_at_utc_B": 1419540008, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "theoretically, yes. but i'm just going to assume that builders of tall buildings aren't using materials that would flex under such low gravitational forces. that is just an assumption, however.  the moon's gravity still acts on buildings of all sizes, and everything on earth including you and me. It's just usually negligible due to how weak it is at such a distance.", "human_ref_B": "CERN already with LEP in the 1990s had to account for the tidal deformation of the collider ring, as it does today with the LHC.  You can read an informal account here.  Here's an excerpt:  > given the 27 km circumference of the accelerator, the gravitational force exerted by the moon on one side is not the same as the one felt at the opposite side, creating a small distortion of the tunnel. Since the moon\u2019s effect is very small, only large bodies like oceans feel its effect in the form of tides. But the LHC is such a sensitive apparatus, it can detect the minute deformations created by the small differences in the gravitational force across its diameter.    This is discussed in an official report here (PDF).  From the abstract:  >To extrapolate beam energy calibrations over a longer period of time, e ects causing energy changes have to be taken into account. Among these are the terrestrial tides due to the sun and moon whichmove the Earth surface up and down. The lateral components of this motion modify the 26.7 km LEP circumference by about 1 mm. This change in length results in variations of the beam energy up to 120 ppm. We present results of measurements on the in uence of terrestrial tides on the LEP beam energy that have been performed in 1992 and 1993.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5076.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj4igja", "c_root_id_B": "fj4fq1r", "created_at_utc_A": 1583009022, "created_at_utc_B": 1583007204, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Do tadpoles wait for specific factors to turn into frogs, or is it as a progression of time?", "human_ref_B": "What is your favorite frog and why?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1818.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj4i0fs", "c_root_id_B": "fj4igja", "created_at_utc_A": 1583008726, "created_at_utc_B": 1583009022, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I want to ask about the evolution of metamorphosis in anurans. When we think about terrestrial tetrapods like ourselves, we start out life with 4 limbs of course - but frogs delay the limb growth until later, after a tadpole stage. My question is - which is the ancestral state? When the first fish flopped onto land, did they have a limb-free (fin-free?) larval stage, or is this type of metamorphosis something derived in anurans?", "human_ref_B": "Do tadpoles wait for specific factors to turn into frogs, or is it as a progression of time?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 296.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj4jx6n", "c_root_id_B": "fj4zs00", "created_at_utc_A": 1583009997, "created_at_utc_B": 1583020820, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "How closely are temnospondyls related to frogs?", "human_ref_B": "What can I do locally to help out my frog compatriots?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10823.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj5455l", "c_root_id_B": "fj5f3s1", "created_at_utc_A": 1583023757, "created_at_utc_B": 1583031153, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "How is it that everyone knows about frogs, and yet most people don't ever think about how awesome they are? That they are born, rapidly grow a skeleton, then get rid of that skeleton and grow an entirely different one? And some frogs live in the desert even though they have to keep their skin wet, and others live in Alaska?  FROGGIES RULE", "human_ref_B": "how do frogs croak", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7396.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj5f3s1", "c_root_id_B": "fj4jx6n", "created_at_utc_A": 1583031153, "created_at_utc_B": 1583009997, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "how do frogs croak", "human_ref_B": "How closely are temnospondyls related to frogs?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21156.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj5f3s1", "c_root_id_B": "fj56mjl", "created_at_utc_A": 1583031153, "created_at_utc_B": 1583025446, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "how do frogs croak", "human_ref_B": "So I live in Northern Indiana and this week I found a frog walking across a parking lot. Had been 50 degrees 2 days before but was cold and snowing when I found the frog. I think it was a small bullfrog. Moved it to the side of the parking lot with some grass and puddles.  Never seen one in February before any idea what could be going on?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5707.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj5f3s1", "c_root_id_B": "fj5bde7", "created_at_utc_A": 1583031153, "created_at_utc_B": 1583028673, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "how do frogs croak", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for the answer, the crawfish frog looks really cool btw. And sorry but I didn\u2019t take a picture. I will if I see one again.  So do these frogs go back to hibernation when it turns cold? We went from 50s sunny to rain to snow and temperatures in the teens over the course of 3 days. I was worried the sudden changes were confusing the frogs.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2480.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj5e0a3", "c_root_id_B": "fj5f3s1", "created_at_utc_A": 1583030416, "created_at_utc_B": 1583031153, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Is there any physiological significance to the lateral folds down a frog's back? What causes them? Are they associated with any kind of sensory mechanism or glands?", "human_ref_B": "how do frogs croak", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 737.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj4jx6n", "c_root_id_B": "fj5455l", "created_at_utc_A": 1583009997, "created_at_utc_B": 1583023757, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "How closely are temnospondyls related to frogs?", "human_ref_B": "How is it that everyone knows about frogs, and yet most people don't ever think about how awesome they are? That they are born, rapidly grow a skeleton, then get rid of that skeleton and grow an entirely different one? And some frogs live in the desert even though they have to keep their skin wet, and others live in Alaska?  FROGGIES RULE", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13760.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj5y9kp", "c_root_id_B": "fj5e0a3", "created_at_utc_A": 1583047892, "created_at_utc_B": 1583030416, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Frogs are really cute. That\u2019s what I know about em.", "human_ref_B": "Is there any physiological significance to the lateral folds down a frog's back? What causes them? Are they associated with any kind of sensory mechanism or glands?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17476.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj5vnet", "c_root_id_B": "fj5y9kp", "created_at_utc_A": 1583044814, "created_at_utc_B": 1583047892, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Tried to go out herping today! I went to a shallow river and a stream and didn\u2019t find any froggos! Any tips on finding frogs in the wild?", "human_ref_B": "Frogs are really cute. That\u2019s what I know about em.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3078.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fbfp3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Happy Leap Day! We'd like to take this opportunity to celebrate all things anuran with a Frog Megathread. Post your questions here! **Happy Leap Day!** We hope you're jumping for joy on February 29. To celebrate, we'd like to open up a **Frog Megathread**. Our biologists will be on hand to answer your questions!  **Anura** is the largest extant (i.e. not extinct) order of amphibians, with over 6,300 documented species. There are a few things that set frogs apart:   - \"Anura\" means \"without a tail\" - a reference to the loss of their tails as adults.  - One of the most unique features is called a urostyle, and it's formed by fused sacral vertebrae.  - They lack ribs, and have relatively few presacral vertebrae (fewer than 9, usually 8).  - They also fuse some limb bones together: the radius and ulna in the arm fuse into the radio-ulna, and the tibia and fibula fuse into the tibiofibula.  We can't talk about frogs without mentioning that amphibians are experiencing a global decline, and are going extinct much more quickly than background extinction rates (PDF). There are a number of causes at play.   One is known as **amphibian chytrid fungus**. This fungus has caused the extinction of more species than any other pathogen. It has caused the decline of 501 amphibian species, caused a further 124 to drop by 90% or more, and caused the extinction of 90.  Additional factors in amphibian decline include habitat change (destruction or loss), affecting as many as 63% of amphibian species; invasive species including fish or even other amphibian species; environmental toxins like pesticides; and global climate change.   Today we'd like to celebrate our froggy friends, call attention to the importance of their conservation, and answer any questions you may have. Please join us on our Leap Day Frog Megathread!", "c_root_id_A": "fj5j6eu", "c_root_id_B": "fj5e0a3", "created_at_utc_A": 1583034012, "created_at_utc_B": 1583030416, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Are frogs farmed or hunted for the fog legs that I can buy at the store?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any physiological significance to the lateral folds down a frog's back? What causes them? Are they associated with any kind of sensory mechanism or glands?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3596.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "re7vtg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Could an atomic bomb be destroyed with some type of non atomic bomb, such as dynamite, and not detonate the atomic bomb in the process?", "c_root_id_A": "ho5ylsy", "c_root_id_B": "ho6gmk1", "created_at_utc_A": 1639256368, "created_at_utc_B": 1639264461, "score_A": 335, "score_B": 1112, "human_ref_A": "Yes.  Modern weapons are designed to be one-point safe. So if you set off a conventional high explosive charge near a nuclear weapon and the resulting shockwave initiates the high explosive in the nuclear weapon, the system remains subcritical, or if it momentarily becomes supercritical, it doesn't exceed a certain number of generations of neutron multiplication.", "human_ref_B": "Easily. Indeed if a nuclear bomb is fully armed with all safeties removed it would still be almost impossible for an outside explosion to cause a proper nuclear detonation.  All known current nuclear weapons use chemical explosives to compress a subcritical mass of plutonium or uranium, the increased density turning it supercritical creating the nuclear explosion. This requires the chemical explosive to be detonated from multiple points with precise timing to create a shockwave moving concentrically inwards. A shockwave from an outside explosion will not do that.  For gun type fission weapons all that's needed is to shoot the \"bullet\" at the \"target\". An outside explosion of the right strength from the right direction *might* do that but it doesn't seem likely.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8093.0, "score_ratio": 3.3194029851, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdo4zjs", "c_root_id_B": "hdnq41p", "created_at_utc_A": 1632190526, "created_at_utc_B": 1632183649, "score_A": 461, "score_B": 139, "human_ref_A": "Even though the rope is frictionless on the surface, we then have to consider if the rope is compressible and whether or not we could tie such a knot as to compress the body of the rope in just the right way to give some kind of hold based purely on compression of the rope and locking it together like puzzle pieces rather than by friction.   Unless, you're saying there is no internal friction either in the rope material in which case then the rope is free to compress and expand with zero energy build up or loss and of course then would not hold any shape or tension.", "human_ref_B": "With a frictionless rope (and for this example, let's say it has no other properties like elasticity or stiffness) and no other forces, you could loop the rope in such a way that it would look exactly like a knot, but the lack of friction would mean any force opposite that which created the shape would unravel it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6877.0, "score_ratio": 3.3165467626, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdo4zjs", "c_root_id_B": "hdnxnhn", "created_at_utc_A": 1632190526, "created_at_utc_B": 1632187141, "score_A": 461, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "Even though the rope is frictionless on the surface, we then have to consider if the rope is compressible and whether or not we could tie such a knot as to compress the body of the rope in just the right way to give some kind of hold based purely on compression of the rope and locking it together like puzzle pieces rather than by friction.   Unless, you're saying there is no internal friction either in the rope material in which case then the rope is free to compress and expand with zero energy build up or loss and of course then would not hold any shape or tension.", "human_ref_B": "Probably not, unless both ends were somehow secured. I work in a zoo and had to make perches and stuff for monkeys. One thing we used was this yellow plastic chain. I tied knots in the chain and hung it up. Within 2 weeks, all the knots had been worked down to the free hanging bottom and come undone, leaving no more knots in the plastic chain. I'm sure a frictionless rope would do the same, and faster. Heck, without friction, gravity alone would be enough to move the knots down until they undo themselves. If the end isn't secured and just left hanging.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3385.0, "score_ratio": 7.3174603175, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdo4zjs", "c_root_id_B": "hdnp287", "created_at_utc_A": 1632190526, "created_at_utc_B": 1632183150, "score_A": 461, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Even though the rope is frictionless on the surface, we then have to consider if the rope is compressible and whether or not we could tie such a knot as to compress the body of the rope in just the right way to give some kind of hold based purely on compression of the rope and locking it together like puzzle pieces rather than by friction.   Unless, you're saying there is no internal friction either in the rope material in which case then the rope is free to compress and expand with zero energy build up or loss and of course then would not hold any shape or tension.", "human_ref_B": "Any normal knot will stay tied on a frictionless rope if the rope is under tension.  For example, a granny knot, or a square knot.  There is no way to go from the knotted state to the straight state without the rope passing through itself if the ends are secure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7376.0, "score_ratio": 15.3666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdnq41p", "c_root_id_B": "hdou48f", "created_at_utc_A": 1632183649, "created_at_utc_B": 1632205449, "score_A": 139, "score_B": 214, "human_ref_A": "With a frictionless rope (and for this example, let's say it has no other properties like elasticity or stiffness) and no other forces, you could loop the rope in such a way that it would look exactly like a knot, but the lack of friction would mean any force opposite that which created the shape would unravel it.", "human_ref_B": "Surprised this hasn\u2019t come up yet but from a pure maths perspective what you are asking for (in one interpretation) is nontrivial *braid*. There is whole area of topology called braid theory, and you can see a summary in Wikipedia. It has uses in fundamental physics - think string theory and similar, where curves wrapping up on themselves in an invariant way is very important.   There is also an even more deeply studied area of topology called \u2018knot theory\u2019, about which I know a fair amount more, but the different areas are distinguished (loosely, NPI) by a braid being tied by two ends - ie, the classes of an interval or open curve fixed at two ends under the moves you can perform that correspond to \u2018tying\u2019 - vs. a knot, where the entire informal sense of \u2018knot\u2019 is tied within a circle of rope, or rather these are inequivalent embeddings of a closed curve or \u2018circle\u2019 in 3-dimensional space (in a well-defined sense).   There are definitely non-trivial braids and knots, and intrinsically no way to remove them. How effective their physical manifestations might be without friction is another matter.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21800.0, "score_ratio": 1.5395683453, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdnxnhn", "c_root_id_B": "hdou48f", "created_at_utc_A": 1632187141, "created_at_utc_B": 1632205449, "score_A": 63, "score_B": 214, "human_ref_A": "Probably not, unless both ends were somehow secured. I work in a zoo and had to make perches and stuff for monkeys. One thing we used was this yellow plastic chain. I tied knots in the chain and hung it up. Within 2 weeks, all the knots had been worked down to the free hanging bottom and come undone, leaving no more knots in the plastic chain. I'm sure a frictionless rope would do the same, and faster. Heck, without friction, gravity alone would be enough to move the knots down until they undo themselves. If the end isn't secured and just left hanging.", "human_ref_B": "Surprised this hasn\u2019t come up yet but from a pure maths perspective what you are asking for (in one interpretation) is nontrivial *braid*. There is whole area of topology called braid theory, and you can see a summary in Wikipedia. It has uses in fundamental physics - think string theory and similar, where curves wrapping up on themselves in an invariant way is very important.   There is also an even more deeply studied area of topology called \u2018knot theory\u2019, about which I know a fair amount more, but the different areas are distinguished (loosely, NPI) by a braid being tied by two ends - ie, the classes of an interval or open curve fixed at two ends under the moves you can perform that correspond to \u2018tying\u2019 - vs. a knot, where the entire informal sense of \u2018knot\u2019 is tied within a circle of rope, or rather these are inequivalent embeddings of a closed curve or \u2018circle\u2019 in 3-dimensional space (in a well-defined sense).   There are definitely non-trivial braids and knots, and intrinsically no way to remove them. How effective their physical manifestations might be without friction is another matter.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18308.0, "score_ratio": 3.3968253968, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdou48f", "c_root_id_B": "hdo5cfe", "created_at_utc_A": 1632205449, "created_at_utc_B": 1632190699, "score_A": 214, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "Surprised this hasn\u2019t come up yet but from a pure maths perspective what you are asking for (in one interpretation) is nontrivial *braid*. There is whole area of topology called braid theory, and you can see a summary in Wikipedia. It has uses in fundamental physics - think string theory and similar, where curves wrapping up on themselves in an invariant way is very important.   There is also an even more deeply studied area of topology called \u2018knot theory\u2019, about which I know a fair amount more, but the different areas are distinguished (loosely, NPI) by a braid being tied by two ends - ie, the classes of an interval or open curve fixed at two ends under the moves you can perform that correspond to \u2018tying\u2019 - vs. a knot, where the entire informal sense of \u2018knot\u2019 is tied within a circle of rope, or rather these are inequivalent embeddings of a closed curve or \u2018circle\u2019 in 3-dimensional space (in a well-defined sense).   There are definitely non-trivial braids and knots, and intrinsically no way to remove them. How effective their physical manifestations might be without friction is another matter.", "human_ref_B": "If Velcro were frictionless it would require some force to separate because the features become meshed and you have to deform them to pull them apart.  If you had a rope with those types of features, they could also become meshed together and require some force to separate.  The rope could also interlock with larger features.  Maybe the braids on a frictionless rope could interlock like the teeth of a gear.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14750.0, "score_ratio": 4.976744186, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdou48f", "c_root_id_B": "hdnp287", "created_at_utc_A": 1632205449, "created_at_utc_B": 1632183150, "score_A": 214, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Surprised this hasn\u2019t come up yet but from a pure maths perspective what you are asking for (in one interpretation) is nontrivial *braid*. There is whole area of topology called braid theory, and you can see a summary in Wikipedia. It has uses in fundamental physics - think string theory and similar, where curves wrapping up on themselves in an invariant way is very important.   There is also an even more deeply studied area of topology called \u2018knot theory\u2019, about which I know a fair amount more, but the different areas are distinguished (loosely, NPI) by a braid being tied by two ends - ie, the classes of an interval or open curve fixed at two ends under the moves you can perform that correspond to \u2018tying\u2019 - vs. a knot, where the entire informal sense of \u2018knot\u2019 is tied within a circle of rope, or rather these are inequivalent embeddings of a closed curve or \u2018circle\u2019 in 3-dimensional space (in a well-defined sense).   There are definitely non-trivial braids and knots, and intrinsically no way to remove them. How effective their physical manifestations might be without friction is another matter.", "human_ref_B": "Any normal knot will stay tied on a frictionless rope if the rope is under tension.  For example, a granny knot, or a square knot.  There is no way to go from the knotted state to the straight state without the rope passing through itself if the ends are secure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22299.0, "score_ratio": 7.1333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdnq41p", "c_root_id_B": "hdnp287", "created_at_utc_A": 1632183649, "created_at_utc_B": 1632183150, "score_A": 139, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "With a frictionless rope (and for this example, let's say it has no other properties like elasticity or stiffness) and no other forces, you could loop the rope in such a way that it would look exactly like a knot, but the lack of friction would mean any force opposite that which created the shape would unravel it.", "human_ref_B": "Any normal knot will stay tied on a frictionless rope if the rope is under tension.  For example, a granny knot, or a square knot.  There is no way to go from the knotted state to the straight state without the rope passing through itself if the ends are secure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 499.0, "score_ratio": 4.6333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdnxnhn", "c_root_id_B": "hdnp287", "created_at_utc_A": 1632187141, "created_at_utc_B": 1632183150, "score_A": 63, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Probably not, unless both ends were somehow secured. I work in a zoo and had to make perches and stuff for monkeys. One thing we used was this yellow plastic chain. I tied knots in the chain and hung it up. Within 2 weeks, all the knots had been worked down to the free hanging bottom and come undone, leaving no more knots in the plastic chain. I'm sure a frictionless rope would do the same, and faster. Heck, without friction, gravity alone would be enough to move the knots down until they undo themselves. If the end isn't secured and just left hanging.", "human_ref_B": "Any normal knot will stay tied on a frictionless rope if the rope is under tension.  For example, a granny knot, or a square knot.  There is no way to go from the knotted state to the straight state without the rope passing through itself if the ends are secure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3991.0, "score_ratio": 2.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdo5cfe", "c_root_id_B": "hdoyd5v", "created_at_utc_A": 1632190699, "created_at_utc_B": 1632209061, "score_A": 43, "score_B": 59, "human_ref_A": "If Velcro were frictionless it would require some force to separate because the features become meshed and you have to deform them to pull them apart.  If you had a rope with those types of features, they could also become meshed together and require some force to separate.  The rope could also interlock with larger features.  Maybe the braids on a frictionless rope could interlock like the teeth of a gear.", "human_ref_B": "This is actually a problem with Dyneema ropes. It's a very strong, light, and self-lubricating material used for instance to fly large kites or hang gliders. Tying two ends together is notoriously difficult, if possible at all. In order to loop them at the end, we actually have to sew over them.   If a line snaps and you have to tie it back together, a couple a knots can do the trick but after a while tensions on the line will eventually unravel them.   Source : kiteboarder.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18362.0, "score_ratio": 1.3720930233, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdoyd5v", "c_root_id_B": "hdnp287", "created_at_utc_A": 1632209061, "created_at_utc_B": 1632183150, "score_A": 59, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "This is actually a problem with Dyneema ropes. It's a very strong, light, and self-lubricating material used for instance to fly large kites or hang gliders. Tying two ends together is notoriously difficult, if possible at all. In order to loop them at the end, we actually have to sew over them.   If a line snaps and you have to tie it back together, a couple a knots can do the trick but after a while tensions on the line will eventually unravel them.   Source : kiteboarder.", "human_ref_B": "Any normal knot will stay tied on a frictionless rope if the rope is under tension.  For example, a granny knot, or a square knot.  There is no way to go from the knotted state to the straight state without the rope passing through itself if the ends are secure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25911.0, "score_ratio": 1.9666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ps6lqp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If you had a frictionless rope, would you be able to tie knots in it that would hold? Are there some knots that would hold and others that wouldn't?", "c_root_id_A": "hdo5cfe", "c_root_id_B": "hdnp287", "created_at_utc_A": 1632190699, "created_at_utc_B": 1632183150, "score_A": 43, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "If Velcro were frictionless it would require some force to separate because the features become meshed and you have to deform them to pull them apart.  If you had a rope with those types of features, they could also become meshed together and require some force to separate.  The rope could also interlock with larger features.  Maybe the braids on a frictionless rope could interlock like the teeth of a gear.", "human_ref_B": "Any normal knot will stay tied on a frictionless rope if the rope is under tension.  For example, a granny knot, or a square knot.  There is no way to go from the knotted state to the straight state without the rope passing through itself if the ends are secure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7549.0, "score_ratio": 1.4333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9dt2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Why have we not revisited the idea of nuclear aircraft? I was thinking about this because I recently found out how much carbon emissions are released by air travel.   It seems to me that the biggest problem with nuclear aircraft was radiation shielding, but newer technologies like Demron could compensate for that, right?  Add to that the size of proposed new aircraft and the compactness with which we have created modern nuclear reactors, it just seems more feasible than in the past.  Is there something I am overlooking, or is the airline industry missing out on a huge new market?", "c_root_id_A": "c4tfg8k", "c_root_id_B": "c4tf6hb", "created_at_utc_A": 1338248157, "created_at_utc_B": 1338246680, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Power plant for aircraft require an extremely high power-to-weight ratio [1]. The Boeing 747-300 requires ~1400 W/kg (ibid.)  A nuclear power unit would require a thermodynamic cycle to extract thermal energy from the reactor and convert it either directly to motive force or (less efficiently) to electrical energy used to produce motive force. While there are examples of research programmes into nuclear aircraft for the purposes of strategic bombing ([2], [3]), these projects were aimed at developing extremely high endurance aircraft, in the same manner as nuclear surface vessels, and both projects failed on the grounds of safety and economy.  In comparison, a high bypass ratio turbofan [4] is extremely efficient because it combines the production of thrust with the release of chemical energy from its fuel. New fuels for aviation, third generation biofuels and other hydrogen carriers, even hydrogen itself, present the possibility of low-emission and carbon-neutral aviation fuel. While current government efforts aim towards reducing dependence on imported oil, the same chemical techniques apply to biofuel feedstocks [5].  P.S. [6]", "human_ref_B": "Demron doesn't provide enough to shield against high energy neutrons or high energy gamma, which are the two main things that come out of a nuclear reactor. You need the equivalent of 4-6 feet of water to deal w/those, and thats extremely heavy to have on an aircraft.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1477.0, "score_ratio": 3.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9dt2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Why have we not revisited the idea of nuclear aircraft? I was thinking about this because I recently found out how much carbon emissions are released by air travel.   It seems to me that the biggest problem with nuclear aircraft was radiation shielding, but newer technologies like Demron could compensate for that, right?  Add to that the size of proposed new aircraft and the compactness with which we have created modern nuclear reactors, it just seems more feasible than in the past.  Is there something I am overlooking, or is the airline industry missing out on a huge new market?", "c_root_id_A": "c4tg9ye", "c_root_id_B": "c4toybq", "created_at_utc_A": 1338252537, "created_at_utc_B": 1338309015, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "9/11 would have been quite different. That is all.", "human_ref_B": "Its very simple: The idea of a nuclear powered aircraft was only interesting when you wanted to keep planes with nuclear weapons circling routes for weeks at a time.  With the invention of ICBM's, all of this didn't matter anymore.  Otherwise, the safety and shielding risk was terrible.  Pilots used to get large radiation doses just from the reflection of radiation off the ground as they were about to land the one of the Aircraft Reactor Experiments.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 56478.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r2qoc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How big of a tsunami would the Tsar Bomba make if it was detonated below the surface of an ocean? How is it compared to the size of biggest natural  tsunamis? Also, does it does the size of thewave depend on the depth of detonation?? Thanks for any reply.   Yield of Tsar Bomba: 50000 kilotons (fat man, the stronger nuke used on japan by US in WWII, was only 18-23 kilotons)    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield#Milestone_nuclear_explosions", "c_root_id_A": "c42frgs", "c_root_id_B": "c42fs12", "created_at_utc_A": 1332120200, "created_at_utc_B": 1332120286, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 31, "human_ref_A": "You can see some tsunamis in videos of underwater nuclear explosions: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTaJ-wN2Ftw&feature=related  They don't look cataclysmic. However, that video is a pretty small bomb, smaller than the ones used in WW2.", "human_ref_B": "Some quick numbers:  The energy released by the Tsar Bomba was about 4,000 times the energy released by the Hiroshima bomb.  The energy released by the 2011 Japan earthquake is about 500,000,000 times the energy released by the Hiroshima bomb (or somewhat close to that).  Now the method of this energy release, and the depth/extent of it can have a big impact, but hopefully that puts the differences into some context at least.  I would suspect that the wave from a nuclear weapon would have very high attenuation (which means it would lose amplitude quickly over distance. Tsunamis from subduction zone earthquakes have relatively low attenuation, which means they can have large amplitudes even at large distances).  Next point - in terms of absolute size, there have been tsunamis which have been of far larger heights than the Japan tsunami last year. Landslide-generated tsunamis can generate run-ups exceeding 500 meters (as seen in 1958 in Lituya Bay), and potentially reaching 1000 meters in Hawaii (but that is disputed - it may be closer to 700). Landslide tsunamis also have high attenuation, so the amplitude drops off drastically after a few tens to hundreds of kilometers.  So whether you look at maximum wave height or total wave energy, natural processes likely *far* exceed anything the Tsar Bomba could produce. But that is ignoring the finer differences between energy released from a nuclear bomb versus a subduction zone earthquake(s) or submarine landslide. Maybe someone who has worked with underwater nuclear explosions will come around and offer some insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 86.0, "score_ratio": 5.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r2qoc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How big of a tsunami would the Tsar Bomba make if it was detonated below the surface of an ocean? How is it compared to the size of biggest natural  tsunamis? Also, does it does the size of thewave depend on the depth of detonation?? Thanks for any reply.   Yield of Tsar Bomba: 50000 kilotons (fat man, the stronger nuke used on japan by US in WWII, was only 18-23 kilotons)    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield#Milestone_nuclear_explosions", "c_root_id_A": "c42hn3l", "c_root_id_B": "c42jrdj", "created_at_utc_A": 1332130957, "created_at_utc_B": 1332149826, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Once one thinks of it, the size and shape should definitely depend somewhat on the depth of detonation.  Although the water is not compressible, ie the same force should displace the same amount of water... the deeper it is, the more water weight that is forcing back on the explosion.   Also, the deeper it is, the more of the displacement of the water will be in every direction instead of just upward... meaning toward the surface, the less pressure there is from the top of the water versus the sides and below.  The lower it is, the more even the pressure on all sides.  fun question", "human_ref_B": "I asked almost exactly the same question and the few comments that were given indicated there wouldn't be much of a tsunami.  I was not completely convinced though as video and data from the 5Mt underground Cannikin test show that it could cause a 7.0 earthquake, no tsunami though.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18869.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r2qoc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How big of a tsunami would the Tsar Bomba make if it was detonated below the surface of an ocean? How is it compared to the size of biggest natural  tsunamis? Also, does it does the size of thewave depend on the depth of detonation?? Thanks for any reply.   Yield of Tsar Bomba: 50000 kilotons (fat man, the stronger nuke used on japan by US in WWII, was only 18-23 kilotons)    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield#Milestone_nuclear_explosions", "c_root_id_A": "c42m0fm", "c_root_id_B": "c42hn3l", "created_at_utc_A": 1332171231, "created_at_utc_B": 1332130957, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What happens when a nuke goes off underwater? Isnt the water vaporized and only a huge bubble would form expanding outwards until it collapsed?", "human_ref_B": "Once one thinks of it, the size and shape should definitely depend somewhat on the depth of detonation.  Although the water is not compressible, ie the same force should displace the same amount of water... the deeper it is, the more water weight that is forcing back on the explosion.   Also, the deeper it is, the more of the displacement of the water will be in every direction instead of just upward... meaning toward the surface, the less pressure there is from the top of the water versus the sides and below.  The lower it is, the more even the pressure on all sides.  fun question", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 40274.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r2qoc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How big of a tsunami would the Tsar Bomba make if it was detonated below the surface of an ocean? How is it compared to the size of biggest natural  tsunamis? Also, does it does the size of thewave depend on the depth of detonation?? Thanks for any reply.   Yield of Tsar Bomba: 50000 kilotons (fat man, the stronger nuke used on japan by US in WWII, was only 18-23 kilotons)    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield#Milestone_nuclear_explosions", "c_root_id_A": "c42m0fm", "c_root_id_B": "c42l5v4", "created_at_utc_A": 1332171231, "created_at_utc_B": 1332165898, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "What happens when a nuke goes off underwater? Isnt the water vaporized and only a huge bubble would form expanding outwards until it collapsed?", "human_ref_B": "The bomb would set off a splash not a tidal wave.    It took a couple of years to make a bomb in the first place and another ten to find out how to stick hydrogen onto it.    We are only now entering an era when earthquakes are being forecast and even then not by the people who are being paid to cover that sort of thing.    That aught to tell you a lot.    It tells me seismologists know jaczjdt about tsunamii.     http://my.opera.com/Weatherlawyer/blog/2012/03/15/earthquake-lua?cid=85271042#comment85271042", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5333.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r2qoc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How big of a tsunami would the Tsar Bomba make if it was detonated below the surface of an ocean? How is it compared to the size of biggest natural  tsunamis? Also, does it does the size of thewave depend on the depth of detonation?? Thanks for any reply.   Yield of Tsar Bomba: 50000 kilotons (fat man, the stronger nuke used on japan by US in WWII, was only 18-23 kilotons)    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield#Milestone_nuclear_explosions", "c_root_id_A": "c42n984", "c_root_id_B": "c42l5v4", "created_at_utc_A": 1332177664, "created_at_utc_B": 1332165898, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Well, the two events are pretty dissimilar in my opinion. With a tsunami like in Japan this past year, the height of the wave (and thus extent of destruction) is due to an actual shift in the sea bed. That's why they aren't particularly large (like 100 feet).  But there are other types of tsunamis due to landslides. http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2000/mega_tsunami.shtml   It might be helpful to look up the estimated power of those landslides that case mega tsunamis. Because I figure the biggest amount of destruction it attempting to form a directional explosion downward close to the surface of the ocean to mimic the landslide results. But it might still be waaaaay off from that level of energy.  But people noting the energy of the earthquake compared to the bomb I think are off. The size of the earthquake is somewhat unimportant because the tsunami actually only depends on the actual size of the shift in the ocean bed.", "human_ref_B": "The bomb would set off a splash not a tidal wave.    It took a couple of years to make a bomb in the first place and another ten to find out how to stick hydrogen onto it.    We are only now entering an era when earthquakes are being forecast and even then not by the people who are being paid to cover that sort of thing.    That aught to tell you a lot.    It tells me seismologists know jaczjdt about tsunamii.     http://my.opera.com/Weatherlawyer/blog/2012/03/15/earthquake-lua?cid=85271042#comment85271042", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11766.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y304qu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?", "c_root_id_A": "is8njrb", "c_root_id_B": "is8nax4", "created_at_utc_A": 1665714631, "created_at_utc_B": 1665714517, "score_A": 415, "score_B": 139, "human_ref_A": "The general phenomenon you're asking about is called dispersion. There is a small amount of dispersion for sound waves in free air, but it's not much at all in the normal regime. It gets stronger in the ultrasound and for sounds that are loud enough to start seeing nonlinear effects.  Since most sounds we hear are broadband, the effect is less that some sounds travel faster than others, and more that a sound will get smeared out a bit so that different frequencies of the original sound will arrive at slightly different times.", "human_ref_B": "All sounds travel at the speed of sound, but the speed of sound is not a singular speed.    Instead, the speed changes with temperature, pressure, density, and other variables.  Related to the items there, changing the medium (what the sound moves through) changes the speed of sound.  The speed of sound is faster in a solid than a liquid, and liquid than a gas.  The reason is the molecules are closer together and can more quickly interact with each other.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 114.0, "score_ratio": 2.9856115108, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y304qu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?", "c_root_id_A": "is9k3ih", "c_root_id_B": "is9v2oo", "created_at_utc_A": 1665736215, "created_at_utc_B": 1665745248, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "As I understand it, no. Sound is a vibration, and vibrations will propagate at a fixed rate depending on the medium they're travelling through.     Some frequencies do travel better in different mediums. For example the high-pitched noises whales and dolphins make can travel much further underwater than they do in air.   The high pitched sounds don't travel faster than other deeper noises though, they just don't disperse as quickly.   Loudness is also a factor (obviously). The bigger the vibration, the longer it takes to disperse.", "human_ref_B": "The speed of sound depends on the medium that the sound is traveling through.  The speed of sound is much faster in water than air.  The speed of sound is faster in warm air than it is in colder air.  Within the same medium though, the speed of sound is constant, regardless of frequency or amplitude.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9033.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y304qu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?", "c_root_id_A": "is9jbya", "c_root_id_B": "is9v2oo", "created_at_utc_A": 1665735542, "created_at_utc_B": 1665745248, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Speed of sound is constant in a medium with constant parameters, but not all wave travel as far, there are exception when goind through solids, where some forms travel faster than other, but the general principle remains the same.", "human_ref_B": "The speed of sound depends on the medium that the sound is traveling through.  The speed of sound is much faster in water than air.  The speed of sound is faster in warm air than it is in colder air.  Within the same medium though, the speed of sound is constant, regardless of frequency or amplitude.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9706.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y304qu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?", "c_root_id_A": "isae8y2", "c_root_id_B": "is9k3ih", "created_at_utc_A": 1665755379, "created_at_utc_B": 1665736215, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Mars has two sound speeds.  https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/what-sounds-captured-by-nasa-s-perseverance-rover-reveal-about-mars/  On Earth, sounds typically travel at 767 mph (343 meters per second). But on Mars, low-pitched sounds travel at about 537 mph (240 meters per second), while higher-pitched sounds move at 559 mph (250 meters per second).", "human_ref_B": "As I understand it, no. Sound is a vibration, and vibrations will propagate at a fixed rate depending on the medium they're travelling through.     Some frequencies do travel better in different mediums. For example the high-pitched noises whales and dolphins make can travel much further underwater than they do in air.   The high pitched sounds don't travel faster than other deeper noises though, they just don't disperse as quickly.   Loudness is also a factor (obviously). The bigger the vibration, the longer it takes to disperse.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19164.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y304qu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?", "c_root_id_A": "isae8y2", "c_root_id_B": "is9jbya", "created_at_utc_A": 1665755379, "created_at_utc_B": 1665735542, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Mars has two sound speeds.  https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/what-sounds-captured-by-nasa-s-perseverance-rover-reveal-about-mars/  On Earth, sounds typically travel at 767 mph (343 meters per second). But on Mars, low-pitched sounds travel at about 537 mph (240 meters per second), while higher-pitched sounds move at 559 mph (250 meters per second).", "human_ref_B": "Speed of sound is constant in a medium with constant parameters, but not all wave travel as far, there are exception when goind through solids, where some forms travel faster than other, but the general principle remains the same.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19837.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y304qu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Do all sounds travel at \"the speed of sound\" or are some sounds faster than others?", "c_root_id_A": "is9jbya", "c_root_id_B": "is9k3ih", "created_at_utc_A": 1665735542, "created_at_utc_B": 1665736215, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Speed of sound is constant in a medium with constant parameters, but not all wave travel as far, there are exception when goind through solids, where some forms travel faster than other, but the general principle remains the same.", "human_ref_B": "As I understand it, no. Sound is a vibration, and vibrations will propagate at a fixed rate depending on the medium they're travelling through.     Some frequencies do travel better in different mediums. For example the high-pitched noises whales and dolphins make can travel much further underwater than they do in air.   The high pitched sounds don't travel faster than other deeper noises though, they just don't disperse as quickly.   Loudness is also a factor (obviously). The bigger the vibration, the longer it takes to disperse.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 673.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kbf4k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "What's the evolutionary purpose of caterpillars changing to butterflies...?  and how much of the original caterpillar body, brain, DNA etc... is the same after metamorphosis.  Once its in the cocoon, what actually happens to the caterpillar?", "c_root_id_A": "c2iy7kf", "c_root_id_B": "c2ixp72", "created_at_utc_A": 1315698364, "created_at_utc_B": 1315693465, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "For the second part; you may want to see http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/i3078/in_insects_that_undergo_metamorphosis_for_example/    http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/i85du/how_did_the_process_of_caterpillar_to_butterfly/", "human_ref_B": "I can't answer your whole question, but i do know a little. The caterpillar turns into a jelly like substance whilst in the cocoon. This jelly then begins to come to form a butterfly. That's all i know, though.  P.s. i would like to know if butterflies remember being caterpillars.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4899.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kbf4k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "What's the evolutionary purpose of caterpillars changing to butterflies...?  and how much of the original caterpillar body, brain, DNA etc... is the same after metamorphosis.  Once its in the cocoon, what actually happens to the caterpillar?", "c_root_id_A": "c2iz748", "c_root_id_B": "c2ixp72", "created_at_utc_A": 1315708108, "created_at_utc_B": 1315693465, "score_A": -5, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "> What's the evolutionary purpose of caterpillars changing to butterflies...?    Sciency answer:  those caterpillars who did this produced more kids that survived than those who didn't.  Non-sciency speculation: you can't really guess what's going on in the caterpillar's brain.    Perhaps the bugs just thought colorful wings are very attractive.   Or perhaps it's useful to migrate all the way across a continent.     Probably both.  And a whole lot more reasons too.", "human_ref_B": "I can't answer your whole question, but i do know a little. The caterpillar turns into a jelly like substance whilst in the cocoon. This jelly then begins to come to form a butterfly. That's all i know, though.  P.s. i would like to know if butterflies remember being caterpillars.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14643.0, "score_ratio": 0.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7jle4s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Why doesn't every chess game that Google's AI alpha zero plays against itself end up in a stalemate? From what I've heard Google's AI alpha zero has a training period, where it plays against itself to become better.At those games specifically how come that even though its opponent has the same knowledge and same resources the game doesn't always end up in a stalemate?  Thanks in advance!", "c_root_id_A": "dr8g8fm", "c_root_id_B": "dr856kb", "created_at_utc_A": 1513249544, "created_at_utc_B": 1513226862, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Because the game isn't symmetrical.  We can prove that one of the players can either always win or at worst force a draw against the other.  We don't know which one but it's wildy believed to be white and experiments support it.", "human_ref_B": "You can think of a learning algorithm as having a massive set of dials that control its behaviour, which is governed by its architecture. When it's learning, it randomly tunes the dials and sees whether this moves its behaviour in the desired direction or not. When it's playing itself the dials are set to different values and so it's behaviour is different. When one behaviour wins those dual settings are changed slightly in random ways and used in future games and the victors among those are taken and changed slightly again, etc. making smaller, finer adjustments each time until the desired behaviour is achieved.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22682.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lodnd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why can we see clearly underwater with goggles but not with our bare eyes? Also, do fish have some sort of eye-covering membrane or how do they circumvent this problem?", "c_root_id_A": "c2uf5o9", "c_root_id_B": "c2ucf0c", "created_at_utc_A": 1319579228, "created_at_utc_B": 1319562607, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Here is my reply when this question was aked a little while ago.", "human_ref_B": "What about that that human planet episode where it had people diving underwater that had trained themselves to see clearly?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16621.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lodnd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why can we see clearly underwater with goggles but not with our bare eyes? Also, do fish have some sort of eye-covering membrane or how do they circumvent this problem?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ud4q9", "c_root_id_B": "c2uf5o9", "created_at_utc_A": 1319566957, "created_at_utc_B": 1319579228, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "If you have long enough eyelashes you can squint above the surface and submerge, trapping air with your eyelashes, allowing you to see better.", "human_ref_B": "Here is my reply when this question was aked a little while ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12271.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lodnd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why can we see clearly underwater with goggles but not with our bare eyes? Also, do fish have some sort of eye-covering membrane or how do they circumvent this problem?", "c_root_id_A": "c2uf3hn", "c_root_id_B": "c2uf5o9", "created_at_utc_A": 1319578848, "created_at_utc_B": 1319579228, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "The power of a lens is given by the equation F = (n'-n) / r : n is the index of the lens, n' is the index of the media, r is the radius of the lens.  The lens, being the cornea, has ~ 45 diopters of power in air, which has a radius of ~ 8.3 mm and an index (n') of 1.375.  Parallel light rays coming from infinity should correspond to the fovea.  Underwater, there is a vergence change of around -5 Diopters.  It'd be like being constantly near-sighted with an ever changing far-point.  Granted, pupil size, refractive error, magnification, and other factors contribute, but this is just a very very rough math proof as to why non-goggled people see unclearly.  The air junction b/w the goggles and the cornea 'correct' for the changes in vergence.", "human_ref_B": "Here is my reply when this question was aked a little while ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 380.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lodnd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why can we see clearly underwater with goggles but not with our bare eyes? Also, do fish have some sort of eye-covering membrane or how do they circumvent this problem?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ug64n", "c_root_id_B": "c2ucf0c", "created_at_utc_A": 1319586053, "created_at_utc_B": 1319562607, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "It boils down to a couple of things  1) Parellel light entering our eye needs to be bent so it falls on our retina. Otherwise the image will be blurry /n  2) This light is bent by light passing thru different media or material of DIFFERENT refractive index (indices)/n  So if light is travelling thru air, it will continue in a straight line (un bent) until it hits a different refractive index which is NOT curved. Mirages are caused by air of diffent temperatures having slghtly different refractive indices (RIs)    The difference between air (RI=1 ish or n= 1) and our cornea (n=1.376) creates a significant bend to the light. The other media in the eye will do the remainder of the bending. However water has a RI or n of 1.33ish. Not much bending going on here now is there? Therefore we see VASTLY different.   this occurs becasue the water is hard up against the cornea. Now if we throw some googles on there are different RIs BUT the lens is flat so there is no change to the light (remember light bends when changing media and a curve - thats why we can see thru a window but sometimes curved glass gives distortions). So there is no change to light thru the goggles. Light enters the air in the goggles then enters the cornea as it would on land    Easy eh?    As an aside - this difference in RI is how we can get thicker and thinner lenses for the same power in our spectacles - differernt RIs", "human_ref_B": "What about that that human planet episode where it had people diving underwater that had trained themselves to see clearly?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23446.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lodnd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why can we see clearly underwater with goggles but not with our bare eyes? Also, do fish have some sort of eye-covering membrane or how do they circumvent this problem?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ug64n", "c_root_id_B": "c2ud4q9", "created_at_utc_A": 1319586053, "created_at_utc_B": 1319566957, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "It boils down to a couple of things  1) Parellel light entering our eye needs to be bent so it falls on our retina. Otherwise the image will be blurry /n  2) This light is bent by light passing thru different media or material of DIFFERENT refractive index (indices)/n  So if light is travelling thru air, it will continue in a straight line (un bent) until it hits a different refractive index which is NOT curved. Mirages are caused by air of diffent temperatures having slghtly different refractive indices (RIs)    The difference between air (RI=1 ish or n= 1) and our cornea (n=1.376) creates a significant bend to the light. The other media in the eye will do the remainder of the bending. However water has a RI or n of 1.33ish. Not much bending going on here now is there? Therefore we see VASTLY different.   this occurs becasue the water is hard up against the cornea. Now if we throw some googles on there are different RIs BUT the lens is flat so there is no change to the light (remember light bends when changing media and a curve - thats why we can see thru a window but sometimes curved glass gives distortions). So there is no change to light thru the goggles. Light enters the air in the goggles then enters the cornea as it would on land    Easy eh?    As an aside - this difference in RI is how we can get thicker and thinner lenses for the same power in our spectacles - differernt RIs", "human_ref_B": "If you have long enough eyelashes you can squint above the surface and submerge, trapping air with your eyelashes, allowing you to see better.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19096.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lodnd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why can we see clearly underwater with goggles but not with our bare eyes? Also, do fish have some sort of eye-covering membrane or how do they circumvent this problem?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ug64n", "c_root_id_B": "c2uf3hn", "created_at_utc_A": 1319586053, "created_at_utc_B": 1319578848, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It boils down to a couple of things  1) Parellel light entering our eye needs to be bent so it falls on our retina. Otherwise the image will be blurry /n  2) This light is bent by light passing thru different media or material of DIFFERENT refractive index (indices)/n  So if light is travelling thru air, it will continue in a straight line (un bent) until it hits a different refractive index which is NOT curved. Mirages are caused by air of diffent temperatures having slghtly different refractive indices (RIs)    The difference between air (RI=1 ish or n= 1) and our cornea (n=1.376) creates a significant bend to the light. The other media in the eye will do the remainder of the bending. However water has a RI or n of 1.33ish. Not much bending going on here now is there? Therefore we see VASTLY different.   this occurs becasue the water is hard up against the cornea. Now if we throw some googles on there are different RIs BUT the lens is flat so there is no change to the light (remember light bends when changing media and a curve - thats why we can see thru a window but sometimes curved glass gives distortions). So there is no change to light thru the goggles. Light enters the air in the goggles then enters the cornea as it would on land    Easy eh?    As an aside - this difference in RI is how we can get thicker and thinner lenses for the same power in our spectacles - differernt RIs", "human_ref_B": "The power of a lens is given by the equation F = (n'-n) / r : n is the index of the lens, n' is the index of the media, r is the radius of the lens.  The lens, being the cornea, has ~ 45 diopters of power in air, which has a radius of ~ 8.3 mm and an index (n') of 1.375.  Parallel light rays coming from infinity should correspond to the fovea.  Underwater, there is a vergence change of around -5 Diopters.  It'd be like being constantly near-sighted with an ever changing far-point.  Granted, pupil size, refractive error, magnification, and other factors contribute, but this is just a very very rough math proof as to why non-goggled people see unclearly.  The air junction b/w the goggles and the cornea 'correct' for the changes in vergence.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7205.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qerb0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "With Covid-19 boosters rolling out, are we seeing a drop in antibody titres in the months after the third shot just as we did after the second? I keep reading that we *might* find the boosters fade and that we could need to do them regularly etc - but there's little out there about how they are actually performing. Have meaningful patterns cropped up in the data, or is it too early to tell?", "c_root_id_A": "hhvt153", "c_root_id_B": "hhwc4io", "created_at_utc_A": 1635095979, "created_at_utc_B": 1635103601, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I don\u2019t know of a study that answers that specific question, but that\u2019s what would be expected. Antibody titers should peak a week or two post exposure and then fall (absent subsequent exposure). The additional exposure should produce more memory cells, however, and make raising antibodies in response to exposure both faster and more substantial.", "human_ref_B": "One thing to keep in mind - after you are vaccinated your immune system retains dormant B and T cells.  There many not be many or any antibodies in your blood, but those memory B and T cells are still alive.   If after a number of years you get infected they will reactivate and begin reproducing and fighting the infection.   You were probably vaccinated against MMR, polio, and other diseases.  You may not have detectable antibodies, but that doesn't mean your immune system can't fight them off if exposed.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7622.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vgpjbc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How big dogs have much shorter lifespans than smaller dogs, is it the same for humans? Say a 6' 7\" inch man vs a 5' 5\" man?", "c_root_id_A": "id3nlx9", "c_root_id_B": "id39xxt", "created_at_utc_A": 1655757164, "created_at_utc_B": 1655751184, "score_A": 909, "score_B": 396, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is yes, there is a solid inverse correlation between height and longevity within the normal range of human height. At the extreme upper end of height, longevity drops off very sharply, but the same happens at the extreme lower end as well.    On top of that, height correlates very strongly with higher income, which in turn yields better health outcomes across the board so, based on earnings, you'd expect the tall to live longer. Once you account for this confounding factor, the effects of height on longevity become considerably larger than they appear on the surface.", "human_ref_B": "Studies have confirmed it is somewhat true, but not to the extent between different dog sizes. Some of that lifespan difference may just be due to all the inbreeding required to get giant dogs, but that is speculation.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5980.0, "score_ratio": 2.2954545455, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vgpjbc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How big dogs have much shorter lifespans than smaller dogs, is it the same for humans? Say a 6' 7\" inch man vs a 5' 5\" man?", "c_root_id_A": "id3b3jo", "c_root_id_B": "id3nlx9", "created_at_utc_A": 1655751687, "created_at_utc_B": 1655757164, "score_A": 131, "score_B": 909, "human_ref_A": "There's a rare form of dwarfism, Laron Syndrome,  people with Laron syndrome rarely develop cancer. Also, they hardly go grey in old age.   Werner, H., Lapkina-Gendler, L., Achlaug, L., Nagaraj, K., Somri, L., Yaron-Saminsky, D., Pasmanik-Chor, M., Sarfstein, R., Laron, Z. and Yakar, S., 2019. Genome-wide profiling of laron syndrome patients identifies novel cancer protection pathways. Cells, 8(6), p.596.  [Dwarfism may stymie diseases of old age]( https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2011.100)", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is yes, there is a solid inverse correlation between height and longevity within the normal range of human height. At the extreme upper end of height, longevity drops off very sharply, but the same happens at the extreme lower end as well.    On top of that, height correlates very strongly with higher income, which in turn yields better health outcomes across the board so, based on earnings, you'd expect the tall to live longer. Once you account for this confounding factor, the effects of height on longevity become considerably larger than they appear on the surface.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5477.0, "score_ratio": 6.9389312977, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vgpjbc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How big dogs have much shorter lifespans than smaller dogs, is it the same for humans? Say a 6' 7\" inch man vs a 5' 5\" man?", "c_root_id_A": "id3nlx9", "c_root_id_B": "id3c4f4", "created_at_utc_A": 1655757164, "created_at_utc_B": 1655752138, "score_A": 909, "score_B": 82, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is yes, there is a solid inverse correlation between height and longevity within the normal range of human height. At the extreme upper end of height, longevity drops off very sharply, but the same happens at the extreme lower end as well.    On top of that, height correlates very strongly with higher income, which in turn yields better health outcomes across the board so, based on earnings, you'd expect the tall to live longer. Once you account for this confounding factor, the effects of height on longevity become considerably larger than they appear on the surface.", "human_ref_B": "It's true and a few people in the comments have cited the study, as a \"tall person\" even my endocrinologist has brought it up.  What's surprising is that two of the largest breeds of dog (the kangal and the ovcharka) have 12 to 14 year lifespans as apposed to great Danes living only 6 to 7 years being slightly smaller in stature.  A lot of it is diet and genetics, you'll notice that some tall people, are that way due to pituitary tumors or irregularities but others are just naturally tall like me.   Anecdotally, Men in my family live into their 90s while most men over 6ft9 die in their 50s", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5026.0, "score_ratio": 11.0853658537, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vgpjbc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How big dogs have much shorter lifespans than smaller dogs, is it the same for humans? Say a 6' 7\" inch man vs a 5' 5\" man?", "c_root_id_A": "id3fndh", "c_root_id_B": "id3nlx9", "created_at_utc_A": 1655753690, "created_at_utc_B": 1655757164, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 909, "human_ref_A": "Generally, a very small impact.   Taller people may be more at risk to cancer and blood clotting, due to larger size increasing risk exposure. Extremely tall people may also have too much growth hormone, which causes other issues. Tall people do have larger hearts that are less likely to have heart failure, but the higher blood clotting and cancer rates (top 2 causes of death) are against them. Taller people are also more likely to live to 40 as they tend to be healthier as children. One study of tens of thousands of cadavers found size 11.5 feet tends to live the longest as it hits the middle ground.   Wolves live up to 20 years in captivity, longer than all dog breeds. Some of the rarer large dog breeds also live the longest. Many of the largest dog breeds have also have been inbred for friendliness like labs or Great Danes. The genes that cause this friendliness increase risk of dying young (potentially related to Williams Syndrome). Most small dogs are not as friendly. Popular large dogs have to be friendlier as they are more dangerous.  The largest mammals in general live the longest like whales and elephants.", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is yes, there is a solid inverse correlation between height and longevity within the normal range of human height. At the extreme upper end of height, longevity drops off very sharply, but the same happens at the extreme lower end as well.    On top of that, height correlates very strongly with higher income, which in turn yields better health outcomes across the board so, based on earnings, you'd expect the tall to live longer. Once you account for this confounding factor, the effects of height on longevity become considerably larger than they appear on the surface.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3474.0, "score_ratio": 23.9210526316, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vgpjbc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How big dogs have much shorter lifespans than smaller dogs, is it the same for humans? Say a 6' 7\" inch man vs a 5' 5\" man?", "c_root_id_A": "id3nlx9", "c_root_id_B": "id3hc9u", "created_at_utc_A": 1655757164, "created_at_utc_B": 1655754435, "score_A": 909, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is yes, there is a solid inverse correlation between height and longevity within the normal range of human height. At the extreme upper end of height, longevity drops off very sharply, but the same happens at the extreme lower end as well.    On top of that, height correlates very strongly with higher income, which in turn yields better health outcomes across the board so, based on earnings, you'd expect the tall to live longer. Once you account for this confounding factor, the effects of height on longevity become considerably larger than they appear on the surface.", "human_ref_B": "the way you should picture this in your head though is within a specific doge breed. the average size dog for its breed should theoretically live longer than the same breed dog that grew much larger because the above average body size strains the organs and joints that were meant for a smaller job than they are performing. you see this a lot in tall humans as well.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2729.0, "score_ratio": 28.40625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlk8eu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What causes the sand dunes in the desert? I know wind blows all the sand together in to basically big ass piles. But what causes the piles to start where they do? I guess my question is - when you see one of those really big piles of sand, why did it start there? Did it blow around a rock or a bush or something that gathered all the sand?", "c_root_id_A": "hj8aq0m", "c_root_id_B": "hjb8myp", "created_at_utc_A": 1635990324, "created_at_utc_B": 1636049387, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The sand dunes usually don't stay in one place. Over time, they will move, a bit like waves on the ocean.  Also like waves on the ocean, a bump is not necessary for (but may help) a sand dune to start. Once the wind gets up to a high enough speed to move sand, sand dunes would start to develop even on flat sand. Wind gusts or tiny imperfections would be enough to start them.", "human_ref_B": "Geologist here:   Basically the surrounding rock of any mountain ranges breaks down due to weathering and erosion (weathering is the breaking of the rock, erosion is the transportation and deposition of broken rock we call clasts or sediment). These broken rock pieces, or clasts, are highly variable in size. Sand size is literally 2mm to 1/16mm in size. Silt and clay are even smaller than sand.   Now let's talk about wind energy in deserts. We've got clasts now of variable sizes that get moved by the wind. The higher winds means bigger sediment can move. In desert environments water energy is minimal but can happen in an occasional flash flood that moves sediment/clasts in one big event. Wind, on the other hand, can only carry clay sized particles in air because they're so small typically unless there is a serious wind storm that can create dust storms. Sand, during normal conditions, bounces around the ground in a process called saltation via the wind. This just means the little sand grains (clasts) hit each other over and over and over becoming rounded and frosted as the wind basically carries them over short distances like little bouncy balls. They constantly migrate with the wind (like super slow ocean waves) and take the shape of the dominate wind patterns of the area. There are actually several different dune shapes we classify. Eventually they can become preserved in the rock record too which allows us to ID old desert environments.   Hope this helps! Feel free to ask questions. I stream geologic education as well here if you're interested in learning more about the earth sciences: twitch.tv/rockitsage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 59063.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlk8eu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What causes the sand dunes in the desert? I know wind blows all the sand together in to basically big ass piles. But what causes the piles to start where they do? I guess my question is - when you see one of those really big piles of sand, why did it start there? Did it blow around a rock or a bush or something that gathered all the sand?", "c_root_id_A": "hj89ue4", "c_root_id_B": "hjb8myp", "created_at_utc_A": 1635989933, "created_at_utc_B": 1636049387, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Erosion over millions of years, accumulation of sand sized particles over millions of years, dispersal via wind with seasonal patterns. Australia for example.   https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Distribution-and-orientation-of-the-Australian-desert-dunefields-adapted-from-WASSON-et_fig2_236731828  Dune formation  https://www.internetgeography.net/topics/how-are-sand-dunes-formed/", "human_ref_B": "Geologist here:   Basically the surrounding rock of any mountain ranges breaks down due to weathering and erosion (weathering is the breaking of the rock, erosion is the transportation and deposition of broken rock we call clasts or sediment). These broken rock pieces, or clasts, are highly variable in size. Sand size is literally 2mm to 1/16mm in size. Silt and clay are even smaller than sand.   Now let's talk about wind energy in deserts. We've got clasts now of variable sizes that get moved by the wind. The higher winds means bigger sediment can move. In desert environments water energy is minimal but can happen in an occasional flash flood that moves sediment/clasts in one big event. Wind, on the other hand, can only carry clay sized particles in air because they're so small typically unless there is a serious wind storm that can create dust storms. Sand, during normal conditions, bounces around the ground in a process called saltation via the wind. This just means the little sand grains (clasts) hit each other over and over and over becoming rounded and frosted as the wind basically carries them over short distances like little bouncy balls. They constantly migrate with the wind (like super slow ocean waves) and take the shape of the dominate wind patterns of the area. There are actually several different dune shapes we classify. Eventually they can become preserved in the rock record too which allows us to ID old desert environments.   Hope this helps! Feel free to ask questions. I stream geologic education as well here if you're interested in learning more about the earth sciences: twitch.tv/rockitsage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 59454.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlk8eu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What causes the sand dunes in the desert? I know wind blows all the sand together in to basically big ass piles. But what causes the piles to start where they do? I guess my question is - when you see one of those really big piles of sand, why did it start there? Did it blow around a rock or a bush or something that gathered all the sand?", "c_root_id_A": "hj8aq0m", "c_root_id_B": "hj89ue4", "created_at_utc_A": 1635990324, "created_at_utc_B": 1635989933, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The sand dunes usually don't stay in one place. Over time, they will move, a bit like waves on the ocean.  Also like waves on the ocean, a bump is not necessary for (but may help) a sand dune to start. Once the wind gets up to a high enough speed to move sand, sand dunes would start to develop even on flat sand. Wind gusts or tiny imperfections would be enough to start them.", "human_ref_B": "Erosion over millions of years, accumulation of sand sized particles over millions of years, dispersal via wind with seasonal patterns. Australia for example.   https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Distribution-and-orientation-of-the-Australian-desert-dunefields-adapted-from-WASSON-et_fig2_236731828  Dune formation  https://www.internetgeography.net/topics/how-are-sand-dunes-formed/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 391.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6qr8kw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is the range of gravity infinite? Is the Earth technically (but insignificantly) helping slow the expansion of the Universe? Or does each object's.. \"well\" have a finite range of what it affects?", "c_root_id_A": "dkzrkez", "c_root_id_B": "dkznsu2", "created_at_utc_A": 1501550868, "created_at_utc_B": 1501546176, "score_A": 287, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "In short, there is no absolute limit. However due to relativity and laws of causation there actually is a limit given by the speed of light. That is to say if Earth magically doubled in mass in an instant(t=0) observers at varying distances from Earth would feel the increased gravity a some time t>0 depending on how far they are from Earth. Thus there is some distance limit on the effect of gravity if you include time. This concept is actually the basis for the ~~theorization~~ explanation of Gravitational Waves ~~Gravity Waves~~.", "human_ref_B": "The force between two objects is calculated as F=GMm/R^2, where: -G is the universal gravitational constant, 6.674*10\u221211 N-m2/kg2 -M and m are the masses of the objects in kg -R is the distance between the objects' centres of mass, in metres.  Because the numerator of this rational expression is non-zero, there is no real value of R that would make the value of the expression 0. However, as R grows larger, F does rapidly decrease, and as R approaches infinity, F approaches 0.  Far enough away, the force would be negligible for practical applications as the objects would be affected by other, greater forces (think riding into a headwind while someone blows on your ear).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4692.0, "score_ratio": 11.9583333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6qr8kw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is the range of gravity infinite? Is the Earth technically (but insignificantly) helping slow the expansion of the Universe? Or does each object's.. \"well\" have a finite range of what it affects?", "c_root_id_A": "dl063z8", "c_root_id_B": "dl0egzp", "created_at_utc_A": 1501576539, "created_at_utc_B": 1501594118, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "From the perspective of the most fundamental maths related to the universe... yes gravity's range is considered infinite. Gravity is the most variable part of our equations related to the expansion of the universe(and thus size).  The Hubble parameter(which defines the  rate of the expansion of the universe) is, in part, defined by the Robertson-Walker scale factor.  Robertson-Walker scale factor is defined as the relationship between gravity and energy(more specifically mass and radiation) on a universal scale.  Photon pressure(expansion) is losing the battle to gravity(contraction), but dark energy(expansion) will become dominate in a few billion years.    >Using the dimensionless scale factor to characterize the expansion of the universe, the effective energy densities of radiation and mass scale differently. This leads to a radiation-dominated era in the very early universe but a transition to a matter-dominated era at a later time and, since about 5 billion years ago, a subsequent dark energy-dominated era  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_factor_(cosmology)", "human_ref_B": "There is very little science in this thread. Both Newtonian gravity (attraction between planets, stars, us, etc) and the expanding Universe *are solutions to general relativity.*      Their difference lies in the scale of interactions which you consider. If you take GR and make approximations appropriate to describe a person standing on Earth, you get Newtonian gravity. If you zoom out to beyond superclusters, so that you can't really see nearby galaxies, clusters, etc, as distinct, the the Universe is basically smooth and homogeneous. This is the approximation to GR that gives rise to the expanding Universe.      These approximations aren't wrong, they're just only valid in the realm where they hold. We don't see the Universe expanding within the solar system because Newtonian gravity (for the most part) dominates --- it is the best approximation within the solar system (galaxy, etc.). The effects of Newtonian gravity diminish once you get to the scale of 100's of mega parsecs, where it's all homogeneous and isotropic expansion. Expansion doesn't touch the solar system; we don't touch expansion.      So *technically* Earth is pulling on distant galaxies and clusters, but the effect is unfathomably tiny. When we use GR to describe the expansion of the Universe, Newtonain physics is not included. The range of gravity is infinite in the sense that there's no place where it suddenly drops to zero. However, causality is a true, physical limit, and the furthest effect something can have is within it's own Hubble patch (no further than a Hubble length away).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17579.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6qr8kw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is the range of gravity infinite? Is the Earth technically (but insignificantly) helping slow the expansion of the Universe? Or does each object's.. \"well\" have a finite range of what it affects?", "c_root_id_A": "dl0aupv", "c_root_id_B": "dl0egzp", "created_at_utc_A": 1501588443, "created_at_utc_B": 1501594118, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Not exactly what you're asking, but Fay Dowker touches on this (specifically causality) in her lecture \"Spacetime Atoms and the Unity of Physics.  As for slowing the expansion of the universe, observations do not support the slowing of the expansion of the universe, in fact, they show just the opposite. If I recall correctly David Tong talks about dark energy in his talk \"Quantum Fields: The Real Building Blocks of the Universe\".", "human_ref_B": "There is very little science in this thread. Both Newtonian gravity (attraction between planets, stars, us, etc) and the expanding Universe *are solutions to general relativity.*      Their difference lies in the scale of interactions which you consider. If you take GR and make approximations appropriate to describe a person standing on Earth, you get Newtonian gravity. If you zoom out to beyond superclusters, so that you can't really see nearby galaxies, clusters, etc, as distinct, the the Universe is basically smooth and homogeneous. This is the approximation to GR that gives rise to the expanding Universe.      These approximations aren't wrong, they're just only valid in the realm where they hold. We don't see the Universe expanding within the solar system because Newtonian gravity (for the most part) dominates --- it is the best approximation within the solar system (galaxy, etc.). The effects of Newtonian gravity diminish once you get to the scale of 100's of mega parsecs, where it's all homogeneous and isotropic expansion. Expansion doesn't touch the solar system; we don't touch expansion.      So *technically* Earth is pulling on distant galaxies and clusters, but the effect is unfathomably tiny. When we use GR to describe the expansion of the Universe, Newtonain physics is not included. The range of gravity is infinite in the sense that there's no place where it suddenly drops to zero. However, causality is a true, physical limit, and the furthest effect something can have is within it's own Hubble patch (no further than a Hubble length away).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5675.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6qr8kw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is the range of gravity infinite? Is the Earth technically (but insignificantly) helping slow the expansion of the Universe? Or does each object's.. \"well\" have a finite range of what it affects?", "c_root_id_A": "dl0egzp", "c_root_id_B": "dl0cyx7", "created_at_utc_A": 1501594118, "created_at_utc_B": 1501591991, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There is very little science in this thread. Both Newtonian gravity (attraction between planets, stars, us, etc) and the expanding Universe *are solutions to general relativity.*      Their difference lies in the scale of interactions which you consider. If you take GR and make approximations appropriate to describe a person standing on Earth, you get Newtonian gravity. If you zoom out to beyond superclusters, so that you can't really see nearby galaxies, clusters, etc, as distinct, the the Universe is basically smooth and homogeneous. This is the approximation to GR that gives rise to the expanding Universe.      These approximations aren't wrong, they're just only valid in the realm where they hold. We don't see the Universe expanding within the solar system because Newtonian gravity (for the most part) dominates --- it is the best approximation within the solar system (galaxy, etc.). The effects of Newtonian gravity diminish once you get to the scale of 100's of mega parsecs, where it's all homogeneous and isotropic expansion. Expansion doesn't touch the solar system; we don't touch expansion.      So *technically* Earth is pulling on distant galaxies and clusters, but the effect is unfathomably tiny. When we use GR to describe the expansion of the Universe, Newtonain physics is not included. The range of gravity is infinite in the sense that there's no place where it suddenly drops to zero. However, causality is a true, physical limit, and the furthest effect something can have is within it's own Hubble patch (no further than a Hubble length away).", "human_ref_B": "On Q1: Practically, no. Due to the expansion of the universe and the finite speed of light(which is the speed at which gravity waves propagate), some parts of the universe are causally disconnected from others(meaning nothing that happens in one place can affect anything that happens in the other). Effectively the Observable universe has an event horizon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2127.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "35ghol", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Does the temperature of water affect the ability to put a fire out? Since reading about water freezing faster when warmer, this came to mind.", "c_root_id_A": "cr5ywba", "c_root_id_B": "cr5zyyh", "created_at_utc_A": 1431381995, "created_at_utc_B": 1431383797, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes, definitely. Hot water (think steam) is going to have more distance in between each of the water molecules than cold water (think room temp). This will affect the amount of oxygen that can enter the reaction.", "human_ref_B": "A little, but not a whole lot. Water puts out a fire by cooling it, and the bulk of that cooling comes from the water evaporating to steam. It takes about 5x the energy to evaporate a kg of boiling water than it does to heat a kg from room temperature to boiling. (something you notice in the fact that it takes much shorter time to bring a pot to a boil than to boil it dry)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1802.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257oqg", "c_root_id_B": "c257p7r", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502900, "created_at_utc_B": 1310503004, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 52, "human_ref_A": "We haven't stopped.  You can tour the SF bay area in airships:  http://www.airshipventures.com/  Some specs on their ship here:   http://www.airshipventures.com/theship.php http://www.airshipventures.com/comparison.php http://www.airshipventures.com/factsandfigures.php  Not that cheap, though.    I guess it's just that they're not that cost effective for moving cargo compared to trains/boats; and not fast enough for moving people compared to planes.", "human_ref_B": "Why spend days crossing when you can spend hours?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 104.0, "score_ratio": 5.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257p7r", "c_root_id_B": "c257njp", "created_at_utc_A": 1310503004, "created_at_utc_B": 1310502666, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Why spend days crossing when you can spend hours?", "human_ref_B": "I think there is someone trying to do another concorde, but I cannot think of the name.  It basically failed because it was too expensive, and now in this economy, good luck.  Dirigibles are not taking off right now because they are too slow.  Do you really want to spend a few days crossing america when you could do it in a few hours?  It would basically be a novelty market, and cruises would be cheaper and better besides.  Also, we will run out of mine-able helium in about 30 years http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/why-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html   So in 30 years the cost of helium will rise 10,000% and airships will no longer be economical.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 338.0, "score_ratio": 10.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257n4r", "c_root_id_B": "c257p7r", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502590, "created_at_utc_B": 1310503004, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 52, "human_ref_A": "Because people want to not spend 24 hours in a blimp when they could spent 8 in a plane. The cruise ship idea doesn't really work either, because of weight. Weight is public enemy number one in aircraft design. You can imagine a luxurious blimp like the Excelsior in Archher doing an awesome sky cruise, but that means that you need to carry lots more food and water and furnishings, so you need to either make the blimp bigger, or reduce the number of passengers. Both increase cost significantly.  We entirely have not stopped development on blimps, just changed their usage. They can make fantastic aerial observation posts (as seen by any big professional sports game), which is compounded by the ability to go unmanned. Load one up with cameras and radio equipment and sensors, and you could have hours or even days of surveillance from the blimp the size of a small car.", "human_ref_B": "Why spend days crossing when you can spend hours?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 414.0, "score_ratio": 17.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257o19", "c_root_id_B": "c257p7r", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502765, "created_at_utc_B": 1310503004, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 52, "human_ref_A": "Airships are really really slow. Perhaps the relatively low energy cost may make them more interesting in the future if the cost of energy rises significantly.  As for supersonic jets, they have very high energy costs and they can only travel supersonic across water (as people tend to not like the sonic booms over land).", "human_ref_B": "Why spend days crossing when you can spend hours?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 239.0, "score_ratio": 26.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257njp", "c_root_id_B": "c257oqg", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502666, "created_at_utc_B": 1310502900, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "I think there is someone trying to do another concorde, but I cannot think of the name.  It basically failed because it was too expensive, and now in this economy, good luck.  Dirigibles are not taking off right now because they are too slow.  Do you really want to spend a few days crossing america when you could do it in a few hours?  It would basically be a novelty market, and cruises would be cheaper and better besides.  Also, we will run out of mine-able helium in about 30 years http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/why-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html   So in 30 years the cost of helium will rise 10,000% and airships will no longer be economical.", "human_ref_B": "We haven't stopped.  You can tour the SF bay area in airships:  http://www.airshipventures.com/  Some specs on their ship here:   http://www.airshipventures.com/theship.php http://www.airshipventures.com/comparison.php http://www.airshipventures.com/factsandfigures.php  Not that cheap, though.    I guess it's just that they're not that cost effective for moving cargo compared to trains/boats; and not fast enough for moving people compared to planes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 234.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257oqg", "c_root_id_B": "c257n4r", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502900, "created_at_utc_B": 1310502590, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "We haven't stopped.  You can tour the SF bay area in airships:  http://www.airshipventures.com/  Some specs on their ship here:   http://www.airshipventures.com/theship.php http://www.airshipventures.com/comparison.php http://www.airshipventures.com/factsandfigures.php  Not that cheap, though.    I guess it's just that they're not that cost effective for moving cargo compared to trains/boats; and not fast enough for moving people compared to planes.", "human_ref_B": "Because people want to not spend 24 hours in a blimp when they could spent 8 in a plane. The cruise ship idea doesn't really work either, because of weight. Weight is public enemy number one in aircraft design. You can imagine a luxurious blimp like the Excelsior in Archher doing an awesome sky cruise, but that means that you need to carry lots more food and water and furnishings, so you need to either make the blimp bigger, or reduce the number of passengers. Both increase cost significantly.  We entirely have not stopped development on blimps, just changed their usage. They can make fantastic aerial observation posts (as seen by any big professional sports game), which is compounded by the ability to go unmanned. Load one up with cameras and radio equipment and sensors, and you could have hours or even days of surveillance from the blimp the size of a small car.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 310.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257o19", "c_root_id_B": "c257oqg", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502765, "created_at_utc_B": 1310502900, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Airships are really really slow. Perhaps the relatively low energy cost may make them more interesting in the future if the cost of energy rises significantly.  As for supersonic jets, they have very high energy costs and they can only travel supersonic across water (as people tend to not like the sonic booms over land).", "human_ref_B": "We haven't stopped.  You can tour the SF bay area in airships:  http://www.airshipventures.com/  Some specs on their ship here:   http://www.airshipventures.com/theship.php http://www.airshipventures.com/comparison.php http://www.airshipventures.com/factsandfigures.php  Not that cheap, though.    I guess it's just that they're not that cost effective for moving cargo compared to trains/boats; and not fast enough for moving people compared to planes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 135.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c25888a", "c_root_id_B": "c257njp", "created_at_utc_A": 1310507184, "created_at_utc_B": 1310502666, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "One of the biggest reasons is that they are incredibly unstable. An airship is basically at the mercy of the weather, and one errant gust can be catastrophic. They're also very expensive and slow.   Supersonic passenger flight has the same expense problems. Supersonic flight requires massive amounts of fuel. In order to cut down on fuel expenditure the fuselage has to be smaller, which means less passengers, which means more expensive tickets to break even. If you increase cabin size, you're increasing fuel expense and the tickets remain expensive to cover the extra fuel. People would much rather just pay a few hundred dollars and accept an 8 hour flight than pay thousands for a 4 hour flight. Its just not efficient or practical.", "human_ref_B": "I think there is someone trying to do another concorde, but I cannot think of the name.  It basically failed because it was too expensive, and now in this economy, good luck.  Dirigibles are not taking off right now because they are too slow.  Do you really want to spend a few days crossing america when you could do it in a few hours?  It would basically be a novelty market, and cruises would be cheaper and better besides.  Also, we will run out of mine-able helium in about 30 years http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/why-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html   So in 30 years the cost of helium will rise 10,000% and airships will no longer be economical.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4518.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257njp", "c_root_id_B": "c257n4r", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502666, "created_at_utc_B": 1310502590, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I think there is someone trying to do another concorde, but I cannot think of the name.  It basically failed because it was too expensive, and now in this economy, good luck.  Dirigibles are not taking off right now because they are too slow.  Do you really want to spend a few days crossing america when you could do it in a few hours?  It would basically be a novelty market, and cruises would be cheaper and better besides.  Also, we will run out of mine-able helium in about 30 years http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/why-the-world-is-running-out-of-helium-2059357.html   So in 30 years the cost of helium will rise 10,000% and airships will no longer be economical.", "human_ref_B": "Because people want to not spend 24 hours in a blimp when they could spent 8 in a plane. The cruise ship idea doesn't really work either, because of weight. Weight is public enemy number one in aircraft design. You can imagine a luxurious blimp like the Excelsior in Archher doing an awesome sky cruise, but that means that you need to carry lots more food and water and furnishings, so you need to either make the blimp bigger, or reduce the number of passengers. Both increase cost significantly.  We entirely have not stopped development on blimps, just changed their usage. They can make fantastic aerial observation posts (as seen by any big professional sports game), which is compounded by the ability to go unmanned. Load one up with cameras and radio equipment and sensors, and you could have hours or even days of surveillance from the blimp the size of a small car.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 76.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c25888a", "c_root_id_B": "c257n4r", "created_at_utc_A": 1310507184, "created_at_utc_B": 1310502590, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "One of the biggest reasons is that they are incredibly unstable. An airship is basically at the mercy of the weather, and one errant gust can be catastrophic. They're also very expensive and slow.   Supersonic passenger flight has the same expense problems. Supersonic flight requires massive amounts of fuel. In order to cut down on fuel expenditure the fuselage has to be smaller, which means less passengers, which means more expensive tickets to break even. If you increase cabin size, you're increasing fuel expense and the tickets remain expensive to cover the extra fuel. People would much rather just pay a few hundred dollars and accept an 8 hour flight than pay thousands for a 4 hour flight. Its just not efficient or practical.", "human_ref_B": "Because people want to not spend 24 hours in a blimp when they could spent 8 in a plane. The cruise ship idea doesn't really work either, because of weight. Weight is public enemy number one in aircraft design. You can imagine a luxurious blimp like the Excelsior in Archher doing an awesome sky cruise, but that means that you need to carry lots more food and water and furnishings, so you need to either make the blimp bigger, or reduce the number of passengers. Both increase cost significantly.  We entirely have not stopped development on blimps, just changed their usage. They can make fantastic aerial observation posts (as seen by any big professional sports game), which is compounded by the ability to go unmanned. Load one up with cameras and radio equipment and sensors, and you could have hours or even days of surveillance from the blimp the size of a small car.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4594.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257o19", "c_root_id_B": "c25888a", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502765, "created_at_utc_B": 1310507184, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Airships are really really slow. Perhaps the relatively low energy cost may make them more interesting in the future if the cost of energy rises significantly.  As for supersonic jets, they have very high energy costs and they can only travel supersonic across water (as people tend to not like the sonic booms over land).", "human_ref_B": "One of the biggest reasons is that they are incredibly unstable. An airship is basically at the mercy of the weather, and one errant gust can be catastrophic. They're also very expensive and slow.   Supersonic passenger flight has the same expense problems. Supersonic flight requires massive amounts of fuel. In order to cut down on fuel expenditure the fuselage has to be smaller, which means less passengers, which means more expensive tickets to break even. If you increase cabin size, you're increasing fuel expense and the tickets remain expensive to cover the extra fuel. People would much rather just pay a few hundred dollars and accept an 8 hour flight than pay thousands for a 4 hour flight. Its just not efficient or practical.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4419.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c25888a", "c_root_id_B": "c257ukx", "created_at_utc_A": 1310507184, "created_at_utc_B": 1310504087, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "One of the biggest reasons is that they are incredibly unstable. An airship is basically at the mercy of the weather, and one errant gust can be catastrophic. They're also very expensive and slow.   Supersonic passenger flight has the same expense problems. Supersonic flight requires massive amounts of fuel. In order to cut down on fuel expenditure the fuselage has to be smaller, which means less passengers, which means more expensive tickets to break even. If you increase cabin size, you're increasing fuel expense and the tickets remain expensive to cover the extra fuel. People would much rather just pay a few hundred dollars and accept an 8 hour flight than pay thousands for a 4 hour flight. Its just not efficient or practical.", "human_ref_B": "http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/HighAltitudeAirship/index.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3097.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257o19", "c_root_id_B": "c258cnf", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502765, "created_at_utc_B": 1310508248, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Airships are really really slow. Perhaps the relatively low energy cost may make them more interesting in the future if the cost of energy rises significantly.  As for supersonic jets, they have very high energy costs and they can only travel supersonic across water (as people tend to not like the sonic booms over land).", "human_ref_B": ">where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?  The Concorde was not cost-effective. That's why it's out of use.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5483.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c258cnf", "c_root_id_B": "c257ukx", "created_at_utc_A": 1310508248, "created_at_utc_B": 1310504087, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": ">where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?  The Concorde was not cost-effective. That's why it's out of use.", "human_ref_B": "http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/HighAltitudeAirship/index.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4161.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257o19", "c_root_id_B": "c2599v5", "created_at_utc_A": 1310502765, "created_at_utc_B": 1310517037, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Airships are really really slow. Perhaps the relatively low energy cost may make them more interesting in the future if the cost of energy rises significantly.  As for supersonic jets, they have very high energy costs and they can only travel supersonic across water (as people tend to not like the sonic booms over land).", "human_ref_B": "Helium has better uses to man kind than air travel.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14272.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c257ukx", "c_root_id_B": "c2599v5", "created_at_utc_A": 1310504087, "created_at_utc_B": 1310517037, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/HighAltitudeAirship/index.html", "human_ref_B": "Helium has better uses to man kind than air travel.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12950.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inqkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why, precisely, have we stopped development on blimps? We could have had cruise ships in the AIR from London to New York by now. http://i.imgur.com/VkeIj.jpg  But instead we got burned by the Hindenburg thing THAT HAPPENED OVER 70 YEARS AGO and decided never to try again?  For that matter, where the fuck is our 2nd attempt at a Concorde?", "c_root_id_A": "c2599v5", "c_root_id_B": "c258ojo", "created_at_utc_A": 1310517037, "created_at_utc_B": 1310511260, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Helium has better uses to man kind than air travel.", "human_ref_B": "I took a trip on an airship from Mountain View California to Long Beach a few years ago. The entire experience was immensely more pleasant than a flight on an airliner, though the airship I was on was much smaller (maximum of 12 person capacity, I think).  Pictures here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mbessey/sets/72157622232572572/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5777.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vlv9bt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a difference between electrical impulses sent to the brain by different sensory organs (say, between an impulse sent by the inner ear and one sent by the optic nerve)? Or are they the same type of electrical signal and the brain somehow differentiates between them to create different representations?", "c_root_id_A": "idxptou", "c_root_id_B": "idxqfi8", "created_at_utc_A": 1656341931, "created_at_utc_B": 1656342184, "score_A": 62, "score_B": 195, "human_ref_A": "On a tangent: it has been established that electrical signals pretty much propagate with the same speed all across your nervous system.  This means that for instance when you touch your toe with your finger, your brain receives the sensation from your toe several tens of milliseconds after it receives the sensation from your finger, and then both of them are tens of milliseconds behind the signals received from your eyes.  Yet when you perform that act, they all seem to happen at the same time.", "human_ref_B": "Doctor here:  The signals are exactly the same electrical impulses, sent down the axon of the neurons, mediated by the sodium potassium pump and gated ion channels, but the signals can be sent up to 300 Hz (on average) or 300 electrical impulses per second, the nervous system does not waste energy sending more signals than the receiving part of the body can receive and respond to.  So take for example a muscle cell, they can only contract a maximum of 30 times a second on average, up to 50 times per second for some extreme top performing athletes, so the nervous system would never send more than 50 signals per second through a motor neuron because the muscle can\u2019t contract any faster. It would just be a waste of energy and electrical signaling. Where as an organ or a gland can receive a higher number of impulses per second and different frequency of impulses would be different messages.  A message of 78 impulses per second would be a different response from a certain gland than a message of 22 impulses per second, or a message of 268 impulses per second. Long story short, glands secrete hormones or fluids. So a higher frequency of electrical stimulation would be a higher secretion response from said gland. And the body modulates the hormone levels based on neurological feedback loops (signals into the brain from sensors all over the body) and increasing or decreasing the electrical or nerve stimulation of the gland responsible for the hormone in question.  Hope that helps!!!  I guess I didn\u2019t actually answer your question because I focused on efferent nerves in my answer, and you asked about afferent nerves, lol. Efferent means leaving the brain and afferent is entering the brain.  There is no difference in the electrical impulses sent by the ear vs eye but the frequencies of signals will differ to encode different messages.  The real difference is that the ear and all its components are all an external organ that transmits signals into the brain, where as the eyeball, retina, and optic nerve are all part of the brain itself.  Also both these senses integrate many different types of sensors into a cohesive perceived output. Simply think cones vs rods. Different receptors see color vs black and white, then the brain integrates all information into your sense of sight.  In the ear different frequencies of sound are picked up by different receptor cells and integrated into what you hear, a song with simultaneous bass and treble.  The signals are the same electrical pulses per second but the pattern or frequency is different.  \u201cProcessing Patterns of Optic Nerve Activity in the Brain. A possible answer is suggested by a recent finding that central neurons integrate optic nerve signals with synaptic time constants on the order of 300\u2013500 ms\u201d This means we can only see so many frames per second.  \u201cThus, the neural output of the auditory nerve can follow the temporal structure of the waveform up to frequencies of about 5000 Hz.\u201d This means we have a much higher range of hearing; the distance between the high notes and the low notes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 253.0, "score_ratio": 3.1451612903, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vlv9bt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a difference between electrical impulses sent to the brain by different sensory organs (say, between an impulse sent by the inner ear and one sent by the optic nerve)? Or are they the same type of electrical signal and the brain somehow differentiates between them to create different representations?", "c_root_id_A": "idy16x2", "c_root_id_B": "idxu6we", "created_at_utc_A": 1656346630, "created_at_utc_B": 1656343761, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If you could use a microscope to watch a neuron fire a nerve impulse, it would look basically the same no matter where in the nervous system it happens. (And we kind of can do this, except you stick electrodes in and record the electrical activity instead of watching with a physical microscope.)  The important thing is that the nervous system is wired in a very specific way - each set of sensory receptors connect to very specific brain regions, and each brain region has a very specific function. Your eyes send information to the visual cortex. Your ears send signal to the auditory cortex (as well as a bunch of pre-cortical brain regions like the superior olivary complex). Then from the visual or auditory cortex, other signals are sent to other parts of the brain for further processing.  (Brain regions are so specialized that the visual cortex even has different regions to determine *where* an object is in your visual field vs to determine *what* the object is that you're looking at. Similarly, the brain regions associated with language also have a bunch of strange divisions / separation of functionality.)  That wiring is partially determined by genetics - the pure fact that you're a human animal. But some of it is dynamic. Babies waving their arms and legs does some amount to train their brain and nerves how to to talk to the muscles (the nerves are already connected between brain and muscle, but the body/brain hasn't figured out the activation patterns to create the movements they want). Learning a new skill as an adult - like how to play violin, or how to juggle - will likewise train new pathways and muscle activation patterns, which is a function of the fact that the brain can adjust how neurons talk to each other / how they are connected into networks. (This trait also plays a role in the ability for form, store, and recall memories.)", "human_ref_B": "All spike trains.  This is what I'm reading now for my own curiosity: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8721039/  Perhaps interesting to see how contrast gets translated to spikes (figure 1 c,d): https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.94.23.12649", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2869.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vlv9bt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a difference between electrical impulses sent to the brain by different sensory organs (say, between an impulse sent by the inner ear and one sent by the optic nerve)? Or are they the same type of electrical signal and the brain somehow differentiates between them to create different representations?", "c_root_id_A": "idyl2py", "c_root_id_B": "idxu6we", "created_at_utc_A": 1656354542, "created_at_utc_B": 1656343761, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "No and yes.   tl,dr: No, the signal being carried doesn't determine how the brain interprets it, the place that neuron connects to determines it. Each sensory brain region deals (primarily) with a particular sense, and inteprets neuron signals it gets accordingly. Yes, however, the signals themselves do vary in some situations, with different senses transmitting information in different ways. But the brain isn't really aware of this, so if the signal went to the wrong brain area that brain area wouldn't even realize it is getting a different type of signal.  There is no difference that differentiates them to the brain. The brain uses what is called a \"labelled line\" approach, where the connections between neurons determines their meaning to the brain. So visual signals are visual signals because they connect to the visual parts of the brain. Smell signals are smell signals because they connect to the smell portion of the brain.   And that is true even within a particular brain regions. Most brain regions that receive the initial sensory signal have a \"map\" of some sort, that maps the location in the brain where that signal is received to a particular aspect of that signal. So for visual cortex, it is a map of the visual scene, with different brain regions essentially forming a distorted picture of the what you are looking at. With touch it is based on where on the body the touch signal came from, with your sensory cortex making a distorted map of your body. For the early sound regions in the auditory brainstem it is sound frequency. There are maps at higher-level regions as well, but they tend to get more complicated.  You could think about it like a telephone or ethernet cable. If you look at them, there are a bunch of little wires inside. What determines the meaning of each wire isn't its color or what it carries, but rather which electrical contacts in the phone or ethernet jack it connects to. If you swich around the wires, it just won't work (for the most part), and may even damage the device.  Most senses also use a similar approach to encoding signals. Basically, as you increase the intensity of the signal the response of the neuron increases as well. That response, however, is not in the strength of electrical signal, but rather its speed. Sensory neurons connecting to the brain carry signals as \"spikes\", brief electrical signals of (roughly) fixed size. It is how often these spikes happen that determine the strength of a signal, not their size (usually, roughly, it is a bit complicated in real life). It also recruits nearby neurons, meaning that neurons that response to *similar* signals will start responding. This is important because there is a maximum firing rate of every neuron, so if you want to encode levels above that firing rate you need to bring in more neurons. Note that not all neurons have spikes, but all the ones connecting the senses to the brain do.  However, the same change in signal level has a larger impact on neuron response at lower levels than at higher levels. So for example in near total darkness, a change in 10 photons can have a huge impact on neuron response, while in bright sunlight it will be unnoticeable. This makes sense, because at near total darkness that change is more important. And it isn't just level, neurons will adapt their behavior to the overall sensory environment, becoming less sensitive to stimuli that are common in the environment and more sensitive to stimuli that are uncommon. The result is that the \"meaning\" of a particular neural signal is constantly changing. You can take the exact same signal from the exact same neuron at two different points in time and the brain can interpret them completely differently.  There are some senses that operate differently, however.  At least below about 2 kHz, auditory neurons don't respond to sound level as much, they respond to sound *timing*. Their responses track the exact waveform of the sound. And these neurons have numerous specializations to allow them to carry signals at that 2 kHz, something most neurons cannot due. There are some texture and vibration-sensitive touch neurons that behave similarly, although at much, much lower frequencies. At higher frequencies sound neurons track the timing of the envelope, that is the timing of changes in the sound waveform. There are also some rare, poorly-understood visual neurons that are thought to track overall visual signal properties across the entire retina, rather than encoding specific visual color levels like other neurons.  In the visual system there are also \"on\" and \"off\" neurons, where \"on\" neurons respond to the presence of a particular color at a particular place, while \"off\" neurons response to the absence of color at that place.  How particular connections develop is complicated an happens during development. To some extent it is based on chemical cues, where growing neurons follow chemicals released by other tissues telling them where to go. There is also dynamic aspects, where how neurons are being used determines what they end up doing.  It is a very wasteful process, with a large fraction of neurons going to the wrong place or doing the wrong thing and self-destructing as a result. Imagine if most cars simply blew up during their first road tests.", "human_ref_B": "All spike trains.  This is what I'm reading now for my own curiosity: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8721039/  Perhaps interesting to see how contrast gets translated to spikes (figure 1 c,d): https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.94.23.12649", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10781.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vlv9bt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is there a difference between electrical impulses sent to the brain by different sensory organs (say, between an impulse sent by the inner ear and one sent by the optic nerve)? Or are they the same type of electrical signal and the brain somehow differentiates between them to create different representations?", "c_root_id_A": "idyl2py", "c_root_id_B": "idyjtnt", "created_at_utc_A": 1656354542, "created_at_utc_B": 1656354025, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "No and yes.   tl,dr: No, the signal being carried doesn't determine how the brain interprets it, the place that neuron connects to determines it. Each sensory brain region deals (primarily) with a particular sense, and inteprets neuron signals it gets accordingly. Yes, however, the signals themselves do vary in some situations, with different senses transmitting information in different ways. But the brain isn't really aware of this, so if the signal went to the wrong brain area that brain area wouldn't even realize it is getting a different type of signal.  There is no difference that differentiates them to the brain. The brain uses what is called a \"labelled line\" approach, where the connections between neurons determines their meaning to the brain. So visual signals are visual signals because they connect to the visual parts of the brain. Smell signals are smell signals because they connect to the smell portion of the brain.   And that is true even within a particular brain regions. Most brain regions that receive the initial sensory signal have a \"map\" of some sort, that maps the location in the brain where that signal is received to a particular aspect of that signal. So for visual cortex, it is a map of the visual scene, with different brain regions essentially forming a distorted picture of the what you are looking at. With touch it is based on where on the body the touch signal came from, with your sensory cortex making a distorted map of your body. For the early sound regions in the auditory brainstem it is sound frequency. There are maps at higher-level regions as well, but they tend to get more complicated.  You could think about it like a telephone or ethernet cable. If you look at them, there are a bunch of little wires inside. What determines the meaning of each wire isn't its color or what it carries, but rather which electrical contacts in the phone or ethernet jack it connects to. If you swich around the wires, it just won't work (for the most part), and may even damage the device.  Most senses also use a similar approach to encoding signals. Basically, as you increase the intensity of the signal the response of the neuron increases as well. That response, however, is not in the strength of electrical signal, but rather its speed. Sensory neurons connecting to the brain carry signals as \"spikes\", brief electrical signals of (roughly) fixed size. It is how often these spikes happen that determine the strength of a signal, not their size (usually, roughly, it is a bit complicated in real life). It also recruits nearby neurons, meaning that neurons that response to *similar* signals will start responding. This is important because there is a maximum firing rate of every neuron, so if you want to encode levels above that firing rate you need to bring in more neurons. Note that not all neurons have spikes, but all the ones connecting the senses to the brain do.  However, the same change in signal level has a larger impact on neuron response at lower levels than at higher levels. So for example in near total darkness, a change in 10 photons can have a huge impact on neuron response, while in bright sunlight it will be unnoticeable. This makes sense, because at near total darkness that change is more important. And it isn't just level, neurons will adapt their behavior to the overall sensory environment, becoming less sensitive to stimuli that are common in the environment and more sensitive to stimuli that are uncommon. The result is that the \"meaning\" of a particular neural signal is constantly changing. You can take the exact same signal from the exact same neuron at two different points in time and the brain can interpret them completely differently.  There are some senses that operate differently, however.  At least below about 2 kHz, auditory neurons don't respond to sound level as much, they respond to sound *timing*. Their responses track the exact waveform of the sound. And these neurons have numerous specializations to allow them to carry signals at that 2 kHz, something most neurons cannot due. There are some texture and vibration-sensitive touch neurons that behave similarly, although at much, much lower frequencies. At higher frequencies sound neurons track the timing of the envelope, that is the timing of changes in the sound waveform. There are also some rare, poorly-understood visual neurons that are thought to track overall visual signal properties across the entire retina, rather than encoding specific visual color levels like other neurons.  In the visual system there are also \"on\" and \"off\" neurons, where \"on\" neurons respond to the presence of a particular color at a particular place, while \"off\" neurons response to the absence of color at that place.  How particular connections develop is complicated an happens during development. To some extent it is based on chemical cues, where growing neurons follow chemicals released by other tissues telling them where to go. There is also dynamic aspects, where how neurons are being used determines what they end up doing.  It is a very wasteful process, with a large fraction of neurons going to the wrong place or doing the wrong thing and self-destructing as a result. Imagine if most cars simply blew up during their first road tests.", "human_ref_B": "The signals are more or less the same, what determines how the signal is interpreted and translated into sensation is where in the brain that signal goes to. Any input to the auditory cortex will be processed as sound information, and any input to the visual cortex is processed as visual information.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 517.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d2irq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How many lines of code to simulate a human brain? Ray Kurzweil says that about a million lines of code should suffice to simulate a human brain.  >Here\u2019s how that math works, Kurzweil explains: The design of the >brain is in the genome. The human genome has three billion base  >pairs or six billion bits, which is about 800 million bytes before  >compression, he says. Eliminating redundancies and applying  >loss-less compression, that information can be compressed into about  >50 million bytes, according to Kurzweil. > >About half of that is the brain, which comes down to 25 million bytes,  >or a million lines of code.  My question is what the panelists think of this assessment.    I think that Kurzweil is ignoring the fact that a DNA strand is more than just a string of letters and not at all analogous to a computer program.  There's a lot of information embedded in the physical structure of DNA and its behavior in the complex environment of a living cell.  Additionally, our genome contains a lot of \"junk\".  A brain simulation code has only a very remote relation to the human genome and is much more reasonably based on a very large and complex set of neuroscience models.   On the other hand, based on my experience with large and complex models, a million lines of code doesn't seem unreasonably small or large, I just think the reasoning behind his statement seems wrong.", "c_root_id_A": "c0x30s4", "c_root_id_B": "c0x302y", "created_at_utc_A": 1282127487, "created_at_utc_B": 1282126325, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Ray Kurzweil apparently neither understands the brain, compilers nor compression.", "human_ref_B": "It's not the number of lines of code that matters. The massive parallelism does.  Furthermore, any compulsive need to describe the distinction between program and data would be a massive effort in itself.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1162.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d2irq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How many lines of code to simulate a human brain? Ray Kurzweil says that about a million lines of code should suffice to simulate a human brain.  >Here\u2019s how that math works, Kurzweil explains: The design of the >brain is in the genome. The human genome has three billion base  >pairs or six billion bits, which is about 800 million bytes before  >compression, he says. Eliminating redundancies and applying  >loss-less compression, that information can be compressed into about  >50 million bytes, according to Kurzweil. > >About half of that is the brain, which comes down to 25 million bytes,  >or a million lines of code.  My question is what the panelists think of this assessment.    I think that Kurzweil is ignoring the fact that a DNA strand is more than just a string of letters and not at all analogous to a computer program.  There's a lot of information embedded in the physical structure of DNA and its behavior in the complex environment of a living cell.  Additionally, our genome contains a lot of \"junk\".  A brain simulation code has only a very remote relation to the human genome and is much more reasonably based on a very large and complex set of neuroscience models.   On the other hand, based on my experience with large and complex models, a million lines of code doesn't seem unreasonably small or large, I just think the reasoning behind his statement seems wrong.", "c_root_id_A": "c0x3qwh", "c_root_id_B": "c0x3it8", "created_at_utc_A": 1282149588, "created_at_utc_B": 1282144792, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Yes, his reasoning is wrong. DNA is simply data. The genome is data. He could download the output from the Human Genome Project, tarball it, and yield his million lines of compressed \"code\" -- data, not executable code.  He's not talking about how many lines of code it would take to simulate the complex neuron interactions (~10^14 connections in the adult brain). He's talking about compressing raw data and acting like it'll initiate activity itself.  Kurzweil: \"I bought 30 tomatoes for marinara sauce for our family dinner. The tomatoes should start simmering themselves any moment now.\"", "human_ref_B": "If someone made a gigantic AI in Conways game of life, how many lines of code to simulate that AI? Well, if you take a state of the AI as data, exactly as many lines of code as it takes to simulate the game of life. The situation of the physics and the brain is similar.  Anyway it isn't really the code that is the problem; it is the sheer computational power needed and that we don't *really* know how to similate the thing yet. (The computational power is probably very solvable, the latter not so sure..)  Also as unicock noted..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4796.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d2irq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How many lines of code to simulate a human brain? Ray Kurzweil says that about a million lines of code should suffice to simulate a human brain.  >Here\u2019s how that math works, Kurzweil explains: The design of the >brain is in the genome. The human genome has three billion base  >pairs or six billion bits, which is about 800 million bytes before  >compression, he says. Eliminating redundancies and applying  >loss-less compression, that information can be compressed into about  >50 million bytes, according to Kurzweil. > >About half of that is the brain, which comes down to 25 million bytes,  >or a million lines of code.  My question is what the panelists think of this assessment.    I think that Kurzweil is ignoring the fact that a DNA strand is more than just a string of letters and not at all analogous to a computer program.  There's a lot of information embedded in the physical structure of DNA and its behavior in the complex environment of a living cell.  Additionally, our genome contains a lot of \"junk\".  A brain simulation code has only a very remote relation to the human genome and is much more reasonably based on a very large and complex set of neuroscience models.   On the other hand, based on my experience with large and complex models, a million lines of code doesn't seem unreasonably small or large, I just think the reasoning behind his statement seems wrong.", "c_root_id_A": "c0x3qwh", "c_root_id_B": "c0x302y", "created_at_utc_A": 1282149588, "created_at_utc_B": 1282126325, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes, his reasoning is wrong. DNA is simply data. The genome is data. He could download the output from the Human Genome Project, tarball it, and yield his million lines of compressed \"code\" -- data, not executable code.  He's not talking about how many lines of code it would take to simulate the complex neuron interactions (~10^14 connections in the adult brain). He's talking about compressing raw data and acting like it'll initiate activity itself.  Kurzweil: \"I bought 30 tomatoes for marinara sauce for our family dinner. The tomatoes should start simmering themselves any moment now.\"", "human_ref_B": "It's not the number of lines of code that matters. The massive parallelism does.  Furthermore, any compulsive need to describe the distinction between program and data would be a massive effort in itself.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23263.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d2irq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How many lines of code to simulate a human brain? Ray Kurzweil says that about a million lines of code should suffice to simulate a human brain.  >Here\u2019s how that math works, Kurzweil explains: The design of the >brain is in the genome. The human genome has three billion base  >pairs or six billion bits, which is about 800 million bytes before  >compression, he says. Eliminating redundancies and applying  >loss-less compression, that information can be compressed into about  >50 million bytes, according to Kurzweil. > >About half of that is the brain, which comes down to 25 million bytes,  >or a million lines of code.  My question is what the panelists think of this assessment.    I think that Kurzweil is ignoring the fact that a DNA strand is more than just a string of letters and not at all analogous to a computer program.  There's a lot of information embedded in the physical structure of DNA and its behavior in the complex environment of a living cell.  Additionally, our genome contains a lot of \"junk\".  A brain simulation code has only a very remote relation to the human genome and is much more reasonably based on a very large and complex set of neuroscience models.   On the other hand, based on my experience with large and complex models, a million lines of code doesn't seem unreasonably small or large, I just think the reasoning behind his statement seems wrong.", "c_root_id_A": "c0x302y", "c_root_id_B": "c0x3it8", "created_at_utc_A": 1282126325, "created_at_utc_B": 1282144792, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It's not the number of lines of code that matters. The massive parallelism does.  Furthermore, any compulsive need to describe the distinction between program and data would be a massive effort in itself.", "human_ref_B": "If someone made a gigantic AI in Conways game of life, how many lines of code to simulate that AI? Well, if you take a state of the AI as data, exactly as many lines of code as it takes to simulate the game of life. The situation of the physics and the brain is similar.  Anyway it isn't really the code that is the problem; it is the sheer computational power needed and that we don't *really* know how to similate the thing yet. (The computational power is probably very solvable, the latter not so sure..)  Also as unicock noted..", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18467.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "13fke2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Can the Earth ever become tidally locked to the Sun so one side is always facing inwards (like the Moon)? The titles pretty much explains it all. I understand how the moon is locked to the Earth but wondering if this could ever happen on a scale as large as the Earth/Sun. Bonus question: What would happen to the moon if the Earth was locked to the sun?", "c_root_id_A": "c73l5u0", "c_root_id_B": "c73n75l", "created_at_utc_A": 1353308897, "created_at_utc_B": 1353327009, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is no.   Even though the pull of the Sun is greater than that of the moon, by something like 165 times, the moon has a stronger tidal influence here on Earth. We see this effect from our tides. Even though tides are influenced by the position of both the Sun and the moon, the moon has a greater effect. Let's crunch some numbers:   The moon is at a distance of ~384 000k, and the Earth's diameter of ~13 000km, leading to a ~3.3% difference in distance. This 3.3% difference will then translate into a 1/(1+.033)^2 = 6% difference from one side of the Earth to the other.   Now, back to the Sun. Distance of 150 000 000 + Earth's diameter 13 000 km = 0.0087% -> 0.017% difference. Now, if we multiply by 165, the magnitude that the Sun's pull is stronger than the moon, we're up to 2.9%. (just under 1/2 the influence).  Now, even if we didn't know anything else, we should be able to see that the Earth will lock with the moon rather than the Sun.    If the Earth did magically become tidally locked to the Sun, the moon would stay locked to Earth. The densest side of the moon, the one currently facing us, would keep facing the Earth. All the dark splotches we see on the moon, called maria, are of higher density than the rest of the moon's crust. The \"dark side of the moon\" is more uniformly cratered and is a little less dense.   The Earth rotation though would slowly change and head towards a mutual lock with the moon, because as we saw, the moon has a greater influence on Earth than does the Sun.", "human_ref_B": "According to Wikipedia the Earth's rotation slows by around 2 ms every 100 years. That means that after a billion years (the time at which Earth is theorised to become uninhabitable due to increased solar luminosity) a day will be around 30 hours long. After 4 billion years a day will be roughly 48 hours, but at this point it's likely the Earth will have been engulfed by the Sun, so it's unlikely the Earth will ever get even close to being tidally locked to the Sun (or even moon) because there isn't enough time.  As for what would happen if a planet was tidally locked to its star a few exoplanets like Gliese 581 g have been discovered in the habitable zones around red dwarf stars that should be tidally locked to their small parent stars.  A few people have tried to model this, one person has come up with this simulation showing a hot magma sea in the middle of the sun facing side surrounded by temperate regions and finally an extremely cold frozen zone on the night side.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18112.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "13fke2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Can the Earth ever become tidally locked to the Sun so one side is always facing inwards (like the Moon)? The titles pretty much explains it all. I understand how the moon is locked to the Earth but wondering if this could ever happen on a scale as large as the Earth/Sun. Bonus question: What would happen to the moon if the Earth was locked to the sun?", "c_root_id_A": "c73lbdy", "c_root_id_B": "c73n75l", "created_at_utc_A": 1353309834, "created_at_utc_B": 1353327009, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I learned, that a day on earth becomes 0.001 (a millisecond) longer every 100 years. But until earth stops rotating, our sun will already have us consumed while becoming a red giant.  Source: C.G.P. Grey", "human_ref_B": "According to Wikipedia the Earth's rotation slows by around 2 ms every 100 years. That means that after a billion years (the time at which Earth is theorised to become uninhabitable due to increased solar luminosity) a day will be around 30 hours long. After 4 billion years a day will be roughly 48 hours, but at this point it's likely the Earth will have been engulfed by the Sun, so it's unlikely the Earth will ever get even close to being tidally locked to the Sun (or even moon) because there isn't enough time.  As for what would happen if a planet was tidally locked to its star a few exoplanets like Gliese 581 g have been discovered in the habitable zones around red dwarf stars that should be tidally locked to their small parent stars.  A few people have tried to model this, one person has come up with this simulation showing a hot magma sea in the middle of the sun facing side surrounded by temperate regions and finally an extremely cold frozen zone on the night side.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17175.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "13fke2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Can the Earth ever become tidally locked to the Sun so one side is always facing inwards (like the Moon)? The titles pretty much explains it all. I understand how the moon is locked to the Earth but wondering if this could ever happen on a scale as large as the Earth/Sun. Bonus question: What would happen to the moon if the Earth was locked to the sun?", "c_root_id_A": "c73m7an", "c_root_id_B": "c73n75l", "created_at_utc_A": 1353316578, "created_at_utc_B": 1353327009, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Technically, the Sun will expand before we tidally lock to the moon since the process is so slow.", "human_ref_B": "According to Wikipedia the Earth's rotation slows by around 2 ms every 100 years. That means that after a billion years (the time at which Earth is theorised to become uninhabitable due to increased solar luminosity) a day will be around 30 hours long. After 4 billion years a day will be roughly 48 hours, but at this point it's likely the Earth will have been engulfed by the Sun, so it's unlikely the Earth will ever get even close to being tidally locked to the Sun (or even moon) because there isn't enough time.  As for what would happen if a planet was tidally locked to its star a few exoplanets like Gliese 581 g have been discovered in the habitable zones around red dwarf stars that should be tidally locked to their small parent stars.  A few people have tried to model this, one person has come up with this simulation showing a hot magma sea in the middle of the sun facing side surrounded by temperate regions and finally an extremely cold frozen zone on the night side.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10431.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oibh6g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is there a certain altitude where CO2 is concentrated?", "c_root_id_A": "h4uog50", "c_root_id_B": "h4v6keh", "created_at_utc_A": 1626040043, "created_at_utc_B": 1626048676, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "There is a height at which most of the atmosphere's radiative emissions come from (due to the atmosphere basically being opaque to long wave radiation at lower altitudes). Its about 1km from the surface, in the troposphere. As the co2 conc increases the height of greatest emissions goes up in altitude.", "human_ref_B": "The lowest ~100 km are very well mixed, so the concentration of most gases (including CO2) doesn't change that much with altitude, you can find it everywhere. Above that heavier gases, including CO2, drop in their concentration.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8633.0, "score_ratio": -8.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jp1al", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it true that children, when learning a sign language in tandem with their first spoken language, \"babble\" in sign, or is this just random hand movement not associated with the language part of their brain?", "c_root_id_A": "c2dxwm0", "c_root_id_B": "c2dy0lf", "created_at_utc_A": 1313871066, "created_at_utc_B": 1313872131, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "They babble with sign language as well.", "human_ref_B": "Hmm.. not a scientist but I can talk about this from direct experience.  My wife and I are deaf.  We're raising two wonderful boys (9 & 8) using both ASL and voice.   Remembering back to when they were growing up, they would babble both audibly and using their hands.    But thinking back, I do think my kids, when they were babbling with their hands, their facial expressions changed along with the babbles.   In other words, it's one thing to hit the table on the high chair while the child is eating and looking at their food, but it's different to hit the table, looking at mom/dad with an expression that says, \"more!\".    Since the signed languages are so much more expressive in terms of facial expressions, the babies naturally mimic those.  That's what I remember most compared to babies that did not have signed language background.   Again, totally not a scientific answer but my experience bears out the OP's question.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1065.0, "score_ratio": 1.0322580645, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jp1al", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it true that children, when learning a sign language in tandem with their first spoken language, \"babble\" in sign, or is this just random hand movement not associated with the language part of their brain?", "c_root_id_A": "c2dy09c", "c_root_id_B": "c2dy0lf", "created_at_utc_A": 1313872050, "created_at_utc_B": 1313872131, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "This is true, but from my understanding, only of babies (hearing or non-hearing) living in a non-hearing home.  source (doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2003.10.007)", "human_ref_B": "Hmm.. not a scientist but I can talk about this from direct experience.  My wife and I are deaf.  We're raising two wonderful boys (9 & 8) using both ASL and voice.   Remembering back to when they were growing up, they would babble both audibly and using their hands.    But thinking back, I do think my kids, when they were babbling with their hands, their facial expressions changed along with the babbles.   In other words, it's one thing to hit the table on the high chair while the child is eating and looking at their food, but it's different to hit the table, looking at mom/dad with an expression that says, \"more!\".    Since the signed languages are so much more expressive in terms of facial expressions, the babies naturally mimic those.  That's what I remember most compared to babies that did not have signed language background.   Again, totally not a scientific answer but my experience bears out the OP's question.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 81.0, "score_ratio": 5.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2g1e54", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "There have been a few recent studies coming out that have claimed/proven that medium-to-long-term periods of sitting causes serious damage to one's health. How does this happen? What sort of damage is it? Is there less damage by simply laying down instead of sitting? Is it reversible? Thanks for your answers.", "c_root_id_A": "ckf86d6", "c_root_id_B": "ckf5nod", "created_at_utc_A": 1410433351, "created_at_utc_B": 1410419568, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Lets assume two persons.  One works on his feet, and has a sedentary life, but sits way, way less than the average person.  The other works in an office, but worksout and practices sports, even though spends a lot of his time sitting  which case is the worst?", "human_ref_B": "the mechanism behind sedentary behavior and increased mortality is endothelial dysfunction which leads to a pro-inflammatory, pro-thrombotic state. the same occurs after eating a fatty meal.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13783.0, "score_ratio": 3.9, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "797552", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.59, "history": "If the universe is constantly expanding, then are we and all the other planets also expanding? Similar to putting a drawing on a balloon and blowing it up in size?", "c_root_id_A": "dp0ke99", "c_root_id_B": "dp1i9td", "created_at_utc_A": 1509211197, "created_at_utc_B": 1509262718, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "In a simple answer, yes. Remember that few episodes of futurama with the alternate universe and fry sat on the box at the end? exactly like that. Gravity waves do it, too.  But you dont notice the small changes since they affect your own perception as well.", "human_ref_B": "If you consider ordinary objects the size of the object really has to do with the chemical bonds between them. Which has to do with quantum electric dynamics. I think based on astronomic observations of distant objects it appears that none of that changes at all.  I think what you're trying to get your head around is the difference between measuring space and space it self. It's not the units that are changing but that the actual distance between any two points is getting larger over time.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 51521.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iykkm1d", "c_root_id_B": "iyml3dp", "created_at_utc_A": 1669946770, "created_at_utc_B": 1669992895, "score_A": 359, "score_B": 373, "human_ref_A": "According to this article modern hunter-gatherers have much lower incidence of acne than industrial peoples, although the causes are not known. I can't vouch for the article, but it's thoroughly referenced  Edit to actually address the question: it's a reasonable inference from this that prehistoric people would also have less acne than modern industrialised people", "human_ref_B": "Based on responses here it made me wonder, are there cultures in the world that have more or less acne than others?? Like if you compared the average teen in USA vs the average teen in India, would one have more or less than the other??", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 46125.0, "score_ratio": 1.0389972145, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iykjuoo", "c_root_id_B": "iyml3dp", "created_at_utc_A": 1669946413, "created_at_utc_B": 1669992895, "score_A": 154, "score_B": 373, "human_ref_A": "This question comes up frequently.  Previous answers from only 6 months ago.  tl;dr Humanity has probably always had acne, but not all humans get acne.", "human_ref_B": "Based on responses here it made me wonder, are there cultures in the world that have more or less acne than others?? Like if you compared the average teen in USA vs the average teen in India, would one have more or less than the other??", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 46482.0, "score_ratio": 2.4220779221, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iym5r17", "c_root_id_B": "iyml3dp", "created_at_utc_A": 1669985060, "created_at_utc_B": 1669992895, "score_A": 55, "score_B": 373, "human_ref_A": "It is not known if acne was present in prehistoric times, as there is no direct evidence of this. Acne is a common skin condition that is caused by a variety of factors, including hormonal changes, bacteria on the skin, and the production of excess oil. These factors may have been present in prehistoric times, but it is impossible to say for sure whether or not they would have resulted in acne. In modern times, factors such as diet, exercise, and pollution can also contribute to the development of acne, but it is not known if these factors were present in prehistoric times.", "human_ref_B": "Based on responses here it made me wonder, are there cultures in the world that have more or less acne than others?? Like if you compared the average teen in USA vs the average teen in India, would one have more or less than the other??", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7835.0, "score_ratio": 6.7818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iyml3dp", "c_root_id_B": "iyk9tpn", "created_at_utc_A": 1669992895, "created_at_utc_B": 1669941679, "score_A": 373, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Based on responses here it made me wonder, are there cultures in the world that have more or less acne than others?? Like if you compared the average teen in USA vs the average teen in India, would one have more or less than the other??", "human_ref_B": "It's probably been around since prehistoric times, although the main cause of outbreaks has probably changed.  In the book The remarkable life of the skin, the author mentions about how the majority of acne is caused by microbes outbreaks in the side the pores of the skin. And we probably had bacteria and other stuff in our skin back then. While we do have better hygiene standards these days, we probably also have more pollutants etc that balance it out.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 51216.0, "score_ratio": 14.92, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iylkba7", "c_root_id_B": "iyml3dp", "created_at_utc_A": 1669967618, "created_at_utc_B": 1669992895, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 373, "human_ref_A": "Top comments here are interesting.", "human_ref_B": "Based on responses here it made me wonder, are there cultures in the world that have more or less acne than others?? Like if you compared the average teen in USA vs the average teen in India, would one have more or less than the other??", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 25277.0, "score_ratio": 46.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iykkm1d", "c_root_id_B": "iykjuoo", "created_at_utc_A": 1669946770, "created_at_utc_B": 1669946413, "score_A": 359, "score_B": 154, "human_ref_A": "According to this article modern hunter-gatherers have much lower incidence of acne than industrial peoples, although the causes are not known. I can't vouch for the article, but it's thoroughly referenced  Edit to actually address the question: it's a reasonable inference from this that prehistoric people would also have less acne than modern industrialised people", "human_ref_B": "This question comes up frequently.  Previous answers from only 6 months ago.  tl;dr Humanity has probably always had acne, but not all humans get acne.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 357.0, "score_ratio": 2.3311688312, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iyk9tpn", "c_root_id_B": "iykkm1d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669941679, "created_at_utc_B": 1669946770, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 359, "human_ref_A": "It's probably been around since prehistoric times, although the main cause of outbreaks has probably changed.  In the book The remarkable life of the skin, the author mentions about how the majority of acne is caused by microbes outbreaks in the side the pores of the skin. And we probably had bacteria and other stuff in our skin back then. While we do have better hygiene standards these days, we probably also have more pollutants etc that balance it out.", "human_ref_B": "According to this article modern hunter-gatherers have much lower incidence of acne than industrial peoples, although the causes are not known. I can't vouch for the article, but it's thoroughly referenced  Edit to actually address the question: it's a reasonable inference from this that prehistoric people would also have less acne than modern industrialised people", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5091.0, "score_ratio": 14.36, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iykjuoo", "c_root_id_B": "iyk9tpn", "created_at_utc_A": 1669946413, "created_at_utc_B": 1669941679, "score_A": 154, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "This question comes up frequently.  Previous answers from only 6 months ago.  tl;dr Humanity has probably always had acne, but not all humans get acne.", "human_ref_B": "It's probably been around since prehistoric times, although the main cause of outbreaks has probably changed.  In the book The remarkable life of the skin, the author mentions about how the majority of acne is caused by microbes outbreaks in the side the pores of the skin. And we probably had bacteria and other stuff in our skin back then. While we do have better hygiene standards these days, we probably also have more pollutants etc that balance it out.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4734.0, "score_ratio": 6.16, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iyk9tpn", "c_root_id_B": "iym5r17", "created_at_utc_A": 1669941679, "created_at_utc_B": 1669985060, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 55, "human_ref_A": "It's probably been around since prehistoric times, although the main cause of outbreaks has probably changed.  In the book The remarkable life of the skin, the author mentions about how the majority of acne is caused by microbes outbreaks in the side the pores of the skin. And we probably had bacteria and other stuff in our skin back then. While we do have better hygiene standards these days, we probably also have more pollutants etc that balance it out.", "human_ref_B": "It is not known if acne was present in prehistoric times, as there is no direct evidence of this. Acne is a common skin condition that is caused by a variety of factors, including hormonal changes, bacteria on the skin, and the production of excess oil. These factors may have been present in prehistoric times, but it is impossible to say for sure whether or not they would have resulted in acne. In modern times, factors such as diet, exercise, and pollution can also contribute to the development of acne, but it is not known if these factors were present in prehistoric times.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 43381.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iym5r17", "c_root_id_B": "iylkba7", "created_at_utc_A": 1669985060, "created_at_utc_B": 1669967618, "score_A": 55, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "It is not known if acne was present in prehistoric times, as there is no direct evidence of this. Acne is a common skin condition that is caused by a variety of factors, including hormonal changes, bacteria on the skin, and the production of excess oil. These factors may have been present in prehistoric times, but it is impossible to say for sure whether or not they would have resulted in acne. In modern times, factors such as diet, exercise, and pollution can also contribute to the development of acne, but it is not known if these factors were present in prehistoric times.", "human_ref_B": "Top comments here are interesting.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17442.0, "score_ratio": 6.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iynfl27", "c_root_id_B": "iynf45c", "created_at_utc_A": 1670005117, "created_at_utc_B": 1670004927, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What evidence would there be that people had (or didn\u2019t have) acne in prehistoric times? They wouldn\u2019t have left any written evidence or popping videos, or anything like that. Not every culture has a tradition of realistic portraits (and some of those that do would deliberately leave out something like acne). I suppose there could be tools for popping pimples, but could we be sure that was how it was used? People can pop pimples without specialized tools, so a lack of those tools wouldn\u2019t necessarily mean that there was no acne.", "human_ref_B": "As far as preindustrial complexions are concerned  it was not acme that teens had to worry about it was smallpox. If you read 17th 18th century literature and they refer to a person having a swarthy complexion that was code to referring to smallpox scaring.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 190.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iyncneo", "c_root_id_B": "iynfl27", "created_at_utc_A": 1670003956, "created_at_utc_B": 1670005117, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "It is not known if acne, a common skin condition characterized by the appearance of pimples, was present in prehistoric times. There is no direct evidence one way or the other, and it is difficult to say for certain what the prevalence of acne might have been among ancient peoples.   Acne is thought to be caused by a variety of factors, including hormones, genetics, and certain aspects of lifestyle and environment. It is possible that some of these factors, such as hormones and genetics, have been present in human populations for a long time. However, it is also likely that other factors, such as diet, pollution, and stress, are more closely related to modern lifestyles and environments. It is difficult to say for certain how these factors may have affected the prevalence of acne in ancient times.", "human_ref_B": "What evidence would there be that people had (or didn\u2019t have) acne in prehistoric times? They wouldn\u2019t have left any written evidence or popping videos, or anything like that. Not every culture has a tradition of realistic portraits (and some of those that do would deliberately leave out something like acne). I suppose there could be tools for popping pimples, but could we be sure that was how it was used? People can pop pimples without specialized tools, so a lack of those tools wouldn\u2019t necessarily mean that there was no acne.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1161.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za378b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Has teen acne been around since prehistoric times? Did cave-dwellers have zits? Or is it related to modern eating, exercise, pollution, etc.?", "c_root_id_A": "iynf45c", "c_root_id_B": "iyncneo", "created_at_utc_A": 1670004927, "created_at_utc_B": 1670003956, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As far as preindustrial complexions are concerned  it was not acme that teens had to worry about it was smallpox. If you read 17th 18th century literature and they refer to a person having a swarthy complexion that was code to referring to smallpox scaring.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox", "human_ref_B": "It is not known if acne, a common skin condition characterized by the appearance of pimples, was present in prehistoric times. There is no direct evidence one way or the other, and it is difficult to say for certain what the prevalence of acne might have been among ancient peoples.   Acne is thought to be caused by a variety of factors, including hormones, genetics, and certain aspects of lifestyle and environment. It is possible that some of these factors, such as hormones and genetics, have been present in human populations for a long time. However, it is also likely that other factors, such as diet, pollution, and stress, are more closely related to modern lifestyles and environments. It is difficult to say for certain how these factors may have affected the prevalence of acne in ancient times.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 971.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3enl4z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "If table salt separates into Sodium and Chlorine ions when dissolved in water, then how does salt water taste like salt?", "c_root_id_A": "cth7ihn", "c_root_id_B": "cth1swu", "created_at_utc_A": 1437956122, "created_at_utc_B": 1437945927, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I think what you're trying to ask is why does salt in granular solid form taste the same as it does when it is in solution. I think it's probably because NaCl is soluble in water, so when you put it in your mouth, your saliva acts as the solution, in the same way that sea water acts as solution. So either way, you're tasting the same separated ions.", "human_ref_B": "Try low sodium salt! It's largely KCL (or Na+ CL-). It actually tastes saltier than salt. The cation is what gives something its \"salty\" virtue from what I understand, while the chlorine anion is less active to taste. NaCl and KCl are both used as table salt.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10195.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "obmm9f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Of the five major classes of vertebrates, all of them seem to have something analogous to calcified/enameled teeth except birds. Do birds have something analogous in their body? Some kind of vestigial structure?", "c_root_id_A": "h3q6l15", "c_root_id_B": "h3qlq56", "created_at_utc_A": 1625172762, "created_at_utc_B": 1625179708, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "To my knowledge, teeth are a trait that birds lost.  Making teeth takes time and without it, birds take less time to hatch, which greatly reduces the care required of the parents.  Sometimes teeth do pop up in birds as an atavism.", "human_ref_B": "Development of teeth requires contact between two different tissues, dental epithelium and mesenchyme from the neural crest. What they are specifically isn't super important to answer your question, merely that they have to be touching to make a tooth. If you separate the two tissues in an embryo, no recognizable tooth structures will develop.  In bird embryos, one of these two (the epithelium) begins to keratinize very early in the embryo's development, a few days before teeth would otherwise begin to form. This keratin is the beginnings of the beak, a beak that physically separates living epithelium from the mesenchyme, which means...with a keratin beak in between them, they can't touch, and teeth never get the opportunity to start growing a few days later.  At this point though, birds haven't had teeth for many millions of years, and the genes responsible for building strong, healthy teeth have been badly damaged by genetic drift. So even if a bird had a survivable mutation that prevented the beak from growing, the vestigal teeth it grew instead would still have a lot of other problems.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6946.0, "score_ratio": 5.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pm9jpe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How effective is the vaccine against each of the different covid variants? i'm specifically talking about comparing the OG virus against the South African variant, the British variant and the Delta variant. is there any (noticeable) difference in how effective the vaccine is?", "c_root_id_A": "hcgufnv", "c_root_id_B": "hcgcjmj", "created_at_utc_A": 1631387102, "created_at_utc_B": 1631379417, "score_A": 865, "score_B": 48, "human_ref_A": "This is a much more complicated question than you might think. Which vaccine? Protection against infection, transmission, hospitalization, death? How long after vaccination? Actual protection, or surrogate measures like antibody titers?  What age group?  \u2014and of course these all overlap, so asking about protection against hospitalization in elderly people 8 months after vaccination in the UK might not tell you much about protection against infection in 30-year-olds in the US.  The ballpark answer is that alpha and delta have minor to moderate reductions in vaccine efficacy, and beta has a larger reduction, relative to the original strain. Putting together a bunch of studies, and simplifying wildly, if you\u2019re starting with an mRNA vaccine and you received it fairly recently you might have 95% protection against symptomatic disease from the original strain, maybe 80-90% protection against symptomatic disease from alpha and delta, and maybe 60-75% against beta. Scale all those numbers down some if you\u2019re further out from your vaccine, if you\u2019re asking about protection against asymptomatic infection, if you\u2019re elderly or immune compromised.   Another way to look at it is to ask how much difference in antibody concentration you need to neutralize the same numbers of each virus. If you need 1x amount of antibody to neutralize your little vial of original strain, you might need 5x that amount for alpha and delta, and 8-12x as much for beta. Antibody titers don\u2019t correlate linearly with protection, and a ballpark estimate might be that mRNA vaccines give you 10-50x as many antibodies as you need for protection, against original strain, on day 1.  So if antibodies wane by half over a year, you might still be protected against original strain, but mildly susceptible to delta.   Bottom line is that alpha and delta (as well as the D614G mutation that appeared early in 2020 and that everyone has already forgotten about) are mainly transmission-enhancing variants, with immune evasion as a mostly accidental side effect. The beta variant seemed to be more of an immune evasion variant without much transmission enhancement, and so it\u2019s not surprising it was outcompeted and seems to be fading away.   There\u2019s very little published on some other variants of concern. \u201cMu\u201d never really was a cause for concern, just media hysteria. Lambda is more of a concern, but I don\u2019t know of any good comparative immunity studies on it. It\u2019s behaving more like a moderate transmission variant that\u2019s outcompeted by delta, but who knows.  This tweet, from a well respected virologist, has the beginnings of a table comparing delta immunity to previous strains, and gives a sense of how complicated the question is and how much variation in the answers there is depending on the study - a reminder that scientists almost never rely on a single paper for conclusions and really want to see many different groups ask the question in many different ways before having any trust in the conclus8on.", "human_ref_B": "\u201cShould an individual who is vaccinated be concerned about being infected by something like P.1 in the short term and getting sick from it?\u201d Andersen said. \u201cThe answer to that is no. The vaccines remain highly effective when it comes to these variants.\u00a0   https://www.statnews.com/2021/05/13/vaccines-work-variants-complicated/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7685.0, "score_ratio": 18.0208333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9zxkbb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why is the human body capable of allergic reactions severe enough to cause death? It would seem to me that an immune system reacting to anything, even potentially fatal invaders to the body, in a way that causes death should be weeded out by natural selection.", "c_root_id_A": "eadbucm", "c_root_id_B": "eadk8jf", "created_at_utc_A": 1543078682, "created_at_utc_B": 1543084443, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "This would have been true in history. But some allergies will be due to new mutations in an individual that have not been inherited. Nowadays, modern medicine keeps these individuals alive long enough for them to reproduce, so it will be a growing problem in future.", "human_ref_B": "Because as a species, having strong immune systems is beneficial, even if it's strong enough to sometimes go overboard and overgeneralize.  Compare it to sickle cell trait.  Sickle cell anemia is fatal.  However, sickle cell anemia requires multiple copies of the same allele to manifest. Having only a single copy of that particular allele doesn't cause SCA, but it does give a resistance to malaria. So, despite that allele occasionally killing someone, it results in increased survival, on the whole, for the population that possess it.  Immune systems are similar.  A strong immune system is going to keep most people alive most of the time.  Occasionally, someone may have the genetic traits that cause the immune system to kill them. However, despite that rare 'side effect', the genes for a strong immune system cause more people to survive, thus it is passed on.  So,  it's that the strong immune system is a pro-survival mutation. Occasionally, that pro-survival mutation is combined with other mutations in a deleterious way and the organism dies.   That doesn't diminish the survival benefit of having a strong immune system for the other 90% or more of people though.  Does that help?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5761.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "artj6r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "How does shape affect the strength of a spring? I've heard that a coil is a more efficient spring shape than a leaf.  And just looking at the relative sizes of automotive coil springs VS their leaf counterparts, I believe it.  But I've been looking for a way to express that mathematically, or a way to determine the springiness (I believe thats expressed as elastic potential?) of a spring shape, and I can't find an adequate reference.  Can anyone point me in the right direction?", "c_root_id_A": "egptjmd", "c_root_id_B": "egpsosm", "created_at_utc_A": 1550475434, "created_at_utc_B": 1550474194, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The spiraling allows for more deflection with less % strain so it can stretch further, repeatedly for longer before propagating cracks to catastrophic failure. Like a slinky verses a bow (and arrow). Probably why you don't see a lot of leaf springs anymore except cost effective trailers.", "human_ref_B": "I think both are governed by hookes law they just apply it differently. Leaf springs are essentially beams with deflection applied between the supported ends so it won't have the same displacement capacity as a coil. The x in hookes law then might look like the beam deflection equation for a simply supported beam which would include Young's modulus, the moment of inertia based on the cross section area, and the length of the leaf spring. But I don't have those equations memorized but they're easy to find.   Hookes law for a spring is F=kx with k being the \"stiffness\" of the spring, which would be directly related to the Young's modulus of the material being used. A stiffer spring would create a larger resistant force per distance displaced.   To be fair someone will be able to answer this much better than me.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1240.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "artj6r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "How does shape affect the strength of a spring? I've heard that a coil is a more efficient spring shape than a leaf.  And just looking at the relative sizes of automotive coil springs VS their leaf counterparts, I believe it.  But I've been looking for a way to express that mathematically, or a way to determine the springiness (I believe thats expressed as elastic potential?) of a spring shape, and I can't find an adequate reference.  Can anyone point me in the right direction?", "c_root_id_A": "egpsosm", "c_root_id_B": "egq2hjb", "created_at_utc_A": 1550474194, "created_at_utc_B": 1550490513, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I think both are governed by hookes law they just apply it differently. Leaf springs are essentially beams with deflection applied between the supported ends so it won't have the same displacement capacity as a coil. The x in hookes law then might look like the beam deflection equation for a simply supported beam which would include Young's modulus, the moment of inertia based on the cross section area, and the length of the leaf spring. But I don't have those equations memorized but they're easy to find.   Hookes law for a spring is F=kx with k being the \"stiffness\" of the spring, which would be directly related to the Young's modulus of the material being used. A stiffer spring would create a larger resistant force per distance displaced.   To be fair someone will be able to answer this much better than me.", "human_ref_B": "In leaf spring, if you want the spring to deflect by 50 mm, the entire \"leaf\" needs to experience strain proportional to the deflection 50 mm.  In coiled spring, if you want to deflect the spring by 50 mm, each coil needs to experience strain proportional to 50/x, where x is the number of coils (not including the first (fixed) one). In other words, the strain is spread out between coils, so each part of the material suffers less for the same amount of total deflection.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16319.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sde5n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How is a virus \"born\"? I am under the assumption that viruses are not alive, so do they reproduce? How does one come into our world? See title. Thanks for the answers!", "c_root_id_A": "c4d4age", "c_root_id_B": "c4d4ixo", "created_at_utc_A": 1334625733, "created_at_utc_B": 1334626910, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Viruses reproduce by infecting a cell and inserting their genetic code into its genome, essentially hijacking the cell's transcriptional machinery to produce more viruses the same way the cell normally produce proteins.", "human_ref_B": "The replication point has been made here already, but that does not explain how viruses \"come to be\".   For that I give you this  http://www.biology-direct.com/content/1/1/29  TL;DR Ancestral viruses evolved in a pre-cellular environment as selfish genetic elements and adapted to prokaryotic and eukaryotic life as they emerged  EDIT: Replication, not reproduction", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1177.0, "score_ratio": -7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jc9hm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do we do the order of operations in the way that we do? I've been wondering...is the Order of Operations (the whole Parenthesis > Exponents > Multiply/Divide > Add/Subtract, and left>right) thing...was this just agreed upon? Mathematicians decided \"let's all do it like this\"? Or is this *actually* the right way, because of some...mathematical proof?  Ugh, sorry, I don't even know how to ask the question the right way. Basically, is the Order of Operations right because we say it is, or is it right because that's how the laws of mathematics work?", "c_root_id_A": "cbd9yer", "c_root_id_B": "cbdasnp", "created_at_utc_A": 1375190743, "created_at_utc_B": 1375193644, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "To be honest, this is by far the best explanation I've heard.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9h1oqv21Vs&feature=youtube_gdata_player Also, check out his other stuff.", "human_ref_B": "It's arbitrary because all of written math is arbitrary symbolic notation invented by humans. There are plenty of programming languages and other types of notation systems that don't follow PEMDAS. For example, Reverse Polish Notation (which was favored by early computer scientists) is written \"operand operand operator.\" So, for example 3 4 + 7 / evaluates to 1 because, from left to right, 3 4 + evaluates to 3+4=7. Then you have 7 /, so the 7 that came from 3 4 + you divide by 7.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_polish_notation  For what it's worth, both exponents and parentheses are relatively recent additions to math notation, so it makes sense that our arbitrarily defined writing system would adapt to new symbols by saying \"everything works exactly the same as before, but before doing that, we have to do the new stuff and get it out of the way.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2901.0, "score_ratio": 5.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jc9hm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do we do the order of operations in the way that we do? I've been wondering...is the Order of Operations (the whole Parenthesis > Exponents > Multiply/Divide > Add/Subtract, and left>right) thing...was this just agreed upon? Mathematicians decided \"let's all do it like this\"? Or is this *actually* the right way, because of some...mathematical proof?  Ugh, sorry, I don't even know how to ask the question the right way. Basically, is the Order of Operations right because we say it is, or is it right because that's how the laws of mathematics work?", "c_root_id_A": "cbdc41r", "c_root_id_B": "cbd9yer", "created_at_utc_A": 1375197408, "created_at_utc_B": 1375190743, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "There's no mathematical proof which would indicate that our notation is \"right\"\u2014simply because there is no definition of \"right\" (though you might get somewhere by looking for proofs that some notation uses the minimal number of `()`s or forms the shallowest expression tree).  It is however guided by the mathematical structure we usually write using it. For instance, `+` (completely by convention) tends to represent a \"combining operation\" which is \"abelian\" which means that      a + b    =    b + a  for any a and b. Multiplication represented by `\u00b7` tends to mean a \"non-abelian\" combining operation. When you put these two operations together in a special way you get something called an algebraic ring). Algebraic rings also have the property that `\u00b7` distributes over `+` like this      a \u00b7 (b + c)    =    (a \u00b7 b) + (a \u00b7 c)  If you prefer the right side of that equation (for aesthetic purposes or analytical purposes) then you'll be tempted to write all your ring expressions as \"sums of products\" like this     (a \u00b7 b \u00b7 c) + (d \u00b7 e) + (f \u00b7 g) + ...  which is a bit nicer on the eyes if we just declare that `\u00b7` \"binds more tightly\" than `+`.     a \u00b7 b \u00b7 c + d \u00b7 e + f \u00b7 g + ...  And reads *even better* if we just say that juxtaposition means `\u00b7` instead of \"word formation\"      abc + de + fg + ...  and continuing on that thread while generalizing the structure you're working in more and more gives you exponentiation as well.  The nice part about the \"sum of products\" form is that the degree of a polynomial is incredibly easy to read off\u2014it's simple the largest exponent on your polynomial variable (usually `x`).  ---  Now, what about if we liked the *right* side of that distributive equation? Then we'd be lead to write things as \"products of sums\"      (a + b + c) \u00b7 (d + e) \u00b7 (f + g)  and we might be tempted to say that `+` binds more tightly than `\u00b7`      a + b + c \u00b7 d + e \u00b7 f + g  and even that juxtaposition means `+` (!!)      abc \u00b7 de \u00b7 fg  which is bizarre by our conventions, but not actually mathematically any different from the previous \"most simplified\" form.  This form makes it really easy to read off the roots of a polynomial in `x` like      ax \u00b7 bx \u00b7 cx \u00b7 dx  has roots at `(-a)`, `(-b)`, `(-c)`, and `(-d)`.", "human_ref_B": "To be honest, this is by far the best explanation I've heard.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9h1oqv21Vs&feature=youtube_gdata_player Also, check out his other stuff.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6665.0, "score_ratio": 2.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "koo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How does compressing files (zip files etc) work? It's my understanding computer files are ones and zeros...how can that be compressed and then uncompressed?", "c_root_id_A": "c2lxtec", "c_root_id_B": "c2lyqei", "created_at_utc_A": 1316750164, "created_at_utc_B": 1316759200, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "For lossless compression, you can basically observe repeating patterns of zeroes and ones. Then, you note what they are and replace them with something shorter in the actual data.  Purpose-specific compression (think FLAC or PNG) algorithms take advantage of certain patterns inherent in the type of data they target. For example, a video codec can pick out a keyframe and then only store the difference between the keyframe and following couple of frames.  On top of that, if you use lossy compression, you can trim some of the data because of how humans perceive the data in the end - converting from FLAC to mp3 will result in loss of data, but with sufficiently high bitrates of the mp3 it may be difficult for a person to tell the difference between the two files.", "human_ref_B": "Let's forget the binary code for a minute and just talk about ways to compress things.  Let's say that you're talking to someone over the phone, and you want them to write down the letters \"AAAABBCCCCCCCCCDDDDDEFFFFFFFF\".  You could say the whole thing out, but you could also simplify it: you could say \"4 As, 2 Bs, 9 Cs, 5 Ds, 1 E, and 8 Fs\".    If you want to write down that string of letters for later, you could similarly \"compress\" the data by writing \"4A2B9C5D1E8F\".  Later, you could easily \"decompress\" that into the original.  That's basically how compression works.  Patterns are found that allow you to translate between short sequences (\"9C\") and long sequences (\"CCCCCCCCC\").", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9036.0, "score_ratio": 1.2352941176, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pk4sy5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Could satellites or planets orbit a black hole without being sucked into it and how far away of a black hole would they need to be to stay in orbit?", "c_root_id_A": "hc1x3gv", "c_root_id_B": "hc1yowz", "created_at_utc_A": 1631105592, "created_at_utc_B": 1631106409, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Yes, things can orbit black holes, but not for arbitrarily small radii.  Some possible orbits are shown in Figure 1 here.", "human_ref_B": "***Yes, satellites and/or planets can orbit a black hole***. I am pretty sure you know about the event horizon of the black hole, (the region of a blackhole where gravity is so strong that light can't escape, or a point in such that the curvature of spacetime is so high that nothing can escape). The blackhole model comes from a guy called Carl Schwarzschild, who made the equations while trying to solve Einstein's field equations for a point mass. The equations were originally developed for things like planets and stars in mind, but in the 1960's the extreme limits of these equations started to get understood and interpreted.      There is a magic distance from the center called the Schwarzschild radius (named after Carl Schwarzschild), where things start to go 'weird'. You can calculate this radius by multiplying the mass of the object by 2, then multiply the constant of gravity, then divide it by the speed of light squared, (R=2GM/C\\^2).  If you do the masses in terms of solar masses, it is a lot easier, you multiply the mass in solar masses by about 2.95 kilometers so that gives you the magic radius. If you concentrate all the mass inside of it, weird things happen. What we mean by weird things is that space like paths become time like, and time like become space like. This probably doesn't mean anything to you, but it means that all of the lights possible futures are now inside of the black hole, there is not one single point in the future that the light can escape the black hole into the endless beyond of space, the only way to escape is to go back in time.   There is actually another more distant point of no reasonable return. Just above the black holes event horizon, you can still send a signal out to the rest of the universe. But if you are say, firing a laser, you have to fire it directly away from the surface, directly radial out in relative proportion to the black holes surface, otherwise it would experience the most insane gravitational warping ever and all of its futures would once again be in the black hole, being the only way to get out is to go back in time.   There is actually magical point. At 1.5 times Schwarzschild Radius, you can actually fire a laser perpendicular right to the event horizon and the photons will orbit the black hole! This is a magic distance where the orbital velocity is the speed of light. We call this the photon sphere, a region in theory where photons could orbit the black hole. Buuuut in practice they don't, the photons are at a 'knifes edge', if it is slightly off direction it will either shoot off into infinity or go into the black hole.  Anyway, this photon sphere correlates to the closest a physical object could orbit theoretically, because if it got any closer it would be going faster than the speed of light. Of course, tidal forces would be very strong, so it is quite theoretical. There is quite a lot of orbital mechanics to do with this, so I would recommended you watch this video. There is a magic radius, around 2x the Schwarzschild Radius, where it has the same energy as parabolic orbit falling from infinity, with exactly the right input conditions a parabolic orbit can fall into a unstable circular orbit. If you want to orbit inside this radius, but outside the photon sphere, you need progressively more and more energy, meaning that 2x the Schwarzschild Radius is the closest you could realistically fly a spacecraft, orbit, and leave orbit to tell another tale. Any closer requires engines that are unlikely to exist out of science fiction. This means that we could see planets possibly here too, although unlikely as they would fall into the black hole due to the orbit being unstable. This means that the minimum a satellite/planet could orbit without a unstable, decaying orbit is **3x the Schwarzschild Radius**, and is mathematically agreed upon. **(Fun fact, their time would run about 30x slower than us!)**  **So, Tl;dr, 2x the Schwarzschild radius is the closest a spacecraft (and planet) could realistically orbit, and leave orbit to tell another tale. Although the orbit would be unstable, so 3x the Schwarzschild radius is the mathematically agreed upon stable orbit for both satellites and planets.**   Thanks, this was interesting.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 817.0, "score_ratio": 4.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1sk7f1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.6, "history": "How are widespread cold fronts (such as the current one in the US) consistent with global warming? Disclaimer: I accept global warming as fact. Not trying to debate the concept itself. But as most American redditors know, our entire country is freezing its ass off right now (except Florida and Hawaii). I live in Colorado and the weather's been in the single digits (Fahrenheit) for almost a week, which is unusually cold for December. And apparently there have been record cold temperatures in some places.  I also understand that weather =/= climate. But lately I've seen some far-right folk laugh at the pro-global warming crowd with all this cold weather we've seen lately. And to be honest I'm not totally sure how to explain this extreme cold weather in light of global warming.", "c_root_id_A": "cdygcci", "c_root_id_B": "cdygn4v", "created_at_utc_A": 1386703048, "created_at_utc_B": 1386703697, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Weather is a *somewhat of a* zero-sum game. When it's cold where you are, it's because the airmass which has moved over you originated further north, and has moved towards the equator. This can't happen without a warmer air mass moving north somewhere else. So, if you're in a cold snap, there's another region of the world where the weather is warmer than usual. I'm using the Northern Hemisphere for clarity's sake, but the same applies in the southern hemisphere.  This is why pointing to heat waves as evidence for global warming is just plain wrong: while you're in the midst of a heat wave, another area of the globe on your latitude is experiencing unusually cool temperatures. This is complicated by the fact that a lot of the Earth is covered by ocean, so observations are hard to come by, but often you can see it quite clearly: a cold snap in Europe will accompanied by warm temperatures in North America, or vice versa.  Every winter conspiracy-mongers will point to the fact that it snows to try to prove that global warming doesn't exist, just like every summer overzealous science defenders will try to use heat waves as proof that it does exist. Each of these groups are equally wrong. You have to keep in mind that global warming, even in the worst case scenario, will only be a few degrees over the next 50 years. A few degrees warmer than your average temperatures are still going to feel pretty average, just like a few degrees warmer than the coldest weather currently possible in your area is still going to be pretty damn cold!  This isn't to say you shouldn't ask questions. Scientists should be forced to defend their conclusions. I just wish more were willing to listen to the answers.", "human_ref_B": "You have to remember that \"global warming\" (climate change) does not, and does not attempt to, explain single weather events. It describes long term changes in global temperatures. There will always be extreme events, and though what we see as extreme now may become average in the future, you cannot attribute single weather events to the effects of climate change.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 649.0, "score_ratio": 2.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1sk7f1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.6, "history": "How are widespread cold fronts (such as the current one in the US) consistent with global warming? Disclaimer: I accept global warming as fact. Not trying to debate the concept itself. But as most American redditors know, our entire country is freezing its ass off right now (except Florida and Hawaii). I live in Colorado and the weather's been in the single digits (Fahrenheit) for almost a week, which is unusually cold for December. And apparently there have been record cold temperatures in some places.  I also understand that weather =/= climate. But lately I've seen some far-right folk laugh at the pro-global warming crowd with all this cold weather we've seen lately. And to be honest I'm not totally sure how to explain this extreme cold weather in light of global warming.", "c_root_id_A": "cdyimen", "c_root_id_B": "cdyl1ay", "created_at_utc_A": 1386707725, "created_at_utc_B": 1386712430, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "You hit the nail on the head.  Weather is not the same as climate.  Experiencing one week of unusually cold weather does not say anything about the overall trend over decades.  We could even have a really, really cold winter all winter, then a cool summer, and then another colder-than average winter (18 cold months in a row!) but if 25 out of the last 30 years have been warmer than average, there's still a warming trend.  It is possible, though perhaps improbable, that it will get colder *in some places*.  However, if you average over the entire globe, the overall effect will be an increase in temperature, hence \"global warming.\"  Also, as others here have mentioned, one supposed result of global warming (with mounting evidence) is weather extremes.  The overall, global trend over many years is still a steady warming, but according to the weather-extremes theory there are more super cold weeks, more super hot weeks and less weeks nearer to the average.", "human_ref_B": "> weather =/= climate  >  far-right folk laugh at the pro-global warming crowd with all this cold weather we've seen   People who talk about global warming are talking about climate change. Like you said, weather is not climate. Weather is a snapshot - the climate at a given time. Climate is the weather over a period of time.   For example, if I said that some location reached 98 deg. F one day, that doesn't tell you anything about what to expect when you go there. If I said that the climate is arid, then pretty much any time you go there you can expect a high temperature. But I'm sure it's hit the upper 90s in Michigan, and I guarantee you will not find those conditions if you went today.  The other thing is that global warming in general is not necessarily a bad thing on its own. The 'bad things' that people are worried about are numerous - wilder weather swings (ie, a more dangerous hurricane/tornado season), glacial melting increasing the risk of flooding even if cities don't get swamped, etc.  We are also worried about the potential for a positive feedback effect. Anytime the rate of change of something is proportional to the amount of that thing that already exists, it's a first order differential equation. One solution to this equation is, if the constant is positive, an exponential curve. So follow this process -   1. There is some value G which represents the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere 2. The average temperature of the earth is proportional to this amount 3. The rate of release of G from factories, etc. is proportional to a number of things, such as the release of G from the poles and factories etc. 4. Since more G causes a higher rate of change of G, the solution to the equation is      dG/dt = K*G     G(t) = e^Kt  With some strong nonlinearities for which I have not accounted. This is an exponential curve. If this occurs, we reach what's essentially a threshhold after which it becomes very difficult to stop very rapid climate change.   So Tl;Dr - No, weather is not climate, you've answered your own question. Also, it won't necessarily manifest in strictly warmer temperatures - it's a stability thing. And to summarize, the biggest potential problem is that we become unable to control climate change in the future, leading to catastrophic decreases in population sustainability.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4705.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1sk7f1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.6, "history": "How are widespread cold fronts (such as the current one in the US) consistent with global warming? Disclaimer: I accept global warming as fact. Not trying to debate the concept itself. But as most American redditors know, our entire country is freezing its ass off right now (except Florida and Hawaii). I live in Colorado and the weather's been in the single digits (Fahrenheit) for almost a week, which is unusually cold for December. And apparently there have been record cold temperatures in some places.  I also understand that weather =/= climate. But lately I've seen some far-right folk laugh at the pro-global warming crowd with all this cold weather we've seen lately. And to be honest I'm not totally sure how to explain this extreme cold weather in light of global warming.", "c_root_id_A": "cdypca8", "c_root_id_B": "cdyimen", "created_at_utc_A": 1386721813, "created_at_utc_B": 1386707725, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Here's a talk that addresses this topic: The Alarming Science Behind Climate Change's Increasingly Wild Weather  I'll try and offer up a quick summary as I understand it - corrections from the more knowledgeable would be appreciated. The planet's warming is happening faster at the poles than at the middle latitudes. As a result, the temperature differential between the two is decreasing. This differential strongly comes into play in determining the route of the jet stream, both through actual temperature differences, and effectively changing the \"height\" of the column of air over an area.  Think of a river in a mountainous area, with lots of elevation change. The water moves faster, and the river moves fairly directly in a direction. Now, think of a river on a plain. With the elevation differences smaller, the river itself moves much more slowly, and tends to meander a lot more, forming larger loops.  The decrease in the differential between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes allows the jet stream to move more toward the second river - the air moves more slowly, and the jet stream itself meanders more. So you can end up with the jet stream reaching further south than normal, due to the meandering, bringing cold Arctic air with it. And with the slower jet stream, weather patterns can stick around a lot longer.  This is why you see these cold fronts reaching further and staying longer - and similarly, more long summer heat waves in the past few years, more droughts AND more storms.", "human_ref_B": "You hit the nail on the head.  Weather is not the same as climate.  Experiencing one week of unusually cold weather does not say anything about the overall trend over decades.  We could even have a really, really cold winter all winter, then a cool summer, and then another colder-than average winter (18 cold months in a row!) but if 25 out of the last 30 years have been warmer than average, there's still a warming trend.  It is possible, though perhaps improbable, that it will get colder *in some places*.  However, if you average over the entire globe, the overall effect will be an increase in temperature, hence \"global warming.\"  Also, as others here have mentioned, one supposed result of global warming (with mounting evidence) is weather extremes.  The overall, global trend over many years is still a steady warming, but according to the weather-extremes theory there are more super cold weeks, more super hot weeks and less weeks nearer to the average.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14088.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1sk7f1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.6, "history": "How are widespread cold fronts (such as the current one in the US) consistent with global warming? Disclaimer: I accept global warming as fact. Not trying to debate the concept itself. But as most American redditors know, our entire country is freezing its ass off right now (except Florida and Hawaii). I live in Colorado and the weather's been in the single digits (Fahrenheit) for almost a week, which is unusually cold for December. And apparently there have been record cold temperatures in some places.  I also understand that weather =/= climate. But lately I've seen some far-right folk laugh at the pro-global warming crowd with all this cold weather we've seen lately. And to be honest I'm not totally sure how to explain this extreme cold weather in light of global warming.", "c_root_id_A": "cdyhwcq", "c_root_id_B": "cdyl1ay", "created_at_utc_A": 1386706295, "created_at_utc_B": 1386712430, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "This is a really great question, and I think you're on the right track: climate is not the same as weather, and just because the Earth's average temperature is increasing overall, that doesn't mean there won't still be cold weather.  However, because I'm not a climate scientist, I'd point you to the following website, which is moderated by actual climate scientists and does a very good job of explaining the science and citing references: http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2007/05/start-here/.", "human_ref_B": "> weather =/= climate  >  far-right folk laugh at the pro-global warming crowd with all this cold weather we've seen   People who talk about global warming are talking about climate change. Like you said, weather is not climate. Weather is a snapshot - the climate at a given time. Climate is the weather over a period of time.   For example, if I said that some location reached 98 deg. F one day, that doesn't tell you anything about what to expect when you go there. If I said that the climate is arid, then pretty much any time you go there you can expect a high temperature. But I'm sure it's hit the upper 90s in Michigan, and I guarantee you will not find those conditions if you went today.  The other thing is that global warming in general is not necessarily a bad thing on its own. The 'bad things' that people are worried about are numerous - wilder weather swings (ie, a more dangerous hurricane/tornado season), glacial melting increasing the risk of flooding even if cities don't get swamped, etc.  We are also worried about the potential for a positive feedback effect. Anytime the rate of change of something is proportional to the amount of that thing that already exists, it's a first order differential equation. One solution to this equation is, if the constant is positive, an exponential curve. So follow this process -   1. There is some value G which represents the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere 2. The average temperature of the earth is proportional to this amount 3. The rate of release of G from factories, etc. is proportional to a number of things, such as the release of G from the poles and factories etc. 4. Since more G causes a higher rate of change of G, the solution to the equation is      dG/dt = K*G     G(t) = e^Kt  With some strong nonlinearities for which I have not accounted. This is an exponential curve. If this occurs, we reach what's essentially a threshhold after which it becomes very difficult to stop very rapid climate change.   So Tl;Dr - No, weather is not climate, you've answered your own question. Also, it won't necessarily manifest in strictly warmer temperatures - it's a stability thing. And to summarize, the biggest potential problem is that we become unable to control climate change in the future, leading to catastrophic decreases in population sustainability.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6135.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1sk7f1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.6, "history": "How are widespread cold fronts (such as the current one in the US) consistent with global warming? Disclaimer: I accept global warming as fact. Not trying to debate the concept itself. But as most American redditors know, our entire country is freezing its ass off right now (except Florida and Hawaii). I live in Colorado and the weather's been in the single digits (Fahrenheit) for almost a week, which is unusually cold for December. And apparently there have been record cold temperatures in some places.  I also understand that weather =/= climate. But lately I've seen some far-right folk laugh at the pro-global warming crowd with all this cold weather we've seen lately. And to be honest I'm not totally sure how to explain this extreme cold weather in light of global warming.", "c_root_id_A": "cdypca8", "c_root_id_B": "cdyhwcq", "created_at_utc_A": 1386721813, "created_at_utc_B": 1386706295, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Here's a talk that addresses this topic: The Alarming Science Behind Climate Change's Increasingly Wild Weather  I'll try and offer up a quick summary as I understand it - corrections from the more knowledgeable would be appreciated. The planet's warming is happening faster at the poles than at the middle latitudes. As a result, the temperature differential between the two is decreasing. This differential strongly comes into play in determining the route of the jet stream, both through actual temperature differences, and effectively changing the \"height\" of the column of air over an area.  Think of a river in a mountainous area, with lots of elevation change. The water moves faster, and the river moves fairly directly in a direction. Now, think of a river on a plain. With the elevation differences smaller, the river itself moves much more slowly, and tends to meander a lot more, forming larger loops.  The decrease in the differential between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes allows the jet stream to move more toward the second river - the air moves more slowly, and the jet stream itself meanders more. So you can end up with the jet stream reaching further south than normal, due to the meandering, bringing cold Arctic air with it. And with the slower jet stream, weather patterns can stick around a lot longer.  This is why you see these cold fronts reaching further and staying longer - and similarly, more long summer heat waves in the past few years, more droughts AND more storms.", "human_ref_B": "This is a really great question, and I think you're on the right track: climate is not the same as weather, and just because the Earth's average temperature is increasing overall, that doesn't mean there won't still be cold weather.  However, because I'm not a climate scientist, I'd point you to the following website, which is moderated by actual climate scientists and does a very good job of explaining the science and citing references: http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2007/05/start-here/.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15518.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ctst5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Should we be worried about SF6 as green house gas as it has ~20,000 time more global warming potential than CO2?", "c_root_id_A": "dhxem2d", "c_root_id_B": "dhxevzr", "created_at_utc_A": 1495542877, "created_at_utc_B": 1495543347, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "We are worried about it, that's why it's use is regulated in Europe and that the stocks are controlled in the US. It was also part of the gas named in the Kyoto agreement.  However the use of SF6 is pretty limited. You won't find any in consumer products. I can't find very up to date info but it seems like magnesium production ~~(the biggest consumer of SF6)~~ is slowly moving away from it.", "human_ref_B": "It's much more potent, but much, much less common. SF6 exists at about 7 parts per *trillion* in the atmosphere, CO2 is measured at 400,000,000 parts per trillion (400 ppm).  So, the effect would be roughly equivalent to 140,000 ppt of CO2, less than a thousandth of what's actually there.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 470.0, "score_ratio": 1.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jinv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Could prosthetic limbs increase a person's lifespan? prosthetic legs would mean less blood and less blood pressure needed, one could assume...", "c_root_id_A": "c2cg50h", "c_root_id_B": "c2cfsdd", "created_at_utc_A": 1313356227, "created_at_utc_B": 1313352913, "score_A": 8, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Yes because the patient can return to a somewhat normal exercise regime/daily routine. General fitness is very important. The same for late stage degenerative arthritis, it severly impacts the patients walking range, they stay at home in the chair or in bed. This would mean less exposure to sunlight = vitamine d etc.   It would depends on what kind of prothetics, after bone tumor sugery (mega prosthesis) or after a trauma. The length of resection is very important and if muscles and surrounding tissue can be salvaged. Generally you want to save as much as possible.", "human_ref_B": "Sure.  The less body mass you have the less chance of getting cancer you have.  EDIT: I can see I've been downvoted for this response but as far as I can see my statement is accurate. Cancer is one of the biggest causes of death in the developed world and it's well established that people with less body mass are less likely to develop cancer simply because they have less tissue and therefore less risk of potentially cancerous mutations. Short people, skinny people and by logic people with fewer limbs all benefit from this effect.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3314.0, "score_ratio": -4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jinv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Could prosthetic limbs increase a person's lifespan? prosthetic legs would mean less blood and less blood pressure needed, one could assume...", "c_root_id_A": "c2cg50h", "c_root_id_B": "c2cg3t1", "created_at_utc_A": 1313356227, "created_at_utc_B": 1313355910, "score_A": 8, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Yes because the patient can return to a somewhat normal exercise regime/daily routine. General fitness is very important. The same for late stage degenerative arthritis, it severly impacts the patients walking range, they stay at home in the chair or in bed. This would mean less exposure to sunlight = vitamine d etc.   It would depends on what kind of prothetics, after bone tumor sugery (mega prosthesis) or after a trauma. The length of resection is very important and if muscles and surrounding tissue can be salvaged. Generally you want to save as much as possible.", "human_ref_B": "Trust me on this one: You want all your limbs. Nothing artificial will ever be as good as the real thing, even if the real thing is messed up. You wouldn't be living much of a life with no arms or legs, believe me. I work in the O&amp;P industry, I see it every day.  EDIT: I by no means mean any offense to anyone. It's just a fact that a real limb is better than a fake one. Period.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 317.0, "score_ratio": -1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jinv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Could prosthetic limbs increase a person's lifespan? prosthetic legs would mean less blood and less blood pressure needed, one could assume...", "c_root_id_A": "c2cg6w2", "c_root_id_B": "c2cfsdd", "created_at_utc_A": 1313356720, "created_at_utc_B": 1313352913, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "You mean healthy limbs vs prosthetic limbs, rather than no//amputated limbs vs prosthetic limbs?", "human_ref_B": "Sure.  The less body mass you have the less chance of getting cancer you have.  EDIT: I can see I've been downvoted for this response but as far as I can see my statement is accurate. Cancer is one of the biggest causes of death in the developed world and it's well established that people with less body mass are less likely to develop cancer simply because they have less tissue and therefore less risk of potentially cancerous mutations. Short people, skinny people and by logic people with fewer limbs all benefit from this effect.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3807.0, "score_ratio": -1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jinv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Could prosthetic limbs increase a person's lifespan? prosthetic legs would mean less blood and less blood pressure needed, one could assume...", "c_root_id_A": "c2cg3t1", "c_root_id_B": "c2cg6w2", "created_at_utc_A": 1313355910, "created_at_utc_B": 1313356720, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Trust me on this one: You want all your limbs. Nothing artificial will ever be as good as the real thing, even if the real thing is messed up. You wouldn't be living much of a life with no arms or legs, believe me. I work in the O&amp;P industry, I see it every day.  EDIT: I by no means mean any offense to anyone. It's just a fact that a real limb is better than a fake one. Period.", "human_ref_B": "You mean healthy limbs vs prosthetic limbs, rather than no//amputated limbs vs prosthetic limbs?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 810.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jinv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Could prosthetic limbs increase a person's lifespan? prosthetic legs would mean less blood and less blood pressure needed, one could assume...", "c_root_id_A": "c2cfsdd", "c_root_id_B": "c2cj3vx", "created_at_utc_A": 1313352913, "created_at_utc_B": 1313383302, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Sure.  The less body mass you have the less chance of getting cancer you have.  EDIT: I can see I've been downvoted for this response but as far as I can see my statement is accurate. Cancer is one of the biggest causes of death in the developed world and it's well established that people with less body mass are less likely to develop cancer simply because they have less tissue and therefore less risk of potentially cancerous mutations. Short people, skinny people and by logic people with fewer limbs all benefit from this effect.", "human_ref_B": "IANAS but I would assume that it would also mean that you would have less potential white blood cells which may or may not have a detrimental effect on your health.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30389.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jinv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Could prosthetic limbs increase a person's lifespan? prosthetic legs would mean less blood and less blood pressure needed, one could assume...", "c_root_id_A": "c2cj3vx", "c_root_id_B": "c2cg7yb", "created_at_utc_A": 1313383302, "created_at_utc_B": 1313357013, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "IANAS but I would assume that it would also mean that you would have less potential white blood cells which may or may not have a detrimental effect on your health.", "human_ref_B": "It would also mean an impaired ability to escape from emergencies.  If gradual wear and tear on the body doesn't kill you, it doesn't matter because your chances of being killed through trauma increase.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26289.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jinv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Could prosthetic limbs increase a person's lifespan? prosthetic legs would mean less blood and less blood pressure needed, one could assume...", "c_root_id_A": "c2cj3vx", "c_root_id_B": "c2cg3t1", "created_at_utc_A": 1313383302, "created_at_utc_B": 1313355910, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "IANAS but I would assume that it would also mean that you would have less potential white blood cells which may or may not have a detrimental effect on your health.", "human_ref_B": "Trust me on this one: You want all your limbs. Nothing artificial will ever be as good as the real thing, even if the real thing is messed up. You wouldn't be living much of a life with no arms or legs, believe me. I work in the O&amp;P industry, I see it every day.  EDIT: I by no means mean any offense to anyone. It's just a fact that a real limb is better than a fake one. Period.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27392.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jinv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Could prosthetic limbs increase a person's lifespan? prosthetic legs would mean less blood and less blood pressure needed, one could assume...", "c_root_id_A": "c2cg7yb", "c_root_id_B": "c2cg3t1", "created_at_utc_A": 1313357013, "created_at_utc_B": 1313355910, "score_A": -2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "It would also mean an impaired ability to escape from emergencies.  If gradual wear and tear on the body doesn't kill you, it doesn't matter because your chances of being killed through trauma increase.", "human_ref_B": "Trust me on this one: You want all your limbs. Nothing artificial will ever be as good as the real thing, even if the real thing is messed up. You wouldn't be living much of a life with no arms or legs, believe me. I work in the O&amp;P industry, I see it every day.  EDIT: I by no means mean any offense to anyone. It's just a fact that a real limb is better than a fake one. Period.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1103.0, "score_ratio": 0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9aizex", "c_root_id_B": "c9agnkh", "created_at_utc_A": 1365378784, "created_at_utc_B": 1365371954, "score_A": 339, "score_B": 48, "human_ref_A": "Mars has a very weak, highly spatially variable magnetic field due to remnant magnetisation of some of its crust (from when it did have a field.) A compass would probably flop around and point in random directions.  The rovers rely on several things. One, as other people have said, high resolution imaging is used to pinpoint the location on a map. Two, communications with orbiters can be used sometimes to localise the rover, though this is *nowhere near* as good as GPS - there's no ephemeris capability to give precise locations, nor a precise enough geoid (map) to actually locate on, but they can do pretty well.  However, as has already been stated, the rovers don't really need to know where they are globally, just locally. Whenever they move they take stereo images of the landscape and use these images to create a local map. They identify hazards and assign danger levels to different areas. When they move, wheel odometers track how far they go, then every so often they take another set of photos. This is one of the main reasons rovers are slow - they have to continually update their local maps from stereo images.  So what happens is a kind of cascade. The wheel odometers aren't that accurate, and tend to slip in particular terrains, so the position has to be updated from the stereo maps and ultimately using the orbiters and high res images, continually updating the position on different scales of map.  EDIT: I should add that the rovers also have IMUs with gyroscopes and accelerometers to help with directional localisation (something not that easy with orbital images or pseudo-GPS).", "human_ref_B": "Mars has no magnetosphere, so it is safe to say that it would not have any poles with which to orient a compass.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6830.0, "score_ratio": 7.0625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9aizex", "c_root_id_B": "c9ahfnp", "created_at_utc_A": 1365378784, "created_at_utc_B": 1365374250, "score_A": 339, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Mars has a very weak, highly spatially variable magnetic field due to remnant magnetisation of some of its crust (from when it did have a field.) A compass would probably flop around and point in random directions.  The rovers rely on several things. One, as other people have said, high resolution imaging is used to pinpoint the location on a map. Two, communications with orbiters can be used sometimes to localise the rover, though this is *nowhere near* as good as GPS - there's no ephemeris capability to give precise locations, nor a precise enough geoid (map) to actually locate on, but they can do pretty well.  However, as has already been stated, the rovers don't really need to know where they are globally, just locally. Whenever they move they take stereo images of the landscape and use these images to create a local map. They identify hazards and assign danger levels to different areas. When they move, wheel odometers track how far they go, then every so often they take another set of photos. This is one of the main reasons rovers are slow - they have to continually update their local maps from stereo images.  So what happens is a kind of cascade. The wheel odometers aren't that accurate, and tend to slip in particular terrains, so the position has to be updated from the stereo maps and ultimately using the orbiters and high res images, continually updating the position on different scales of map.  EDIT: I should add that the rovers also have IMUs with gyroscopes and accelerometers to help with directional localisation (something not that easy with orbital images or pseudo-GPS).", "human_ref_B": "Martian GPS  High resolution cameras let them map out where to go.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4534.0, "score_ratio": 11.6896551724, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9ahe92", "c_root_id_B": "c9aizex", "created_at_utc_A": 1365374131, "created_at_utc_B": 1365378784, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 339, "human_ref_A": "It's likely that it is dependent on relative position and perhaps some support from the orbiting satellite Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter which actually has a sense of its position.", "human_ref_B": "Mars has a very weak, highly spatially variable magnetic field due to remnant magnetisation of some of its crust (from when it did have a field.) A compass would probably flop around and point in random directions.  The rovers rely on several things. One, as other people have said, high resolution imaging is used to pinpoint the location on a map. Two, communications with orbiters can be used sometimes to localise the rover, though this is *nowhere near* as good as GPS - there's no ephemeris capability to give precise locations, nor a precise enough geoid (map) to actually locate on, but they can do pretty well.  However, as has already been stated, the rovers don't really need to know where they are globally, just locally. Whenever they move they take stereo images of the landscape and use these images to create a local map. They identify hazards and assign danger levels to different areas. When they move, wheel odometers track how far they go, then every so often they take another set of photos. This is one of the main reasons rovers are slow - they have to continually update their local maps from stereo images.  So what happens is a kind of cascade. The wheel odometers aren't that accurate, and tend to slip in particular terrains, so the position has to be updated from the stereo maps and ultimately using the orbiters and high res images, continually updating the position on different scales of map.  EDIT: I should add that the rovers also have IMUs with gyroscopes and accelerometers to help with directional localisation (something not that easy with orbital images or pseudo-GPS).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4653.0, "score_ratio": 48.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9aikyo", "c_root_id_B": "c9aizex", "created_at_utc_A": 1365377642, "created_at_utc_B": 1365378784, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 339, "human_ref_A": "It doesn't need to know which way is North?  Knowing its absolute *global* position isn't a requirement for the missions since it can see where it's going and we know where that is?", "human_ref_B": "Mars has a very weak, highly spatially variable magnetic field due to remnant magnetisation of some of its crust (from when it did have a field.) A compass would probably flop around and point in random directions.  The rovers rely on several things. One, as other people have said, high resolution imaging is used to pinpoint the location on a map. Two, communications with orbiters can be used sometimes to localise the rover, though this is *nowhere near* as good as GPS - there's no ephemeris capability to give precise locations, nor a precise enough geoid (map) to actually locate on, but they can do pretty well.  However, as has already been stated, the rovers don't really need to know where they are globally, just locally. Whenever they move they take stereo images of the landscape and use these images to create a local map. They identify hazards and assign danger levels to different areas. When they move, wheel odometers track how far they go, then every so often they take another set of photos. This is one of the main reasons rovers are slow - they have to continually update their local maps from stereo images.  So what happens is a kind of cascade. The wheel odometers aren't that accurate, and tend to slip in particular terrains, so the position has to be updated from the stereo maps and ultimately using the orbiters and high res images, continually updating the position on different scales of map.  EDIT: I should add that the rovers also have IMUs with gyroscopes and accelerometers to help with directional localisation (something not that easy with orbital images or pseudo-GPS).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1142.0, "score_ratio": 169.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9ahfnp", "c_root_id_B": "c9ahe92", "created_at_utc_A": 1365374250, "created_at_utc_B": 1365374131, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Martian GPS  High resolution cameras let them map out where to go.", "human_ref_B": "It's likely that it is dependent on relative position and perhaps some support from the orbiting satellite Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter which actually has a sense of its position.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 119.0, "score_ratio": 4.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9apqb8", "c_root_id_B": "c9ahe92", "created_at_utc_A": 1365397992, "created_at_utc_B": 1365374131, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Why not install a gyroscope and use that to navigate? Pinpoint your location once and you're set to go. That's how man landed on the moon and also how some artillery fire control systems work without having to rely on GPS.", "human_ref_B": "It's likely that it is dependent on relative position and perhaps some support from the orbiting satellite Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter which actually has a sense of its position.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23861.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9aikyo", "c_root_id_B": "c9apqb8", "created_at_utc_A": 1365377642, "created_at_utc_B": 1365397992, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "It doesn't need to know which way is North?  Knowing its absolute *global* position isn't a requirement for the missions since it can see where it's going and we know where that is?", "human_ref_B": "Why not install a gyroscope and use that to navigate? Pinpoint your location once and you're set to go. That's how man landed on the moon and also how some artillery fire control systems work without having to rely on GPS.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20350.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9apqb8", "c_root_id_B": "c9ans8k", "created_at_utc_A": 1365397992, "created_at_utc_B": 1365392064, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Why not install a gyroscope and use that to navigate? Pinpoint your location once and you're set to go. That's how man landed on the moon and also how some artillery fire control systems work without having to rely on GPS.", "human_ref_B": "In addressing your question about Earth specifically yes the core spins at a different rate than the crust/mantle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5928.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9apg4t", "c_root_id_B": "c9apqb8", "created_at_utc_A": 1365397021, "created_at_utc_B": 1365397992, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "No, at least it would not consistently point north. (Mars has local magnetic fields from residual magnetism left in rocks as they cooled in the presence of it's ancient magnetic field.)  Curiosity uses the stars, and sometimes information from the MRO to determine it's global location.", "human_ref_B": "Why not install a gyroscope and use that to navigate? Pinpoint your location once and you're set to go. That's how man landed on the moon and also how some artillery fire control systems work without having to rely on GPS.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 971.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9aikyo", "c_root_id_B": "c9ans8k", "created_at_utc_A": 1365377642, "created_at_utc_B": 1365392064, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "It doesn't need to know which way is North?  Knowing its absolute *global* position isn't a requirement for the missions since it can see where it's going and we know where that is?", "human_ref_B": "In addressing your question about Earth specifically yes the core spins at a different rate than the crust/mantle.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14422.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9apg4t", "c_root_id_B": "c9ayt54", "created_at_utc_A": 1365397021, "created_at_utc_B": 1365440511, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "No, at least it would not consistently point north. (Mars has local magnetic fields from residual magnetism left in rocks as they cooled in the presence of it's ancient magnetic field.)  Curiosity uses the stars, and sometimes information from the MRO to determine it's global location.", "human_ref_B": "One major thing that most people are overlooking and is most likely rovers best form of localization is SLAM: Simultaneous Localization And Mapping. SLAM most often uses laser scanners like these, but can be implemented using stereo vision. They take in a 2d scan of the surroundings and extract \"features\" from the data. Based on these features the robot both builds a map and localizes itself within that map.  Using odometry and IMU's causes the error to grow unbounded because they are all relative measurements. If the wheels slip a little bit each time the error in estimate will continue to grow indefinitely, because each estimate is based on the previous one.  By combining relative data with absolute data (like GPS or SLAM) using something like a Kalman Filter, the robot can guess where it is using the relative data, and look for the features it found in its SLAM map and compare where those features are to where it thinks they should be and correct its position estimate.  I'm not sure if the rover has a laser scanner, it most likely does because it is the best way to localize and map, but SLAM can be done using any type of vision systems (camera, laser, ultrasonic/ir range finders to an extent)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 43490.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9ar80v", "c_root_id_B": "c9ayt54", "created_at_utc_A": 1365404466, "created_at_utc_B": 1365440511, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Am I correct in guessing that you could use stars like you can on Earth to figure out where you are? If so, would the north star be in the same place in the Martian sky as it is in ours?", "human_ref_B": "One major thing that most people are overlooking and is most likely rovers best form of localization is SLAM: Simultaneous Localization And Mapping. SLAM most often uses laser scanners like these, but can be implemented using stereo vision. They take in a 2d scan of the surroundings and extract \"features\" from the data. Based on these features the robot both builds a map and localizes itself within that map.  Using odometry and IMU's causes the error to grow unbounded because they are all relative measurements. If the wheels slip a little bit each time the error in estimate will continue to grow indefinitely, because each estimate is based on the previous one.  By combining relative data with absolute data (like GPS or SLAM) using something like a Kalman Filter, the robot can guess where it is using the relative data, and look for the features it found in its SLAM map and compare where those features are to where it thinks they should be and correct its position estimate.  I'm not sure if the rover has a laser scanner, it most likely does because it is the best way to localize and map, but SLAM can be done using any type of vision systems (camera, laser, ultrasonic/ir range finders to an extent)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 36045.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bvikk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Would a compass work on Mars? If not, how does Curiosity know which way is North? I hear that Mars, lacking a spinning molten core, does not have any magnetism. Is Mars magnetic at all?  Oh and here's another question: does the Earth's core actually spin? As in, does it spin at a rate different than the crust and/or mantle?", "c_root_id_A": "c9ayt54", "c_root_id_B": "c9au0gj", "created_at_utc_A": 1365440511, "created_at_utc_B": 1365424507, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "One major thing that most people are overlooking and is most likely rovers best form of localization is SLAM: Simultaneous Localization And Mapping. SLAM most often uses laser scanners like these, but can be implemented using stereo vision. They take in a 2d scan of the surroundings and extract \"features\" from the data. Based on these features the robot both builds a map and localizes itself within that map.  Using odometry and IMU's causes the error to grow unbounded because they are all relative measurements. If the wheels slip a little bit each time the error in estimate will continue to grow indefinitely, because each estimate is based on the previous one.  By combining relative data with absolute data (like GPS or SLAM) using something like a Kalman Filter, the robot can guess where it is using the relative data, and look for the features it found in its SLAM map and compare where those features are to where it thinks they should be and correct its position estimate.  I'm not sure if the rover has a laser scanner, it most likely does because it is the best way to localize and map, but SLAM can be done using any type of vision systems (camera, laser, ultrasonic/ir range finders to an extent)", "human_ref_B": "Others seem to have answered your question directly (Curiosity has no need for a compass), but the best compasses even on earth do not depend on the Earth's magnetic field, just its rotation.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrocompass  And the much better http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_optic_gyrocompass, but there's no information on the second page.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16004.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bdubm3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why does water not get hotter than 100C when it is boiling? My friend told me that water or any liquid will not get hotter than its boiling point even if the heat source is hotter.   Explain it to me like a child, why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "el4c7f3", "c_root_id_B": "el3qtue", "created_at_utc_A": 1555524317, "created_at_utc_B": 1555511276, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Temperature is a measure of the average amount of heat every molecule has, but each individual molecule might have more heat or less heat than the temperature. Because 100C is the boiling point of water, if you keep applying more heat to water that's already 100C, that heat is added to the water, and some water molecules go above the threshold and turn into water vapor. That vapor then rises and leaves the water, so the water itself remains at 100C because any water molecules that go above it leave as water vapor.  It's kind of like students taking a test in a classroom and then leaving when they complete it. As time passes, it's always the case that 100% of the students in the classroom are still taking the test, even though some have finished it, because those students that finished it left already and aren't being considered anymore.", "human_ref_B": "Bearing in mind that boiling temperature isn't fix but depends on external pressure, \"boiling\" means turning from liquid phase to  vapor.  Bubbles of vapor form where the liquid is hotter and reach the boiling point.  In general molecules are not still but always shake a bit. When they have less energy they stick closer in liquid or even solid state, when heated they gain energy and shake more, loosing a bit their bonds with neighbor molecules. When a certain threshold is passed they move enough to roam almost freely and thus change to gaseous phase.  Of course by raising the pressure you obstacle this process and shift the boiling point higher, because you will need more energy to win the additional pressure.  The reason why you can't (at same pressure) have a liquid beyond the boiling point is simply because nothing holds anymore the molecules in liquid state.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13041.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "851nyb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "When I read an article on my phone, do I drain my battery significantly faster when I scroll a little as I read each line of text, compared to only scrolling once I've read a whole screen of text?", "c_root_id_A": "dvu86bw", "c_root_id_B": "dvu6b5y", "created_at_utc_A": 1521274133, "created_at_utc_B": 1521269463, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "'Significantly' is somewhat of a difficult term here.   Would you save power by displaying a static screen (a block of text) and only 'refresh' (scroll) the entire page in one go, only to stop and wait while the user reads? Yes, of course.   Scrolling takes up some power through both changing the screen display *and* the touch screen and CPU processing touch events and gestures (scrolling).   That said, you would save more power by dimming your phone screen by 15% (100 > 85, 60 > 45, etc) than by scrolling differently.   Bonus note: reloading a web page, such as when you're reading a 10 page article with just 2 paragraphs per page will use battery much faster. The WiFi chip is very power hungry, and constantly trading data (such as streaming music/video, or reloading web pages over and over) will use up quite a bit.", "human_ref_B": "I would like to also know if holding my finger on the screen and slowly scrolling has a significant impact on battery use. I'm sure it's impactful, but just how much?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4670.0, "score_ratio": 18.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "851nyb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "When I read an article on my phone, do I drain my battery significantly faster when I scroll a little as I read each line of text, compared to only scrolling once I've read a whole screen of text?", "c_root_id_A": "dvu6b5y", "c_root_id_B": "dvulxuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1521269463, "created_at_utc_B": 1521300975, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I would like to also know if holding my finger on the screen and slowly scrolling has a significant impact on battery use. I'm sure it's impactful, but just how much?", "human_ref_B": "The amount of power your phone drains lighting up the picture that is your screen dwarfs any power consumption difference between constant scrolling and scrolling 1 page at a time.  Constant scrolling WILL drain your battery faster, but on a scale that doesn't matter to you and me.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31512.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tg9urk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why does the moon appear white while the sun appears yellow? If I understand correctly, even thought the sun emits white lights it appears yellow because some of the blue light gets scattered in the atmosphere, leaving the sun with a yellowish tint.   My question then would be why does that not happen to the light from the moon at night?", "c_root_id_A": "i10nla2", "c_root_id_B": "i10nzvd", "created_at_utc_A": 1647524922, "created_at_utc_B": 1647525102, "score_A": 390, "score_B": 4505, "human_ref_A": "The sun - if you stare at it and before you go blind - actually appears white, not yellow, except at down or dusk, when it's near the horizon (due to scattering of the light).  The sun emits what we see as \"white light\". The surface of the moon is mainly made of gray-white-ish rock and thus appears white-ish when it reflects the sun light.", "human_ref_B": "The Sun's spectrum is a colour that our eyes *do* perceive as white, at least when away from the horizon in a reasonably-clear sky. The reflected light from the Moon has essentially the same colour as Sunlight.  And moonlight (reflected sunlight) scatters in the atmosphere exactly the same way as direct sunlight--if you take a long-exposure photograph on a clear, moonlit night, the sky will be blue (but with stars, or star trails!)  We get the idea of the Sun being yellow from a couple of places. First, when the Sun is near the horizon (or obscured by haze, or smoke, or fog) there is increased scattering of shorter wavelengths--then the Sun does look yellow, or orange, or red. But the same thing happens to the Moon.  The difference is that when we're getting clear, direct, unfiltered sunlight, we just don't look at the sun--whereas we stare at the Moon no matter where it is in the sky.  Second, when we're outdoors shadows and shaded areas often look bluer--because they're being illuminated by the scattered, indirect blue-tinted light from the rest of the sky. Since the shadows are bluer, our eyes tell us that the sunlit areas must be yellower.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 180.0, "score_ratio": 11.5512820513, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tg9urk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why does the moon appear white while the sun appears yellow? If I understand correctly, even thought the sun emits white lights it appears yellow because some of the blue light gets scattered in the atmosphere, leaving the sun with a yellowish tint.   My question then would be why does that not happen to the light from the moon at night?", "c_root_id_A": "i10pa3x", "c_root_id_B": "i119fjq", "created_at_utc_A": 1647525668, "created_at_utc_B": 1647533806, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 52, "human_ref_A": "Sunlight and moonlight both appear white (which they are) when the sun/moon is high in the sky, and yellow when the sun/moon is close to the horizon, as the light has to travel through more air before reaching us. You just don't tend to look at the Sun when it's high in the sky, for obvious reasons, unlike the Moon.", "human_ref_B": "The Sun actually appears white. If you look at it during the day without smoke in the sky, (don't do this), you'd see a blinding white light.  When the Sun is very low in the sky (such as in early morning or late afternoon), it can look slightly yellowish, but the Moon would look the same color at the same altitude.  One difference is that you often don't get any blue sky color context when the Moon is up, whereas when the Sun is up you see a blue sky which may slightly shift your brain's white balance.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8138.0, "score_ratio": 1.4054054054, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tg9urk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why does the moon appear white while the sun appears yellow? If I understand correctly, even thought the sun emits white lights it appears yellow because some of the blue light gets scattered in the atmosphere, leaving the sun with a yellowish tint.   My question then would be why does that not happen to the light from the moon at night?", "c_root_id_A": "i119fjq", "c_root_id_B": "i1199pe", "created_at_utc_A": 1647533806, "created_at_utc_B": 1647533743, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The Sun actually appears white. If you look at it during the day without smoke in the sky, (don't do this), you'd see a blinding white light.  When the Sun is very low in the sky (such as in early morning or late afternoon), it can look slightly yellowish, but the Moon would look the same color at the same altitude.  One difference is that you often don't get any blue sky color context when the Moon is up, whereas when the Sun is up you see a blue sky which may slightly shift your brain's white balance.", "human_ref_B": "Sunlight (and moonlight, wich is just reflected sunlight) appears white when they are straight above us on a clear day. But due to the curvature of the Earth, light has to travel a longer distance through the atmosphere when they are near the horizon (Dusk and dawn), wich filters out the blue wavelengths making it look yellowish. We just see the Sun more often when it is low on the horizon, because we don't usually stare directly at it when it is straight above us.  Look at the Sun during a clear day at noon and you'll see it is white. Look at it in the morning or evening when it is closer to the horizon and you'll see it appears yellow/orange. The same exactly happens to the moon, but we don't often happen to see the moon when it is close to the horizon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 63.0, "score_ratio": 4.7272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtkth9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "How do ants find their way back \"home\"? I just noticed that there's a single ant in my elevator. What happens if I take it and bring it to the nearby garden? Will the ant ever find its nest? Do ants just join other group of ants, regardless of their origins?", "c_root_id_A": "iqrsyp5", "c_root_id_B": "iqr5s3u", "created_at_utc_A": 1664730555, "created_at_utc_B": 1664721365, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "In addition to the already mentioned pheromone trails, ants are also very good at exactly retracing their steps.   Experiments testing this exact question found that if they added stilts to ant legs on their return trip found that they overshot their nest by the corresponding amount that their stride was lengthened by the stilts, implying that they are effectively counting steps as they retrace their path.  If these normal methods fail and they get lost, they\u2019ll then enter a spiral search pattern until they find the nest or a trail.", "human_ref_B": "Ants leave a pheromone trail behind them wherever they go. This helps them find their way back and tells others where they went. When this trail gets interrupted, they get lost until they find it again.   Occasionally ant colonies will merge if there is plenty of food to go around and nothing agitates them, but usually foreign ants are driven off or killed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9190.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jrep9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "On a microscopic level, what causes mirrors to be reflective?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ej0f6", "c_root_id_B": "c2ejekx", "created_at_utc_A": 1314083904, "created_at_utc_B": 1314090350, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 123, "human_ref_A": "Mirrors are reflective in the visible range of light (and probably slightly beyond it).  The most simple explanation looks at the incident wave on the surface and how it interacts with the layer.  You always have conservation of energy, before the light reaches the surface, all this energy is in the incident wave.  It then hits the surface and this energy is put into transmitted and reflected waves.  The strength of these is determined by the reflection and transmission coefficients.  These coefficients are functions of, the frequency of the wave, the angle of incidence, the polarisation of the wave, and most importantly, the refractive index of the material in question (and the refractive index of the surrounding medium, normally air, which is 1, like vacuum).  This refractive index is a function of the conductivity and electrical permittivity of the layer, (these are often also frequency dependent).  This description is valid in a continuous world, if you want the true microscopic view, you would be looking at the atomic level.  Can not give a very good, detailed explanation here, but it would involved the atoms in the mirror scattering the photons in some way.  Sorry.  This is the basic idea behind any electromagnetic wave reflecting of any surface.  For mirrors the explanation is probably a bit more advanced since there is a 'complex' structure to it; the mirror isn't just a single layer or reflecting stuff.", "human_ref_B": "It's actually not that complicated. Mirrors are reflective because of interference. Spacing of molecules in the material in the first quarter-wavelength depth of the mirror causes interference patterns that result in very little or none of the light being absorbed or transmitted. Hence, it is reflected back. I'd be more descriptive, but it's been a long time since I took my last class in optics.  This is why materials are reflective in some wavelengths but not others. So mirrors, as we call them, are reflective in the optical band but may not be for other wavelengths. One good example is the mirrors that LIGO uses. They are extremely reflective in the infrared, where the lasers used operate, but are pretty transparent in the optical band.  Since this reflectivity occurs mostly in the first quarter-wavelength depth, it doesn't matter how deep the mirror is. One good example is seeing your reflection in a window. At night, look out your window with the light on in your room and you're bound to see your own reflection. This is the tiny bit of light that your window reflects back, since it isn't perfectly transparent. During the day you can't see it because the amount of light coming from the other side is much larger. The neat thing is that it won't matter how thick your window is, if it's made of the same material you'll get the same amount of light reflected back.  As an added bonus, you can explain and derive diffusion and refraction of light as interference effects as well. But again, it's been too long for me to remember all the nitty-gritty details.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6446.0, "score_ratio": 20.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jrep9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "On a microscopic level, what causes mirrors to be reflective?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ejj85", "c_root_id_B": "c2ej0f6", "created_at_utc_A": 1314092947, "created_at_utc_B": 1314083904, "score_A": 105, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The answer to the reflectivity of mirrors actually lies at the atomic level.  An important property of metals to keep in mind is that all metals allow the free movement of electrons among different atoms (this is quantified as resistance). If we idealize a bit, we can consider the nuclei of the metal to be a positive ion lattice immersed in a sea of electrons (aka, a plasma).  Now, as the electrons get displaced further from the lattice, the restoring force pulling them back increases; this system is an oscillator just like a mass hanging from a spring. Just like the mass on a spring, this system has a resonant frequency that, if we drive the system at such a frequency, it will undergo maximum displacement.  However, far away from this optimal frequency, we won't get much displacement and will instead have the wave be reflected back.  That's exactly what's happening with light hitting a metal - it's an electromagnetic wave (light) interacting with an electromagnetic oscillator (the ions + electrons) far outside the resonant frequency. This resonant frequency for metals can be estimated fairly easily as roughly the plasma frequency ... which roughly simplifies down to:      f = 8980 sqrt(n_e) Hz  which, for silver, comes out to about 2x10^15 Hz or about 130 nm (a fair bit into UV). This is only a rough estimation, but it shows that we should expect the electron plasma to be reflecting the entire visible spectrum, making silver, well, silvery.  While most metals are whitish or greyish in color, both gold and copper are notable exceptions. The reason is actually due to relativity bringing the absorption spectrum down into the blue end of the spectrum. Here's a more detailed explanation.  And while we're at it, this is the same mechanism by which AM radio travels further at night than during the day. The ionosphere has a plasma frequency that allows AM waves to be reflected back down at the surface, effectively serving as a mirror for radio waves.", "human_ref_B": "Mirrors are reflective in the visible range of light (and probably slightly beyond it).  The most simple explanation looks at the incident wave on the surface and how it interacts with the layer.  You always have conservation of energy, before the light reaches the surface, all this energy is in the incident wave.  It then hits the surface and this energy is put into transmitted and reflected waves.  The strength of these is determined by the reflection and transmission coefficients.  These coefficients are functions of, the frequency of the wave, the angle of incidence, the polarisation of the wave, and most importantly, the refractive index of the material in question (and the refractive index of the surrounding medium, normally air, which is 1, like vacuum).  This refractive index is a function of the conductivity and electrical permittivity of the layer, (these are often also frequency dependent).  This description is valid in a continuous world, if you want the true microscopic view, you would be looking at the atomic level.  Can not give a very good, detailed explanation here, but it would involved the atoms in the mirror scattering the photons in some way.  Sorry.  This is the basic idea behind any electromagnetic wave reflecting of any surface.  For mirrors the explanation is probably a bit more advanced since there is a 'complex' structure to it; the mirror isn't just a single layer or reflecting stuff.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9043.0, "score_ratio": 17.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jrep9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "On a microscopic level, what causes mirrors to be reflective?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ejf4e", "c_root_id_B": "c2ejj85", "created_at_utc_A": 1314090621, "created_at_utc_B": 1314092947, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 105, "human_ref_A": "In relatively brief terms, it's a consequence of the principle of least time, which is in turn a consequence of Huygens' principle, and is related to the refractive properties of the metallic backing via maths, having to do with how light interacts with the material, as described here.  For a much more extensive layman-friendly explanation, read Feynman's *QED*, like aeter777 said.", "human_ref_B": "The answer to the reflectivity of mirrors actually lies at the atomic level.  An important property of metals to keep in mind is that all metals allow the free movement of electrons among different atoms (this is quantified as resistance). If we idealize a bit, we can consider the nuclei of the metal to be a positive ion lattice immersed in a sea of electrons (aka, a plasma).  Now, as the electrons get displaced further from the lattice, the restoring force pulling them back increases; this system is an oscillator just like a mass hanging from a spring. Just like the mass on a spring, this system has a resonant frequency that, if we drive the system at such a frequency, it will undergo maximum displacement.  However, far away from this optimal frequency, we won't get much displacement and will instead have the wave be reflected back.  That's exactly what's happening with light hitting a metal - it's an electromagnetic wave (light) interacting with an electromagnetic oscillator (the ions + electrons) far outside the resonant frequency. This resonant frequency for metals can be estimated fairly easily as roughly the plasma frequency ... which roughly simplifies down to:      f = 8980 sqrt(n_e) Hz  which, for silver, comes out to about 2x10^15 Hz or about 130 nm (a fair bit into UV). This is only a rough estimation, but it shows that we should expect the electron plasma to be reflecting the entire visible spectrum, making silver, well, silvery.  While most metals are whitish or greyish in color, both gold and copper are notable exceptions. The reason is actually due to relativity bringing the absorption spectrum down into the blue end of the spectrum. Here's a more detailed explanation.  And while we're at it, this is the same mechanism by which AM radio travels further at night than during the day. The ionosphere has a plasma frequency that allows AM waves to be reflected back down at the surface, effectively serving as a mirror for radio waves.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2326.0, "score_ratio": 105.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "twlkd9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How do you determine the age of living plants that aren\u2019t trees? We recently visited Namibia , where the Welwitschia grows. Supposedly to ages of >2000 years. How would they establish this for a living example? It doesn\u2019t have a stem where you could count rings.", "c_root_id_A": "i3g4gqj", "c_root_id_B": "i3g8eal", "created_at_utc_A": 1649130582, "created_at_utc_B": 1649132745, "score_A": 182, "score_B": 1202, "human_ref_A": "Through radiocarbon dating. It is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. It is based on the fact that radiocarbon (14C) is constantly being created in the Earth's atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting 14C combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide, which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis; animals then acquire 14C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and thereafter the amount of 14C it contains begins to decrease as the 14C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14C in a sample from a dead plant or animal, such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone, provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The older a sample is, the less 14C there is to be detected, and because the half-life of 14C (the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed) is about 5,730 years, the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to approximately 50,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "I work in Namibia and though this isn\u2019t my area, I\u2019ve worked alongside scientists who have dated Welwitschia. There\u2019s kind of a woody stump in the middle of the two leaves (yes there\u2019s only two\u2026they just get shredded over time). The leaves and layers of new wood grow outward from the edges and leave behind dead wood on the interior. They drill a very small core to get to the interior layers of dead wood and use radiocarbon dating to determine the age. You can do this without harming the plant too much.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2163.0, "score_ratio": 6.6043956044, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "twlkd9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How do you determine the age of living plants that aren\u2019t trees? We recently visited Namibia , where the Welwitschia grows. Supposedly to ages of >2000 years. How would they establish this for a living example? It doesn\u2019t have a stem where you could count rings.", "c_root_id_A": "i3hgot4", "c_root_id_B": "i3hiogo", "created_at_utc_A": 1649163672, "created_at_utc_B": 1649164607, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "I don't know about this specific plant but generally you can count year rings at the root collar in woody shrubs under a microscope, though it's less accurate than in trees. You also have to account for the possibility that what you are analysing is not the main plant but a secondary shoot (clonal growth).", "human_ref_B": "In the case of the creosote bushes of the us southwest desert, the age of the oldest clonal colony circles is estimate from the diameter of colony circle and the known rate bush to circular colony expansion. The oldest colony circle is estimated at 11,700 years and was verified by radio carbon dating of fragments of the original center shrub  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larrea_tridentata", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 935.0, "score_ratio": 18.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "twlkd9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How do you determine the age of living plants that aren\u2019t trees? We recently visited Namibia , where the Welwitschia grows. Supposedly to ages of >2000 years. How would they establish this for a living example? It doesn\u2019t have a stem where you could count rings.", "c_root_id_A": "i3ibf16", "c_root_id_B": "i3iq397", "created_at_utc_A": 1649176241, "created_at_utc_B": 1649182106, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I coincidentally watched this video about this plant a little over 2 weeks ago!  https://youtu.be/CcsMY2schVI", "human_ref_B": "I'm an amateur gardener but I can answer a bit.  It's species dependent. For example, if you have an avocado tree which is producing avocadoes, you know it's at least 5 years old. They don't fruit before that. Similarly, strawberries have very low harvest their first year and tend to only have good harvests for several years. So you can make an educated guess if you're familiar with the species you're looking at.  Also, there's an error in the assumptions of your question.  1. Not all trees will tell you their age by counting the rings. Not all trees have rings. (source) 2. ~~Once you're counting the rings, you're no longer dealing with a living plant since the process involves cutting through the trunk. At best, you're dealing with a dying plant which (I assume) defeats the purpose of your question.~~ edit: Never mind on this point! Rings are counted using core samples. (source) Thanks /u/Suppafly!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5865.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "twlkd9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How do you determine the age of living plants that aren\u2019t trees? We recently visited Namibia , where the Welwitschia grows. Supposedly to ages of >2000 years. How would they establish this for a living example? It doesn\u2019t have a stem where you could count rings.", "c_root_id_A": "i3hgot4", "c_root_id_B": "i3iq397", "created_at_utc_A": 1649163672, "created_at_utc_B": 1649182106, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I don't know about this specific plant but generally you can count year rings at the root collar in woody shrubs under a microscope, though it's less accurate than in trees. You also have to account for the possibility that what you are analysing is not the main plant but a secondary shoot (clonal growth).", "human_ref_B": "I'm an amateur gardener but I can answer a bit.  It's species dependent. For example, if you have an avocado tree which is producing avocadoes, you know it's at least 5 years old. They don't fruit before that. Similarly, strawberries have very low harvest their first year and tend to only have good harvests for several years. So you can make an educated guess if you're familiar with the species you're looking at.  Also, there's an error in the assumptions of your question.  1. Not all trees will tell you their age by counting the rings. Not all trees have rings. (source) 2. ~~Once you're counting the rings, you're no longer dealing with a living plant since the process involves cutting through the trunk. At best, you're dealing with a dying plant which (I assume) defeats the purpose of your question.~~ edit: Never mind on this point! Rings are counted using core samples. (source) Thanks /u/Suppafly!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18434.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "twlkd9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How do you determine the age of living plants that aren\u2019t trees? We recently visited Namibia , where the Welwitschia grows. Supposedly to ages of >2000 years. How would they establish this for a living example? It doesn\u2019t have a stem where you could count rings.", "c_root_id_A": "i3ie04g", "c_root_id_B": "i3iq397", "created_at_utc_A": 1649177342, "created_at_utc_B": 1649182106, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I would imagine that the most difficult cases are thickening plants such as quaking Aspen, box huckleberry, and sassafras. Specimens of these are said to exceed 10,000 years in age, but older parts are constantly dying and rotting away, so there is no single persistent structure.", "human_ref_B": "I'm an amateur gardener but I can answer a bit.  It's species dependent. For example, if you have an avocado tree which is producing avocadoes, you know it's at least 5 years old. They don't fruit before that. Similarly, strawberries have very low harvest their first year and tend to only have good harvests for several years. So you can make an educated guess if you're familiar with the species you're looking at.  Also, there's an error in the assumptions of your question.  1. Not all trees will tell you their age by counting the rings. Not all trees have rings. (source) 2. ~~Once you're counting the rings, you're no longer dealing with a living plant since the process involves cutting through the trunk. At best, you're dealing with a dying plant which (I assume) defeats the purpose of your question.~~ edit: Never mind on this point! Rings are counted using core samples. (source) Thanks /u/Suppafly!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4764.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "twlkd9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How do you determine the age of living plants that aren\u2019t trees? We recently visited Namibia , where the Welwitschia grows. Supposedly to ages of >2000 years. How would they establish this for a living example? It doesn\u2019t have a stem where you could count rings.", "c_root_id_A": "i3ibf16", "c_root_id_B": "i3hgot4", "created_at_utc_A": 1649176241, "created_at_utc_B": 1649163672, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I coincidentally watched this video about this plant a little over 2 weeks ago!  https://youtu.be/CcsMY2schVI", "human_ref_B": "I don't know about this specific plant but generally you can count year rings at the root collar in woody shrubs under a microscope, though it's less accurate than in trees. You also have to account for the possibility that what you are analysing is not the main plant but a secondary shoot (clonal growth).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12569.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1hfik2", "c_root_id_B": "j1fivyj", "created_at_utc_A": 1671879409, "created_at_utc_B": 1671836840, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Yes! Other commenters are talking about shallow sea fossils. Shallow sea fossils are very common, probably the most common fossils out there. But fossils of deep sea animals are pretty rare.  This is for two reasons. First, the ocean floor is constantly getting subducted beneath the continents, destroying any fossils that it contains. This especially true for extreme deep sea trenches like the Mariana Trench, which are connected directly to subduction zones. Second, the pressure in the deep sea is not conducive to preserving mineral remains. Most fossils are made of calcite or apatite, and both degrade under pressure.  However, we have found some deep sea animal fossils! Like these sea stars found in the alps, or this ichthyosaur that probably filled a similar niche as sperm whales.", "human_ref_B": "Not necessarily. Ithaca NY is famous for its waterfall gorges, which always have a TON of fossilized ammonite and stuff. There are places that advertise to tourists that way. Just depends on local geography and tide currents etc", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 42569.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1fnbc0", "c_root_id_B": "j1hfik2", "created_at_utc_A": 1671838897, "created_at_utc_B": 1671879409, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Not really . Location location location. Most fossil rich real-estate was deep sea at some point in time. The world turned upside down a few times over. When it comes to numbers, deep sea critters are among the most found.", "human_ref_B": "Yes! Other commenters are talking about shallow sea fossils. Shallow sea fossils are very common, probably the most common fossils out there. But fossils of deep sea animals are pretty rare.  This is for two reasons. First, the ocean floor is constantly getting subducted beneath the continents, destroying any fossils that it contains. This especially true for extreme deep sea trenches like the Mariana Trench, which are connected directly to subduction zones. Second, the pressure in the deep sea is not conducive to preserving mineral remains. Most fossils are made of calcite or apatite, and both degrade under pressure.  However, we have found some deep sea animal fossils! Like these sea stars found in the alps, or this ichthyosaur that probably filled a similar niche as sperm whales.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 40512.0, "score_ratio": 16000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1fvv2d", "c_root_id_B": "j1hfik2", "created_at_utc_A": 1671842980, "created_at_utc_B": 1671879409, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "You'd have to define deep I suppose. I think it probably IS fair to say that most fossil seabeds were not from what we'd call the Hadal zone nowadays.   Hmm. Actually, they have a pretty good idea of which plates were where at different epochs and I'm not sure there IS an exposed rock face that would have been Hadal, and I'm not sure that geologic processes are particularly likely to result in present trench communities to fossilize and then be exposed some time in the future. My general impression of most of the truly deep sites is that they're rifts at the bottom of subduction zones and rock that ends up sinking below a plate isn't coming out looking like it did when it went in. I THINK. I study evolution but not paleontology or geology. If someone does know of one I'd love to read about it!  You might find this interesting:  https://www.jstor.org/stable/20144263  That's a paper on a fossil anglerfish. Not all anglerfish live in the deepest parts of the ocean, but apparently they think the formation that one is from represents mostly fish from around 1000m. It certainly gets deeper than that but a lot of what you'd see living there would be \"weird\" compares to the fish most people are familiar with.", "human_ref_B": "Yes! Other commenters are talking about shallow sea fossils. Shallow sea fossils are very common, probably the most common fossils out there. But fossils of deep sea animals are pretty rare.  This is for two reasons. First, the ocean floor is constantly getting subducted beneath the continents, destroying any fossils that it contains. This especially true for extreme deep sea trenches like the Mariana Trench, which are connected directly to subduction zones. Second, the pressure in the deep sea is not conducive to preserving mineral remains. Most fossils are made of calcite or apatite, and both degrade under pressure.  However, we have found some deep sea animal fossils! Like these sea stars found in the alps, or this ichthyosaur that probably filled a similar niche as sperm whales.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 36429.0, "score_ratio": 16.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1fivyj", "c_root_id_B": "j1hpehn", "created_at_utc_A": 1671836840, "created_at_utc_B": 1671887221, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Not necessarily. Ithaca NY is famous for its waterfall gorges, which always have a TON of fossilized ammonite and stuff. There are places that advertise to tourists that way. Just depends on local geography and tide currents etc", "human_ref_B": "As others have indicated, yes, fossils of deep sea organisms tend to be more rare, or at least are not as well represented as fossils in shallow marine or continental slope areas. The primary reasons for this is subduction of oceanic lithosphere and the general depositional history that characterizes these environments  (e.g., Holland, 2016). As highlighted in this paper (and generally in many paleontology textbooks), the fossil record is relatively biased toward organisms that were deposited in environments that have a higher preservation potential (of which the deep sea, along with extremely erosive environments etc., is not one). An additional influence, depending on the geologic period and the type of fossil in question, that can influence preservation of deep sea fossils is the carbonate compensation depth, i.e., basically the depth below which carbonate begins to preferentially dissolve (there is a similar depth for aragonite). Given that the preserved part of many marine invertebrates are their calcite or aragonite hard parts, areas of the sea floor below the CCD are not conducive to preservation of their remains.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 50381.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1hpehn", "c_root_id_B": "j1fnbc0", "created_at_utc_A": 1671887221, "created_at_utc_B": 1671838897, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "As others have indicated, yes, fossils of deep sea organisms tend to be more rare, or at least are not as well represented as fossils in shallow marine or continental slope areas. The primary reasons for this is subduction of oceanic lithosphere and the general depositional history that characterizes these environments  (e.g., Holland, 2016). As highlighted in this paper (and generally in many paleontology textbooks), the fossil record is relatively biased toward organisms that were deposited in environments that have a higher preservation potential (of which the deep sea, along with extremely erosive environments etc., is not one). An additional influence, depending on the geologic period and the type of fossil in question, that can influence preservation of deep sea fossils is the carbonate compensation depth, i.e., basically the depth below which carbonate begins to preferentially dissolve (there is a similar depth for aragonite). Given that the preserved part of many marine invertebrates are their calcite or aragonite hard parts, areas of the sea floor below the CCD are not conducive to preservation of their remains.", "human_ref_B": "Not really . Location location location. Most fossil rich real-estate was deep sea at some point in time. The world turned upside down a few times over. When it comes to numbers, deep sea critters are among the most found.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 48324.0, "score_ratio": 7000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1fvv2d", "c_root_id_B": "j1hpehn", "created_at_utc_A": 1671842980, "created_at_utc_B": 1671887221, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "You'd have to define deep I suppose. I think it probably IS fair to say that most fossil seabeds were not from what we'd call the Hadal zone nowadays.   Hmm. Actually, they have a pretty good idea of which plates were where at different epochs and I'm not sure there IS an exposed rock face that would have been Hadal, and I'm not sure that geologic processes are particularly likely to result in present trench communities to fossilize and then be exposed some time in the future. My general impression of most of the truly deep sites is that they're rifts at the bottom of subduction zones and rock that ends up sinking below a plate isn't coming out looking like it did when it went in. I THINK. I study evolution but not paleontology or geology. If someone does know of one I'd love to read about it!  You might find this interesting:  https://www.jstor.org/stable/20144263  That's a paper on a fossil anglerfish. Not all anglerfish live in the deepest parts of the ocean, but apparently they think the formation that one is from represents mostly fish from around 1000m. It certainly gets deeper than that but a lot of what you'd see living there would be \"weird\" compares to the fish most people are familiar with.", "human_ref_B": "As others have indicated, yes, fossils of deep sea organisms tend to be more rare, or at least are not as well represented as fossils in shallow marine or continental slope areas. The primary reasons for this is subduction of oceanic lithosphere and the general depositional history that characterizes these environments  (e.g., Holland, 2016). As highlighted in this paper (and generally in many paleontology textbooks), the fossil record is relatively biased toward organisms that were deposited in environments that have a higher preservation potential (of which the deep sea, along with extremely erosive environments etc., is not one). An additional influence, depending on the geologic period and the type of fossil in question, that can influence preservation of deep sea fossils is the carbonate compensation depth, i.e., basically the depth below which carbonate begins to preferentially dissolve (there is a similar depth for aragonite). Given that the preserved part of many marine invertebrates are their calcite or aragonite hard parts, areas of the sea floor below the CCD are not conducive to preservation of their remains.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 44241.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1hpehn", "c_root_id_B": "j1hmfr5", "created_at_utc_A": 1671887221, "created_at_utc_B": 1671885117, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "As others have indicated, yes, fossils of deep sea organisms tend to be more rare, or at least are not as well represented as fossils in shallow marine or continental slope areas. The primary reasons for this is subduction of oceanic lithosphere and the general depositional history that characterizes these environments  (e.g., Holland, 2016). As highlighted in this paper (and generally in many paleontology textbooks), the fossil record is relatively biased toward organisms that were deposited in environments that have a higher preservation potential (of which the deep sea, along with extremely erosive environments etc., is not one). An additional influence, depending on the geologic period and the type of fossil in question, that can influence preservation of deep sea fossils is the carbonate compensation depth, i.e., basically the depth below which carbonate begins to preferentially dissolve (there is a similar depth for aragonite). Given that the preserved part of many marine invertebrates are their calcite or aragonite hard parts, areas of the sea floor below the CCD are not conducive to preservation of their remains.", "human_ref_B": "Deep sea floors are constantly changing through subduction zones, so a not insignificant quantity of the fossilised remains will get pulled back to the upper mantle and destroyed.  Past this, one of the main ways that fossils are preserved in shallow seas are where an event occurs causing a large silt deposit on top of the dead animal, causing it to effectively be entombed in mineral deposits, which eventually leech into and replace the animals prior body structures. The faster the animal is entombed, the better preserved it will be. See the fossil that was excavated in a Canadian mine where a dinosaur with almost intact skin and innards was found. In fact the innards had not even hardened which led to the fossil breaking during excavation.  Another issue is that a lot of deep sea life is either cartilaginous or does not involve some sort of hard carapace. Bones and exoskeletons preserve better, and whilst fossil jellyfish have been found, if you weren't an expert you would think it was a smear on a rock", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2104.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1fvv2d", "c_root_id_B": "j1fnbc0", "created_at_utc_A": 1671842980, "created_at_utc_B": 1671838897, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "You'd have to define deep I suppose. I think it probably IS fair to say that most fossil seabeds were not from what we'd call the Hadal zone nowadays.   Hmm. Actually, they have a pretty good idea of which plates were where at different epochs and I'm not sure there IS an exposed rock face that would have been Hadal, and I'm not sure that geologic processes are particularly likely to result in present trench communities to fossilize and then be exposed some time in the future. My general impression of most of the truly deep sites is that they're rifts at the bottom of subduction zones and rock that ends up sinking below a plate isn't coming out looking like it did when it went in. I THINK. I study evolution but not paleontology or geology. If someone does know of one I'd love to read about it!  You might find this interesting:  https://www.jstor.org/stable/20144263  That's a paper on a fossil anglerfish. Not all anglerfish live in the deepest parts of the ocean, but apparently they think the formation that one is from represents mostly fish from around 1000m. It certainly gets deeper than that but a lot of what you'd see living there would be \"weird\" compares to the fish most people are familiar with.", "human_ref_B": "Not really . Location location location. Most fossil rich real-estate was deep sea at some point in time. The world turned upside down a few times over. When it comes to numbers, deep sea critters are among the most found.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4083.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztgmpd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Are fossils of deep sea life exceptionally rare finds? I\u2019ve been on a kick of watching YouTube videos about long extinct sea life, and I noticed that most of the fossil evidence was from areas that were shallow seas and ancient coastlines.   Which got me wondering: are fossil\u2019s of deep sea creatures just extremely hard to get to? Or are there places where geological forces might have brought such finds closer to the surface?", "c_root_id_A": "j1hmfr5", "c_root_id_B": "j1fnbc0", "created_at_utc_A": 1671885117, "created_at_utc_B": 1671838897, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Deep sea floors are constantly changing through subduction zones, so a not insignificant quantity of the fossilised remains will get pulled back to the upper mantle and destroyed.  Past this, one of the main ways that fossils are preserved in shallow seas are where an event occurs causing a large silt deposit on top of the dead animal, causing it to effectively be entombed in mineral deposits, which eventually leech into and replace the animals prior body structures. The faster the animal is entombed, the better preserved it will be. See the fossil that was excavated in a Canadian mine where a dinosaur with almost intact skin and innards was found. In fact the innards had not even hardened which led to the fossil breaking during excavation.  Another issue is that a lot of deep sea life is either cartilaginous or does not involve some sort of hard carapace. Bones and exoskeletons preserve better, and whilst fossil jellyfish have been found, if you weren't an expert you would think it was a smear on a rock", "human_ref_B": "Not really . Location location location. Most fossil rich real-estate was deep sea at some point in time. The world turned upside down a few times over. When it comes to numbers, deep sea critters are among the most found.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 46220.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vrus5", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr9f3", "created_at_utc_A": 1306259414, "created_at_utc_B": 1306254349, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Stanford Prof. Craig Heller says that most of muscle burn is from heat dissipation.  When your muscle are burning, there is simply too much heat in the area and your body needs to cool down.  Using this theory and some other ideas, he created a device to help rapidly cool the body.  In his test, those using the device were able to drastically increase their workouts.  Here is a lecture where he goes into detail on the subject: Craig Heller - Cool Hands, Better Performance", "human_ref_B": "PZ Myers of Pharyngula fame has a long article on exercise and agony, mostly his.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5065.0, "score_ratio": 2.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr306", "c_root_id_B": "c1vrus5", "created_at_utc_A": 1306252696, "created_at_utc_B": 1306259414, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "Let me clarify why lactic \"acid\" isn't to blame.  Quick chemistry lesson: acids can exist in two (or more) forms, when it has a proton (or hydrogen ion, H+) and when it donates it.  The proton is what makes the solution acidic.  \"Lactic acid\" still has its proton while \"lactate\" is lactic acid that has donated its proton.  Similarly, pyruvic acid still has its proton while pyruvate is pyruvic acid that has donated its proton.  Lactic acid is produced from pyruvate using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.  The bottom line is to make one molecule of acid (lactic acid) you need to use one molecule of acid (pyruvate) so there's no net production of \"acid.\"  Therefore the acid part of lactic acid isn't the cause of muscle burn.  In fact, during the reaction from pyruvate to lactic acid, an H+ from the solution and adds it to pyruvate to make lactic acid.  This by itself would make the solution less acidic.", "human_ref_B": "Stanford Prof. Craig Heller says that most of muscle burn is from heat dissipation.  When your muscle are burning, there is simply too much heat in the area and your body needs to cool down.  Using this theory and some other ideas, he created a device to help rapidly cool the body.  In his test, those using the device were able to drastically increase their workouts.  Here is a lecture where he goes into detail on the subject: Craig Heller - Cool Hands, Better Performance", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6718.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vrus5", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr59e", "created_at_utc_A": 1306259414, "created_at_utc_B": 1306253285, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Stanford Prof. Craig Heller says that most of muscle burn is from heat dissipation.  When your muscle are burning, there is simply too much heat in the area and your body needs to cool down.  Using this theory and some other ideas, he created a device to help rapidly cool the body.  In his test, those using the device were able to drastically increase their workouts.  Here is a lecture where he goes into detail on the subject: Craig Heller - Cool Hands, Better Performance", "human_ref_B": "Super quick answer: when you work your muscles hard, levels of sodium (Na^+ ) increase in your muscle fibers rise, increasing hypertonicity.  This causes water influx, which leads to swelling, which squishes nerves, hence the soreness.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6129.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr1f2", "c_root_id_B": "c1vrus5", "created_at_utc_A": 1306252291, "created_at_utc_B": 1306259414, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "This or that could help.", "human_ref_B": "Stanford Prof. Craig Heller says that most of muscle burn is from heat dissipation.  When your muscle are burning, there is simply too much heat in the area and your body needs to cool down.  Using this theory and some other ideas, he created a device to help rapidly cool the body.  In his test, those using the device were able to drastically increase their workouts.  Here is a lecture where he goes into detail on the subject: Craig Heller - Cool Hands, Better Performance", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7123.0, "score_ratio": 4.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vqpv7", "c_root_id_B": "c1vrus5", "created_at_utc_A": 1306248984, "created_at_utc_B": 1306259414, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "I'm no exercise physiologist, but here's a good article on the subject.  Basically, as I read it, the mechanism for muscle soreness is not clearly understood, since muscle fatigue sets in 1 to 3 days after intense exercise.", "human_ref_B": "Stanford Prof. Craig Heller says that most of muscle burn is from heat dissipation.  When your muscle are burning, there is simply too much heat in the area and your body needs to cool down.  Using this theory and some other ideas, he created a device to help rapidly cool the body.  In his test, those using the device were able to drastically increase their workouts.  Here is a lecture where he goes into detail on the subject: Craig Heller - Cool Hands, Better Performance", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10430.0, "score_ratio": 10.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr9f3", "c_root_id_B": "c1vs298", "created_at_utc_A": 1306254349, "created_at_utc_B": 1306261079, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "PZ Myers of Pharyngula fame has a long article on exercise and agony, mostly his.", "human_ref_B": "My understanding, as a fairly serious distance runner who is also a \"student of the sport,\" so to speak, is that exactly what causes it is not agreed upon among the scientific community.   That would jive well with the fact that there doesn't seem to be a conclusive answer in this thread yet.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6730.0, "score_ratio": 1.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr306", "c_root_id_B": "c1vs298", "created_at_utc_A": 1306252696, "created_at_utc_B": 1306261079, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Let me clarify why lactic \"acid\" isn't to blame.  Quick chemistry lesson: acids can exist in two (or more) forms, when it has a proton (or hydrogen ion, H+) and when it donates it.  The proton is what makes the solution acidic.  \"Lactic acid\" still has its proton while \"lactate\" is lactic acid that has donated its proton.  Similarly, pyruvic acid still has its proton while pyruvate is pyruvic acid that has donated its proton.  Lactic acid is produced from pyruvate using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.  The bottom line is to make one molecule of acid (lactic acid) you need to use one molecule of acid (pyruvate) so there's no net production of \"acid.\"  Therefore the acid part of lactic acid isn't the cause of muscle burn.  In fact, during the reaction from pyruvate to lactic acid, an H+ from the solution and adds it to pyruvate to make lactic acid.  This by itself would make the solution less acidic.", "human_ref_B": "My understanding, as a fairly serious distance runner who is also a \"student of the sport,\" so to speak, is that exactly what causes it is not agreed upon among the scientific community.   That would jive well with the fact that there doesn't seem to be a conclusive answer in this thread yet.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8383.0, "score_ratio": 2.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vs298", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr59e", "created_at_utc_A": 1306261079, "created_at_utc_B": 1306253285, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "My understanding, as a fairly serious distance runner who is also a \"student of the sport,\" so to speak, is that exactly what causes it is not agreed upon among the scientific community.   That would jive well with the fact that there doesn't seem to be a conclusive answer in this thread yet.", "human_ref_B": "Super quick answer: when you work your muscles hard, levels of sodium (Na^+ ) increase in your muscle fibers rise, increasing hypertonicity.  This causes water influx, which leads to swelling, which squishes nerves, hence the soreness.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7794.0, "score_ratio": 2.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr1f2", "c_root_id_B": "c1vs298", "created_at_utc_A": 1306252291, "created_at_utc_B": 1306261079, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "This or that could help.", "human_ref_B": "My understanding, as a fairly serious distance runner who is also a \"student of the sport,\" so to speak, is that exactly what causes it is not agreed upon among the scientific community.   That would jive well with the fact that there doesn't seem to be a conclusive answer in this thread yet.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8788.0, "score_ratio": 3.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vs298", "c_root_id_B": "c1vqpv7", "created_at_utc_A": 1306261079, "created_at_utc_B": 1306248984, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "My understanding, as a fairly serious distance runner who is also a \"student of the sport,\" so to speak, is that exactly what causes it is not agreed upon among the scientific community.   That would jive well with the fact that there doesn't seem to be a conclusive answer in this thread yet.", "human_ref_B": "I'm no exercise physiologist, but here's a good article on the subject.  Basically, as I read it, the mechanism for muscle soreness is not clearly understood, since muscle fatigue sets in 1 to 3 days after intense exercise.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12095.0, "score_ratio": 8.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr9f3", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr306", "created_at_utc_A": 1306254349, "created_at_utc_B": 1306252696, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "PZ Myers of Pharyngula fame has a long article on exercise and agony, mostly his.", "human_ref_B": "Let me clarify why lactic \"acid\" isn't to blame.  Quick chemistry lesson: acids can exist in two (or more) forms, when it has a proton (or hydrogen ion, H+) and when it donates it.  The proton is what makes the solution acidic.  \"Lactic acid\" still has its proton while \"lactate\" is lactic acid that has donated its proton.  Similarly, pyruvic acid still has its proton while pyruvate is pyruvic acid that has donated its proton.  Lactic acid is produced from pyruvate using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.  The bottom line is to make one molecule of acid (lactic acid) you need to use one molecule of acid (pyruvate) so there's no net production of \"acid.\"  Therefore the acid part of lactic acid isn't the cause of muscle burn.  In fact, during the reaction from pyruvate to lactic acid, an H+ from the solution and adds it to pyruvate to make lactic acid.  This by itself would make the solution less acidic.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1653.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr59e", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr9f3", "created_at_utc_A": 1306253285, "created_at_utc_B": 1306254349, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Super quick answer: when you work your muscles hard, levels of sodium (Na^+ ) increase in your muscle fibers rise, increasing hypertonicity.  This causes water influx, which leads to swelling, which squishes nerves, hence the soreness.", "human_ref_B": "PZ Myers of Pharyngula fame has a long article on exercise and agony, mostly his.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1064.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr9f3", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr1f2", "created_at_utc_A": 1306254349, "created_at_utc_B": 1306252291, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "PZ Myers of Pharyngula fame has a long article on exercise and agony, mostly his.", "human_ref_B": "This or that could help.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2058.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr9f3", "c_root_id_B": "c1vqpv7", "created_at_utc_A": 1306254349, "created_at_utc_B": 1306248984, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "PZ Myers of Pharyngula fame has a long article on exercise and agony, mostly his.", "human_ref_B": "I'm no exercise physiologist, but here's a good article on the subject.  Basically, as I read it, the mechanism for muscle soreness is not clearly understood, since muscle fatigue sets in 1 to 3 days after intense exercise.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5365.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr1f2", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr306", "created_at_utc_A": 1306252291, "created_at_utc_B": 1306252696, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "This or that could help.", "human_ref_B": "Let me clarify why lactic \"acid\" isn't to blame.  Quick chemistry lesson: acids can exist in two (or more) forms, when it has a proton (or hydrogen ion, H+) and when it donates it.  The proton is what makes the solution acidic.  \"Lactic acid\" still has its proton while \"lactate\" is lactic acid that has donated its proton.  Similarly, pyruvic acid still has its proton while pyruvate is pyruvic acid that has donated its proton.  Lactic acid is produced from pyruvate using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.  The bottom line is to make one molecule of acid (lactic acid) you need to use one molecule of acid (pyruvate) so there's no net production of \"acid.\"  Therefore the acid part of lactic acid isn't the cause of muscle burn.  In fact, during the reaction from pyruvate to lactic acid, an H+ from the solution and adds it to pyruvate to make lactic acid.  This by itself would make the solution less acidic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 405.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vqpv7", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr306", "created_at_utc_A": 1306248984, "created_at_utc_B": 1306252696, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I'm no exercise physiologist, but here's a good article on the subject.  Basically, as I read it, the mechanism for muscle soreness is not clearly understood, since muscle fatigue sets in 1 to 3 days after intense exercise.", "human_ref_B": "Let me clarify why lactic \"acid\" isn't to blame.  Quick chemistry lesson: acids can exist in two (or more) forms, when it has a proton (or hydrogen ion, H+) and when it donates it.  The proton is what makes the solution acidic.  \"Lactic acid\" still has its proton while \"lactate\" is lactic acid that has donated its proton.  Similarly, pyruvic acid still has its proton while pyruvate is pyruvic acid that has donated its proton.  Lactic acid is produced from pyruvate using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase.  The bottom line is to make one molecule of acid (lactic acid) you need to use one molecule of acid (pyruvate) so there's no net production of \"acid.\"  Therefore the acid part of lactic acid isn't the cause of muscle burn.  In fact, during the reaction from pyruvate to lactic acid, an H+ from the solution and adds it to pyruvate to make lactic acid.  This by itself would make the solution less acidic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3712.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr1f2", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr59e", "created_at_utc_A": 1306252291, "created_at_utc_B": 1306253285, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "This or that could help.", "human_ref_B": "Super quick answer: when you work your muscles hard, levels of sodium (Na^+ ) increase in your muscle fibers rise, increasing hypertonicity.  This causes water influx, which leads to swelling, which squishes nerves, hence the soreness.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 994.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vqpv7", "c_root_id_B": "c1vr59e", "created_at_utc_A": 1306248984, "created_at_utc_B": 1306253285, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I'm no exercise physiologist, but here's a good article on the subject.  Basically, as I read it, the mechanism for muscle soreness is not clearly understood, since muscle fatigue sets in 1 to 3 days after intense exercise.", "human_ref_B": "Super quick answer: when you work your muscles hard, levels of sodium (Na^+ ) increase in your muscle fibers rise, increasing hypertonicity.  This causes water influx, which leads to swelling, which squishes nerves, hence the soreness.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4301.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hiwbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do my muscles burn if I work them hard enough? I heard it is not lactic acid to blame.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vr1f2", "c_root_id_B": "c1vqpv7", "created_at_utc_A": 1306252291, "created_at_utc_B": 1306248984, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "This or that could help.", "human_ref_B": "I'm no exercise physiologist, but here's a good article on the subject.  Basically, as I read it, the mechanism for muscle soreness is not clearly understood, since muscle fatigue sets in 1 to 3 days after intense exercise.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3307.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2imfhx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If I was filling up a tire with air, would there be any difference if I filled the tire with only O2 versus only CO2? I think this is a fairly understandable question, and I'm not sure if it's a silly question or not. But basically, is there any difference in how O2 and CO2 works when filling up a space, like a tire? And how would it effect that tire? (like would it be bouncier one way, take longer to fill up one way..?)", "c_root_id_A": "cl3rpte", "c_root_id_B": "cl3nqih", "created_at_utc_A": 1412778329, "created_at_utc_B": 1412766117, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Pure o2 reacts violently with petroleum products. So don't do that.", "human_ref_B": "The O2 tire would weigh less than CO2 tire. Two gases occupying the same volume under the same temperature and pressure would have the same number of molecules (See Avogadro's law); given that CO2 has an extra C, it would weigh more than O2. This could change the moment of inertia of your tire, which could potentially affect your fuel economy.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12212.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2imfhx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If I was filling up a tire with air, would there be any difference if I filled the tire with only O2 versus only CO2? I think this is a fairly understandable question, and I'm not sure if it's a silly question or not. But basically, is there any difference in how O2 and CO2 works when filling up a space, like a tire? And how would it effect that tire? (like would it be bouncier one way, take longer to fill up one way..?)", "c_root_id_A": "cl3nqih", "c_root_id_B": "cl3jtpz", "created_at_utc_A": 1412766117, "created_at_utc_B": 1412746603, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The O2 tire would weigh less than CO2 tire. Two gases occupying the same volume under the same temperature and pressure would have the same number of molecules (See Avogadro's law); given that CO2 has an extra C, it would weigh more than O2. This could change the moment of inertia of your tire, which could potentially affect your fuel economy.", "human_ref_B": "I think where TheRaven1 is going with this is; Is replacing O2 with CO2 a viable means to store extra carbon and what would the actual effects be in layman's term? What exact conditions would cause CO2 to interact with the rubber in a detrimental way? How much more explosive/flammable would it be?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19514.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2imfhx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If I was filling up a tire with air, would there be any difference if I filled the tire with only O2 versus only CO2? I think this is a fairly understandable question, and I'm not sure if it's a silly question or not. But basically, is there any difference in how O2 and CO2 works when filling up a space, like a tire? And how would it effect that tire? (like would it be bouncier one way, take longer to fill up one way..?)", "c_root_id_A": "cl3jtpz", "c_root_id_B": "cl3rpte", "created_at_utc_A": 1412746603, "created_at_utc_B": 1412778329, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I think where TheRaven1 is going with this is; Is replacing O2 with CO2 a viable means to store extra carbon and what would the actual effects be in layman's term? What exact conditions would cause CO2 to interact with the rubber in a detrimental way? How much more explosive/flammable would it be?", "human_ref_B": "Pure o2 reacts violently with petroleum products. So don't do that.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31726.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm9zm", "c_root_id_B": "e7xsdn3", "created_at_utc_A": 1539783112, "created_at_utc_B": 1539788458, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Hi and thanks for joining us today!  Is viridis 508 compliant?", "human_ref_B": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5346.0, "score_ratio": 2.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xifka", "c_root_id_B": "e7xsdn3", "created_at_utc_A": 1539778943, "created_at_utc_B": 1539788458, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for doing this good work and and AMA.  One issue that I didn't see addressed in quick read: there's often reason to overlay additional data.  It might be contour lines giving different information than the shading, or just outlines of shapes of objects or borders between regions in a simulation.  It looks like you used white for that in sample images and it worked ok, but have you thought about that more rigorously, and considered how to leave space for that in the gamut in your optimization?  Subjectively, when I seen color map that uses very dark shades in the low value regions, my gut reaction is to feel like it's too dark in that region for me to see what is going on.  My impulse is to want to get a flashlight and shine it in that area, which might be of critical importance, to see what is going on.  That's illogical, but that's the way I seem to be wired.  It seems like systematic user testing would ultimately be needed to get at things like that.", "human_ref_B": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9515.0, "score_ratio": 3.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp7le", "c_root_id_B": "e7xsdn3", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785793, "created_at_utc_B": 1539788458, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).", "human_ref_B": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2665.0, "score_ratio": 2.9, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xsdn3", "c_root_id_B": "e7xozag", "created_at_utc_A": 1539788458, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785597, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "human_ref_B": "This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2861.0, "score_ratio": 2.9, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xsdn3", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo8j1", "created_at_utc_A": 1539788458, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784947, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "human_ref_B": "Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3511.0, "score_ratio": 7.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xsdn3", "c_root_id_B": "e7xof7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1539788458, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785112, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "human_ref_B": "Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3346.0, "score_ratio": 9.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xsdn3", "c_root_id_B": "e7xp48d", "created_at_utc_A": 1539788458, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785714, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "human_ref_B": "Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2744.0, "score_ratio": 9.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm4wh", "c_root_id_B": "e7xsdn3", "created_at_utc_A": 1539782971, "created_at_utc_B": 1539788458, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "human_ref_B": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5487.0, "score_ratio": 14.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xsdn3", "c_root_id_B": "e7xpv6x", "created_at_utc_A": 1539788458, "created_at_utc_B": 1539786358, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "human_ref_B": "Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2100.0, "score_ratio": 14.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xsdn3", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qf", "created_at_utc_A": 1539788458, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "human_ref_B": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3698.0, "score_ratio": 29.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xsdn3", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qw", "created_at_utc_A": 1539788458, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "To my non-colorblind eyes, cividis looks quite similar to the parula colormap which if I recall correctly is meant to address similar issues. What are the advantages, if any, to cividis over parula?", "human_ref_B": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3698.0, "score_ratio": 29.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm9zm", "c_root_id_B": "e7xifka", "created_at_utc_A": 1539783112, "created_at_utc_B": 1539778943, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Hi and thanks for joining us today!  Is viridis 508 compliant?", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this good work and and AMA.  One issue that I didn't see addressed in quick read: there's often reason to overlay additional data.  It might be contour lines giving different information than the shading, or just outlines of shapes of objects or borders between regions in a simulation.  It looks like you used white for that in sample images and it worked ok, but have you thought about that more rigorously, and considered how to leave space for that in the gamut in your optimization?  Subjectively, when I seen color map that uses very dark shades in the low value regions, my gut reaction is to feel like it's too dark in that region for me to see what is going on.  My impulse is to want to get a flashlight and shine it in that area, which might be of critical importance, to see what is going on.  That's illogical, but that's the way I seem to be wired.  It seems like systematic user testing would ultimately be needed to get at things like that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4169.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm4wh", "c_root_id_B": "e7xm9zm", "created_at_utc_A": 1539782971, "created_at_utc_B": 1539783112, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "human_ref_B": "Hi and thanks for joining us today!  Is viridis 508 compliant?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 141.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xifka", "c_root_id_B": "e7xp7le", "created_at_utc_A": 1539778943, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785793, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for doing this good work and and AMA.  One issue that I didn't see addressed in quick read: there's often reason to overlay additional data.  It might be contour lines giving different information than the shading, or just outlines of shapes of objects or borders between regions in a simulation.  It looks like you used white for that in sample images and it worked ok, but have you thought about that more rigorously, and considered how to leave space for that in the gamut in your optimization?  Subjectively, when I seen color map that uses very dark shades in the low value regions, my gut reaction is to feel like it's too dark in that region for me to see what is going on.  My impulse is to want to get a flashlight and shine it in that area, which might be of critical importance, to see what is going on.  That's illogical, but that's the way I seem to be wired.  It seems like systematic user testing would ultimately be needed to get at things like that.", "human_ref_B": "As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6850.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xozag", "c_root_id_B": "e7xifka", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785597, "created_at_utc_B": 1539778943, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this good work and and AMA.  One issue that I didn't see addressed in quick read: there's often reason to overlay additional data.  It might be contour lines giving different information than the shading, or just outlines of shapes of objects or borders between regions in a simulation.  It looks like you used white for that in sample images and it worked ok, but have you thought about that more rigorously, and considered how to leave space for that in the gamut in your optimization?  Subjectively, when I seen color map that uses very dark shades in the low value regions, my gut reaction is to feel like it's too dark in that region for me to see what is going on.  My impulse is to want to get a flashlight and shine it in that area, which might be of critical importance, to see what is going on.  That's illogical, but that's the way I seem to be wired.  It seems like systematic user testing would ultimately be needed to get at things like that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6654.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo8j1", "c_root_id_B": "e7xp7le", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784947, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785793, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?", "human_ref_B": "As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 846.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp7le", "c_root_id_B": "e7xof7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785793, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785112, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).", "human_ref_B": "Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 681.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp48d", "c_root_id_B": "e7xp7le", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785714, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785793, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?", "human_ref_B": "As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 79.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp7le", "c_root_id_B": "e7xm4wh", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785793, "created_at_utc_B": 1539782971, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).", "human_ref_B": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2822.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp7le", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qf", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785793, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).", "human_ref_B": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1033.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp7le", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qw", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785793, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "As a WSU-TC student, What is the best way to get an interview for an internship? It feels like a masters is required to get in the door. (EE student if that matters).", "human_ref_B": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1033.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo8j1", "c_root_id_B": "e7xozag", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784947, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785597, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?", "human_ref_B": "This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 650.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xof7p", "c_root_id_B": "e7xozag", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785112, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785597, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?", "human_ref_B": "This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 485.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm4wh", "c_root_id_B": "e7xozag", "created_at_utc_A": 1539782971, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785597, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "human_ref_B": "This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2626.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xozag", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qf", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785597, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.", "human_ref_B": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 837.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xozag", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qw", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785597, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This is great! I introduced viridis to my undergrads and spent a while extolling its many benefits when compared with jet and the like.  Question - Did you consider blue-yellow colorblindness in generating Cividis, or just red-green (which is more common). I imagine the same optimization process would work to generate a blue-yellow robust map.  A correction - I believe recent literature has shown sensitivity to more gradiations in grayscale than the thirty you report in the paper source.", "human_ref_B": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 837.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo8j1", "c_root_id_B": "e7xuvvq", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784947, "created_at_utc_B": 1539790501, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?", "human_ref_B": "How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5554.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xof7p", "c_root_id_B": "e7xuvvq", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785112, "created_at_utc_B": 1539790501, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?", "human_ref_B": "How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5389.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp48d", "c_root_id_B": "e7xuvvq", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785714, "created_at_utc_B": 1539790501, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?", "human_ref_B": "How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4787.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xuvvq", "c_root_id_B": "e7xm4wh", "created_at_utc_A": 1539790501, "created_at_utc_B": 1539782971, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?", "human_ref_B": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7530.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xuvvq", "c_root_id_B": "e7xpv6x", "created_at_utc_A": 1539790501, "created_at_utc_B": 1539786358, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?", "human_ref_B": "Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4143.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qf", "c_root_id_B": "e7xuvvq", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539790501, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "human_ref_B": "How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5741.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7xuvvq", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539790501, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "How does someone who has really good MS Office skills, but doesn't have a deep knowledge of programming take advantage of this?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5741.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xof7p", "c_root_id_B": "e7yeo9z", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785112, "created_at_utc_B": 1539806377, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?", "human_ref_B": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21265.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7yeo9z", "c_root_id_B": "e7xp48d", "created_at_utc_A": 1539806377, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785714, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "human_ref_B": "Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20663.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7yeo9z", "c_root_id_B": "e7xw18j", "created_at_utc_A": 1539806377, "created_at_utc_B": 1539791420, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "human_ref_B": "Hi there, thanks for joining us! I've been a huge proponent of cividis since it (recently came out). Given what you've shown in the Ja'b' colorspace, is there a way to make a \"significant\" jump to the \"next generation\" default colormap kind of like jet to viridis and then viridis to jet? Or is this close to some optimal colormap?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14957.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7yeo9z", "c_root_id_B": "e7y8e18", "created_at_utc_A": 1539806377, "created_at_utc_B": 1539801316, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "human_ref_B": "As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5061.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm4wh", "c_root_id_B": "e7yeo9z", "created_at_utc_A": 1539782971, "created_at_utc_B": 1539806377, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "human_ref_B": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23406.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xpv6x", "c_root_id_B": "e7yeo9z", "created_at_utc_A": 1539786358, "created_at_utc_B": 1539806377, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?", "human_ref_B": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20019.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xydtq", "c_root_id_B": "e7yeo9z", "created_at_utc_A": 1539793281, "created_at_utc_B": 1539806377, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "A brief glance leads me to think this is for a continuous colormap specifically, right?  What about a categorical alternative?", "human_ref_B": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13096.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7y2ykd", "c_root_id_B": "e7yeo9z", "created_at_utc_A": 1539796931, "created_at_utc_B": 1539806377, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "How would you compare cividis to viridis? Obviously there's a name similarity.", "human_ref_B": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9446.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7y6eff", "c_root_id_B": "e7yeo9z", "created_at_utc_A": 1539799707, "created_at_utc_B": 1539806377, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Why are your colormaps preferable to a monochromatic gradient? Is there a reason to vary hue when you can just manipulate luminance?", "human_ref_B": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6670.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7yeo9z", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qf", "created_at_utc_A": 1539806377, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "human_ref_B": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21617.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7yeo9z", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539806377, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "Hey Ryan,  This is some really cool work you've shown. I was wondering - if we are given an image (say RGB) with a colormap legend, can it be converted to be cividis-based on that alone? or does the module you created need access to original data of some sort?  Really interested to see if this would help with regards to SEM images with elemental maps overlaid.  Go Cougs!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21617.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm4wh", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo8j1", "created_at_utc_A": 1539782971, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784947, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "human_ref_B": "Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1976.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo8j1", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qf", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784947, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?", "human_ref_B": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 187.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo8j1", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784947, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "Has anyone implemented this as a color palette in ROOT yet?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 187.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm4wh", "c_root_id_B": "e7xof7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1539782971, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785112, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "human_ref_B": "Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2141.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qf", "c_root_id_B": "e7xof7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785112, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "human_ref_B": "Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 352.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xof7p", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qw", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785112, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Besides using tools like the ones you guys have created, what else can researchers do to increase accessibility in interpretation of their data? Any common pitfalls you have come across in your research?  What was the impetus for this research project?  What questions are there going forward?", "human_ref_B": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 352.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp48d", "c_root_id_B": "e7xm4wh", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785714, "created_at_utc_B": 1539782971, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?", "human_ref_B": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2743.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qf", "c_root_id_B": "e7xp48d", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539785714, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "human_ref_B": "Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 954.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xp48d", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qw", "created_at_utc_A": 1539785714, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Does your mapping use an algorithm to adjust the colors, or a one to one mapping?", "human_ref_B": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 954.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm4wh", "c_root_id_B": "e7xw18j", "created_at_utc_A": 1539782971, "created_at_utc_B": 1539791420, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "human_ref_B": "Hi there, thanks for joining us! I've been a huge proponent of cividis since it (recently came out). Given what you've shown in the Ja'b' colorspace, is there a way to make a \"significant\" jump to the \"next generation\" default colormap kind of like jet to viridis and then viridis to jet? Or is this close to some optimal colormap?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8449.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xpv6x", "c_root_id_B": "e7xw18j", "created_at_utc_A": 1539786358, "created_at_utc_B": 1539791420, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there, thanks for joining us! I've been a huge proponent of cividis since it (recently came out). Given what you've shown in the Ja'b' colorspace, is there a way to make a \"significant\" jump to the \"next generation\" default colormap kind of like jet to viridis and then viridis to jet? Or is this close to some optimal colormap?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5062.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qf", "c_root_id_B": "e7xw18j", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539791420, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "human_ref_B": "Hi there, thanks for joining us! I've been a huge proponent of cividis since it (recently came out). Given what you've shown in the Ja'b' colorspace, is there a way to make a \"significant\" jump to the \"next generation\" default colormap kind of like jet to viridis and then viridis to jet? Or is this close to some optimal colormap?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6660.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7xw18j", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539791420, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there, thanks for joining us! I've been a huge proponent of cividis since it (recently came out). Given what you've shown in the Ja'b' colorspace, is there a way to make a \"significant\" jump to the \"next generation\" default colormap kind of like jet to viridis and then viridis to jet? Or is this close to some optimal colormap?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6660.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xm4wh", "c_root_id_B": "e7y8e18", "created_at_utc_A": 1539782971, "created_at_utc_B": 1539801316, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "human_ref_B": "As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18345.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xpv6x", "c_root_id_B": "e7y8e18", "created_at_utc_A": 1539786358, "created_at_utc_B": 1539801316, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?", "human_ref_B": "As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14958.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7y8e18", "c_root_id_B": "e7xydtq", "created_at_utc_A": 1539801316, "created_at_utc_B": 1539793281, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)", "human_ref_B": "A brief glance leads me to think this is for a continuous colormap specifically, right?  What about a categorical alternative?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8035.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7y8e18", "c_root_id_B": "e7y2ykd", "created_at_utc_A": 1539801316, "created_at_utc_B": 1539796931, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)", "human_ref_B": "How would you compare cividis to viridis? Obviously there's a name similarity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4385.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7y8e18", "c_root_id_B": "e7y6eff", "created_at_utc_A": 1539801316, "created_at_utc_B": 1539799707, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)", "human_ref_B": "Why are your colormaps preferable to a monochromatic gradient? Is there a reason to vary hue when you can just manipulate luminance?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1609.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qf", "c_root_id_B": "e7y8e18", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539801316, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "human_ref_B": "As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16556.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7y8e18", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539801316, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "As a resident of the Tri-Cities, I'm just popping in to comment that PNNL rules.  Keep up the great work :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16556.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7ykr28", "c_root_id_B": "e7xm4wh", "created_at_utc_A": 1539811507, "created_at_utc_B": 1539782971, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I really appreciate this part of your paper:   >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.   Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).", "human_ref_B": "This is very cool! I'm looking forward to using this in combination with cmocean!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28536.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7ykr28", "c_root_id_B": "e7xpv6x", "created_at_utc_A": 1539811507, "created_at_utc_B": 1539786358, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I really appreciate this part of your paper:   >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.   Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).", "human_ref_B": "Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25149.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xydtq", "c_root_id_B": "e7ykr28", "created_at_utc_A": 1539793281, "created_at_utc_B": 1539811507, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "A brief glance leads me to think this is for a continuous colormap specifically, right?  What about a categorical alternative?", "human_ref_B": "I really appreciate this part of your paper:   >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.   Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18226.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7ykr28", "c_root_id_B": "e7y2ykd", "created_at_utc_A": 1539811507, "created_at_utc_B": 1539796931, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I really appreciate this part of your paper:   >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.   Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).", "human_ref_B": "How would you compare cividis to viridis? Obviously there's a name similarity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14576.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7ykr28", "c_root_id_B": "e7y6eff", "created_at_utc_A": 1539811507, "created_at_utc_B": 1539799707, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I really appreciate this part of your paper:   >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.   Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).", "human_ref_B": "Why are your colormaps preferable to a monochromatic gradient? Is there a reason to vary hue when you can just manipulate luminance?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11800.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7ykr28", "c_root_id_B": "e7yject", "created_at_utc_A": 1539811507, "created_at_utc_B": 1539810366, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I really appreciate this part of your paper:   >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.   Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).", "human_ref_B": "Thank you for your work and this AMA.  Did you also create other color maps with the same advantageous properties, namely...  1. A color map which contains white rather than black at one end of the spectrum, for showing anomalies when printing on white paper 2. A symmetric color map, which changes from one color to black, and then from black to another color, to show symmetric data, e.g. magnetic fields 3. A symmetric color map like above, but with white in the middle, for printing on white paper  Thanks!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1141.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qf", "c_root_id_B": "e7ykr28", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539811507, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "human_ref_B": "I really appreciate this part of your paper:   >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.   Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26747.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7ykr28", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539811507, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "I really appreciate this part of your paper:   >A downside of cividis, as reported by colleagues, is its minimal coverage of different colors: varying straight from blue to yellow rather than cycling through other colors ... Of course, this is because those who have a form of CVD cannot see these colors the way those with normal vision can. However, since normal color vision is more common, **using more colors is often desired for representation of data and for increasing visual perception precision through use of a larger dynamic color range**. An area of research we are pursuing is the ability to cycle through more colors while still keeping both normal color vision and deuteranomaly (ranging from a mild form to complete dichromacy) perceptions of the colormap optimal.   Have you made any progress on this? For datasets with a large dynamic range, and with fractal-like behavior, the limited number of colors sampled by cividis (and viridis) makes them highly sub-optimal (if you have normal vision).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26747.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qf", "c_root_id_B": "e7xpv6x", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539786358, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "human_ref_B": "Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1598.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xpv6x", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qw", "created_at_utc_A": 1539786358, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is there more documentation in helping create optimized colormaps for different purposes?  For example I want to represent wavelength ranges that commonly correspond to visible Blue Green Red etc. So I usually use the corresponding color of the rainbow for the optical wavelength ranges. How can I convert them into something that is better for color blind people but still try to keep a consistent mapping between color and wavelength range or something like that?", "human_ref_B": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1598.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qf", "c_root_id_B": "e7xydtq", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539793281, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "human_ref_B": "A brief glance leads me to think this is for a continuous colormap specifically, right?  What about a categorical alternative?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8521.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7xydtq", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539793281, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "A brief glance leads me to think this is for a continuous colormap specifically, right?  What about a categorical alternative?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8521.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7y2ykd", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qf", "created_at_utc_A": 1539796931, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "How would you compare cividis to viridis? Obviously there's a name similarity.", "human_ref_B": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12171.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7y2ykd", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qw", "created_at_utc_A": 1539796931, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "How would you compare cividis to viridis? Obviously there's a name similarity.", "human_ref_B": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12171.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7y6eff", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qf", "created_at_utc_A": 1539799707, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why are your colormaps preferable to a monochromatic gradient? Is there a reason to vary hue when you can just manipulate luminance?", "human_ref_B": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14947.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7y6eff", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539799707, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "Why are your colormaps preferable to a monochromatic gradient? Is there a reason to vary hue when you can just manipulate luminance?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14947.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7yject", "c_root_id_B": "e7xo0qf", "created_at_utc_A": 1539810366, "created_at_utc_B": 1539784760, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Thank you for your work and this AMA.  Did you also create other color maps with the same advantageous properties, namely...  1. A color map which contains white rather than black at one end of the spectrum, for showing anomalies when printing on white paper 2. A symmetric color map, which changes from one color to black, and then from black to another color, to show symmetric data, e.g. magnetic fields 3. A symmetric color map like above, but with white in the middle, for printing on white paper  Thanks!", "human_ref_B": "I work in I.T. and am color deficient.  It would be fantastic if more disciplines would apply this optimization as well!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25606.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9oxlk9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We're from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Our recent work in data visualization has led to the creation of a new colormap, cividis, for more consistent, accurate data interpretation - whether you have a color vision deficiency or not! Ask us anything! Hi Reddit! We're Jamie Nunez and Dr. Ryan Renslow, scientists at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Rainbow colormaps have long been known to make data interpretation difficult and sometimes even impossible for those with colorblindness, yet they are still very popular due to limited alternatives. That's why we developed an open-source Python module that can automatically convert colormaps into forms easily interpreted by those with or without color vision deficiencies.  One colormap in particular that we created, called cividis, enables consistent and accurate data interpretation for both people with normal vision and those who are colorblind. Cmaputil can be used by anyone to create their own optimized colormaps and can be accessed here: https://github.com/pnnl/cmaputil   Cividis is currently available in Python (matplotlib & plotly packages), R (viridis & viridisLite packages), COMSOL, and more. Read our PLOS One paper \"Optimizing colormaps with consideration for color vision deficiency to enable accurate interpretation of scientific data\" here: https://goo.gl/UDPWFd  We'll be on at noon PT (3 p.m. ET, 19 UT). Ask us anything!", "c_root_id_A": "e7xo0qw", "c_root_id_B": "e7yject", "created_at_utc_A": 1539784760, "created_at_utc_B": 1539810366, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How scientifically do you begin thinking about a problem like this?  Do you start from a science about the eye (rods, cones, etc.?)  Or does it grow from a perceptual or design standpoint?", "human_ref_B": "Thank you for your work and this AMA.  Did you also create other color maps with the same advantageous properties, namely...  1. A color map which contains white rather than black at one end of the spectrum, for showing anomalies when printing on white paper 2. A symmetric color map, which changes from one color to black, and then from black to another color, to show symmetric data, e.g. magnetic fields 3. A symmetric color map like above, but with white in the middle, for printing on white paper  Thanks!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 25606.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "48q18t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "If I had a rope on earth and someone was at the sun with the other side of the rope then one person tugged on one side, would the other instantly feel it?", "c_root_id_A": "d0lo6ap", "c_root_id_B": "d0llluh", "created_at_utc_A": 1456980010, "created_at_utc_B": 1456975419, "score_A": 103, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "This is a very commonly asked question, which is answered in the FAQ.  https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/physics/rod_speedoflight", "human_ref_B": "I'm no expert, but as far as my grasp of physics goes, you would not. This is because each piece of the rope must move slightly before the next tiny piece is affected.    I'm going to change your analogy slightly to get the concept across. Imagine, instead of a rope, you had a big tube filled with water. As you know, if you use a piston, you can push the water back and forth. If you push the water, it will compress slightly just in front of the pistonhead, then that layer of water will push on the next, and then that the next, *ad nauseum*, until it finally reaches the other end. Now, lets take the smallest possible movement, a shockwave, you might interpret it as sound, in the water. Imagine the same process I just described, but with a very small movement, this sound. It will take time to reach you, in fact, it would take about 76 years, and that's from the surface of the sun. Essentially, the material can only compress it's neighbour so quickly, the top speed of which is the \"speed of sound\" of the material.    So, despite taking some liberties with your question and doing some hand-wavey science, the answer to your question is a very solid \"no\".", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4591.0, "score_ratio": 14.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "48q18t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "If I had a rope on earth and someone was at the sun with the other side of the rope then one person tugged on one side, would the other instantly feel it?", "c_root_id_A": "d0lr6iq", "c_root_id_B": "d0llluh", "created_at_utc_A": 1456986364, "created_at_utc_B": 1456975419, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "No. Let's leave aside the elasticity of rope for a moment. Even if you had a solid steel rod connecting the two points, the physical impulse can travel through the medium at (essentially) the speed of sound in that medium *at most.*   So assuming ~5.9 km/s as the speed of sound in steel, you could expect the pull to be felt on the Sun ~294 days later. If you insist on a very elastic thing like rope, then it is entirely possible the pull would be completely absorbed by the rope, and never get there at all.", "human_ref_B": "I'm no expert, but as far as my grasp of physics goes, you would not. This is because each piece of the rope must move slightly before the next tiny piece is affected.    I'm going to change your analogy slightly to get the concept across. Imagine, instead of a rope, you had a big tube filled with water. As you know, if you use a piston, you can push the water back and forth. If you push the water, it will compress slightly just in front of the pistonhead, then that layer of water will push on the next, and then that the next, *ad nauseum*, until it finally reaches the other end. Now, lets take the smallest possible movement, a shockwave, you might interpret it as sound, in the water. Imagine the same process I just described, but with a very small movement, this sound. It will take time to reach you, in fact, it would take about 76 years, and that's from the surface of the sun. Essentially, the material can only compress it's neighbour so quickly, the top speed of which is the \"speed of sound\" of the material.    So, despite taking some liberties with your question and doing some hand-wavey science, the answer to your question is a very solid \"no\".", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10945.0, "score_ratio": 9.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5i5n", "c_root_id_B": "c2j58f3", "created_at_utc_A": 1315783187, "created_at_utc_B": 1315780836, "score_A": 81, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Yes, there are viruses that are beneficial to their hosts. In wasps that lay their eggs in other organisms, the wasps inject several viruses along with their eggs. Some of these viruses are thought to suppress the immune response of the organism that the wasp lays their eggs in, therefore protecting the eggs. The viruses occur in the wasps and are non pathogenic in them   Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15749099?dopt=Abstract   Also, in humans there is the recently found Seneca Valley Virus-001, which has been found to \"mediate selective cytotoxicity towards tumor cells with neuroendocrine cancer features\" aka they target and kill tumor cells   Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940610?dopt=Abstract  Great question!", "human_ref_B": "Related question: Wouldn't the most successful virus be the one that strengthens and protects the host? For self preservation at least?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2351.0, "score_ratio": 1.7234042553, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5cht", "c_root_id_B": "c2j5i5n", "created_at_utc_A": 1315781818, "created_at_utc_B": 1315783187, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 81, "human_ref_A": "A byproduct of viral infection can be horizontal gene transfer, in which genes can be moved from one species of simple organism to another. While a relatively rare occurrence, anything that increases genetic diversity in a large population can be beneficial.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, there are viruses that are beneficial to their hosts. In wasps that lay their eggs in other organisms, the wasps inject several viruses along with their eggs. Some of these viruses are thought to suppress the immune response of the organism that the wasp lays their eggs in, therefore protecting the eggs. The viruses occur in the wasps and are non pathogenic in them   Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15749099?dopt=Abstract   Also, in humans there is the recently found Seneca Valley Virus-001, which has been found to \"mediate selective cytotoxicity towards tumor cells with neuroendocrine cancer features\" aka they target and kill tumor cells   Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940610?dopt=Abstract  Great question!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1369.0, "score_ratio": 81.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5i5n", "c_root_id_B": "c2j4riv", "created_at_utc_A": 1315783187, "created_at_utc_B": 1315776731, "score_A": 81, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Yes, there are viruses that are beneficial to their hosts. In wasps that lay their eggs in other organisms, the wasps inject several viruses along with their eggs. Some of these viruses are thought to suppress the immune response of the organism that the wasp lays their eggs in, therefore protecting the eggs. The viruses occur in the wasps and are non pathogenic in them   Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15749099?dopt=Abstract   Also, in humans there is the recently found Seneca Valley Virus-001, which has been found to \"mediate selective cytotoxicity towards tumor cells with neuroendocrine cancer features\" aka they target and kill tumor cells   Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940610?dopt=Abstract  Great question!", "human_ref_B": "There are viruses with positive side effects, most vaccines are either dead, or weakened forms of viruses, and they provide a protective effect (via stimulating the immune system). There has also been a lot of hullabaloo has been made lately about viruses which protect against cancer. Those are the only examples I can think of off the top of my head.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6456.0, "score_ratio": -81.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j4riv", "c_root_id_B": "c2j58f3", "created_at_utc_A": 1315776731, "created_at_utc_B": 1315780836, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "There are viruses with positive side effects, most vaccines are either dead, or weakened forms of viruses, and they provide a protective effect (via stimulating the immune system). There has also been a lot of hullabaloo has been made lately about viruses which protect against cancer. Those are the only examples I can think of off the top of my head.", "human_ref_B": "Related question: Wouldn't the most successful virus be the one that strengthens and protects the host? For self preservation at least?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4105.0, "score_ratio": -47.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5k2i", "c_root_id_B": "c2j69fc", "created_at_utc_A": 1315783651, "created_at_utc_B": 1315789716, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "There is something known as lysogenic conversion where certain bacteriophages can provide bacteria with genes to be more pathogenic.  Aside from that, the evidence is marginal but AskMeAboutPlants seems to have found some.", "human_ref_B": "There is a grass species that lives in Yellowstone that is host to a fungus, which is host to a virus.  The grass, without the fungus AND the virus, cannot live at nearly as high a temperature.  So here, I would say that not only the fungus, but also the grass, benefit from being hosts to the virus.  The exact mechanism is not yet known.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6065.0, "score_ratio": 6.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j69fc", "c_root_id_B": "c2j68jx", "created_at_utc_A": 1315789716, "created_at_utc_B": 1315789507, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There is a grass species that lives in Yellowstone that is host to a fungus, which is host to a virus.  The grass, without the fungus AND the virus, cannot live at nearly as high a temperature.  So here, I would say that not only the fungus, but also the grass, benefit from being hosts to the virus.  The exact mechanism is not yet known.", "human_ref_B": "Indirectly, yeah. Some viruses are being used by humans in order to induce certain pluripotent stem cells via horizontal gene transfer to become totipotent stem cells again. I am hazy on exactly what the target cells were, but it was interesting to think of in terms of gene therapy and eliminating some of the controversy over embryonic stem cell use. If anyone can find a good article they know of and could link to, it'd give you a better idea.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 209.0, "score_ratio": 9.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5cht", "c_root_id_B": "c2j69fc", "created_at_utc_A": 1315781818, "created_at_utc_B": 1315789716, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "A byproduct of viral infection can be horizontal gene transfer, in which genes can be moved from one species of simple organism to another. While a relatively rare occurrence, anything that increases genetic diversity in a large population can be beneficial.", "human_ref_B": "There is a grass species that lives in Yellowstone that is host to a fungus, which is host to a virus.  The grass, without the fungus AND the virus, cannot live at nearly as high a temperature.  So here, I would say that not only the fungus, but also the grass, benefit from being hosts to the virus.  The exact mechanism is not yet known.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7898.0, "score_ratio": 19.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5i85", "c_root_id_B": "c2j69fc", "created_at_utc_A": 1315783204, "created_at_utc_B": 1315789716, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "I think this is a case of observer bias. The research in viriii has, for obvious reasons, concentrated on pathogenic species, but for evolutionary reasons, they *should* be the exception, not the norm. Consider: Most people still associate bacteria with disease, yet (almost?) all life on the planet would end without them.", "human_ref_B": "There is a grass species that lives in Yellowstone that is host to a fungus, which is host to a virus.  The grass, without the fungus AND the virus, cannot live at nearly as high a temperature.  So here, I would say that not only the fungus, but also the grass, benefit from being hosts to the virus.  The exact mechanism is not yet known.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6512.0, "score_ratio": -19.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j4riv", "c_root_id_B": "c2j69fc", "created_at_utc_A": 1315776731, "created_at_utc_B": 1315789716, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "There are viruses with positive side effects, most vaccines are either dead, or weakened forms of viruses, and they provide a protective effect (via stimulating the immune system). There has also been a lot of hullabaloo has been made lately about viruses which protect against cancer. Those are the only examples I can think of off the top of my head.", "human_ref_B": "There is a grass species that lives in Yellowstone that is host to a fungus, which is host to a virus.  The grass, without the fungus AND the virus, cannot live at nearly as high a temperature.  So here, I would say that not only the fungus, but also the grass, benefit from being hosts to the virus.  The exact mechanism is not yet known.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12985.0, "score_ratio": -19.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5cht", "c_root_id_B": "c2j5k2i", "created_at_utc_A": 1315781818, "created_at_utc_B": 1315783651, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "A byproduct of viral infection can be horizontal gene transfer, in which genes can be moved from one species of simple organism to another. While a relatively rare occurrence, anything that increases genetic diversity in a large population can be beneficial.", "human_ref_B": "There is something known as lysogenic conversion where certain bacteriophages can provide bacteria with genes to be more pathogenic.  Aside from that, the evidence is marginal but AskMeAboutPlants seems to have found some.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1833.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5i85", "c_root_id_B": "c2j5k2i", "created_at_utc_A": 1315783204, "created_at_utc_B": 1315783651, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I think this is a case of observer bias. The research in viriii has, for obvious reasons, concentrated on pathogenic species, but for evolutionary reasons, they *should* be the exception, not the norm. Consider: Most people still associate bacteria with disease, yet (almost?) all life on the planet would end without them.", "human_ref_B": "There is something known as lysogenic conversion where certain bacteriophages can provide bacteria with genes to be more pathogenic.  Aside from that, the evidence is marginal but AskMeAboutPlants seems to have found some.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 447.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j4riv", "c_root_id_B": "c2j5k2i", "created_at_utc_A": 1315776731, "created_at_utc_B": 1315783651, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There are viruses with positive side effects, most vaccines are either dead, or weakened forms of viruses, and they provide a protective effect (via stimulating the immune system). There has also been a lot of hullabaloo has been made lately about viruses which protect against cancer. Those are the only examples I can think of off the top of my head.", "human_ref_B": "There is something known as lysogenic conversion where certain bacteriophages can provide bacteria with genes to be more pathogenic.  Aside from that, the evidence is marginal but AskMeAboutPlants seems to have found some.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6920.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5cht", "c_root_id_B": "c2j68jx", "created_at_utc_A": 1315781818, "created_at_utc_B": 1315789507, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "A byproduct of viral infection can be horizontal gene transfer, in which genes can be moved from one species of simple organism to another. While a relatively rare occurrence, anything that increases genetic diversity in a large population can be beneficial.", "human_ref_B": "Indirectly, yeah. Some viruses are being used by humans in order to induce certain pluripotent stem cells via horizontal gene transfer to become totipotent stem cells again. I am hazy on exactly what the target cells were, but it was interesting to think of in terms of gene therapy and eliminating some of the controversy over embryonic stem cell use. If anyone can find a good article they know of and could link to, it'd give you a better idea.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7689.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5i85", "c_root_id_B": "c2j68jx", "created_at_utc_A": 1315783204, "created_at_utc_B": 1315789507, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I think this is a case of observer bias. The research in viriii has, for obvious reasons, concentrated on pathogenic species, but for evolutionary reasons, they *should* be the exception, not the norm. Consider: Most people still associate bacteria with disease, yet (almost?) all life on the planet would end without them.", "human_ref_B": "Indirectly, yeah. Some viruses are being used by humans in order to induce certain pluripotent stem cells via horizontal gene transfer to become totipotent stem cells again. I am hazy on exactly what the target cells were, but it was interesting to think of in terms of gene therapy and eliminating some of the controversy over embryonic stem cell use. If anyone can find a good article they know of and could link to, it'd give you a better idea.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6303.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j4riv", "c_root_id_B": "c2j68jx", "created_at_utc_A": 1315776731, "created_at_utc_B": 1315789507, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There are viruses with positive side effects, most vaccines are either dead, or weakened forms of viruses, and they provide a protective effect (via stimulating the immune system). There has also been a lot of hullabaloo has been made lately about viruses which protect against cancer. Those are the only examples I can think of off the top of my head.", "human_ref_B": "Indirectly, yeah. Some viruses are being used by humans in order to induce certain pluripotent stem cells via horizontal gene transfer to become totipotent stem cells again. I am hazy on exactly what the target cells were, but it was interesting to think of in terms of gene therapy and eliminating some of the controversy over embryonic stem cell use. If anyone can find a good article they know of and could link to, it'd give you a better idea.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12776.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j87mv", "c_root_id_B": "c2j5cht", "created_at_utc_A": 1315805144, "created_at_utc_B": 1315781818, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You might enjoy this episode of radiolab - parasites: http://www.radiolab.org/2009/sep/07/", "human_ref_B": "A byproduct of viral infection can be horizontal gene transfer, in which genes can be moved from one species of simple organism to another. While a relatively rare occurrence, anything that increases genetic diversity in a large population can be beneficial.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23326.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j6tav", "c_root_id_B": "c2j87mv", "created_at_utc_A": 1315794016, "created_at_utc_B": 1315805144, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "So, would it be hypothetically possible to engineer a virus with beneficial qualities to humans?  like prolonging the life-span of neurons, or something?...", "human_ref_B": "You might enjoy this episode of radiolab - parasites: http://www.radiolab.org/2009/sep/07/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11128.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j87mv", "c_root_id_B": "c2j5i85", "created_at_utc_A": 1315805144, "created_at_utc_B": 1315783204, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "You might enjoy this episode of radiolab - parasites: http://www.radiolab.org/2009/sep/07/", "human_ref_B": "I think this is a case of observer bias. The research in viriii has, for obvious reasons, concentrated on pathogenic species, but for evolutionary reasons, they *should* be the exception, not the norm. Consider: Most people still associate bacteria with disease, yet (almost?) all life on the planet would end without them.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21940.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j4riv", "c_root_id_B": "c2j87mv", "created_at_utc_A": 1315776731, "created_at_utc_B": 1315805144, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There are viruses with positive side effects, most vaccines are either dead, or weakened forms of viruses, and they provide a protective effect (via stimulating the immune system). There has also been a lot of hullabaloo has been made lately about viruses which protect against cancer. Those are the only examples I can think of off the top of my head.", "human_ref_B": "You might enjoy this episode of radiolab - parasites: http://www.radiolab.org/2009/sep/07/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28413.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j4riv", "c_root_id_B": "c2j5cht", "created_at_utc_A": 1315776731, "created_at_utc_B": 1315781818, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There are viruses with positive side effects, most vaccines are either dead, or weakened forms of viruses, and they provide a protective effect (via stimulating the immune system). There has also been a lot of hullabaloo has been made lately about viruses which protect against cancer. Those are the only examples I can think of off the top of my head.", "human_ref_B": "A byproduct of viral infection can be horizontal gene transfer, in which genes can be moved from one species of simple organism to another. While a relatively rare occurrence, anything that increases genetic diversity in a large population can be beneficial.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5087.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j5i85", "c_root_id_B": "c2j6tav", "created_at_utc_A": 1315783204, "created_at_utc_B": 1315794016, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I think this is a case of observer bias. The research in viriii has, for obvious reasons, concentrated on pathogenic species, but for evolutionary reasons, they *should* be the exception, not the norm. Consider: Most people still associate bacteria with disease, yet (almost?) all life on the planet would end without them.", "human_ref_B": "So, would it be hypothetically possible to engineer a virus with beneficial qualities to humans?  like prolonging the life-span of neurons, or something?...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10812.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kca1z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Are there any viruses that are actually beneficial to their hosts?", "c_root_id_A": "c2j6tav", "c_root_id_B": "c2j4riv", "created_at_utc_A": 1315794016, "created_at_utc_B": 1315776731, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "So, would it be hypothetically possible to engineer a virus with beneficial qualities to humans?  like prolonging the life-span of neurons, or something?...", "human_ref_B": "There are viruses with positive side effects, most vaccines are either dead, or weakened forms of viruses, and they provide a protective effect (via stimulating the immune system). There has also been a lot of hullabaloo has been made lately about viruses which protect against cancer. Those are the only examples I can think of off the top of my head.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17285.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0igc7a", "c_root_id_B": "e0ign9j", "created_at_utc_A": 1528759890, "created_at_utc_B": 1528760218, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 67, "human_ref_A": "There is a process that is done during some brain or heart surgeries where body temperature is lowered to a point where blood flow in the body can be stopped for up to 40 minutes without any significant brain damage. An EKG is used to determine that there is zero brain activity, which is when the doctors know it is safe to stop blood flow to the brain. Then the surgery is done, blood flow is resumed, body temperature is raised, brain activity resumes, and the patient wakes up and carries on with their life. I'm not sure if the patients remember everything up to the point that they were put under for the operation, but the majority of our memories must not be reliant on constant electrical signals for this procedure to work.", "human_ref_B": "So, the short answer is nobody knows. This is a hot research topic right now, as technical advances in the last decade have made it possible to investigate what types of cells are involved and what they're doing as well as the timing involved.  An oversimplification of the long answer:  Adding on to what higgs8 says: Memory formation and learning seem to involve the formation of spines along dendrites (generally the output end of the neuron although it's more complicated than that). These spines are new connections that didn't exist before. They are \"pruned\" overnight (this is thought to be one of the functions of sleep) and the ones that remain form the basis of new networks. Information is stored in the networks and in the pattern of activation that they produce.  Networks must be maintained by regular use. If a spine is not activated with sufficient frequency, it gets pruned during the regular overnight scrubbing. This is why you forget things.  You can recall part of a memory because the network is often distributed through different parts of the brain, especially those associated with particular senses. It doesn't all get pruned at once, and it doesn't necessarily all get activated at once.  Sources: spines & memory; usage-based retention/pruning; more on usage-based retention & pruning; sleep", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 328.0, "score_ratio": 4.1875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0ifhyj", "c_root_id_B": "e0ign9j", "created_at_utc_A": 1528758984, "created_at_utc_B": 1528760218, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 67, "human_ref_A": "I read a recent (2018) interesting article in Scientific American relating to this. Seems that nerve signals may actually be conveyed by mechanical waves rather than electrical impulses, with the electrical signals being mainly a side effect. Serious detailed experiments have been done to demonstrate this. It also helps explain why so many different substances can function similarly as anesthetics (different receptors etc. but can deaden mechanical transport). This may tie into memory storage somehow too, but that's a step further along.", "human_ref_B": "So, the short answer is nobody knows. This is a hot research topic right now, as technical advances in the last decade have made it possible to investigate what types of cells are involved and what they're doing as well as the timing involved.  An oversimplification of the long answer:  Adding on to what higgs8 says: Memory formation and learning seem to involve the formation of spines along dendrites (generally the output end of the neuron although it's more complicated than that). These spines are new connections that didn't exist before. They are \"pruned\" overnight (this is thought to be one of the functions of sleep) and the ones that remain form the basis of new networks. Information is stored in the networks and in the pattern of activation that they produce.  Networks must be maintained by regular use. If a spine is not activated with sufficient frequency, it gets pruned during the regular overnight scrubbing. This is why you forget things.  You can recall part of a memory because the network is often distributed through different parts of the brain, especially those associated with particular senses. It doesn't all get pruned at once, and it doesn't necessarily all get activated at once.  Sources: spines & memory; usage-based retention/pruning; more on usage-based retention & pruning; sleep", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1234.0, "score_ratio": 13.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0ig7i5", "c_root_id_B": "e0ign9j", "created_at_utc_A": 1528759755, "created_at_utc_B": 1528760218, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 67, "human_ref_A": "/u/higgs8's answer is excellent. I will add some of the slightly nittier and grittier stuff.   Before we tackle memory, let's see how the brain transfers information.  Nerve cells are called neurons^1. Neurons have input structures (dendrites) and output structures (axons). They sort of look like the branches of a tree. Communication between neurons is accomplished through what is known as action potentials, or spikes. An example: Neuron A is a retinal ganglion cell that responds to visual stimulation of the retina. This visual stimulation leads to the opening of ion channels located on the membrane of neuron A. With the influx and efflux of ions, the electric potential of the neuronal membrane changes. The electric charge makes its way downwards. If it is strong enough, it will trigger an action potential. Action potentials are all-or-nothing events. If the threshold is reached, we get a spike. If it isn't, we don't. It's nice and binary. So this retinal ganglion cell, neuron A, sends a signal down along its axon all the way to the thalamus. Here, it contacts other neurons. It does this by opening and releasing packets of neurotransmitters--often the excitatory glutamate. Glutamate diffuses across the opening between the end of the axon and the other neuron--this is called the synapse. The receiving neurons then have their ion channels opening when contacted by glutamate, and this may or may not result in them firing an action potential.  As you see, neurons communicate via spikes. It makes sense, then, that memory has a lot to do with spikes as well.  When neuron A stimulates neuron B repeatedly, things change so that it will be easier for neuron A to stimulate neuron B. More synapses are created. Neuron B grows more neurotransmitter receptors so it can be more easily activated. It becomes more efficient.  Neurons that fire together, wire together^2.  Both in the short term and in the long term, the changes are physical. They are not abstract, like electrons (what the heck are electrons anyway?).  However, most of these memory-associated changes disappear quickly. In fact, your brain *spends* energy tearing them down^3. You don't want to clutter up the place.  So how is it decided who gets to live and who gets crushed?  According to the behavioral tagging hypothesis^4, there needs to be a signal that what just happened is important. Dopamine is one such signal. Rewards and punishments are very, very important. So dopamine can help make the memories last for a long time. This requires the synthesis of new proteins, cementing the otherwise impermanent changes. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine for you Americans) is another. Noradrenaline is released whenever something unexpected happens. It's like a network reset signal--stop whatever you're doing because something weird just happened. Weird stuff is valuable. That's something you should remember.  Right now the sum total of your synaptic connections is called your **connectome**^5. Some researchers (just slightly naively) believe that this is in essence what you are and that a copy of your connectome is a copy of your experiences and inner struggles.  I think it's also interesting to consider different types of memories. Episodic memory is rich and detailed--it's the memories of events in your life. Semantic memory is abstract--it's the memories of facts and such. Through a process called systems consolidation, episodic memories are turned into semantic memories by moving them from the hippocampus to the neocortex^6. Unless they were tagged via the amygdala as being emotionally important, the episodic memories will likely gradually disappear. What you remember is most often the **gist** of what happened to you. That's what systems consolidation is about: the gistification of your memories. It compresses them so you can fit a vast amount of information in your neocortex.  1.\tKandel\u2019s *Principles of Neural Science* and Purves\u2019 *Neuroscience* have nice chapters on neuronal structure and morphology, synaptic transmission, action potentials, and ion channels. 2.\tThis is a famous quote, slightly modified, from Donald Hebb. 3.\tThe Persistence and Transience of Memory.30365-3) 4.\tBehavioral tagging. 5.\tSebastian Seung has a rather entertaining Ted Talk on this topic. 6.\tHippocampal-Neocortical Interactions in Memory Formation, Consolidation, and Reconsolidation", "human_ref_B": "So, the short answer is nobody knows. This is a hot research topic right now, as technical advances in the last decade have made it possible to investigate what types of cells are involved and what they're doing as well as the timing involved.  An oversimplification of the long answer:  Adding on to what higgs8 says: Memory formation and learning seem to involve the formation of spines along dendrites (generally the output end of the neuron although it's more complicated than that). These spines are new connections that didn't exist before. They are \"pruned\" overnight (this is thought to be one of the functions of sleep) and the ones that remain form the basis of new networks. Information is stored in the networks and in the pattern of activation that they produce.  Networks must be maintained by regular use. If a spine is not activated with sufficient frequency, it gets pruned during the regular overnight scrubbing. This is why you forget things.  You can recall part of a memory because the network is often distributed through different parts of the brain, especially those associated with particular senses. It doesn't all get pruned at once, and it doesn't necessarily all get activated at once.  Sources: spines & memory; usage-based retention/pruning; more on usage-based retention & pruning; sleep", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 463.0, "score_ratio": 22.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0igc7a", "c_root_id_B": "e0ifhyj", "created_at_utc_A": 1528759890, "created_at_utc_B": 1528758984, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "There is a process that is done during some brain or heart surgeries where body temperature is lowered to a point where blood flow in the body can be stopped for up to 40 minutes without any significant brain damage. An EKG is used to determine that there is zero brain activity, which is when the doctors know it is safe to stop blood flow to the brain. Then the surgery is done, blood flow is resumed, body temperature is raised, brain activity resumes, and the patient wakes up and carries on with their life. I'm not sure if the patients remember everything up to the point that they were put under for the operation, but the majority of our memories must not be reliant on constant electrical signals for this procedure to work.", "human_ref_B": "I read a recent (2018) interesting article in Scientific American relating to this. Seems that nerve signals may actually be conveyed by mechanical waves rather than electrical impulses, with the electrical signals being mainly a side effect. Serious detailed experiments have been done to demonstrate this. It also helps explain why so many different substances can function similarly as anesthetics (different receptors etc. but can deaden mechanical transport). This may tie into memory storage somehow too, but that's a step further along.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 906.0, "score_ratio": 3.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0igc7a", "c_root_id_B": "e0ig7i5", "created_at_utc_A": 1528759890, "created_at_utc_B": 1528759755, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There is a process that is done during some brain or heart surgeries where body temperature is lowered to a point where blood flow in the body can be stopped for up to 40 minutes without any significant brain damage. An EKG is used to determine that there is zero brain activity, which is when the doctors know it is safe to stop blood flow to the brain. Then the surgery is done, blood flow is resumed, body temperature is raised, brain activity resumes, and the patient wakes up and carries on with their life. I'm not sure if the patients remember everything up to the point that they were put under for the operation, but the majority of our memories must not be reliant on constant electrical signals for this procedure to work.", "human_ref_B": "/u/higgs8's answer is excellent. I will add some of the slightly nittier and grittier stuff.   Before we tackle memory, let's see how the brain transfers information.  Nerve cells are called neurons^1. Neurons have input structures (dendrites) and output structures (axons). They sort of look like the branches of a tree. Communication between neurons is accomplished through what is known as action potentials, or spikes. An example: Neuron A is a retinal ganglion cell that responds to visual stimulation of the retina. This visual stimulation leads to the opening of ion channels located on the membrane of neuron A. With the influx and efflux of ions, the electric potential of the neuronal membrane changes. The electric charge makes its way downwards. If it is strong enough, it will trigger an action potential. Action potentials are all-or-nothing events. If the threshold is reached, we get a spike. If it isn't, we don't. It's nice and binary. So this retinal ganglion cell, neuron A, sends a signal down along its axon all the way to the thalamus. Here, it contacts other neurons. It does this by opening and releasing packets of neurotransmitters--often the excitatory glutamate. Glutamate diffuses across the opening between the end of the axon and the other neuron--this is called the synapse. The receiving neurons then have their ion channels opening when contacted by glutamate, and this may or may not result in them firing an action potential.  As you see, neurons communicate via spikes. It makes sense, then, that memory has a lot to do with spikes as well.  When neuron A stimulates neuron B repeatedly, things change so that it will be easier for neuron A to stimulate neuron B. More synapses are created. Neuron B grows more neurotransmitter receptors so it can be more easily activated. It becomes more efficient.  Neurons that fire together, wire together^2.  Both in the short term and in the long term, the changes are physical. They are not abstract, like electrons (what the heck are electrons anyway?).  However, most of these memory-associated changes disappear quickly. In fact, your brain *spends* energy tearing them down^3. You don't want to clutter up the place.  So how is it decided who gets to live and who gets crushed?  According to the behavioral tagging hypothesis^4, there needs to be a signal that what just happened is important. Dopamine is one such signal. Rewards and punishments are very, very important. So dopamine can help make the memories last for a long time. This requires the synthesis of new proteins, cementing the otherwise impermanent changes. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine for you Americans) is another. Noradrenaline is released whenever something unexpected happens. It's like a network reset signal--stop whatever you're doing because something weird just happened. Weird stuff is valuable. That's something you should remember.  Right now the sum total of your synaptic connections is called your **connectome**^5. Some researchers (just slightly naively) believe that this is in essence what you are and that a copy of your connectome is a copy of your experiences and inner struggles.  I think it's also interesting to consider different types of memories. Episodic memory is rich and detailed--it's the memories of events in your life. Semantic memory is abstract--it's the memories of facts and such. Through a process called systems consolidation, episodic memories are turned into semantic memories by moving them from the hippocampus to the neocortex^6. Unless they were tagged via the amygdala as being emotionally important, the episodic memories will likely gradually disappear. What you remember is most often the **gist** of what happened to you. That's what systems consolidation is about: the gistification of your memories. It compresses them so you can fit a vast amount of information in your neocortex.  1.\tKandel\u2019s *Principles of Neural Science* and Purves\u2019 *Neuroscience* have nice chapters on neuronal structure and morphology, synaptic transmission, action potentials, and ion channels. 2.\tThis is a famous quote, slightly modified, from Donald Hebb. 3.\tThe Persistence and Transience of Memory.30365-3) 4.\tBehavioral tagging. 5.\tSebastian Seung has a rather entertaining Ted Talk on this topic. 6.\tHippocampal-Neocortical Interactions in Memory Formation, Consolidation, and Reconsolidation", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 135.0, "score_ratio": 5.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0ifhyj", "c_root_id_B": "e0j3bgk", "created_at_utc_A": 1528758984, "created_at_utc_B": 1528786590, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I read a recent (2018) interesting article in Scientific American relating to this. Seems that nerve signals may actually be conveyed by mechanical waves rather than electrical impulses, with the electrical signals being mainly a side effect. Serious detailed experiments have been done to demonstrate this. It also helps explain why so many different substances can function similarly as anesthetics (different receptors etc. but can deaden mechanical transport). This may tie into memory storage somehow too, but that's a step further along.", "human_ref_B": "We don't know how the brain stores or processes information.  We don't even know what questions to ask to answer those questions.  Best we have is a bunch of high level observations, which is what the other posters here have provided.  Be wary of fMRI voodoo.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27606.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0iufo3", "c_root_id_B": "e0j3bgk", "created_at_utc_A": 1528773974, "created_at_utc_B": 1528786590, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "As other users have mentioned, long story short, nobody knows the process of memory storage on a grand (brain-wide) level. Neuroscientists do know however that certain brain regions play key roles in certain types of memory. Some examples of this include the hippocampus in memory consolidation/formation of long-term memories, the prefrontal cortex and its various loops in the storage of short-term memory/working memory, and the amygdala's involvement in emotional memory.  A little more is known about the chemical aspect of memories. As you said, electrical signals created during experiences do have a lot to do with it. Anytime you experience a stimulus, certain neurons will fire \"action potentials\", or little spikes of energy, towards each other through their axons. These action potentials are caused by the opening of sodium channels in neurons that lead to \"depolarization\", and are transduced through many different neuron types beginning at sensory neurons.   So what does all this have to do with memory? Well, turns out that the more neurons interact with each other in specific patterns, the stronger their interactions (AKA \"synapses\") can get, making the electrical pattern of neuronal activity induced by a stimulus become activated when one is exposed to a part of that stimuli. In other words, when you experience a stimulus, the cells in your brain involved in processing that stimulus strengthen their interactions, making you more likely to recall your perception of that stimulus when exposed to only a part of that stimulus, which is the definition of memory. That is also why you can vividly remember a childhood memory when exposed to only a specific smell, as the neurons involved in processing that smell have developed stronger synapses with the groups of neurons involved in processing the rest of your memory.  The process of this actual strengthening of synapses is quite complex and is still being studied. The two key chemical pathways that regulate this process are thought to be LTP (Long Term Potentiation) and LTD (Long Term Depression). Essentially, both of these processes regulate the expression of a specific receptor (NMDA) that responds to a neurotransmitter called Glutamate on the membranes of neurons. LTD leads to the endocytosis (uptake) of NMDA receptors, and LTP leads to the exocytosis (increased expression) of NMDA receptors. The uptake of NMDA receptors correlates to a decreased synaptic strength and vice versa.   I am by no means an expert on this subject, so feel free to correct me if I am wrong or ask for any clarifications. I hope I could help!", "human_ref_B": "We don't know how the brain stores or processes information.  We don't even know what questions to ask to answer those questions.  Best we have is a bunch of high level observations, which is what the other posters here have provided.  Be wary of fMRI voodoo.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12616.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0j3bgk", "c_root_id_B": "e0ig7i5", "created_at_utc_A": 1528786590, "created_at_utc_B": 1528759755, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "We don't know how the brain stores or processes information.  We don't even know what questions to ask to answer those questions.  Best we have is a bunch of high level observations, which is what the other posters here have provided.  Be wary of fMRI voodoo.", "human_ref_B": "/u/higgs8's answer is excellent. I will add some of the slightly nittier and grittier stuff.   Before we tackle memory, let's see how the brain transfers information.  Nerve cells are called neurons^1. Neurons have input structures (dendrites) and output structures (axons). They sort of look like the branches of a tree. Communication between neurons is accomplished through what is known as action potentials, or spikes. An example: Neuron A is a retinal ganglion cell that responds to visual stimulation of the retina. This visual stimulation leads to the opening of ion channels located on the membrane of neuron A. With the influx and efflux of ions, the electric potential of the neuronal membrane changes. The electric charge makes its way downwards. If it is strong enough, it will trigger an action potential. Action potentials are all-or-nothing events. If the threshold is reached, we get a spike. If it isn't, we don't. It's nice and binary. So this retinal ganglion cell, neuron A, sends a signal down along its axon all the way to the thalamus. Here, it contacts other neurons. It does this by opening and releasing packets of neurotransmitters--often the excitatory glutamate. Glutamate diffuses across the opening between the end of the axon and the other neuron--this is called the synapse. The receiving neurons then have their ion channels opening when contacted by glutamate, and this may or may not result in them firing an action potential.  As you see, neurons communicate via spikes. It makes sense, then, that memory has a lot to do with spikes as well.  When neuron A stimulates neuron B repeatedly, things change so that it will be easier for neuron A to stimulate neuron B. More synapses are created. Neuron B grows more neurotransmitter receptors so it can be more easily activated. It becomes more efficient.  Neurons that fire together, wire together^2.  Both in the short term and in the long term, the changes are physical. They are not abstract, like electrons (what the heck are electrons anyway?).  However, most of these memory-associated changes disappear quickly. In fact, your brain *spends* energy tearing them down^3. You don't want to clutter up the place.  So how is it decided who gets to live and who gets crushed?  According to the behavioral tagging hypothesis^4, there needs to be a signal that what just happened is important. Dopamine is one such signal. Rewards and punishments are very, very important. So dopamine can help make the memories last for a long time. This requires the synthesis of new proteins, cementing the otherwise impermanent changes. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine for you Americans) is another. Noradrenaline is released whenever something unexpected happens. It's like a network reset signal--stop whatever you're doing because something weird just happened. Weird stuff is valuable. That's something you should remember.  Right now the sum total of your synaptic connections is called your **connectome**^5. Some researchers (just slightly naively) believe that this is in essence what you are and that a copy of your connectome is a copy of your experiences and inner struggles.  I think it's also interesting to consider different types of memories. Episodic memory is rich and detailed--it's the memories of events in your life. Semantic memory is abstract--it's the memories of facts and such. Through a process called systems consolidation, episodic memories are turned into semantic memories by moving them from the hippocampus to the neocortex^6. Unless they were tagged via the amygdala as being emotionally important, the episodic memories will likely gradually disappear. What you remember is most often the **gist** of what happened to you. That's what systems consolidation is about: the gistification of your memories. It compresses them so you can fit a vast amount of information in your neocortex.  1.\tKandel\u2019s *Principles of Neural Science* and Purves\u2019 *Neuroscience* have nice chapters on neuronal structure and morphology, synaptic transmission, action potentials, and ion channels. 2.\tThis is a famous quote, slightly modified, from Donald Hebb. 3.\tThe Persistence and Transience of Memory.30365-3) 4.\tBehavioral tagging. 5.\tSebastian Seung has a rather entertaining Ted Talk on this topic. 6.\tHippocampal-Neocortical Interactions in Memory Formation, Consolidation, and Reconsolidation", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26835.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0j3bgk", "c_root_id_B": "e0j1kyg", "created_at_utc_A": 1528786590, "created_at_utc_B": 1528783588, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "We don't know how the brain stores or processes information.  We don't even know what questions to ask to answer those questions.  Best we have is a bunch of high level observations, which is what the other posters here have provided.  Be wary of fMRI voodoo.", "human_ref_B": "Others have answered but never had this detail:  What is a stream in the woods? Is it a bed of rocks on a low level? Is it water? Neither water nor a bed of rocks is a stream. A stream is a pattern of water over a bed of rocks. That is memory.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3002.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0ifhyj", "c_root_id_B": "e0jixyg", "created_at_utc_A": 1528758984, "created_at_utc_B": 1528812301, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I read a recent (2018) interesting article in Scientific American relating to this. Seems that nerve signals may actually be conveyed by mechanical waves rather than electrical impulses, with the electrical signals being mainly a side effect. Serious detailed experiments have been done to demonstrate this. It also helps explain why so many different substances can function similarly as anesthetics (different receptors etc. but can deaden mechanical transport). This may tie into memory storage somehow too, but that's a step further along.", "human_ref_B": "The metaphor of the brain as computer is misleading because memories are not that stable nor are they that easily accessible. There have been at least 6 major metaphors of the brain throughout history. At best they are imperfect. What\u2019s worse is they give the public consumers of science news an inaccurate understanding of how remarkable our brains truly are.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 53317.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0iufo3", "c_root_id_B": "e0jixyg", "created_at_utc_A": 1528773974, "created_at_utc_B": 1528812301, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "As other users have mentioned, long story short, nobody knows the process of memory storage on a grand (brain-wide) level. Neuroscientists do know however that certain brain regions play key roles in certain types of memory. Some examples of this include the hippocampus in memory consolidation/formation of long-term memories, the prefrontal cortex and its various loops in the storage of short-term memory/working memory, and the amygdala's involvement in emotional memory.  A little more is known about the chemical aspect of memories. As you said, electrical signals created during experiences do have a lot to do with it. Anytime you experience a stimulus, certain neurons will fire \"action potentials\", or little spikes of energy, towards each other through their axons. These action potentials are caused by the opening of sodium channels in neurons that lead to \"depolarization\", and are transduced through many different neuron types beginning at sensory neurons.   So what does all this have to do with memory? Well, turns out that the more neurons interact with each other in specific patterns, the stronger their interactions (AKA \"synapses\") can get, making the electrical pattern of neuronal activity induced by a stimulus become activated when one is exposed to a part of that stimuli. In other words, when you experience a stimulus, the cells in your brain involved in processing that stimulus strengthen their interactions, making you more likely to recall your perception of that stimulus when exposed to only a part of that stimulus, which is the definition of memory. That is also why you can vividly remember a childhood memory when exposed to only a specific smell, as the neurons involved in processing that smell have developed stronger synapses with the groups of neurons involved in processing the rest of your memory.  The process of this actual strengthening of synapses is quite complex and is still being studied. The two key chemical pathways that regulate this process are thought to be LTP (Long Term Potentiation) and LTD (Long Term Depression). Essentially, both of these processes regulate the expression of a specific receptor (NMDA) that responds to a neurotransmitter called Glutamate on the membranes of neurons. LTD leads to the endocytosis (uptake) of NMDA receptors, and LTP leads to the exocytosis (increased expression) of NMDA receptors. The uptake of NMDA receptors correlates to a decreased synaptic strength and vice versa.   I am by no means an expert on this subject, so feel free to correct me if I am wrong or ask for any clarifications. I hope I could help!", "human_ref_B": "The metaphor of the brain as computer is misleading because memories are not that stable nor are they that easily accessible. There have been at least 6 major metaphors of the brain throughout history. At best they are imperfect. What\u2019s worse is they give the public consumers of science news an inaccurate understanding of how remarkable our brains truly are.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 38327.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0jixyg", "c_root_id_B": "e0ig7i5", "created_at_utc_A": 1528812301, "created_at_utc_B": 1528759755, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The metaphor of the brain as computer is misleading because memories are not that stable nor are they that easily accessible. There have been at least 6 major metaphors of the brain throughout history. At best they are imperfect. What\u2019s worse is they give the public consumers of science news an inaccurate understanding of how remarkable our brains truly are.", "human_ref_B": "/u/higgs8's answer is excellent. I will add some of the slightly nittier and grittier stuff.   Before we tackle memory, let's see how the brain transfers information.  Nerve cells are called neurons^1. Neurons have input structures (dendrites) and output structures (axons). They sort of look like the branches of a tree. Communication between neurons is accomplished through what is known as action potentials, or spikes. An example: Neuron A is a retinal ganglion cell that responds to visual stimulation of the retina. This visual stimulation leads to the opening of ion channels located on the membrane of neuron A. With the influx and efflux of ions, the electric potential of the neuronal membrane changes. The electric charge makes its way downwards. If it is strong enough, it will trigger an action potential. Action potentials are all-or-nothing events. If the threshold is reached, we get a spike. If it isn't, we don't. It's nice and binary. So this retinal ganglion cell, neuron A, sends a signal down along its axon all the way to the thalamus. Here, it contacts other neurons. It does this by opening and releasing packets of neurotransmitters--often the excitatory glutamate. Glutamate diffuses across the opening between the end of the axon and the other neuron--this is called the synapse. The receiving neurons then have their ion channels opening when contacted by glutamate, and this may or may not result in them firing an action potential.  As you see, neurons communicate via spikes. It makes sense, then, that memory has a lot to do with spikes as well.  When neuron A stimulates neuron B repeatedly, things change so that it will be easier for neuron A to stimulate neuron B. More synapses are created. Neuron B grows more neurotransmitter receptors so it can be more easily activated. It becomes more efficient.  Neurons that fire together, wire together^2.  Both in the short term and in the long term, the changes are physical. They are not abstract, like electrons (what the heck are electrons anyway?).  However, most of these memory-associated changes disappear quickly. In fact, your brain *spends* energy tearing them down^3. You don't want to clutter up the place.  So how is it decided who gets to live and who gets crushed?  According to the behavioral tagging hypothesis^4, there needs to be a signal that what just happened is important. Dopamine is one such signal. Rewards and punishments are very, very important. So dopamine can help make the memories last for a long time. This requires the synthesis of new proteins, cementing the otherwise impermanent changes. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine for you Americans) is another. Noradrenaline is released whenever something unexpected happens. It's like a network reset signal--stop whatever you're doing because something weird just happened. Weird stuff is valuable. That's something you should remember.  Right now the sum total of your synaptic connections is called your **connectome**^5. Some researchers (just slightly naively) believe that this is in essence what you are and that a copy of your connectome is a copy of your experiences and inner struggles.  I think it's also interesting to consider different types of memories. Episodic memory is rich and detailed--it's the memories of events in your life. Semantic memory is abstract--it's the memories of facts and such. Through a process called systems consolidation, episodic memories are turned into semantic memories by moving them from the hippocampus to the neocortex^6. Unless they were tagged via the amygdala as being emotionally important, the episodic memories will likely gradually disappear. What you remember is most often the **gist** of what happened to you. That's what systems consolidation is about: the gistification of your memories. It compresses them so you can fit a vast amount of information in your neocortex.  1.\tKandel\u2019s *Principles of Neural Science* and Purves\u2019 *Neuroscience* have nice chapters on neuronal structure and morphology, synaptic transmission, action potentials, and ion channels. 2.\tThis is a famous quote, slightly modified, from Donald Hebb. 3.\tThe Persistence and Transience of Memory.30365-3) 4.\tBehavioral tagging. 5.\tSebastian Seung has a rather entertaining Ted Talk on this topic. 6.\tHippocampal-Neocortical Interactions in Memory Formation, Consolidation, and Reconsolidation", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 52546.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0jixyg", "c_root_id_B": "e0j1kyg", "created_at_utc_A": 1528812301, "created_at_utc_B": 1528783588, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The metaphor of the brain as computer is misleading because memories are not that stable nor are they that easily accessible. There have been at least 6 major metaphors of the brain throughout history. At best they are imperfect. What\u2019s worse is they give the public consumers of science news an inaccurate understanding of how remarkable our brains truly are.", "human_ref_B": "Others have answered but never had this detail:  What is a stream in the woods? Is it a bed of rocks on a low level? Is it water? Neither water nor a bed of rocks is a stream. A stream is a pattern of water over a bed of rocks. That is memory.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28713.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0jcb34", "c_root_id_B": "e0jixyg", "created_at_utc_A": 1528804587, "created_at_utc_B": 1528812301, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "No analogy of a computer memory will clearly describe a memory in a brain. A memory in a brain is more like flow of rain water on an empty ground. Let's say you pour some water on the ground with sand. Initially it will pave its way through the sand to reach the other end of the ground. Now assuming that nothing much happened on the ground until next day, if you pour the water the same way from the same it it will mostly go through the same path it paved yesterday. The same way everytime you experience something there is a flow of potential from you your sensory neurons, to interneurons to motor neurones. A path is paved from what all cells and muscles were like during sensation, to what was state at end of response in each part of your body. The interneurons in between strengthen or weaken the synpapses they have in interconnecting networks that control your body. Next time you see face a similar stimulus or even think of a similar stimulus this same path gets activated. Also this is the time when this path is also open for modification if any.   - Sunny , AMRSB", "human_ref_B": "The metaphor of the brain as computer is misleading because memories are not that stable nor are they that easily accessible. There have been at least 6 major metaphors of the brain throughout history. At best they are imperfect. What\u2019s worse is they give the public consumers of science news an inaccurate understanding of how remarkable our brains truly are.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7714.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8qbtzm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How are memories stored in the brain? Are they electrical, material or...? How is a memory formed, stored and recalled?   The way I simply picture it as, is an electrical signal created during an experience, and that gets stored in the brain. So it\u2019s like a computer\u2019s virtual ram... information exists as long as there is electricity in the system (being alive) and gets deleted when you power off (death).  Is there no \u201chard writing\u201d of memories on the brain (like on hard spin drives)?   Following that... why are only part of a memory usually recalled?   Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "e0iufo3", "c_root_id_B": "e0ig7i5", "created_at_utc_A": 1528773974, "created_at_utc_B": 1528759755, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "As other users have mentioned, long story short, nobody knows the process of memory storage on a grand (brain-wide) level. Neuroscientists do know however that certain brain regions play key roles in certain types of memory. Some examples of this include the hippocampus in memory consolidation/formation of long-term memories, the prefrontal cortex and its various loops in the storage of short-term memory/working memory, and the amygdala's involvement in emotional memory.  A little more is known about the chemical aspect of memories. As you said, electrical signals created during experiences do have a lot to do with it. Anytime you experience a stimulus, certain neurons will fire \"action potentials\", or little spikes of energy, towards each other through their axons. These action potentials are caused by the opening of sodium channels in neurons that lead to \"depolarization\", and are transduced through many different neuron types beginning at sensory neurons.   So what does all this have to do with memory? Well, turns out that the more neurons interact with each other in specific patterns, the stronger their interactions (AKA \"synapses\") can get, making the electrical pattern of neuronal activity induced by a stimulus become activated when one is exposed to a part of that stimuli. In other words, when you experience a stimulus, the cells in your brain involved in processing that stimulus strengthen their interactions, making you more likely to recall your perception of that stimulus when exposed to only a part of that stimulus, which is the definition of memory. That is also why you can vividly remember a childhood memory when exposed to only a specific smell, as the neurons involved in processing that smell have developed stronger synapses with the groups of neurons involved in processing the rest of your memory.  The process of this actual strengthening of synapses is quite complex and is still being studied. The two key chemical pathways that regulate this process are thought to be LTP (Long Term Potentiation) and LTD (Long Term Depression). Essentially, both of these processes regulate the expression of a specific receptor (NMDA) that responds to a neurotransmitter called Glutamate on the membranes of neurons. LTD leads to the endocytosis (uptake) of NMDA receptors, and LTP leads to the exocytosis (increased expression) of NMDA receptors. The uptake of NMDA receptors correlates to a decreased synaptic strength and vice versa.   I am by no means an expert on this subject, so feel free to correct me if I am wrong or ask for any clarifications. I hope I could help!", "human_ref_B": "/u/higgs8's answer is excellent. I will add some of the slightly nittier and grittier stuff.   Before we tackle memory, let's see how the brain transfers information.  Nerve cells are called neurons^1. Neurons have input structures (dendrites) and output structures (axons). They sort of look like the branches of a tree. Communication between neurons is accomplished through what is known as action potentials, or spikes. An example: Neuron A is a retinal ganglion cell that responds to visual stimulation of the retina. This visual stimulation leads to the opening of ion channels located on the membrane of neuron A. With the influx and efflux of ions, the electric potential of the neuronal membrane changes. The electric charge makes its way downwards. If it is strong enough, it will trigger an action potential. Action potentials are all-or-nothing events. If the threshold is reached, we get a spike. If it isn't, we don't. It's nice and binary. So this retinal ganglion cell, neuron A, sends a signal down along its axon all the way to the thalamus. Here, it contacts other neurons. It does this by opening and releasing packets of neurotransmitters--often the excitatory glutamate. Glutamate diffuses across the opening between the end of the axon and the other neuron--this is called the synapse. The receiving neurons then have their ion channels opening when contacted by glutamate, and this may or may not result in them firing an action potential.  As you see, neurons communicate via spikes. It makes sense, then, that memory has a lot to do with spikes as well.  When neuron A stimulates neuron B repeatedly, things change so that it will be easier for neuron A to stimulate neuron B. More synapses are created. Neuron B grows more neurotransmitter receptors so it can be more easily activated. It becomes more efficient.  Neurons that fire together, wire together^2.  Both in the short term and in the long term, the changes are physical. They are not abstract, like electrons (what the heck are electrons anyway?).  However, most of these memory-associated changes disappear quickly. In fact, your brain *spends* energy tearing them down^3. You don't want to clutter up the place.  So how is it decided who gets to live and who gets crushed?  According to the behavioral tagging hypothesis^4, there needs to be a signal that what just happened is important. Dopamine is one such signal. Rewards and punishments are very, very important. So dopamine can help make the memories last for a long time. This requires the synthesis of new proteins, cementing the otherwise impermanent changes. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine for you Americans) is another. Noradrenaline is released whenever something unexpected happens. It's like a network reset signal--stop whatever you're doing because something weird just happened. Weird stuff is valuable. That's something you should remember.  Right now the sum total of your synaptic connections is called your **connectome**^5. Some researchers (just slightly naively) believe that this is in essence what you are and that a copy of your connectome is a copy of your experiences and inner struggles.  I think it's also interesting to consider different types of memories. Episodic memory is rich and detailed--it's the memories of events in your life. Semantic memory is abstract--it's the memories of facts and such. Through a process called systems consolidation, episodic memories are turned into semantic memories by moving them from the hippocampus to the neocortex^6. Unless they were tagged via the amygdala as being emotionally important, the episodic memories will likely gradually disappear. What you remember is most often the **gist** of what happened to you. That's what systems consolidation is about: the gistification of your memories. It compresses them so you can fit a vast amount of information in your neocortex.  1.\tKandel\u2019s *Principles of Neural Science* and Purves\u2019 *Neuroscience* have nice chapters on neuronal structure and morphology, synaptic transmission, action potentials, and ion channels. 2.\tThis is a famous quote, slightly modified, from Donald Hebb. 3.\tThe Persistence and Transience of Memory.30365-3) 4.\tBehavioral tagging. 5.\tSebastian Seung has a rather entertaining Ted Talk on this topic. 6.\tHippocampal-Neocortical Interactions in Memory Formation, Consolidation, and Reconsolidation", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14219.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wpt6zj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If dimples on a golf ball increase distance, and denticles on a sharks skin decrease hydrodynamic resistance, why are barnacles bad for ships, aside from weight?", "c_root_id_A": "ikj42zp", "c_root_id_B": "ikj9bdc", "created_at_utc_A": 1660663762, "created_at_utc_B": 1660665703, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 81, "human_ref_A": "Dimples on a golf ball reduce the surface that actually causes drag (turbulance around the dimples). Barnacles on ships is like sanding paper and causes extra drag because they protrude way too much and have sharp angles.  If you would put golf ball dimples on a fast boat they would reduce drag. Similar effect if you blow air between the the boat and water below the surface.", "human_ref_B": "The dimples on a golf ball create turbulence which normally increases drag, but in the particular circumstance of the golf ball, it actually reduces drag. The reasoning is totally not intuitive and easy to explain, but it has to do with the turbulence allowing the air flowing around the ball to detach (stop being laminar flow) early which creates a barrier that allows air outside the turbulent layer to flow more optimally, in the shape of a boattail. This in turn reduces the drag.   This trick of adding additional turbulence to reduce drag only works in very specific circumstances and conditions. You can't add vortex generators to any circumstance and expect it to work better than without.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1941.0, "score_ratio": 5.7857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wpt6zj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If dimples on a golf ball increase distance, and denticles on a sharks skin decrease hydrodynamic resistance, why are barnacles bad for ships, aside from weight?", "c_root_id_A": "ikj16fk", "c_root_id_B": "ikj9bdc", "created_at_utc_A": 1660662675, "created_at_utc_B": 1660665703, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 81, "human_ref_A": "Large barnacle colonies cause ships to drag and burn more fuel, leading to significant economic and environmental costs. The U.S. Navy estimates that heavy barnacle growth on ships increases weight and drag by as much as 60 percent, resulting in as much as a 40 percent increase in fuel consumption!Feb 26, 2021.  https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/barnacles.html", "human_ref_B": "The dimples on a golf ball create turbulence which normally increases drag, but in the particular circumstance of the golf ball, it actually reduces drag. The reasoning is totally not intuitive and easy to explain, but it has to do with the turbulence allowing the air flowing around the ball to detach (stop being laminar flow) early which creates a barrier that allows air outside the turbulent layer to flow more optimally, in the shape of a boattail. This in turn reduces the drag.   This trick of adding additional turbulence to reduce drag only works in very specific circumstances and conditions. You can't add vortex generators to any circumstance and expect it to work better than without.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3028.0, "score_ratio": 6.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wpt6zj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If dimples on a golf ball increase distance, and denticles on a sharks skin decrease hydrodynamic resistance, why are barnacles bad for ships, aside from weight?", "c_root_id_A": "ikj16fk", "c_root_id_B": "ikj42zp", "created_at_utc_A": 1660662675, "created_at_utc_B": 1660663762, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Large barnacle colonies cause ships to drag and burn more fuel, leading to significant economic and environmental costs. The U.S. Navy estimates that heavy barnacle growth on ships increases weight and drag by as much as 60 percent, resulting in as much as a 40 percent increase in fuel consumption!Feb 26, 2021.  https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/barnacles.html", "human_ref_B": "Dimples on a golf ball reduce the surface that actually causes drag (turbulance around the dimples). Barnacles on ships is like sanding paper and causes extra drag because they protrude way too much and have sharp angles.  If you would put golf ball dimples on a fast boat they would reduce drag. Similar effect if you blow air between the the boat and water below the surface.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1087.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wpt6zj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If dimples on a golf ball increase distance, and denticles on a sharks skin decrease hydrodynamic resistance, why are barnacles bad for ships, aside from weight?", "c_root_id_A": "ikj16fk", "c_root_id_B": "ikjvqxt", "created_at_utc_A": 1660662675, "created_at_utc_B": 1660674116, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Large barnacle colonies cause ships to drag and burn more fuel, leading to significant economic and environmental costs. The U.S. Navy estimates that heavy barnacle growth on ships increases weight and drag by as much as 60 percent, resulting in as much as a 40 percent increase in fuel consumption!Feb 26, 2021.  https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/barnacles.html", "human_ref_B": "I'll try and answer both questions. Most replies about golf balls are largely correct. The transition of the boundary layer from laminar to turbulent helps it \"stay attached\" further around the backside of the ball. So, while the increased \"roughness\" has a negative impact on the skin friction, the form drag is reduced... this link does a good job of illustrating:   LINK  Also, as an aside, you'll find this technique in low-Reynolds, or laminar wings for aircraft. The airfoil profile accelerates the suction-side flow until it can't \"hang on\" anymore... at which you'll see boundary layer trip strips, or vortex generators at a specific location on the wing. That will trip the boundary layer turbulent so it can hold on a little bit longer.   Regarding the shark skin... that's a really cool question, and one that cannot be easily answered. Besides the swim suits we see at the Olympics, you'll also see aerospace applications, particularly on wings and fan blades (large areas with lots of skin friction). If you want to do some research, the word you're looking for are \"riblets\". In fact, 3M even makes tape for this purpose.   The trick is what size/scale. To be completely honest, this is not something that is fully understood. There are theories and simulations -- if you're really interested, jump on ResearchGate or whatever and find some articles... there are hundreds.   Barnacles are simply too large to take advantage of any of these effects. The length scale is at least 2, and maybe 3 orders of magnitude larger. In general, increased roughness is always bad... which in the case of micro riblets is definitely the exception and not the rule.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11441.0, "score_ratio": 1.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wpt6zj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If dimples on a golf ball increase distance, and denticles on a sharks skin decrease hydrodynamic resistance, why are barnacles bad for ships, aside from weight?", "c_root_id_A": "ikji0ap", "c_root_id_B": "ikjvqxt", "created_at_utc_A": 1660668932, "created_at_utc_B": 1660674116, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "It has to do with the speed of the fluid I  relation to the size of the dimple. Golf balls move pretty fast, so the dimples are clearly visible. Sharks move slower but the denticles are much smaller, so a similiar effect takes place. Essentially the barnacles are too big to give the effect, unless the ships were going muuuuch faster. It all boils down to very specific flow behavior of fluids around oslid objects. Only works at specific area on the graph of speed to dimple size", "human_ref_B": "I'll try and answer both questions. Most replies about golf balls are largely correct. The transition of the boundary layer from laminar to turbulent helps it \"stay attached\" further around the backside of the ball. So, while the increased \"roughness\" has a negative impact on the skin friction, the form drag is reduced... this link does a good job of illustrating:   LINK  Also, as an aside, you'll find this technique in low-Reynolds, or laminar wings for aircraft. The airfoil profile accelerates the suction-side flow until it can't \"hang on\" anymore... at which you'll see boundary layer trip strips, or vortex generators at a specific location on the wing. That will trip the boundary layer turbulent so it can hold on a little bit longer.   Regarding the shark skin... that's a really cool question, and one that cannot be easily answered. Besides the swim suits we see at the Olympics, you'll also see aerospace applications, particularly on wings and fan blades (large areas with lots of skin friction). If you want to do some research, the word you're looking for are \"riblets\". In fact, 3M even makes tape for this purpose.   The trick is what size/scale. To be completely honest, this is not something that is fully understood. There are theories and simulations -- if you're really interested, jump on ResearchGate or whatever and find some articles... there are hundreds.   Barnacles are simply too large to take advantage of any of these effects. The length scale is at least 2, and maybe 3 orders of magnitude larger. In general, increased roughness is always bad... which in the case of micro riblets is definitely the exception and not the rule.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5184.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wpt6zj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If dimples on a golf ball increase distance, and denticles on a sharks skin decrease hydrodynamic resistance, why are barnacles bad for ships, aside from weight?", "c_root_id_A": "ikmapzs", "c_root_id_B": "ikk8n6l", "created_at_utc_A": 1660712395, "created_at_utc_B": 1660679010, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Turbulence is inevitable as a fluid passes over a surface, except at very low speeds.  Turbulence transfers energy from the moving object into the fluid in the form of eddies.  In generally, turbulence increases with surface roughness, the relative speed of the fluid, and the distance downstream.   However, there are different types of turbulence - i.e. with different typical eddy sizes.  Larger eddies make for more resistance, other things being equal, so *in the right situation* adding roughness to a surface to force large eddy turbulence into a small eddy regime can actually decrease the resistance.    This is not always true - it depends in a complicated way on the speed, geometry/shape, fluid density and viscosity. You could find that the roughness of shark skin has more resistance at  low velocities but is an advantage at high speed (or something like that.)    Turbulence is a complex, unsolved (\"highly nonlinear\") mathematical problem.  Mathematically, it's weird stuff.  There's some theory but in practice it relies numbers from experiments.  Evolution itself is a very long series of experiments that demonstrates that sharks with rougher skin have been able to catch a few more fish.", "human_ref_B": "Well designed dimples help golfers.  Poorly designed dimples would probably make things worse.  Barnacles stick out instead of being dimples and their arrangement is not well designed for improving a ship's speed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 33385.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uhvnd9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Are there any elements that we've only found on Earth and there's no evidence of them elsewhere?", "c_root_id_A": "i79dq2m", "c_root_id_B": "i79ecbz", "created_at_utc_A": 1651643856, "created_at_utc_B": 1651644298, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "The transuranic elements aren't generally found in nature.  Their radioactive half-lives are shorter than the age of the Earth. So if any are created naturally then they still wouldn't have been present for us to find. We only know of them because we created them.   (There are some exceptions. See linked article.)", "human_ref_B": "There are artificial elements. Though it's entirely possible they were generated at some point in time in a natural nuclear reactor elsewhere, we have no evidence of that - mainly because they exist for such tiny fractions of a second and in such little volumes. So to answer your question - probably no, but maybe yes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 442.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "77ugf2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does a flashing LED light use less electricity than a steady light? Would a light on a 1/2 second on/off flash use half the electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "dopilac", "c_root_id_B": "dopryys", "created_at_utc_A": 1508642720, "created_at_utc_B": 1508663418, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Electricity is not a well-defined quantity, so you can't really talk about \"half the electricity\".  However, energy is well-defined, and if you change the flashing of an LED (known as its duty cycle) without changing its brightness during its on period, you will reduce the total amount of energy it's consuming. The change is proportional, so 50% duty cycle leads to 50% energy utilization, etc.  However, brightness of an LED is a separate thing from its duty cycle, and different LEDs use different amounts of energy. If you take two different LEDs, one always on and one flashing with 50% duty cycle, the second one might not use 50% of energy of the first one \u2014 it depends on the color, the brightness, and even the manufacturer.", "human_ref_B": "One mechanism used to dim led lights is to feed them a square wave and change the duty cycle. That is, turn them on and off so fast that you can't see the flickering. More time spent off and the light looks dimmer.  Unlike incandescent filaments which take a moment to heat up and start emitting light, or fluorescent bulbs which take even longer to establish a plasma emitting might, there is no real downside to turning an led on and off hundreds of times per second.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20698.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m8odq2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why does our immune system need one or two injections to learn to fight a new threat and many injections to unlearn to fight a perceived threat (e.g. dust mite)? Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "grkstcu", "c_root_id_B": "grkr7v7", "created_at_utc_A": 1616236317, "created_at_utc_B": 1616234593, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Your body has limited resources so prioritises them. Building immunity to a disease requires a lot of energy.  When you get a vaccine, your body sees it as a very minor event. A foreign body has entered the muscle tissue and failed to reproduce before it has been \"logged\" and destroyed. So your body says \"keep it on record, there's no need to do anything more, it's a near miss.\" It's something that happens all the time after all.  When you get your second jab within a couple of weeks your immune system says \"this again? It must be bloody everywhere, best make sure I'm ready for a real attack.\"   It's basically because a properly working body always prioritises resource use based on needs and threats.", "human_ref_B": "Because whilst it\u2019s important for your body to be able to learn new defensive techniques there is less of an evolutionary benefit to unlearning protective mechanisms. Outside of major anaphylactic shock from big allergies, most allergic reactions tell you to avoid a stimulus which in protects you and are better for you than the possibile consequences of the pathogen. Most of the time there\u2019s little benefit from weaning yourself onto dangerous stimuli. There\u2019s a hand full like peanuts we interact with on a daily basis but most dangerous toxins are best to be avoided as they aren\u2019t ubiquitous or offer any benefits to us.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1724.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dvizr36", "c_root_id_B": "dviyai0", "created_at_utc_A": 1520777560, "created_at_utc_B": 1520775118, "score_A": 527, "score_B": 76, "human_ref_A": "Calories in calories out (cico) is like a budgetary point: losing weight means burning more calories than you consume.  Burning fat after x minutes of exercise is just a comment on your body switching from primarily carb power (glycogen) to primarily burning fat (ketones) for fuel.  This distinction is not really relevant to casual exercisers or dieters.  To illustrate: A lb of fat is 3500 calories. So to lose a lb of fat a week you need a calorie deficit of 500/calories a day.  You can have a 500/cal deficit without any exercise or without exercising for greater than 30 minutes. In other words, your body also burns fat stores when you eat at a caloric deficit, otherwise no one would lose weight from starvation.", "human_ref_B": "Your immediate energy reserves consist of a bit of glucose, phosphocreatine etc. while glycogen is the medium-term energy reserve that provides more glucose when needed. Only once that's more or less exhausted will the muscles be burning fat directly. That's what hitting the wall is in a marathon or similar endurance event.  But it doesn't really matter to the overall balance whether your muscles are burning fat directly during exercise. What matters in the long run is the energy balance. If your body is in energy starvation more often (and/or more intensely) than it's in energy surplus, the insulin-glucagon balance will favor net breakdown of fat from adipocytes.  The thing is, different parts of the body use different energy sources in different situations. The brain is one of the less flexible organs - it uses glucose exclusively if at all possible, only under severe conditions (starvation or extreme carbohydrate restriction) will it start to use ketone bodies, derived from fat. So it's not so important whether the muscles are actually burning fat or glucose during exercise.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2442.0, "score_ratio": 6.9342105263, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dviym89", "c_root_id_B": "dvizr36", "created_at_utc_A": 1520775693, "created_at_utc_B": 1520777560, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 527, "human_ref_A": "Where available, your body will use free glucose in your blood as an energy source for cells (some cells, such as in your brain, can **only** use glucose as an energy source). A healthy adult will normally have a blood glucose level of between 4 and 8 mmol/l.  During gentle exercise, your blood glucose is used up, and then your body releases a hormone called glucagon, which releases stored glucose from the liver, maintaining a healthy blood glucose level. When this store is exhausted, or if the demand is high enough, the body will find other sources for energy. To do this, it breaks down proteins, and fatty acids, and forms glucose, and ketones. When people use the term \"keto diet\", it means they are deliberately running on a deficit of glucose, to force the body to break down fats. The ketones can sometimes be smelt on the breath (sickly sweet pear drop kind of smell).  It is an inefficient energy source for the body, and creates toxic byproducts (the ketones), which increase stress on the kidneys and liver, and can be harmful in excessive quantities.  In terms of the \"calorie in minus calorie out\" formula, that is true. If you eat at a calorific deficit, you will lose weight - but not necessarily all fat. In order to turn the fats into usable energy sources, the body needs amino acids, and it gets them from breaking down muscle cells, as well as from dietary protein intake.   None of this takes account of the proportion of body weight made up by water. You can change weight through retention of water completely independent of the calories in your diet, and one of the key factors in this is dietary sodium. If you have a high sodium diet, your body retains more water in order to keep a constant concentration in your extra-cellular fluid. Low sodium diets mean less water (and less weight).", "human_ref_B": "Calories in calories out (cico) is like a budgetary point: losing weight means burning more calories than you consume.  Burning fat after x minutes of exercise is just a comment on your body switching from primarily carb power (glycogen) to primarily burning fat (ketones) for fuel.  This distinction is not really relevant to casual exercisers or dieters.  To illustrate: A lb of fat is 3500 calories. So to lose a lb of fat a week you need a calorie deficit of 500/calories a day.  You can have a 500/cal deficit without any exercise or without exercising for greater than 30 minutes. In other words, your body also burns fat stores when you eat at a caloric deficit, otherwise no one would lose weight from starvation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1867.0, "score_ratio": 26.35, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dviy9bb", "c_root_id_B": "dvizr36", "created_at_utc_A": 1520775057, "created_at_utc_B": 1520777560, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 527, "human_ref_A": "If your primary focus is on losing weight, aim for Calorie-In, Calorie-Out (CICO) Your body is constantly burning calories. Whether it is coming from fat cells or glucose reserves(don\u2019t quote me on the correct term), your body will use whatever energy source it can find.   As you start eating less than what you burn, the body will start using fat cells to do the same activities.   Exercising at a fat-burn heart rate for longer time will expedite some of the burn. Because our glucose reserves can only store so much energy. Unlike fat cells they can\u2019t store unlimited amount of energy.   But, if you don\u2019t control CICO, all that exercise would not matter as fat cells are good at absorbing energy too. Any excess will immediately go to them.   Full Disclosure - not an expert, but these are statements I gathered reading through some books/comments while I was going through a similar phase.", "human_ref_B": "Calories in calories out (cico) is like a budgetary point: losing weight means burning more calories than you consume.  Burning fat after x minutes of exercise is just a comment on your body switching from primarily carb power (glycogen) to primarily burning fat (ketones) for fuel.  This distinction is not really relevant to casual exercisers or dieters.  To illustrate: A lb of fat is 3500 calories. So to lose a lb of fat a week you need a calorie deficit of 500/calories a day.  You can have a 500/cal deficit without any exercise or without exercising for greater than 30 minutes. In other words, your body also burns fat stores when you eat at a caloric deficit, otherwise no one would lose weight from starvation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2503.0, "score_ratio": 31.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dviyai0", "c_root_id_B": "dviy9bb", "created_at_utc_A": 1520775118, "created_at_utc_B": 1520775057, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Your immediate energy reserves consist of a bit of glucose, phosphocreatine etc. while glycogen is the medium-term energy reserve that provides more glucose when needed. Only once that's more or less exhausted will the muscles be burning fat directly. That's what hitting the wall is in a marathon or similar endurance event.  But it doesn't really matter to the overall balance whether your muscles are burning fat directly during exercise. What matters in the long run is the energy balance. If your body is in energy starvation more often (and/or more intensely) than it's in energy surplus, the insulin-glucagon balance will favor net breakdown of fat from adipocytes.  The thing is, different parts of the body use different energy sources in different situations. The brain is one of the less flexible organs - it uses glucose exclusively if at all possible, only under severe conditions (starvation or extreme carbohydrate restriction) will it start to use ketone bodies, derived from fat. So it's not so important whether the muscles are actually burning fat or glucose during exercise.", "human_ref_B": "If your primary focus is on losing weight, aim for Calorie-In, Calorie-Out (CICO) Your body is constantly burning calories. Whether it is coming from fat cells or glucose reserves(don\u2019t quote me on the correct term), your body will use whatever energy source it can find.   As you start eating less than what you burn, the body will start using fat cells to do the same activities.   Exercising at a fat-burn heart rate for longer time will expedite some of the burn. Because our glucose reserves can only store so much energy. Unlike fat cells they can\u2019t store unlimited amount of energy.   But, if you don\u2019t control CICO, all that exercise would not matter as fat cells are good at absorbing energy too. Any excess will immediately go to them.   Full Disclosure - not an expert, but these are statements I gathered reading through some books/comments while I was going through a similar phase.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 61.0, "score_ratio": 4.4705882353, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dviym89", "c_root_id_B": "dviy9bb", "created_at_utc_A": 1520775693, "created_at_utc_B": 1520775057, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Where available, your body will use free glucose in your blood as an energy source for cells (some cells, such as in your brain, can **only** use glucose as an energy source). A healthy adult will normally have a blood glucose level of between 4 and 8 mmol/l.  During gentle exercise, your blood glucose is used up, and then your body releases a hormone called glucagon, which releases stored glucose from the liver, maintaining a healthy blood glucose level. When this store is exhausted, or if the demand is high enough, the body will find other sources for energy. To do this, it breaks down proteins, and fatty acids, and forms glucose, and ketones. When people use the term \"keto diet\", it means they are deliberately running on a deficit of glucose, to force the body to break down fats. The ketones can sometimes be smelt on the breath (sickly sweet pear drop kind of smell).  It is an inefficient energy source for the body, and creates toxic byproducts (the ketones), which increase stress on the kidneys and liver, and can be harmful in excessive quantities.  In terms of the \"calorie in minus calorie out\" formula, that is true. If you eat at a calorific deficit, you will lose weight - but not necessarily all fat. In order to turn the fats into usable energy sources, the body needs amino acids, and it gets them from breaking down muscle cells, as well as from dietary protein intake.   None of this takes account of the proportion of body weight made up by water. You can change weight through retention of water completely independent of the calories in your diet, and one of the key factors in this is dietary sodium. If you have a high sodium diet, your body retains more water in order to keep a constant concentration in your extra-cellular fluid. Low sodium diets mean less water (and less weight).", "human_ref_B": "If your primary focus is on losing weight, aim for Calorie-In, Calorie-Out (CICO) Your body is constantly burning calories. Whether it is coming from fat cells or glucose reserves(don\u2019t quote me on the correct term), your body will use whatever energy source it can find.   As you start eating less than what you burn, the body will start using fat cells to do the same activities.   Exercising at a fat-burn heart rate for longer time will expedite some of the burn. Because our glucose reserves can only store so much energy. Unlike fat cells they can\u2019t store unlimited amount of energy.   But, if you don\u2019t control CICO, all that exercise would not matter as fat cells are good at absorbing energy too. Any excess will immediately go to them.   Full Disclosure - not an expert, but these are statements I gathered reading through some books/comments while I was going through a similar phase.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 636.0, "score_ratio": 1.1764705882, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dvj14ou", "c_root_id_B": "dvj1hwj", "created_at_utc_A": 1520779619, "created_at_utc_B": 1520780095, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I haven't seen anyone here mention what I think is the point of your question:  If you do a normal exercise and don't reach the direct fat-burn stage, you still lose fat because your body has to subsequently either convert fat to sugar to restore the reserves or use your next meal for the reserves instead of storing it as fat.", "human_ref_B": "There have been many lengthy responses so I'll just give you the TL;DR: The rule that you have to work out for enough time (or that walking is better if you want to burn fat for that matter) is bogus. If fact, the energy expended during a normal workout is small compared to the basic upkeep, so the thing that really matters for losing weight is intake.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 476.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dvj0mp8", "c_root_id_B": "dvj1hwj", "created_at_utc_A": 1520778902, "created_at_utc_B": 1520780095, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Gonna answer this as simply as I can because a lot of these answers are overly complex. Your body is burning calories constantly just to keep you alive. If you eat fewer calories in a day than your body requires, you will lose weight. Some of this weight will be lean mass (such as muscle), but if you\u2019re substantially overweight, most of it will come from fat stores which will break down and release energy for use by the rest of the body.  Forgot the part about only burning fat after 20 minutes of exercise. That\u2019s incorrect.  Source: med student 2 months away from being a doctor.", "human_ref_B": "There have been many lengthy responses so I'll just give you the TL;DR: The rule that you have to work out for enough time (or that walking is better if you want to burn fat for that matter) is bogus. If fact, the energy expended during a normal workout is small compared to the basic upkeep, so the thing that really matters for losing weight is intake.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1193.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dvj14ou", "c_root_id_B": "dvj0mp8", "created_at_utc_A": 1520779619, "created_at_utc_B": 1520778902, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I haven't seen anyone here mention what I think is the point of your question:  If you do a normal exercise and don't reach the direct fat-burn stage, you still lose fat because your body has to subsequently either convert fat to sugar to restore the reserves or use your next meal for the reserves instead of storing it as fat.", "human_ref_B": "Gonna answer this as simply as I can because a lot of these answers are overly complex. Your body is burning calories constantly just to keep you alive. If you eat fewer calories in a day than your body requires, you will lose weight. Some of this weight will be lean mass (such as muscle), but if you\u2019re substantially overweight, most of it will come from fat stores which will break down and release energy for use by the rest of the body.  Forgot the part about only burning fat after 20 minutes of exercise. That\u2019s incorrect.  Source: med student 2 months away from being a doctor.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 717.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dvj3dsu", "c_root_id_B": "dvj2084", "created_at_utc_A": 1520782553, "created_at_utc_B": 1520780780, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Diet plays a more important role in weight loss than exercise does. The benefits of exercise in weight loss really come from adding muscle, which increases your metabolism, making better use of the food you eat.", "human_ref_B": "People love to talk about thermodynamics but hate to talk about biochemistry.  Insulin tells your body to spare fat and convert all calories preferentially as fat. It also supreses Leptin, the hormone that tells your body it\u2019s full and to stop sending hunger signals.  When you work out you get hungry because you want to replenish lost calories and ingest nutrients. That\u2019s why exercise is a poor way to lose weight.   In order to get your body to burn fat stores you need to keep insulin low and leptin high.   When your body wants to store fat it will lower energy levels (make you tired and lazy). When it burns fat you get energetic and want to get up and move around.   This scientific fact is controversial because it shows that diet effects biochemistry and psychological relationships to food.  This is bad for special Intrest groups who sell foods that cause metabolic syndrome and therefore the health industry and MSM push the idea that all calories are the same, that thermodynamics are divorced from biochemistry and personal sins alone cause fat gain. Shame is a powerful marketing tool.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1773.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dvj2084", "c_root_id_B": "dvj97aj", "created_at_utc_A": 1520780780, "created_at_utc_B": 1520789392, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "People love to talk about thermodynamics but hate to talk about biochemistry.  Insulin tells your body to spare fat and convert all calories preferentially as fat. It also supreses Leptin, the hormone that tells your body it\u2019s full and to stop sending hunger signals.  When you work out you get hungry because you want to replenish lost calories and ingest nutrients. That\u2019s why exercise is a poor way to lose weight.   In order to get your body to burn fat stores you need to keep insulin low and leptin high.   When your body wants to store fat it will lower energy levels (make you tired and lazy). When it burns fat you get energetic and want to get up and move around.   This scientific fact is controversial because it shows that diet effects biochemistry and psychological relationships to food.  This is bad for special Intrest groups who sell foods that cause metabolic syndrome and therefore the health industry and MSM push the idea that all calories are the same, that thermodynamics are divorced from biochemistry and personal sins alone cause fat gain. Shame is a powerful marketing tool.", "human_ref_B": "Exercise actually has almost nothing to do with overall weight loss.  If you look up  doubly labeled water \u201cdiet vs exercise\u201d  you\u2019ll see that a very reliable method of measuring overall calorie burn is telling is that daily activity levels make very little to no difference.  Example article: https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/01/dieting-vs-exercise-for-weight-loss/  Basically, the body seems to do a really thorough job at lowering rest metabolism to counteract any increased energy burn due to activity, such that the overall daily/weekly calorie burn rate is very consistent.  This is what allowed our ancestors to survive while walking all over the place looking for food.  Today, it means we spend the same energy whether we exercise every day or spend all our free time as a couch potato.    And when we get very little exercise, our body is likely spending extra energy on \u201coverhead\u201d activity\u2014 such as inflammation and other things that can be bad for us when sustained for too long.  So getting exercise is still very important for our health, even if it doesn\u2019t actually help with weight loss per se.   The notion about 20 or 30 minutes of exercise is probably really just about how long it takes for your metabolism to fully kick into higher gear due to exercise. I know that\u2019s how long it takes for me to start feeling significantly warmer when I go on a walk.  Yes you\u2019ll be burning more calories per minute during that exercise, and maybe if you\u2019re already close to ketosis it\u2019ll finish the job and get you into pure fat-burning, but again your body is going to make up for that exertion later with a lower metabolism during rest.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8612.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dvj97aj", "c_root_id_B": "dvj6741", "created_at_utc_A": 1520789392, "created_at_utc_B": 1520785989, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Exercise actually has almost nothing to do with overall weight loss.  If you look up  doubly labeled water \u201cdiet vs exercise\u201d  you\u2019ll see that a very reliable method of measuring overall calorie burn is telling is that daily activity levels make very little to no difference.  Example article: https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/01/dieting-vs-exercise-for-weight-loss/  Basically, the body seems to do a really thorough job at lowering rest metabolism to counteract any increased energy burn due to activity, such that the overall daily/weekly calorie burn rate is very consistent.  This is what allowed our ancestors to survive while walking all over the place looking for food.  Today, it means we spend the same energy whether we exercise every day or spend all our free time as a couch potato.    And when we get very little exercise, our body is likely spending extra energy on \u201coverhead\u201d activity\u2014 such as inflammation and other things that can be bad for us when sustained for too long.  So getting exercise is still very important for our health, even if it doesn\u2019t actually help with weight loss per se.   The notion about 20 or 30 minutes of exercise is probably really just about how long it takes for your metabolism to fully kick into higher gear due to exercise. I know that\u2019s how long it takes for me to start feeling significantly warmer when I go on a walk.  Yes you\u2019ll be burning more calories per minute during that exercise, and maybe if you\u2019re already close to ketosis it\u2019ll finish the job and get you into pure fat-burning, but again your body is going to make up for that exertion later with a lower metabolism during rest.", "human_ref_B": "What you learned is highly simplified and not always true.   The body has 3 sources of energy to utilize, called substrates.  1. Carbs: These include both simple and complex carbs, like bread or sugar. The body uses this first for energy.   Some people that cut carbs are trying to trigger ketosis, the generation of ketones that burn more fat.  2. Fat: When carbs arent enough the body turns to long term energy stores, fat.  3. Protein: In emergency situations the body will start devouring muscle tissue to power critical systems.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3403.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m901", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How does \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" and \"You only burn fat after x Time of Exercise\" fit together? I often learned that we only burn fat, and thus loose weight, after 30 mins or so of exercise. (Because before that the body uses some other energy source). Then the same people tell me, that the only thing that counts is the Calorie-in / Calorie-out balance. So at least for my brain these two assumptions won't fit together.   If I exercise for just 20 min I might not burn fat but still use Caloriens, so later in the day my body should rely on the fat as an Energy source. So I might not burn fat while exercising but, if \"Calorie-in - Calorie-out\" is true, I should still loose weight.  This question is bugging me for years and all people I talked too, including my Sports Teacher, just keep repeating the thing about the energy-sources, and completely miss my Point. So I hope the question was clear enough and you can finally enlighten me and / or show me where my thinking error lies.", "c_root_id_A": "dvj76da", "c_root_id_B": "dvj97aj", "created_at_utc_A": 1520787103, "created_at_utc_B": 1520789392, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "One other point: exercising in a fasted state (eg first thing in the morning) also changes the equation. Especially when you exercise for an hour or more. Your body will get used to burning more fat. It will increase the number of enzymes for burning fat. Which helps! I dropped 40 lbs like this. I used to be CICO... and always hungry. Now I am skinny and not always hungry.", "human_ref_B": "Exercise actually has almost nothing to do with overall weight loss.  If you look up  doubly labeled water \u201cdiet vs exercise\u201d  you\u2019ll see that a very reliable method of measuring overall calorie burn is telling is that daily activity levels make very little to no difference.  Example article: https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/01/dieting-vs-exercise-for-weight-loss/  Basically, the body seems to do a really thorough job at lowering rest metabolism to counteract any increased energy burn due to activity, such that the overall daily/weekly calorie burn rate is very consistent.  This is what allowed our ancestors to survive while walking all over the place looking for food.  Today, it means we spend the same energy whether we exercise every day or spend all our free time as a couch potato.    And when we get very little exercise, our body is likely spending extra energy on \u201coverhead\u201d activity\u2014 such as inflammation and other things that can be bad for us when sustained for too long.  So getting exercise is still very important for our health, even if it doesn\u2019t actually help with weight loss per se.   The notion about 20 or 30 minutes of exercise is probably really just about how long it takes for your metabolism to fully kick into higher gear due to exercise. I know that\u2019s how long it takes for me to start feeling significantly warmer when I go on a walk.  Yes you\u2019ll be burning more calories per minute during that exercise, and maybe if you\u2019re already close to ketosis it\u2019ll finish the job and get you into pure fat-burning, but again your body is going to make up for that exertion later with a lower metabolism during rest.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2289.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "urfmt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there any validity to the claims made about ionized water? My mother has recently begun extolling the virtues of Kangen water and its health benefits.  She has a list of health benefits from \"experts\" claiming that consuming ionized or \"restructured\" (whatever that means) water \"hydrates cells more efficiently\", can purge toxins from the body, and \"restore a more healthy pH balance\".  Is there any validity to this?  Personally, due to the extremely high cost of one of these ionizers ($5000) and their constant warnings to \"beware of imitators\", I suspect it's a scam, but wanted some more input.  Thanks in advance.", "c_root_id_A": "c4xuta5", "c_root_id_B": "c4xurxu", "created_at_utc_A": 1339156240, "created_at_utc_B": 1339155862, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "No, none at all. Pseudo-scientific nonsense.", "human_ref_B": "There's nothing to it (or at least no evidence that there is anything to it).  Generally, as soon as you see a claim that a product removes 'toxins' it's probably time to move along.  This rule also applies to any product whose packaging contains the word quantum, unless it costs more than $100 000 and is being used for a physics experiment.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 378.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vxszwy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How do astronomers find the oldest sections of the sky to look at? Obviously a lot of space related questions with the JWST doing it's thing, but i wanted to know how they find the ancient sections of space to analyze? Do they scan the entirety of space looking for super redshifted space, or are there areas of the sky that are known to be particularly old?", "c_root_id_A": "ify7eyz", "c_root_id_B": "ify7e02", "created_at_utc_A": 1657684775, "created_at_utc_B": 1657684759, "score_A": 108, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Think of it this way: to look into the past, you look at the *furthest away* sections of sky, since light travels at a finite speed. The fun thing is...there are 'old spots' literally anywhere in the sky you could look.  Look up at the night sky. Pick a spot that you can't see any stars. Get a telescope; you'll find that it had stars in it which were too dim and/or far away to see with your unassisted eyes. But, there will still be dark areas of sky between the stars you see in the telescope. Well, what if you make a bigger telescope and look in *those* dark spots between the stars?  If there isn't too much stuff in the Milky Way between you and the section of sky you chose, you see distant, ancient galaxies and galactic clusters. Picture the head of a pin, held at arm's length, over the night sky. If you make a telescope that can focus on *that small* a section of sky, you still see multiple galaxies.  Generally speaking, you avoid local obstructions and aim somewhere dark, for a *very long* exposure, you'll be able to image galaxies from the first few billion years after the big bang. As far as I know, there isn't any distribution to the zones where anything *especially* old is.  There's...a lot more to it, from there, but does that help?", "human_ref_B": "They look \"Thataway\". Seriously, in any direction. The nifty trick of the expanding universe is that it \\*appears\\* to be expanding in all directions from literally any spot in it. There is no center of the observable universe. It sounds like black magic fuckery to me too, but that's the scientific consensus. The Universe is equally old in every direction, since it takes light longer to reach us than the rate of expansion. I wish I could explain this as though to a 5-year-old, but it's just one of those weird facts like Quantum Mechanics and stuff.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16.0, "score_ratio": 4.9090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5mybze", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is science able to completely discount the possibility that there once existed on Earth any civilization as technologically advanced as our own, but now lost for whatever reason, say 100s of thousands, or millions or even a billion years ago?", "c_root_id_A": "dc7m0fi", "c_root_id_B": "dc87k3r", "created_at_utc_A": 1483993221, "created_at_utc_B": 1484019435, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I like graham Hancock too, but if there was an advanced civilization in the past as advanced as us we would have found evidence of it by detecting traces of industrial chemicals in the ground   Most I'll give him is before the glaciers melted 12000 years ago there were one or two cities in the world on the level of Ancient Rome around 200CE or medieval Europe   it's possible the dinosaurs were intelligent and built cities like us and flew away before the asteroid struck what is now the gulf of mexico. but there is no evidence for it. not even enough to make a hypothesis. sure the cities could be under the ocean now, but it's not science", "human_ref_B": "No, it cannot be ruled out.  We have found rocks that we believe are over 4 billion years old, but those are in (iirc) Greenland and Australia only. The mid ocean ridge drives subduction zones and once the land is driven into the mantle and molten again, any evidence of existence would have been returned to its constituent atoms. What we can say is that we have found no evidence of an ancient advanced culture on specific rock outcroppings in Greenland or Australia, and any possible ancient satellites' orbits decayed long ago to the point where there is no evidence of any pre-human advanced culture putting satellites into space either.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26214.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w1q8yo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "is Earth's helium really running out?", "c_root_id_A": "igq9m7w", "c_root_id_B": "igq90jh", "created_at_utc_A": 1658199174, "created_at_utc_B": 1658198891, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Yes its a finite resource. Its very expensive for that reason.  I used to be a commercial diver. Its used in certain diving gas mixtures, and because of how expensive it is, divers wear hats that reclaim what they exhale instead of letting it exhale into the ocean. Its collected back into a tank, and recycled.   Its usually a pretty impressive recovery rate, something like 85% if i remember correctly.", "human_ref_B": "Technically yes, helium is lighter than air, so as long as it can escape a pocket under the ground, it can escape gravity. But I have also heard this too. There are probably many pockets of helium humans aren't aware of, so in that way it's probably not running out any time soon unless someone has mapped all of the helium and knows this or uses it as a way to increase helium prices.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 283.0, "score_ratio": 2.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rj3mm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why don't animals like rams get concussions when they run head first into things? Can we build helmets based on their ability to protect athletes?", "c_root_id_A": "cnggzye", "c_root_id_B": "cnghgt6", "created_at_utc_A": 1420574379, "created_at_utc_B": 1420575146, "score_A": 83, "score_B": 860, "human_ref_A": "I don't have access to the original citation, but here's what U. of Michigan's Animal Diversity Web says: >   Bighorn sheep have double-layered skulls shored with struts of bone for battle protection. They also have a broad, massive tendon linking skull and spine to help the head pivot and recoil from blows. Horns may way as much as 14 kg, which is the weight of all the bones in a ram's body.  Given that 14 kg is over 30 lbs, and the tendon linking the skull and spine, it would be hard to replicate that exactly.  With synthetic materials, we can surely make something as strong as their skulls but much lighter, but we'd lose some of the impact absorption that the weight would provide.    Also, an opinions piece ran in the NY Times last year, written by a researcher in sports medicine.  It was an interesting read and discusses bighorn sheep as well as woodpeckers.", "human_ref_B": "Livescience did a piece on why woodpeckers don't get concussions from constant head-banging. To sum the evidence from that article, the bird's neck has strong muscles that absorb shock, the peripheral components like beak and eyes are cushioned by tertiary structures which prevent impact damage, and most importantly the brain is surrounded by a spongy bone-like tissue which has a relatively high capacity to absorb shock, and which is in direct contact with brain tissue.  Studies provide strong evidence that what u/MestR has said is incorrect. The head and neck circumference ratio (HNCR) has been studied with regard to its impact on the likelihood of concussion in contact athletes, here for example:  >For HNCR, there was no consistent association observed with the exception of female hockey players.  That is to say, in most cases *just* the size of your head, or the ratio of the size of your head to your neck, or by extrapolation the size of your brain, is not a significant influencing factor on the likelihood of concussion, unless considered alongside other causal factors such as BMI.  The reason why animals like rams and woodpeckers do not damage their heads in the process of performing their daily survival and reproduction related tasks is because they have developed highly specialized tertiary structures to protect their heads and associated organs.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 767.0, "score_ratio": 10.3614457831, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rj3mm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why don't animals like rams get concussions when they run head first into things? Can we build helmets based on their ability to protect athletes?", "c_root_id_A": "cngowql", "c_root_id_B": "cngyt52", "created_at_utc_A": 1420587280, "created_at_utc_B": 1420605402, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "How about a crush zone, similar to a car's ability to crumple and dissipate energy?  Sure, the helmet would look ugly right away, but the external portion could be changed quickly at the sidelines.  It would be a small price to pay to keep our warriors lucid after they retire.", "human_ref_B": "The Helmet That Can Save Football  This article on Popular Science explains so much. It seems like many helmets have a good design for direct impacts, but it's the non direct contact that causes problems. They explain the idea of rotational acceleration, and how much damage it can cause. They go on to investigate some new helmet technology that's designed to help lessen the danger, and the obstacles that new helmet designers have to overcome. Interesting read.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18122.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p34k9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "If it takes a few minutes for your brain to die without oxygen, why do people lose consciousness and die almost instantly when shot/stabbed through the heart? I'm just going on what we all see in movies and TV shows.  You know: someone gets shot/stabbed through the heart, and they drop to the ground instantly, dead.  If your heart's job is to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of your body, and it's your brain controls consciousness, why wouldn't we see people still conscious for a few moments (or even a minute or two) before the lack of oxygen to their brain and body makes things shut down?  Sorry if this has been asked before; I did some searching but couldn't find anything similar.", "c_root_id_A": "c3m5yw3", "c_root_id_B": "c3m67yr", "created_at_utc_A": 1327953178, "created_at_utc_B": 1327954362, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "The answer is most likely that the death is caused by hydrostatic shock. This is when the projectile causes a pressure wave in the blood that can cause hemorrhaging in the brain. Hydrostatic shock", "human_ref_B": "Hydrostatic shock, and/or loss of blood pressure. The latter has been addressed here  http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/o7hwu/til_that_after_being_beheaded_you_remain/  Basically, without adequate blood pressure, you pass out almost instantly.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1184.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p34k9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "If it takes a few minutes for your brain to die without oxygen, why do people lose consciousness and die almost instantly when shot/stabbed through the heart? I'm just going on what we all see in movies and TV shows.  You know: someone gets shot/stabbed through the heart, and they drop to the ground instantly, dead.  If your heart's job is to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of your body, and it's your brain controls consciousness, why wouldn't we see people still conscious for a few moments (or even a minute or two) before the lack of oxygen to their brain and body makes things shut down?  Sorry if this has been asked before; I did some searching but couldn't find anything similar.", "c_root_id_A": "c3m5vr9", "c_root_id_B": "c3m67yr", "created_at_utc_A": 1327952758, "created_at_utc_B": 1327954362, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "i have always been wondering, if it takes you a fjew seconds to faint after being stabbed in the heart, and then a fjew additional minutes until you die.   do you feel anny pain while you are unconscious?", "human_ref_B": "Hydrostatic shock, and/or loss of blood pressure. The latter has been addressed here  http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/o7hwu/til_that_after_being_beheaded_you_remain/  Basically, without adequate blood pressure, you pass out almost instantly.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1604.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p34k9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "If it takes a few minutes for your brain to die without oxygen, why do people lose consciousness and die almost instantly when shot/stabbed through the heart? I'm just going on what we all see in movies and TV shows.  You know: someone gets shot/stabbed through the heart, and they drop to the ground instantly, dead.  If your heart's job is to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of your body, and it's your brain controls consciousness, why wouldn't we see people still conscious for a few moments (or even a minute or two) before the lack of oxygen to their brain and body makes things shut down?  Sorry if this has been asked before; I did some searching but couldn't find anything similar.", "c_root_id_A": "c3m5vr9", "c_root_id_B": "c3m5yw3", "created_at_utc_A": 1327952758, "created_at_utc_B": 1327953178, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "i have always been wondering, if it takes you a fjew seconds to faint after being stabbed in the heart, and then a fjew additional minutes until you die.   do you feel anny pain while you are unconscious?", "human_ref_B": "The answer is most likely that the death is caused by hydrostatic shock. This is when the projectile causes a pressure wave in the blood that can cause hemorrhaging in the brain. Hydrostatic shock", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 420.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p34k9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "If it takes a few minutes for your brain to die without oxygen, why do people lose consciousness and die almost instantly when shot/stabbed through the heart? I'm just going on what we all see in movies and TV shows.  You know: someone gets shot/stabbed through the heart, and they drop to the ground instantly, dead.  If your heart's job is to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of your body, and it's your brain controls consciousness, why wouldn't we see people still conscious for a few moments (or even a minute or two) before the lack of oxygen to their brain and body makes things shut down?  Sorry if this has been asked before; I did some searching but couldn't find anything similar.", "c_root_id_A": "c3m8d5a", "c_root_id_B": "c3m5vr9", "created_at_utc_A": 1327964444, "created_at_utc_B": 1327952758, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I took care of a patient once who went into ventricular fibrillation in front of my eyes, on the monitor.  I asked him if he was OK and he told me \"yes.\"  Not sure how long it took before he finally passed out and we defibrillated him, but it was several seconds.", "human_ref_B": "i have always been wondering, if it takes you a fjew seconds to faint after being stabbed in the heart, and then a fjew additional minutes until you die.   do you feel anny pain while you are unconscious?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11686.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p34k9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "If it takes a few minutes for your brain to die without oxygen, why do people lose consciousness and die almost instantly when shot/stabbed through the heart? I'm just going on what we all see in movies and TV shows.  You know: someone gets shot/stabbed through the heart, and they drop to the ground instantly, dead.  If your heart's job is to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of your body, and it's your brain controls consciousness, why wouldn't we see people still conscious for a few moments (or even a minute or two) before the lack of oxygen to their brain and body makes things shut down?  Sorry if this has been asked before; I did some searching but couldn't find anything similar.", "c_root_id_A": "c3m8d5a", "c_root_id_B": "c3m7xni", "created_at_utc_A": 1327964444, "created_at_utc_B": 1327962307, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I took care of a patient once who went into ventricular fibrillation in front of my eyes, on the monitor.  I asked him if he was OK and he told me \"yes.\"  Not sure how long it took before he finally passed out and we defibrillated him, but it was several seconds.", "human_ref_B": "There is a difference between unconsciousness and complete brain death.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2137.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p34k9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "If it takes a few minutes for your brain to die without oxygen, why do people lose consciousness and die almost instantly when shot/stabbed through the heart? I'm just going on what we all see in movies and TV shows.  You know: someone gets shot/stabbed through the heart, and they drop to the ground instantly, dead.  If your heart's job is to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of your body, and it's your brain controls consciousness, why wouldn't we see people still conscious for a few moments (or even a minute or two) before the lack of oxygen to their brain and body makes things shut down?  Sorry if this has been asked before; I did some searching but couldn't find anything similar.", "c_root_id_A": "c3m6ytx", "c_root_id_B": "c3m8d5a", "created_at_utc_A": 1327957840, "created_at_utc_B": 1327964444, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "a few minutes to die, seconds to be unconscious.  a person shot in the hearth isnt technically going to be brain dead for a minute or 2.", "human_ref_B": "I took care of a patient once who went into ventricular fibrillation in front of my eyes, on the monitor.  I asked him if he was OK and he told me \"yes.\"  Not sure how long it took before he finally passed out and we defibrillated him, but it was several seconds.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6604.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p34k9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "If it takes a few minutes for your brain to die without oxygen, why do people lose consciousness and die almost instantly when shot/stabbed through the heart? I'm just going on what we all see in movies and TV shows.  You know: someone gets shot/stabbed through the heart, and they drop to the ground instantly, dead.  If your heart's job is to pump oxygenated blood to the rest of your body, and it's your brain controls consciousness, why wouldn't we see people still conscious for a few moments (or even a minute or two) before the lack of oxygen to their brain and body makes things shut down?  Sorry if this has been asked before; I did some searching but couldn't find anything similar.", "c_root_id_A": "c3m6ytx", "c_root_id_B": "c3m7xni", "created_at_utc_A": 1327957840, "created_at_utc_B": 1327962307, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "a few minutes to die, seconds to be unconscious.  a person shot in the hearth isnt technically going to be brain dead for a minute or 2.", "human_ref_B": "There is a difference between unconsciousness and complete brain death.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4467.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y21n8m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What is the mechanism behind intestinal worms causing bruxism?", "c_root_id_A": "is10sm6", "c_root_id_B": "is1fa80", "created_at_utc_A": 1665586657, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592453, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Never heard a out that. Where did you get this from?", "human_ref_B": "I'm genuinely curious where this idea originates.  I've never heard of a cause/effect link from intestinal parasites to grinding your teeth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5796.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y21n8m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What is the mechanism behind intestinal worms causing bruxism?", "c_root_id_A": "is10sm6", "c_root_id_B": "is3z0vv", "created_at_utc_A": 1665586657, "created_at_utc_B": 1665630430, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Never heard a out that. Where did you get this from?", "human_ref_B": "\"Bruxism due to intestinal parasites can be attributed to metabolites known as non-specific proteins which often have toxic effects and are secreted from the parasite during its various stages of life. \"  Craig CF, Faust EC.\u00a0Clinical Parasitology.\u00a08th ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger; 1970. p. 67.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 43773.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ovfs2q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "What would a neutron star look like exactly? What color does a hyper dense ball of neutrons make? Most matter that we see is a jumbled collection of protons, neutrons, and electrons. But a neutron star is pretty much \"oops! All neutrons!\". So aside from possibly glowing from intense heat, what would it look like close up?", "c_root_id_A": "h7cytoh", "c_root_id_B": "h7dclij", "created_at_utc_A": 1627854681, "created_at_utc_B": 1627861700, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "To add on to the OP's question, I'd add \"after it cools off\". So when it's no longer radiating, what happens when you shine wide spectrum light on it? Is it a mirror? Does it only reflect some wavelengths? Is it black?", "human_ref_B": "The surface temperature of a relatively young neutron star is in the hundreds of thousands of kelvin, so to a good approximation they just look blindingly white (and shine brilliantly far beyond the visible spectrum, deep into ultraviolet and x-ray territory).  But in principle? It's a common misconception, but neutron stars are not actually made of just neutrons. Outside the core, there are a lot of free protons and electrons as well, and near the surface also more-or-less intact atomic nuclei. The very \"crust\" of a neutron star is thought to be composed of normal atomic nuclei crushed into an exotic, extremely dense crystalline phase by the immense gravity, with a sea of electrons flowing freely between the nuclei \u2013 rather like a really exotic form of metal. What the surface would look like after cooling down enough, I doubt anyone has a good idea, but I guess it might actually look sort of metallic!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7019.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ovfs2q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "What would a neutron star look like exactly? What color does a hyper dense ball of neutrons make? Most matter that we see is a jumbled collection of protons, neutrons, and electrons. But a neutron star is pretty much \"oops! All neutrons!\". So aside from possibly glowing from intense heat, what would it look like close up?", "c_root_id_A": "h7cxvgn", "c_root_id_B": "h7dclij", "created_at_utc_A": 1627854211, "created_at_utc_B": 1627861700, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "Normally I would assume it would have a colour based on it's temperature according to Wien's Law (or Planck's Law if you will) where wavelength emitted decreases with increasing temperature (or. it gets more blue ). So since a neutron star is typically at a high temperature I would assume it's blue? But there might be other effects affecting it's colour such as magnetic fields so dont quote me on that.  Also since there are strong magnetic fields from the collapse of the original star into a neutron star, there would likely be strong magnetic activity near it.  And it spins very quickly at first, but would most likely slow down over time (and cool down too).", "human_ref_B": "The surface temperature of a relatively young neutron star is in the hundreds of thousands of kelvin, so to a good approximation they just look blindingly white (and shine brilliantly far beyond the visible spectrum, deep into ultraviolet and x-ray territory).  But in principle? It's a common misconception, but neutron stars are not actually made of just neutrons. Outside the core, there are a lot of free protons and electrons as well, and near the surface also more-or-less intact atomic nuclei. The very \"crust\" of a neutron star is thought to be composed of normal atomic nuclei crushed into an exotic, extremely dense crystalline phase by the immense gravity, with a sea of electrons flowing freely between the nuclei \u2013 rather like a really exotic form of metal. What the surface would look like after cooling down enough, I doubt anyone has a good idea, but I guess it might actually look sort of metallic!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7489.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ovfs2q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "What would a neutron star look like exactly? What color does a hyper dense ball of neutrons make? Most matter that we see is a jumbled collection of protons, neutrons, and electrons. But a neutron star is pretty much \"oops! All neutrons!\". So aside from possibly glowing from intense heat, what would it look like close up?", "c_root_id_A": "h7cytoh", "c_root_id_B": "h7cxvgn", "created_at_utc_A": 1627854681, "created_at_utc_B": 1627854211, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "To add on to the OP's question, I'd add \"after it cools off\". So when it's no longer radiating, what happens when you shine wide spectrum light on it? Is it a mirror? Does it only reflect some wavelengths? Is it black?", "human_ref_B": "Normally I would assume it would have a colour based on it's temperature according to Wien's Law (or Planck's Law if you will) where wavelength emitted decreases with increasing temperature (or. it gets more blue ). So since a neutron star is typically at a high temperature I would assume it's blue? But there might be other effects affecting it's colour such as magnetic fields so dont quote me on that.  Also since there are strong magnetic fields from the collapse of the original star into a neutron star, there would likely be strong magnetic activity near it.  And it spins very quickly at first, but would most likely slow down over time (and cool down too).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 470.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3gqu29", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Do we have evidence that all life today originated from a single organism, or is it possible that life started multiple times in our history?", "c_root_id_A": "cu1ak8c", "c_root_id_B": "cu19jvh", "created_at_utc_A": 1439443536, "created_at_utc_B": 1439441092, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Similar questions have been asked before. You might want to check them and the wikipedia entries on abiogenesis, last universal common ancestor, and cell. (Can't link because I'm on mobile, sorry)  The current assumption (by no means definite) is that, at the very least, earliest life forms interacted to such a degree that all organisms can eventually be traced to one ancient species, if we can call it that. (Even if multiple life forms had arisen independently, they must have converged at one point.) So all current organisms orginated probably not from single cell (may or may not be true), but very likely from a single community of primitive life forms.  The supporting evidence are:  1) all three domains of life have similar gene coding systems and mechanisms. (Genetic codes are considered \"universal\"; also, plural for \"systems\" because minor variations do exist.)  2) There are many genes, protein folds and even entire subcelllular machineries that are shared by most organisms. (Select few might have lost them during evolution.) For example, ATP synthases feature in most organisms, and their structures have been pretty well conserved over the millions (billions?) of years.  Hopefully this answered the question.", "human_ref_B": "Both are possible, those statements don't contradict each other in any way. Because all life that currently exists on Earth is similar in its fundamental characteristics, it's overwhelmingly likely that all current life shares a single common ancestor. But that doesn't mean that life didn't get started before that ancestor lived, and then quickly died out in the cataclysms of our planet.  However life hasn't started multiple times \"in our history\". History refers to the period of time when humans have recorded the occurrence of events.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2444.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rllmtl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How does the body create fat from unburned calories?  As I understand it a calorie is unit of heat or the energy in the nuclear bonds of the atoms that make up a food molecule. But what is the biochemical process to turn it into the highly complex fat tissue?", "c_root_id_A": "hpng54o", "c_root_id_B": "hplawo9", "created_at_utc_A": 1640238286, "created_at_utc_B": 1640200625, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Unburned fat just gets stored as fat.  Unburned carbohydrates can be converted into fat by the liver.  Unburned protein takes the longest route - it can be converted to the sugar glucose and that can be converted to fat, though this is a pretty slow process and doesn't really happen much.", "human_ref_B": "It's pretty complicated - the fats you eat in food are transported throughout your body in little globs called VLDL or chylomicrons. These get broken down into their component fatty acids and stored and repackaged. They get sent out into your bodily tissues for use or storage and that process is hormonally controlled.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 37661.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cbzc3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Can two photons hit an electron at the exact same time transmitting to it the same energy as it was hit by a single higher frequency photon?", "c_root_id_A": "etjmeou", "c_root_id_B": "etjkvnb", "created_at_utc_A": 1562876676, "created_at_utc_B": 1562875744, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Yes, it's called two-photon absorption:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-photon_absorption", "human_ref_B": "Yes, this is called two-photon absorption. Naturally it is quite unlikely to happen, but it does occur.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 932.0, "score_ratio": 3.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f0n5jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Are there any insects that can hunt in packs, similar to mammalian predators? Further clarification available about this question, if requested.   .. watching a very strange movie, figured it was worth a shot.", "c_root_id_A": "fgvftzt", "c_root_id_B": "fgx0xnm", "created_at_utc_A": 1581148323, "created_at_utc_B": 1581167946, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 98, "human_ref_A": "From a very old story, called \"Leiningen versus the ants\".    Specifically army ants.  Story written in 1938.    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiningen\\_Versus\\_the\\_Ants   Imagine billions of ants, over tens of square miles.", "human_ref_B": "So, ants, but those feel more like a swarm than a pack.  Hornets raiding a honeybee hive looks more like it.  On the other side of the spectrum, some species of spiders are known to form communal webs, for example.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19623.0, "score_ratio": 7.5384615385, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vytwj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "When a magnet moves an object, where does the kinetic energy come from that the object then has? In school I was always taught about the conservation of energy, so where is the energy coming from that moves the object? Also when you have current flowing through a copper wire it creates magnetic flux, if there is an object near by that the magnetic flux can move, is more electrical energy being lost out of the wire?", "c_root_id_A": "cex9c7i", "c_root_id_B": "cex9w6g", "created_at_utc_A": 1390520633, "created_at_utc_B": 1390521827, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "In simplest terms, the energy is coming from the conversion of the potential energy of object in the field to kinetic energy. Gravity behaves the same way. A 1kg baseball held 1m above the ground has 9.8J of potential energy. Drop it, and the moment before it touches the ground it has converted all that PE into KE, and is moving at 4.4 m/s. As for the wire, I could only speculate, and I shall refrain from speculation.", "human_ref_B": "If try to push two opposing magnets together, you are taking energy from your body and storing it as magnetic energy, just like if you compress a spring.  If an object is falling and it's path is deflected by a magnet, the magnet or whatever it is attached to will be deflected with an equal and opposite force.  If you take a magnet in your hand push it towards something and make it move, the energy to make them move came from your hand.  The general answer is, whatever made the magnet move, that is where the energy comes from. If something moves away from a stationary magnet, that is because something already put in energy to push the thing close to the magnet.  Current in the wire is the same. The magnet can push on the electrons, and causes them to flow as current. The flowing current also generates a magnetic field, which can push on things. Anything that the moving electrons push on originally got its energy from the magnet, which got its energy from whatever made the magnet move.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1194.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7k33n3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we were able to accelerated a spaceship/probe to a fraction of the speed of light would space dust start punching tiny holes through it? It seems that at very high speeds even minute particles in space could become dangerous. Would this make some sort of shield a necessity?", "c_root_id_A": "drbfy8i", "c_root_id_B": "drbg0xk", "created_at_utc_A": 1513388976, "created_at_utc_B": 1513389077, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 31, "human_ref_A": "Yes.  You can either try to get enough material to absorb the whole impact energy in one place or you can try to deflect or distribute most of it - a thin shield far ahead of the spacecraft, where the dust particles disintegrate and spread out.  Even the ISS has shielding, although dust particles at ~10 km/s have much lower energies. In most places it has a thin outer shield which scatters the incoming particles so they don't pierce the inner shield.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, the faster and faster you go, the smaller the particle you'll have to worry about due to the increasing momentum and kinetic energy. Creating the shielding needed to survive space dust at relativistic speeds would be a challenge. The bigger challenge is avoiding larger objects. While they're likely few and far between, your extreme relative speed means such objects will appear to be moving much faster than they really are, giving you even less reaction time. For example, if you're flying at 90% the speed of light, objects ahead of you will appear to be 10 times further away and moving 10 times faster (so 9x the speed of light) due to travel time of light.  So, if you need 10 seconds of warning of an incoming object to be able to avoid it, you have to spot it before its within 9 light seconds (about 2.7 million kilometers) But, due to the effects I described above, when it's 9 light seconds away, it actually appears to be 90 light seconds away, which means you'll have to be able to observe it at that distance (27 million kilometers) Furthermore, light coming from it will be severely blue-shifted (any normally visible light will be pushed well into the ultraviolet) so observing it would be more challenging still.  These problems only get worse as you get closer to the speed of light (at 99% the speed of light, this factor becomes 100).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 101.0, "score_ratio": 2.8181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4m5f6e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "The closest star system, Alpha Centauri is ~4.37 light years away from earth. How long would it take to get there relatively? (hear me out) If time dilation exists and gets more extreme as the speed of light is approached, does that mean if a ship travelling at 95% the speed of light would experience this dilation and it would take just over 4.37 years for them to reach the system in relation to observers on earth? and then would the observers residing inside the ship travelling at these speeds feel like it takes far less time?", "c_root_id_A": "d3u8d2a", "c_root_id_B": "d3t3ag7", "created_at_utc_A": 1464942037, "created_at_utc_B": 1464876642, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "> If time dilation exists...  Just in case you genuinely aren't sure, it definitely *does* exist.", "human_ref_B": "What if there was a video feed of the inside of the ship being broadcast to the Earth from the ship?  Since the total length of the video would only be 1.43 years (Since it's being recorded on the ship), how would the video feed appear to people watching it on earth, in slow motion? Would it be 4.37 years on earth?  What if there was a monitor on the ship that showed the live image currently being recorded to those onboard, would it look completely normal to them?  I'm sure it has something to do with the increasing time the (light) video transmission signal would take to reach earth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 65395.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4m5f6e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "The closest star system, Alpha Centauri is ~4.37 light years away from earth. How long would it take to get there relatively? (hear me out) If time dilation exists and gets more extreme as the speed of light is approached, does that mean if a ship travelling at 95% the speed of light would experience this dilation and it would take just over 4.37 years for them to reach the system in relation to observers on earth? and then would the observers residing inside the ship travelling at these speeds feel like it takes far less time?", "c_root_id_A": "d3u8d2a", "c_root_id_B": "d3szncz", "created_at_utc_A": 1464942037, "created_at_utc_B": 1464870268, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "> If time dilation exists...  Just in case you genuinely aren't sure, it definitely *does* exist.", "human_ref_B": "Yes.  In your example, if you're going 95% of the speed of light, the trip of 4.37 years will take about 1.37 years according to those inside the space ship, ignoring things like acceleration and such.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 71769.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4m5f6e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "The closest star system, Alpha Centauri is ~4.37 light years away from earth. How long would it take to get there relatively? (hear me out) If time dilation exists and gets more extreme as the speed of light is approached, does that mean if a ship travelling at 95% the speed of light would experience this dilation and it would take just over 4.37 years for them to reach the system in relation to observers on earth? and then would the observers residing inside the ship travelling at these speeds feel like it takes far less time?", "c_root_id_A": "d3szncz", "c_root_id_B": "d3t3ag7", "created_at_utc_A": 1464870268, "created_at_utc_B": 1464876642, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Yes.  In your example, if you're going 95% of the speed of light, the trip of 4.37 years will take about 1.37 years according to those inside the space ship, ignoring things like acceleration and such.", "human_ref_B": "What if there was a video feed of the inside of the ship being broadcast to the Earth from the ship?  Since the total length of the video would only be 1.43 years (Since it's being recorded on the ship), how would the video feed appear to people watching it on earth, in slow motion? Would it be 4.37 years on earth?  What if there was a monitor on the ship that showed the live image currently being recorded to those onboard, would it look completely normal to them?  I'm sure it has something to do with the increasing time the (light) video transmission signal would take to reach earth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6374.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu99vtj", "c_root_id_B": "gu9brlo", "created_at_utc_A": 1618237565, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238451, "score_A": 66, "score_B": 166, "human_ref_A": "Hello dr! Two part question:   a) What\u2019s the latest news on the Pfizer vaccine and it\u2019s protection against the variants?   b) I\u2019m in Canada, and we are delaying doses here to get more people vaccinated. I\u2019ve read that the CDC announced that one shot of Pfizer or moderna gives people 80% protection after 2 weeks. What are your thoughts? Link", "human_ref_B": "In terms of transmission how intertwined are the israeli and palestinian population?  I assume the vaccination rate of Irael does not count for non-israelis. Is the herd immunity effect possibly dimished by this? Since the \"herd\" is in constant contact with another non-immunised one.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 886.0, "score_ratio": 2.5151515152, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9brlo", "c_root_id_B": "gu9b37n", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238451, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238132, "score_A": 166, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "In terms of transmission how intertwined are the israeli and palestinian population?  I assume the vaccination rate of Irael does not count for non-israelis. Is the herd immunity effect possibly dimished by this? Since the \"herd\" is in constant contact with another non-immunised one.", "human_ref_B": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 319.0, "score_ratio": 5.0303030303, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9bgyp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9brlo", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238311, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238451, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 166, "human_ref_A": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "human_ref_B": "In terms of transmission how intertwined are the israeli and palestinian population?  I assume the vaccination rate of Irael does not count for non-israelis. Is the herd immunity effect possibly dimished by this? Since the \"herd\" is in constant contact with another non-immunised one.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 140.0, "score_ratio": 8.7368421053, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu953v2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9brlo", "created_at_utc_A": 1618235241, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238451, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 166, "human_ref_A": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "human_ref_B": "In terms of transmission how intertwined are the israeli and palestinian population?  I assume the vaccination rate of Irael does not count for non-israelis. Is the herd immunity effect possibly dimished by this? Since the \"herd\" is in constant contact with another non-immunised one.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3210.0, "score_ratio": 9.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9ecc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239636, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 75, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5032.0, "score_ratio": 1.0133333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dewd", "c_root_id_B": "gu9potc", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239212, "created_at_utc_B": 1618244668, "score_A": 72, "score_B": 76, "human_ref_A": "Do you have any gut feeling (or even better, data?) to describe the difference between Israel's outcome from the high vaccination rate, and Chile's outcome from their high vaccination rate?", "human_ref_B": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5456.0, "score_ratio": 1.0555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu99vtj", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618237565, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 66, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "Hello dr! Two part question:   a) What\u2019s the latest news on the Pfizer vaccine and it\u2019s protection against the variants?   b) I\u2019m in Canada, and we are delaying doses here to get more people vaccinated. I\u2019ve read that the CDC announced that one shot of Pfizer or moderna gives people 80% protection after 2 weeks. What are your thoughts? Link", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7103.0, "score_ratio": 1.1515151515, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9enz7", "c_root_id_B": "gu9potc", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239784, "created_at_utc_B": 1618244668, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 76, "human_ref_A": "Do you anticipate yearly vaccinations for the most vulnerable demographics in the future?  Thank you for your AMA!", "human_ref_B": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4884.0, "score_ratio": 1.6170212766, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9byrp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9potc", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238545, "created_at_utc_B": 1618244668, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 76, "human_ref_A": "What is the current consensus among Israeli public health authorities in relation to an additional vaccine booster, beyond the original full vaccination regimen?  Is the presumption right now that a booster will be required sometime in late 2021 or early 2022 to those already fully vaccinated? What are the benchmark metrics that authorities will be looking at to measure whether a booster regimen should move forward?", "human_ref_B": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6123.0, "score_ratio": 1.7272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9k03h", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618242167, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2501.0, "score_ratio": 2.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9jfq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241918, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2750.0, "score_ratio": 2.0540540541, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9b37n", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238132, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6536.0, "score_ratio": 2.303030303, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9czy2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239023, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "Hello and welcome!  Israel's vaccination operation has been widely praised - would you consider it a success, and what would you say were the key principles that have led the operation to this positive result?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5645.0, "score_ratio": 2.5333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9nu0t", "c_root_id_B": "gu9potc", "created_at_utc_A": 1618243861, "created_at_utc_B": 1618244668, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 76, "human_ref_A": "Do we know the length of immunity for those vaccinated yet? Thank you for all that you\u2019re doing!", "human_ref_B": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 807.0, "score_ratio": 3.4545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9bgyp", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238311, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6357.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu953v2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618235241, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9427.0, "score_ratio": 4.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9h6hl", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618240918, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any form of preliminary data suggesting the immune response triggered by either of the main vaccines (Pfizer/Moderna) can elicit a sustained (over a period of weeks to months) autoimmune reaction in susceptible individuals?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3750.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9hpfc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9potc", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241150, "created_at_utc_B": 1618244668, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 76, "human_ref_A": "How israel achieved the vaccine goal so fast? did they buy/invest vaccine in advance? How did they convince anti-vaxxers/ traditional folks ( is it just in US and EURO )", "human_ref_B": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3518.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9j73c", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241814, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "How did Israel get into the position where Pfizer is threatening consequences for non-payment? What kind of failure allowed that to happen?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2854.0, "score_ratio": 5.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9potc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dlmw", "created_at_utc_A": 1618244668, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239297, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Why does the world not go back to normal for me 2-3 weeks after I\u2019m vaccinated? Ignoring that I should wear a mask in the grocery store since you can\u2019t tell if a passing person has been vaccinated or not, why should I not go on a cruise, or to a crowded concert? How/when is Israel planning on handling/restarting those parts of life?", "human_ref_B": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5371.0, "score_ratio": 6.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9ecc4", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dewd", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239636, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239212, "score_A": 75, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "human_ref_B": "Do you have any gut feeling (or even better, data?) to describe the difference between Israel's outcome from the high vaccination rate, and Chile's outcome from their high vaccination rate?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 424.0, "score_ratio": 1.0416666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu99vtj", "c_root_id_B": "gu9ecc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1618237565, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239636, "score_A": 66, "score_B": 75, "human_ref_A": "Hello dr! Two part question:   a) What\u2019s the latest news on the Pfizer vaccine and it\u2019s protection against the variants?   b) I\u2019m in Canada, and we are delaying doses here to get more people vaccinated. I\u2019ve read that the CDC announced that one shot of Pfizer or moderna gives people 80% protection after 2 weeks. What are your thoughts? Link", "human_ref_B": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2071.0, "score_ratio": 1.1363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9ecc4", "c_root_id_B": "gu9byrp", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239636, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238545, "score_A": 75, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "human_ref_B": "What is the current consensus among Israeli public health authorities in relation to an additional vaccine booster, beyond the original full vaccination regimen?  Is the presumption right now that a booster will be required sometime in late 2021 or early 2022 to those already fully vaccinated? What are the benchmark metrics that authorities will be looking at to measure whether a booster regimen should move forward?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1091.0, "score_ratio": 1.7045454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9b37n", "c_root_id_B": "gu9ecc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238132, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239636, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 75, "human_ref_A": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "human_ref_B": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1504.0, "score_ratio": 2.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9ecc4", "c_root_id_B": "gu9czy2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239636, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239023, "score_A": 75, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "human_ref_B": "Hello and welcome!  Israel's vaccination operation has been widely praised - would you consider it a success, and what would you say were the key principles that have led the operation to this positive result?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 613.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9ecc4", "c_root_id_B": "gu9bgyp", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239636, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238311, "score_A": 75, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1325.0, "score_ratio": 3.9473684211, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9ecc4", "c_root_id_B": "gu953v2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239636, "created_at_utc_B": 1618235241, "score_A": 75, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "human_ref_B": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4395.0, "score_ratio": 4.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dlmw", "c_root_id_B": "gu9ecc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239297, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239636, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 75, "human_ref_A": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "human_ref_B": "If someone has tested positive for antibodies do they still need a vaccine?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 339.0, "score_ratio": 6.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu99vtj", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dewd", "created_at_utc_A": 1618237565, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239212, "score_A": 66, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "Hello dr! Two part question:   a) What\u2019s the latest news on the Pfizer vaccine and it\u2019s protection against the variants?   b) I\u2019m in Canada, and we are delaying doses here to get more people vaccinated. I\u2019ve read that the CDC announced that one shot of Pfizer or moderna gives people 80% protection after 2 weeks. What are your thoughts? Link", "human_ref_B": "Do you have any gut feeling (or even better, data?) to describe the difference between Israel's outcome from the high vaccination rate, and Chile's outcome from their high vaccination rate?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1647.0, "score_ratio": 1.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9byrp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dewd", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238545, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239212, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "What is the current consensus among Israeli public health authorities in relation to an additional vaccine booster, beyond the original full vaccination regimen?  Is the presumption right now that a booster will be required sometime in late 2021 or early 2022 to those already fully vaccinated? What are the benchmark metrics that authorities will be looking at to measure whether a booster regimen should move forward?", "human_ref_B": "Do you have any gut feeling (or even better, data?) to describe the difference between Israel's outcome from the high vaccination rate, and Chile's outcome from their high vaccination rate?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 667.0, "score_ratio": 1.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9b37n", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dewd", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238132, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239212, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "human_ref_B": "Do you have any gut feeling (or even better, data?) to describe the difference between Israel's outcome from the high vaccination rate, and Chile's outcome from their high vaccination rate?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1080.0, "score_ratio": 2.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dewd", "c_root_id_B": "gu9czy2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239212, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239023, "score_A": 72, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Do you have any gut feeling (or even better, data?) to describe the difference between Israel's outcome from the high vaccination rate, and Chile's outcome from their high vaccination rate?", "human_ref_B": "Hello and welcome!  Israel's vaccination operation has been widely praised - would you consider it a success, and what would you say were the key principles that have led the operation to this positive result?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 189.0, "score_ratio": 2.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9bgyp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dewd", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238311, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239212, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "human_ref_B": "Do you have any gut feeling (or even better, data?) to describe the difference between Israel's outcome from the high vaccination rate, and Chile's outcome from their high vaccination rate?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 901.0, "score_ratio": 3.7894736842, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dewd", "c_root_id_B": "gu953v2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239212, "created_at_utc_B": 1618235241, "score_A": 72, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Do you have any gut feeling (or even better, data?) to describe the difference between Israel's outcome from the high vaccination rate, and Chile's outcome from their high vaccination rate?", "human_ref_B": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3971.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu953v2", "c_root_id_B": "gu99vtj", "created_at_utc_A": 1618235241, "created_at_utc_B": 1618237565, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 66, "human_ref_A": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "human_ref_B": "Hello dr! Two part question:   a) What\u2019s the latest news on the Pfizer vaccine and it\u2019s protection against the variants?   b) I\u2019m in Canada, and we are delaying doses here to get more people vaccinated. I\u2019ve read that the CDC announced that one shot of Pfizer or moderna gives people 80% protection after 2 weeks. What are your thoughts? Link", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2324.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9byrp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9enz7", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238545, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239784, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "What is the current consensus among Israeli public health authorities in relation to an additional vaccine booster, beyond the original full vaccination regimen?  Is the presumption right now that a booster will be required sometime in late 2021 or early 2022 to those already fully vaccinated? What are the benchmark metrics that authorities will be looking at to measure whether a booster regimen should move forward?", "human_ref_B": "Do you anticipate yearly vaccinations for the most vulnerable demographics in the future?  Thank you for your AMA!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1239.0, "score_ratio": 1.0681818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9b37n", "c_root_id_B": "gu9enz7", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238132, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239784, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "human_ref_B": "Do you anticipate yearly vaccinations for the most vulnerable demographics in the future?  Thank you for your AMA!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1652.0, "score_ratio": 1.4242424242, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9czy2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9enz7", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239023, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239784, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Hello and welcome!  Israel's vaccination operation has been widely praised - would you consider it a success, and what would you say were the key principles that have led the operation to this positive result?", "human_ref_B": "Do you anticipate yearly vaccinations for the most vulnerable demographics in the future?  Thank you for your AMA!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 761.0, "score_ratio": 1.5666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9bgyp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9enz7", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238311, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239784, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "human_ref_B": "Do you anticipate yearly vaccinations for the most vulnerable demographics in the future?  Thank you for your AMA!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1473.0, "score_ratio": 2.4736842105, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu953v2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9enz7", "created_at_utc_A": 1618235241, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239784, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "human_ref_B": "Do you anticipate yearly vaccinations for the most vulnerable demographics in the future?  Thank you for your AMA!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4543.0, "score_ratio": 2.6111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9enz7", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dlmw", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239784, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239297, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Do you anticipate yearly vaccinations for the most vulnerable demographics in the future?  Thank you for your AMA!", "human_ref_B": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 487.0, "score_ratio": 3.9166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9byrp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9b37n", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238545, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238132, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "What is the current consensus among Israeli public health authorities in relation to an additional vaccine booster, beyond the original full vaccination regimen?  Is the presumption right now that a booster will be required sometime in late 2021 or early 2022 to those already fully vaccinated? What are the benchmark metrics that authorities will be looking at to measure whether a booster regimen should move forward?", "human_ref_B": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 413.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9bgyp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9byrp", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238311, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238545, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "human_ref_B": "What is the current consensus among Israeli public health authorities in relation to an additional vaccine booster, beyond the original full vaccination regimen?  Is the presumption right now that a booster will be required sometime in late 2021 or early 2022 to those already fully vaccinated? What are the benchmark metrics that authorities will be looking at to measure whether a booster regimen should move forward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 234.0, "score_ratio": 2.3157894737, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu953v2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9byrp", "created_at_utc_A": 1618235241, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238545, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "human_ref_B": "What is the current consensus among Israeli public health authorities in relation to an additional vaccine booster, beyond the original full vaccination regimen?  Is the presumption right now that a booster will be required sometime in late 2021 or early 2022 to those already fully vaccinated? What are the benchmark metrics that authorities will be looking at to measure whether a booster regimen should move forward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3304.0, "score_ratio": 2.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9k03h", "c_root_id_B": "gu9b37n", "created_at_utc_A": 1618242167, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238132, "score_A": 36, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "human_ref_B": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4035.0, "score_ratio": 1.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9k03h", "c_root_id_B": "gu9czy2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618242167, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239023, "score_A": 36, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "human_ref_B": "Hello and welcome!  Israel's vaccination operation has been widely praised - would you consider it a success, and what would you say were the key principles that have led the operation to this positive result?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3144.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9bgyp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9k03h", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238311, "created_at_utc_B": 1618242167, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "human_ref_B": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3856.0, "score_ratio": 1.8947368421, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu953v2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9k03h", "created_at_utc_A": 1618235241, "created_at_utc_B": 1618242167, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "human_ref_B": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6926.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9k03h", "c_root_id_B": "gu9h6hl", "created_at_utc_A": 1618242167, "created_at_utc_B": 1618240918, "score_A": 36, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any form of preliminary data suggesting the immune response triggered by either of the main vaccines (Pfizer/Moderna) can elicit a sustained (over a period of weeks to months) autoimmune reaction in susceptible individuals?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1249.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9hpfc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9k03h", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241150, "created_at_utc_B": 1618242167, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "How israel achieved the vaccine goal so fast? did they buy/invest vaccine in advance? How did they convince anti-vaxxers/ traditional folks ( is it just in US and EURO )", "human_ref_B": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1017.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9j73c", "c_root_id_B": "gu9k03h", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241814, "created_at_utc_B": 1618242167, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "How did Israel get into the position where Pfizer is threatening consequences for non-payment? What kind of failure allowed that to happen?", "human_ref_B": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 353.0, "score_ratio": 2.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9k03h", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dlmw", "created_at_utc_A": 1618242167, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239297, "score_A": 36, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "What sort of cool nerdy medical breakthroughs are on the horizon now that we\u2019ve jumped mRNA vaccines into proven use?", "human_ref_B": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2870.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9b37n", "c_root_id_B": "gu9jfq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238132, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241918, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "human_ref_B": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3786.0, "score_ratio": 1.1212121212, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9czy2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9jfq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239023, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241918, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Hello and welcome!  Israel's vaccination operation has been widely praised - would you consider it a success, and what would you say were the key principles that have led the operation to this positive result?", "human_ref_B": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2895.0, "score_ratio": 1.2333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9jfq9", "c_root_id_B": "gu9bgyp", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241918, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238311, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "human_ref_B": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3607.0, "score_ratio": 1.9473684211, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu953v2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9jfq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1618235241, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241918, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "human_ref_B": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6677.0, "score_ratio": 2.0555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9h6hl", "c_root_id_B": "gu9jfq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1618240918, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241918, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Is there any form of preliminary data suggesting the immune response triggered by either of the main vaccines (Pfizer/Moderna) can elicit a sustained (over a period of weeks to months) autoimmune reaction in susceptible individuals?", "human_ref_B": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1000.0, "score_ratio": 2.3125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9hpfc", "c_root_id_B": "gu9jfq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241150, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241918, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "How israel achieved the vaccine goal so fast? did they buy/invest vaccine in advance? How did they convince anti-vaxxers/ traditional folks ( is it just in US and EURO )", "human_ref_B": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 768.0, "score_ratio": 2.3125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9j73c", "c_root_id_B": "gu9jfq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241814, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241918, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "How did Israel get into the position where Pfizer is threatening consequences for non-payment? What kind of failure allowed that to happen?", "human_ref_B": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 104.0, "score_ratio": 2.6428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dlmw", "c_root_id_B": "gu9jfq9", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239297, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241918, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "human_ref_B": "What lessons in logistics would you give to other vaccination operations? Especially for countries/locations that don't have the healthcare infrastructure that Israel has.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2621.0, "score_ratio": 3.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu953v2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9b37n", "created_at_utc_A": 1618235241, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238132, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "human_ref_B": "Where did we, as the entire world, go wrong in reacting to the virus? What are the things that we did right? How is the virus unique from other viruses?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2891.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9czy2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9bgyp", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239023, "created_at_utc_B": 1618238311, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Hello and welcome!  Israel's vaccination operation has been widely praised - would you consider it a success, and what would you say were the key principles that have led the operation to this positive result?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 712.0, "score_ratio": 1.5789473684, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu953v2", "c_root_id_B": "gu9czy2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618235241, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239023, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "human_ref_B": "Hello and welcome!  Israel's vaccination operation has been widely praised - would you consider it a success, and what would you say were the key principles that have led the operation to this positive result?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3782.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9bgyp", "c_root_id_B": "gu9nu0t", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238311, "created_at_utc_B": 1618243861, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "human_ref_B": "Do we know the length of immunity for those vaccinated yet? Thank you for all that you\u2019re doing!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5550.0, "score_ratio": 1.1578947368, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9nu0t", "c_root_id_B": "gu953v2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618243861, "created_at_utc_B": 1618235241, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Do we know the length of immunity for those vaccinated yet? Thank you for all that you\u2019re doing!", "human_ref_B": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8620.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9h6hl", "c_root_id_B": "gu9nu0t", "created_at_utc_A": 1618240918, "created_at_utc_B": 1618243861, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Is there any form of preliminary data suggesting the immune response triggered by either of the main vaccines (Pfizer/Moderna) can elicit a sustained (over a period of weeks to months) autoimmune reaction in susceptible individuals?", "human_ref_B": "Do we know the length of immunity for those vaccinated yet? Thank you for all that you\u2019re doing!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2943.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9nu0t", "c_root_id_B": "gu9hpfc", "created_at_utc_A": 1618243861, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241150, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Do we know the length of immunity for those vaccinated yet? Thank you for all that you\u2019re doing!", "human_ref_B": "How israel achieved the vaccine goal so fast? did they buy/invest vaccine in advance? How did they convince anti-vaxxers/ traditional folks ( is it just in US and EURO )", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2711.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9nu0t", "c_root_id_B": "gu9j73c", "created_at_utc_A": 1618243861, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241814, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Do we know the length of immunity for those vaccinated yet? Thank you for all that you\u2019re doing!", "human_ref_B": "How did Israel get into the position where Pfizer is threatening consequences for non-payment? What kind of failure allowed that to happen?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2047.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9nu0t", "c_root_id_B": "gu9dlmw", "created_at_utc_A": 1618243861, "created_at_utc_B": 1618239297, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Do we know the length of immunity for those vaccinated yet? Thank you for all that you\u2019re doing!", "human_ref_B": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4564.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9bgyp", "c_root_id_B": "gu953v2", "created_at_utc_A": 1618238311, "created_at_utc_B": 1618235241, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Hi, Professor Davidovitch, my question (s) is about the South African variant being more prevalent in infected already fully vaccinated individuals in Israel. Would you mind to explain the details concerning effectiveness of the vaccine against that variant and the severity of those infections?", "human_ref_B": "Hi! Great work on your vaccine rollout!   The last I heard about the vaccine rollout in Israel, it was due to Pfizer halting deliveries as they had not been correctly paid. What is the situation now?   Thanks in advance!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3070.0, "score_ratio": 1.0555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dlmw", "c_root_id_B": "gu9h6hl", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239297, "created_at_utc_B": 1618240918, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "human_ref_B": "Is there any form of preliminary data suggesting the immune response triggered by either of the main vaccines (Pfizer/Moderna) can elicit a sustained (over a period of weeks to months) autoimmune reaction in susceptible individuals?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1621.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dlmw", "c_root_id_B": "gu9hpfc", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239297, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241150, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "human_ref_B": "How israel achieved the vaccine goal so fast? did they buy/invest vaccine in advance? How did they convince anti-vaxxers/ traditional folks ( is it just in US and EURO )", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1853.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dlmw", "c_root_id_B": "gu9j73c", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239297, "created_at_utc_B": 1618241814, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "human_ref_B": "How did Israel get into the position where Pfizer is threatening consequences for non-payment? What kind of failure allowed that to happen?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2517.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9j73c", "c_root_id_B": "gubi8oa", "created_at_utc_A": 1618241814, "created_at_utc_B": 1618274889, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "How did Israel get into the position where Pfizer is threatening consequences for non-payment? What kind of failure allowed that to happen?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve read some about Israel not vaccinating the Palestinians and fulfilling their obligations as an occupier.  I\u2019m not sure if that is still the case. Can you offer the counter argument that justifies or explains the alternate view point?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33075.0, "score_ratio": 1.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dlmw", "c_root_id_B": "gubi8oa", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239297, "created_at_utc_B": 1618274889, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve read some about Israel not vaccinating the Palestinians and fulfilling their obligations as an occupier.  I\u2019m not sure if that is still the case. Can you offer the counter argument that justifies or explains the alternate view point?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 35592.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9dlmw", "c_root_id_B": "gu9viwt", "created_at_utc_A": 1618239297, "created_at_utc_B": 1618247214, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Hello there sir, please elaborate on how certain strains are bypassing antibodies? I ask this with respect to you and your team..", "human_ref_B": "I don\u2019t believe this question is specific to COVID-19:  1. If a person is fully vaccinated and then is exposed to the virus, how long before the body can eradicate the pathogen?  I\u2019m assuming that this person, if infected through the exposure, becomes a carrier and can still infect others who may not be vaccinated?   2. Given the above example, if a person is two weeks out of their full vaccination, then in the best interest of anyone around them, shouldn\u2019t they still be wearing their mask because they could still be carriers to those who aren\u2019t eligible for the vaccine?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7917.0, "score_ratio": 1.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mpbg5u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist and one of the architects of Israel's coronavirus response and vaccine operation. Ask me anything! Hi! I am Prof. Nadav Davidovitch, an epidemiologist, public health physician, professor, and director of the School of Public Health at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU). I study health policy, vaccination policy, comparative health care systems, public health ethics and global health. During the pandemic, it has been my  honor to serve on Israel's national COVID-19 advisory committee, as well as on the COVID-19 Task Force of the Association of Schools of Public Health in the European Region.  My research focuses on various aspects of health policy, combining my multidisciplinary experience as an epidemiologist and public health physician with my knowledge of the sociology of health and public health ethics. I am involved in several projects related to legal and ethical aspects of public health practices, including pandemic response and health inequalities.  As a reserve medical officer during 2014's Operation Protective Edge, I was the commander of a medical unit of 700 physicians, paramedics, medics, and other medical personnel. I received my M.D. and Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University and my M.P.H. from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.  I have authored or co-authored over 150 papers and book chapters, coedited 5 volumes and books and published work in leading medical and health policy journals, such as the New England Journal of Medicine, Clinical Infectious Diseases, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Journal of Pediatrics, Vaccine, Social Science and Medicine, and Law & Contemporary Problems.  Here are a few links related to COVID-19 in Israel that you may find of interest:  + https://aabgu.org/mass-vaccinations-effective/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-breakthrough-test/ + https://aabgu.org/covid-mass-inoculation/  Learn more about Ben-Gurion University of the Negev: www.aabgu.org  I'll be answering questions starting at 11am PT (2 PM ET, 18 UT), ask me anything!  Username: /u/IsraelinSF", "c_root_id_A": "gu9viwt", "c_root_id_B": "gubi8oa", "created_at_utc_A": 1618247214, "created_at_utc_B": 1618274889, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "I don\u2019t believe this question is specific to COVID-19:  1. If a person is fully vaccinated and then is exposed to the virus, how long before the body can eradicate the pathogen?  I\u2019m assuming that this person, if infected through the exposure, becomes a carrier and can still infect others who may not be vaccinated?   2. Given the above example, if a person is two weeks out of their full vaccination, then in the best interest of anyone around them, shouldn\u2019t they still be wearing their mask because they could still be carriers to those who aren\u2019t eligible for the vaccine?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve read some about Israel not vaccinating the Palestinians and fulfilling their obligations as an occupier.  I\u2019m not sure if that is still the case. Can you offer the counter argument that justifies or explains the alternate view point?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27675.0, "score_ratio": 1.1538461538, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dcjdk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Are there any resources on Earth that we've already consumed for which we have no clear alternative? There's a lot of discussion about how we're consuming the Earth's resources and some of those resources can't be replaced. Are there any resources we've already depleted for which we have no substitute, or has this always been a theoretical proposition?", "c_root_id_A": "c9pcsld", "c_root_id_B": "c9poo48", "created_at_utc_A": 1367290006, "created_at_utc_B": 1367340544, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I think the fundamental problem with this question is the fact that we live in a closed system.  All resources can be reused because they don't disapear when \"used\".  All aluminum will continue to be aluminum after it is turned into a can.  It comes down to the question of how much energy is required to recycle the can versus the cost of mining more aluminum.  It is economics.  The only time we actually use something and atomically change it is in nuclear fusion or fission.  We aren't anywhere close to using up uranium and we certainly aren't going to use up hydrogen any time soon in fusion.", "human_ref_B": "Obviously humanity has not yet wiped itself out by exhausting a resource for which we cannot find a substitute.  Small civilizations have.  The Easter Islanders consumed to local extinction a species of trees that they needed to make boats with.  There was a city in the southeastern Arabian Peninsula that exhausted its aquafer -- there hasn't been a city in the area since.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 50538.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qgbx7b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Since spacecraft are electrically floating ground, are there any issues with docking spacecraft that are a different voltage potential? And since near-earth space is filled with a very thin electrically charged plasma, does this cause a charge to accumulate?", "c_root_id_A": "hi9zj6p", "c_root_id_B": "hia1i0c", "created_at_utc_A": 1635358543, "created_at_utc_B": 1635359297, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Good question and very interesting responses! I'll just add to the context by mentioning that things definitely do get charged up in space. If it's something made of metal and exposed to the sun, it reliably charges to a few volts positive due to the photoelectric effect (energetic uv photons knock electrons out of the metal). If it's shaded from the sun (perhaps it's orbiting earth and currently on the night side) it generally charges negatively because free electrons in the diffuse plasma fly around at higher velocities than free protons, and so more electrons physically run into and build up on the skin of the spacecraft. The level of this negative charging can be quite variable and is sensitive to the current space weather (how active is the sun? Any coronal mass ejections nearby?) As well as the space microclimate (are you hanging out in one of the van Allen belts where magnetic fields trap an abundance of electrons?). Modeling can get quite complicated, see for example: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1350582", "human_ref_B": "The ISS is able to adjust its own charge via a device know as a plasma contactor. This fires charged ions off into space to reduce its own charge. This is in particular used during space walks to stop the station charging up while astronauts are working.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 754.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ca2j8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "In as simple a way as possible, how are we able to tell the elementary make up of a planet using only a telescope? Just reading a story about how scientists used the Hubble telescope to view HAT-P-26b, s planet 440 light years away. They saw \"distinct signatures of water in its atmosphere\" and \"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\". How can you do this using only a telescope?", "c_root_id_A": "dht6gft", "c_root_id_B": "dht596c", "created_at_utc_A": 1495291126, "created_at_utc_B": 1495289156, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Been a while but something along the lines of this...  Different molecules absorb certain wavelengths of light. In a lab we can kinda shine light though some molecules and then when viewing that light's spectrum, see which wavelengths are missing (absorbed by the molecules). So in a lab we can make a sort of spectral map for any type of molecule. \"When light shines though *these* molecules the remaining spectrum looks like this, and when we shine light though *those* molecules the remaining spectrum looks like that.  Now we just need to look at the remaining spectrum from the light of stars and see what wavelengths are missing and match it up to our lab made maps. \"The light from that star is passing though such and such type of molecules.\"  The cool thing is that there are many different types of molecules in a star, so we will see many many missing wavelengths, but we can match them up to maps we have and figure out all the types of molecules present in the star.  Here is sort of an example of two different spectral emission maps combined. The black lines are the wavelengths that have been absorbed by molecules. The top one is apparently from a star rich in hydrogen, and the middle is from a star with lots of heavier metals. The bottom is actually the light from the two stars (a binary system), but it's kind of the same type of spectral map you would see from one star with two different types of molecules blocking wavelengths.  EDIT: I just noticed that you specifically asked about planets, not stars. I've never looked into it, so take this with a grain of salt, but I can only imagine that it has to do with taking the spectral map of the star without the exoplanet in the way, and taking the spectral map of the star *with* the exoplanet in the way, and then somehow comparing the two.", "human_ref_B": "This is an emerging field right now, because very few exoplanets are big enough to see the effect and close enough to us to be able to detect it with out current telescopes.  Essentially, every molecule absorbs some wavelength of light. This is why you see lines in the spectra of stars.   A lot of the exoplanets we know about pass infront of their stars. Well, when they pass in front of the star, that means some light shines through the exoplanet's atmosphere all around the planet. By taking spectra before and during the exoplanet's transit, we can observe the difference. Anything that exists in the spectrum during the transit, but not before, is probably in the exoplanet's atmosphere.  There are obviously some complications, but that's the basic process.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1970.0, "score_ratio": 3.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ca2j8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "In as simple a way as possible, how are we able to tell the elementary make up of a planet using only a telescope? Just reading a story about how scientists used the Hubble telescope to view HAT-P-26b, s planet 440 light years away. They saw \"distinct signatures of water in its atmosphere\" and \"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\". How can you do this using only a telescope?", "c_root_id_A": "dhtb3sn", "c_root_id_B": "dht596c", "created_at_utc_A": 1495297800, "created_at_utc_B": 1495289156, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Astrophysicist chiming in here. There are essentially 3 things we can measure on exoplanets: radius, mass, and atmospheric content. I answered a similar question about the first two here. For HAT-P-26b, there are a few things I would like to address in terms of what the predicted atmospheric content is.   First off, the water detection. When an exoplanet passes in front of its host star, the light from the star will also go through the atmosphere of that exoplanet (assuming it has one). When light interacts with with the gas in the atmosphere it can be absorbed and scattered. This means that if we look at the spectrum of light, which is just the intensity split out into wavelength, then we can tell that certain parts of the spectra look different before and during the transit. In the case of HAT-P-26b, there was a clear drop in the light intensity that corresponds to water. Taking this spectra, you can do some computer modelling of the atmosphere and get some information about the content of said atmosphere. This is essentially how exoplanet spectroscopy works.  >\"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\"  Now this is where the interpretation gets a little less straightforward. In astronomy, we like to use the term metallicity which is essentially how much stuff is there other than Hydrogen and Helium in an astrophysical object (it doesn't have to be a metal). For HAT-P-26b, the scientists used the water content as a predictor of the total metallicity of the planet, and then compared that to the planets in our own Solar System, in particular Neptune and Uranus. They found that the metallicity was a lot lower than our Solar System. This is a fine approximation, but water isn't the normal \"species\" that we use to determine the metallcity in Neptune and Uranus. Methane is considered to be a more accurate tracer of metallicity. Further still, you have to consider the metallicity of the star that these planets orbit. HAT-P-26b's hosts star is considered \"metal poor\" by some estimates, meaning that you would expect any planets to also be metal poor.  So while the water detection is certainly a very interesting discovery, I don't necessarily agree with some of the interpretation. If anybody would like to read the full paper, here is a free link to it.  Edit: I would also like to direct people to /u/Astromike23 and his really great response.", "human_ref_B": "This is an emerging field right now, because very few exoplanets are big enough to see the effect and close enough to us to be able to detect it with out current telescopes.  Essentially, every molecule absorbs some wavelength of light. This is why you see lines in the spectra of stars.   A lot of the exoplanets we know about pass infront of their stars. Well, when they pass in front of the star, that means some light shines through the exoplanet's atmosphere all around the planet. By taking spectra before and during the exoplanet's transit, we can observe the difference. Anything that exists in the spectrum during the transit, but not before, is probably in the exoplanet's atmosphere.  There are obviously some complications, but that's the basic process.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8644.0, "score_ratio": 1.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ca2j8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "In as simple a way as possible, how are we able to tell the elementary make up of a planet using only a telescope? Just reading a story about how scientists used the Hubble telescope to view HAT-P-26b, s planet 440 light years away. They saw \"distinct signatures of water in its atmosphere\" and \"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\". How can you do this using only a telescope?", "c_root_id_A": "dhtb3sn", "c_root_id_B": "dht71t9", "created_at_utc_A": 1495297800, "created_at_utc_B": 1495292044, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Astrophysicist chiming in here. There are essentially 3 things we can measure on exoplanets: radius, mass, and atmospheric content. I answered a similar question about the first two here. For HAT-P-26b, there are a few things I would like to address in terms of what the predicted atmospheric content is.   First off, the water detection. When an exoplanet passes in front of its host star, the light from the star will also go through the atmosphere of that exoplanet (assuming it has one). When light interacts with with the gas in the atmosphere it can be absorbed and scattered. This means that if we look at the spectrum of light, which is just the intensity split out into wavelength, then we can tell that certain parts of the spectra look different before and during the transit. In the case of HAT-P-26b, there was a clear drop in the light intensity that corresponds to water. Taking this spectra, you can do some computer modelling of the atmosphere and get some information about the content of said atmosphere. This is essentially how exoplanet spectroscopy works.  >\"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\"  Now this is where the interpretation gets a little less straightforward. In astronomy, we like to use the term metallicity which is essentially how much stuff is there other than Hydrogen and Helium in an astrophysical object (it doesn't have to be a metal). For HAT-P-26b, the scientists used the water content as a predictor of the total metallicity of the planet, and then compared that to the planets in our own Solar System, in particular Neptune and Uranus. They found that the metallicity was a lot lower than our Solar System. This is a fine approximation, but water isn't the normal \"species\" that we use to determine the metallcity in Neptune and Uranus. Methane is considered to be a more accurate tracer of metallicity. Further still, you have to consider the metallicity of the star that these planets orbit. HAT-P-26b's hosts star is considered \"metal poor\" by some estimates, meaning that you would expect any planets to also be metal poor.  So while the water detection is certainly a very interesting discovery, I don't necessarily agree with some of the interpretation. If anybody would like to read the full paper, here is a free link to it.  Edit: I would also like to direct people to /u/Astromike23 and his really great response.", "human_ref_B": "I can't remember the scientist's name, but he would have starlight go through a prism before it went into his telescope. This refracted the light into the visible light spectrum that we can see as well as a bunch of black lines that form a sort of barcode. This barcode can be read to determine which elements are present on said planet/star as well as the abundance of said elements(I believe).   Neil degrasse Tyson covered this in cosmos and it blew my mind as it was a question I had asked myself for a long time as well", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5756.0, "score_ratio": 2.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ca2j8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "In as simple a way as possible, how are we able to tell the elementary make up of a planet using only a telescope? Just reading a story about how scientists used the Hubble telescope to view HAT-P-26b, s planet 440 light years away. They saw \"distinct signatures of water in its atmosphere\" and \"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\". How can you do this using only a telescope?", "c_root_id_A": "dhtb3sn", "c_root_id_B": "dhtat9j", "created_at_utc_A": 1495297800, "created_at_utc_B": 1495297400, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Astrophysicist chiming in here. There are essentially 3 things we can measure on exoplanets: radius, mass, and atmospheric content. I answered a similar question about the first two here. For HAT-P-26b, there are a few things I would like to address in terms of what the predicted atmospheric content is.   First off, the water detection. When an exoplanet passes in front of its host star, the light from the star will also go through the atmosphere of that exoplanet (assuming it has one). When light interacts with with the gas in the atmosphere it can be absorbed and scattered. This means that if we look at the spectrum of light, which is just the intensity split out into wavelength, then we can tell that certain parts of the spectra look different before and during the transit. In the case of HAT-P-26b, there was a clear drop in the light intensity that corresponds to water. Taking this spectra, you can do some computer modelling of the atmosphere and get some information about the content of said atmosphere. This is essentially how exoplanet spectroscopy works.  >\"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\"  Now this is where the interpretation gets a little less straightforward. In astronomy, we like to use the term metallicity which is essentially how much stuff is there other than Hydrogen and Helium in an astrophysical object (it doesn't have to be a metal). For HAT-P-26b, the scientists used the water content as a predictor of the total metallicity of the planet, and then compared that to the planets in our own Solar System, in particular Neptune and Uranus. They found that the metallicity was a lot lower than our Solar System. This is a fine approximation, but water isn't the normal \"species\" that we use to determine the metallcity in Neptune and Uranus. Methane is considered to be a more accurate tracer of metallicity. Further still, you have to consider the metallicity of the star that these planets orbit. HAT-P-26b's hosts star is considered \"metal poor\" by some estimates, meaning that you would expect any planets to also be metal poor.  So while the water detection is certainly a very interesting discovery, I don't necessarily agree with some of the interpretation. If anybody would like to read the full paper, here is a free link to it.  Edit: I would also like to direct people to /u/Astromike23 and his really great response.", "human_ref_B": "A lot of the answers here are saying, \"just take the spectrum of the planet.\" While that's the basic theoretical way to do it, in practice it's a lot tougher than just taking the planet's light and passing it through a prism, since that signal is almost always too weak for exoplanets.  Remember, the only way we can even detect that HAT-P-26b exists is because it passes directly in front of its parent star from our point of view - it's basically a very tiny eclipse. When we observe the star from Earth, the star's brightness drops by about 0.5% when the planet passes in front of it. If the planet were bigger, it would block more light during the eclipse; if the planet were smaller, it would block less light during the eclipse.  Now it turns out that water vapor is very good at absorbing light with certain colors. Specifically, water vapor will absorb infrared light with a wavelength around 1.4 microns (different wavelengths are just different colors), while letting most infrared light at other wavelengths pass through.  So, let's say there's lots of water vapor in HAT-P-26b's upper atmosphere. When we observe the eclipse, the amount of light from the star that's blocked out by the planet will depend on the wavelength of that light. Water vapor will absorb any 1.4-micron infrared light that passes through the upper atmosphere, but will let through infrared light of other wavelengths. The result is that the eclipse in 1.4 micron light will be deeper (more total light blocked) than in other wavelengths.  What we end up doing, then, is observing these eclipses in a lot of different wavelengths by placing different filters on the telescope that allows each wavelength to pass through. This graph is from the original paper, showing all the different wavelengths the eclipse was observed in. The dip in the middle of each line there is how much light gets blocked for each wavelength during each eclipse.  When you then compare how deep the eclipse was for each wavelength, you end up with this graph, also from the original paper. The black dots are what's important here (the colored lines are all just different models). The black dots around 1.4 microns are a lot higher than the rest, telling us that a lot more light near those wavelengths are blocked out during the eclipses, and so we can conclude that there must be a good deal of water vapor in the upper atmosphere blocking out that light.  **TL;DR**: We observe eclipses when the planet passes in front of the star in many different colors. Water vapor blocks out certain colors better than others, and we see deeper eclipses in those colors.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 400.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ca2j8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "In as simple a way as possible, how are we able to tell the elementary make up of a planet using only a telescope? Just reading a story about how scientists used the Hubble telescope to view HAT-P-26b, s planet 440 light years away. They saw \"distinct signatures of water in its atmosphere\" and \"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\". How can you do this using only a telescope?", "c_root_id_A": "dhtb3sn", "c_root_id_B": "dht85uc", "created_at_utc_A": 1495297800, "created_at_utc_B": 1495293688, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Astrophysicist chiming in here. There are essentially 3 things we can measure on exoplanets: radius, mass, and atmospheric content. I answered a similar question about the first two here. For HAT-P-26b, there are a few things I would like to address in terms of what the predicted atmospheric content is.   First off, the water detection. When an exoplanet passes in front of its host star, the light from the star will also go through the atmosphere of that exoplanet (assuming it has one). When light interacts with with the gas in the atmosphere it can be absorbed and scattered. This means that if we look at the spectrum of light, which is just the intensity split out into wavelength, then we can tell that certain parts of the spectra look different before and during the transit. In the case of HAT-P-26b, there was a clear drop in the light intensity that corresponds to water. Taking this spectra, you can do some computer modelling of the atmosphere and get some information about the content of said atmosphere. This is essentially how exoplanet spectroscopy works.  >\"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\"  Now this is where the interpretation gets a little less straightforward. In astronomy, we like to use the term metallicity which is essentially how much stuff is there other than Hydrogen and Helium in an astrophysical object (it doesn't have to be a metal). For HAT-P-26b, the scientists used the water content as a predictor of the total metallicity of the planet, and then compared that to the planets in our own Solar System, in particular Neptune and Uranus. They found that the metallicity was a lot lower than our Solar System. This is a fine approximation, but water isn't the normal \"species\" that we use to determine the metallcity in Neptune and Uranus. Methane is considered to be a more accurate tracer of metallicity. Further still, you have to consider the metallicity of the star that these planets orbit. HAT-P-26b's hosts star is considered \"metal poor\" by some estimates, meaning that you would expect any planets to also be metal poor.  So while the water detection is certainly a very interesting discovery, I don't necessarily agree with some of the interpretation. If anybody would like to read the full paper, here is a free link to it.  Edit: I would also like to direct people to /u/Astromike23 and his really great response.", "human_ref_B": "If you look at light with a spectrum you will get all wavelenghts. Think sunlight trugh a prism.  If you look at light from a specific star you will also get a spectrum, but when a planet moves in front of that star it will block some of the light completly and some of the light will pass trugh the atmosphere.  All molicules will block a specific wavelenght, so that you will get a gap in the spectrum. We know from experiments on earth what signature each gas have (what wavelenghts it absorbs), so we just needs to compare the gaps with what gases absorbs those wavelengts to know what the specific planets atmosphere is made of.  Edit: This is what it can look like: http://spiff.rit.edu/richmond/asras/chemcomp_i/spec_rev_orientation.gif", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4112.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ca2j8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "In as simple a way as possible, how are we able to tell the elementary make up of a planet using only a telescope? Just reading a story about how scientists used the Hubble telescope to view HAT-P-26b, s planet 440 light years away. They saw \"distinct signatures of water in its atmosphere\" and \"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\". How can you do this using only a telescope?", "c_root_id_A": "dhtat9j", "c_root_id_B": "dhtm2fu", "created_at_utc_A": 1495297400, "created_at_utc_B": 1495313775, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "A lot of the answers here are saying, \"just take the spectrum of the planet.\" While that's the basic theoretical way to do it, in practice it's a lot tougher than just taking the planet's light and passing it through a prism, since that signal is almost always too weak for exoplanets.  Remember, the only way we can even detect that HAT-P-26b exists is because it passes directly in front of its parent star from our point of view - it's basically a very tiny eclipse. When we observe the star from Earth, the star's brightness drops by about 0.5% when the planet passes in front of it. If the planet were bigger, it would block more light during the eclipse; if the planet were smaller, it would block less light during the eclipse.  Now it turns out that water vapor is very good at absorbing light with certain colors. Specifically, water vapor will absorb infrared light with a wavelength around 1.4 microns (different wavelengths are just different colors), while letting most infrared light at other wavelengths pass through.  So, let's say there's lots of water vapor in HAT-P-26b's upper atmosphere. When we observe the eclipse, the amount of light from the star that's blocked out by the planet will depend on the wavelength of that light. Water vapor will absorb any 1.4-micron infrared light that passes through the upper atmosphere, but will let through infrared light of other wavelengths. The result is that the eclipse in 1.4 micron light will be deeper (more total light blocked) than in other wavelengths.  What we end up doing, then, is observing these eclipses in a lot of different wavelengths by placing different filters on the telescope that allows each wavelength to pass through. This graph is from the original paper, showing all the different wavelengths the eclipse was observed in. The dip in the middle of each line there is how much light gets blocked for each wavelength during each eclipse.  When you then compare how deep the eclipse was for each wavelength, you end up with this graph, also from the original paper. The black dots are what's important here (the colored lines are all just different models). The black dots around 1.4 microns are a lot higher than the rest, telling us that a lot more light near those wavelengths are blocked out during the eclipses, and so we can conclude that there must be a good deal of water vapor in the upper atmosphere blocking out that light.  **TL;DR**: We observe eclipses when the planet passes in front of the star in many different colors. Water vapor blocks out certain colors better than others, and we see deeper eclipses in those colors.", "human_ref_B": "I've got a story for you :-)  They can't using \"only a telescope\".  They also need some sort of spectrograph.    So our eyeballs only see three colors (one might argue 4 if you included rods, but whatever).  But light can have infinite different wavelengths.  When you shine light through a prism or diffraction grating, light is bent a different amount based on its wavelength.  Here's a silly picture of a lamp viewed through a diffraction grating I found in a little kids science book:  http://i.imgur.com/eNBO0CC.jpg  So the rainbow produced by the prism/diffraction grating, you have the different wavelengths separated by *distance*.    http://i.imgur.com/WDHlMfh.jpg  Now this is a kids diffraction grating and a regular old camera, but it's the same basic idea as what fancy scientific equipment does.  Here's a picture of the spectrum emitted by that lamp (which has a compact flourescent bulb in it)  http://i.imgur.com/TCe6K2Z.jpg  See some spots are brighter than others.  I looked up the spectrum of CFL bulbs online and found this graph, and overlaid the graph over the spectrum I produced   http://i.imgur.com/IXZJzLU.jpg  Lines up pretty well, eh? :-D  Those spikes are associated with certain elements.  For instance, that bright blue spike on the left is emitted by mercury.  The bright green spike is terbium and mercury.  The bright red one is europium.  And so on.  The spectra of different elements and molecules has been categorized, so by looking at where the spikes are, we can tell what something is just by looking at the spikes.  So for stuff that doesn't glow, we can heat it until it glows, shine the light through a diffraction grating, and voila!  For things where that's not possible, we can do the inverse...  Shine full spectrum light on them (e.g. from a sun) and they will *absorb* at specific spots in the spectrum.  That's information is all categoried nicely for scientists too :-)  I wrote some software to process the images off the camera, and produced a similar graph to the one I found online using just the data from the pixels in my image.  http://i.imgur.com/a3G0VpC.jpg  The red, green, and blue are because consumer digital cameras have a bayer filter over the sensors, so i'm not getting raw data, just data through red, green, or blue filters.    And that's the story how I made a spectrometer with a digital camera and a kid's science book.  The scientists are doing the exact same thing, except with something *much* dimmer than a light bulb a couple feet from me and with *much* fancier, more expensive equipment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16375.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ca2j8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "In as simple a way as possible, how are we able to tell the elementary make up of a planet using only a telescope? Just reading a story about how scientists used the Hubble telescope to view HAT-P-26b, s planet 440 light years away. They saw \"distinct signatures of water in its atmosphere\" and \"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\". How can you do this using only a telescope?", "c_root_id_A": "dhtm2fu", "c_root_id_B": "dht85uc", "created_at_utc_A": 1495313775, "created_at_utc_B": 1495293688, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've got a story for you :-)  They can't using \"only a telescope\".  They also need some sort of spectrograph.    So our eyeballs only see three colors (one might argue 4 if you included rods, but whatever).  But light can have infinite different wavelengths.  When you shine light through a prism or diffraction grating, light is bent a different amount based on its wavelength.  Here's a silly picture of a lamp viewed through a diffraction grating I found in a little kids science book:  http://i.imgur.com/eNBO0CC.jpg  So the rainbow produced by the prism/diffraction grating, you have the different wavelengths separated by *distance*.    http://i.imgur.com/WDHlMfh.jpg  Now this is a kids diffraction grating and a regular old camera, but it's the same basic idea as what fancy scientific equipment does.  Here's a picture of the spectrum emitted by that lamp (which has a compact flourescent bulb in it)  http://i.imgur.com/TCe6K2Z.jpg  See some spots are brighter than others.  I looked up the spectrum of CFL bulbs online and found this graph, and overlaid the graph over the spectrum I produced   http://i.imgur.com/IXZJzLU.jpg  Lines up pretty well, eh? :-D  Those spikes are associated with certain elements.  For instance, that bright blue spike on the left is emitted by mercury.  The bright green spike is terbium and mercury.  The bright red one is europium.  And so on.  The spectra of different elements and molecules has been categorized, so by looking at where the spikes are, we can tell what something is just by looking at the spikes.  So for stuff that doesn't glow, we can heat it until it glows, shine the light through a diffraction grating, and voila!  For things where that's not possible, we can do the inverse...  Shine full spectrum light on them (e.g. from a sun) and they will *absorb* at specific spots in the spectrum.  That's information is all categoried nicely for scientists too :-)  I wrote some software to process the images off the camera, and produced a similar graph to the one I found online using just the data from the pixels in my image.  http://i.imgur.com/a3G0VpC.jpg  The red, green, and blue are because consumer digital cameras have a bayer filter over the sensors, so i'm not getting raw data, just data through red, green, or blue filters.    And that's the story how I made a spectrometer with a digital camera and a kid's science book.  The scientists are doing the exact same thing, except with something *much* dimmer than a light bulb a couple feet from me and with *much* fancier, more expensive equipment.", "human_ref_B": "If you look at light with a spectrum you will get all wavelenghts. Think sunlight trugh a prism.  If you look at light from a specific star you will also get a spectrum, but when a planet moves in front of that star it will block some of the light completly and some of the light will pass trugh the atmosphere.  All molicules will block a specific wavelenght, so that you will get a gap in the spectrum. We know from experiments on earth what signature each gas have (what wavelenghts it absorbs), so we just needs to compare the gaps with what gases absorbs those wavelengts to know what the specific planets atmosphere is made of.  Edit: This is what it can look like: http://spiff.rit.edu/richmond/asras/chemcomp_i/spec_rev_orientation.gif", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20087.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6ca2j8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "In as simple a way as possible, how are we able to tell the elementary make up of a planet using only a telescope? Just reading a story about how scientists used the Hubble telescope to view HAT-P-26b, s planet 440 light years away. They saw \"distinct signatures of water in its atmosphere\" and \"found fewer heavy elements than they had expected\". How can you do this using only a telescope?", "c_root_id_A": "dht85uc", "c_root_id_B": "dhtat9j", "created_at_utc_A": 1495293688, "created_at_utc_B": 1495297400, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "If you look at light with a spectrum you will get all wavelenghts. Think sunlight trugh a prism.  If you look at light from a specific star you will also get a spectrum, but when a planet moves in front of that star it will block some of the light completly and some of the light will pass trugh the atmosphere.  All molicules will block a specific wavelenght, so that you will get a gap in the spectrum. We know from experiments on earth what signature each gas have (what wavelenghts it absorbs), so we just needs to compare the gaps with what gases absorbs those wavelengts to know what the specific planets atmosphere is made of.  Edit: This is what it can look like: http://spiff.rit.edu/richmond/asras/chemcomp_i/spec_rev_orientation.gif", "human_ref_B": "A lot of the answers here are saying, \"just take the spectrum of the planet.\" While that's the basic theoretical way to do it, in practice it's a lot tougher than just taking the planet's light and passing it through a prism, since that signal is almost always too weak for exoplanets.  Remember, the only way we can even detect that HAT-P-26b exists is because it passes directly in front of its parent star from our point of view - it's basically a very tiny eclipse. When we observe the star from Earth, the star's brightness drops by about 0.5% when the planet passes in front of it. If the planet were bigger, it would block more light during the eclipse; if the planet were smaller, it would block less light during the eclipse.  Now it turns out that water vapor is very good at absorbing light with certain colors. Specifically, water vapor will absorb infrared light with a wavelength around 1.4 microns (different wavelengths are just different colors), while letting most infrared light at other wavelengths pass through.  So, let's say there's lots of water vapor in HAT-P-26b's upper atmosphere. When we observe the eclipse, the amount of light from the star that's blocked out by the planet will depend on the wavelength of that light. Water vapor will absorb any 1.4-micron infrared light that passes through the upper atmosphere, but will let through infrared light of other wavelengths. The result is that the eclipse in 1.4 micron light will be deeper (more total light blocked) than in other wavelengths.  What we end up doing, then, is observing these eclipses in a lot of different wavelengths by placing different filters on the telescope that allows each wavelength to pass through. This graph is from the original paper, showing all the different wavelengths the eclipse was observed in. The dip in the middle of each line there is how much light gets blocked for each wavelength during each eclipse.  When you then compare how deep the eclipse was for each wavelength, you end up with this graph, also from the original paper. The black dots are what's important here (the colored lines are all just different models). The black dots around 1.4 microns are a lot higher than the rest, telling us that a lot more light near those wavelengths are blocked out during the eclipses, and so we can conclude that there must be a good deal of water vapor in the upper atmosphere blocking out that light.  **TL;DR**: We observe eclipses when the planet passes in front of the star in many different colors. Water vapor blocks out certain colors better than others, and we see deeper eclipses in those colors.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3712.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js6ba", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How much of a soap's 'cleaning' abilities are from the surfactant properties and how much is from mechanical action? I was just wondering about this from a conversations I had earlier, and I couldn't find any non-sales pitch answers through google; the askscience posts I found didn't really answer my question.  I know the basics of how a surfactant works, but I was curious about how much those properties matter in relation to actually cleaning a human body.  Does using a rough surface like a loofah or stone change how clean you get your body when showering? If you use the surface of a bar of soap to 'scrub', does it having a clean/slick surface change how effectively the soap cleans your skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eqlrg", "c_root_id_B": "c2eqwzg", "created_at_utc_A": 1314150499, "created_at_utc_B": 1314153100, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Always wondered about that.  A washcloth lathered up with soap will be the ideal answer, but I've always wondered how effective just the bar of soap (rubbing it on your body) vs just the washcloth (scrubbing your body) would be.", "human_ref_B": "My background: Former R&D employee of one of the world's largest manufacturer's of soap.  Your answer: It totally depends on what you're cleaning. If your hand is covered in mud, you make just as much progress using water to rinse it off and scrubbing before using soap. The soap will very likely contribute nothing to getting the mud off, and you'd really only want to use it afterwards to get any weird bacteria off of your hand after bathing them in mud. If your hand is covered in cooking oil or motor oil, you would very likely need to scrub for so long so hard that you might wind up causing some skin irritation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2601.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js6ba", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How much of a soap's 'cleaning' abilities are from the surfactant properties and how much is from mechanical action? I was just wondering about this from a conversations I had earlier, and I couldn't find any non-sales pitch answers through google; the askscience posts I found didn't really answer my question.  I know the basics of how a surfactant works, but I was curious about how much those properties matter in relation to actually cleaning a human body.  Does using a rough surface like a loofah or stone change how clean you get your body when showering? If you use the surface of a bar of soap to 'scrub', does it having a clean/slick surface change how effectively the soap cleans your skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eqwzg", "c_root_id_B": "c2epmjp", "created_at_utc_A": 1314153100, "created_at_utc_B": 1314142508, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "My background: Former R&D employee of one of the world's largest manufacturer's of soap.  Your answer: It totally depends on what you're cleaning. If your hand is covered in mud, you make just as much progress using water to rinse it off and scrubbing before using soap. The soap will very likely contribute nothing to getting the mud off, and you'd really only want to use it afterwards to get any weird bacteria off of your hand after bathing them in mud. If your hand is covered in cooking oil or motor oil, you would very likely need to scrub for so long so hard that you might wind up causing some skin irritation.", "human_ref_B": "Well those are two different mechanisms for cleaning. One is relying on exfoliation of the skin, the other on simply removing dirt from the skin.  I don't know which is more effective, I guess they both have their pros and cons though.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10592.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js6ba", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How much of a soap's 'cleaning' abilities are from the surfactant properties and how much is from mechanical action? I was just wondering about this from a conversations I had earlier, and I couldn't find any non-sales pitch answers through google; the askscience posts I found didn't really answer my question.  I know the basics of how a surfactant works, but I was curious about how much those properties matter in relation to actually cleaning a human body.  Does using a rough surface like a loofah or stone change how clean you get your body when showering? If you use the surface of a bar of soap to 'scrub', does it having a clean/slick surface change how effectively the soap cleans your skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eptjz", "c_root_id_B": "c2eqwzg", "created_at_utc_A": 1314144055, "created_at_utc_B": 1314153100, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "That's a good question, I wonder if a loofah can scrub off a lot of dead skin that soap alone wouldn't get.", "human_ref_B": "My background: Former R&D employee of one of the world's largest manufacturer's of soap.  Your answer: It totally depends on what you're cleaning. If your hand is covered in mud, you make just as much progress using water to rinse it off and scrubbing before using soap. The soap will very likely contribute nothing to getting the mud off, and you'd really only want to use it afterwards to get any weird bacteria off of your hand after bathing them in mud. If your hand is covered in cooking oil or motor oil, you would very likely need to scrub for so long so hard that you might wind up causing some skin irritation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9045.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js6ba", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How much of a soap's 'cleaning' abilities are from the surfactant properties and how much is from mechanical action? I was just wondering about this from a conversations I had earlier, and I couldn't find any non-sales pitch answers through google; the askscience posts I found didn't really answer my question.  I know the basics of how a surfactant works, but I was curious about how much those properties matter in relation to actually cleaning a human body.  Does using a rough surface like a loofah or stone change how clean you get your body when showering? If you use the surface of a bar of soap to 'scrub', does it having a clean/slick surface change how effectively the soap cleans your skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eqlrg", "c_root_id_B": "c2epmjp", "created_at_utc_A": 1314150499, "created_at_utc_B": 1314142508, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Always wondered about that.  A washcloth lathered up with soap will be the ideal answer, but I've always wondered how effective just the bar of soap (rubbing it on your body) vs just the washcloth (scrubbing your body) would be.", "human_ref_B": "Well those are two different mechanisms for cleaning. One is relying on exfoliation of the skin, the other on simply removing dirt from the skin.  I don't know which is more effective, I guess they both have their pros and cons though.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7991.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js6ba", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How much of a soap's 'cleaning' abilities are from the surfactant properties and how much is from mechanical action? I was just wondering about this from a conversations I had earlier, and I couldn't find any non-sales pitch answers through google; the askscience posts I found didn't really answer my question.  I know the basics of how a surfactant works, but I was curious about how much those properties matter in relation to actually cleaning a human body.  Does using a rough surface like a loofah or stone change how clean you get your body when showering? If you use the surface of a bar of soap to 'scrub', does it having a clean/slick surface change how effectively the soap cleans your skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eqlrg", "c_root_id_B": "c2eptjz", "created_at_utc_A": 1314150499, "created_at_utc_B": 1314144055, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Always wondered about that.  A washcloth lathered up with soap will be the ideal answer, but I've always wondered how effective just the bar of soap (rubbing it on your body) vs just the washcloth (scrubbing your body) would be.", "human_ref_B": "That's a good question, I wonder if a loofah can scrub off a lot of dead skin that soap alone wouldn't get.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6444.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1b579o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why does the maximum number of electrons per quantum level follow the pattern 2, 8, 18?  Quantum level 1 has a max of 2 electrons.   Quantum level 2 has a max of 8 electrons.   Quantum level 3 has a max of 18 electrons.   The pattern of maximum number of electrons per quantum level is:   2 * (quantum level ^ 2)  2 * (1 ^ 2) = 2  2 * (2 ^ 2) = 8  2 * (3 ^ 2) = 18  This pattern continues for quantum level 4: 2 * (4 ^ 2) = 32  Is there any explanation for this?", "c_root_id_A": "c93qn63", "c_root_id_B": "c93qdqy", "created_at_utc_A": 1364433087, "created_at_utc_B": 1364432331, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Yes. Electron states are described by four \"quantum numbers\" n,l,m,s. These are subject to the constraints that s=+1/2, -1/2. m is an integer from -l to l, and l is an integer < n.    So for n=1 you have l=0, m=0, and only the 2 possible s values. For n=2, you have l=0, m=0 plus l=1, m=-1,0,+1, times two, so 2\\*(1+3) states. So 2\\*1, 2\\*(1 + 3), 2\\*(1 + 3 + 5), 2\\*(1 + 3 + 5 + 7). The total number of states with a 'principal' quantum number n is twice the sum of the first _n_ odd numbers. That sum is n^(2), so 2n^(2).   What these numbers represent is momentum (n), angular momentum (l), the spatial orientation of the angular momentum, if any (m), and the electron 'spin' (s).", "human_ref_B": "The state of an electron in an atom can be described by four numbers:  * the principal quantum number, or energy level n  * the angular quantum number l  * the magnetic quantum number m  * the spin s  But there are also constraints on these numbers. It turns out that l has to be less than or equal to n, m has to be between -l and l, and s has to be either 1/2 or -1/2. Doing a bit of math, you get that there are 2 * n^2 distinct states for any particular n. Two electrons can't share the same state, because they're fermions, so... there's your result.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 756.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14ypgx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.", "c_root_id_A": "c7hniuh", "c_root_id_B": "c7hnj9x", "created_at_utc_A": 1355701738, "created_at_utc_B": 1355701780, "score_A": 53, "score_B": 114, "human_ref_A": "You'll probably find this enlightening.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_temperature", "human_ref_B": "Iron's Curie temperature is 768 \u00b0C and its melting point is 1538 \u00b0C. Molten iron is not magnetic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 42.0, "score_ratio": 2.1509433962, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14ypgx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.", "c_root_id_A": "c7hrmud", "c_root_id_B": "c7hovfj", "created_at_utc_A": 1355715851, "created_at_utc_B": 1355706715, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Molten iron will be in a paramagnetic state while liquid (or rather while it is above the Curie Temperature.) This means it will experience magnetization proportional to the applied field. However, it will not retain this magnetization if you remove said field. Read this for more info: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html  Similarly, if you cool the material below its Curie point while under a strong applied field, you will get a a chuck of iron that is more ferromagnetic ordered than what occurs naturally.", "human_ref_B": "This has been well answered but i wanted to add that blacksmiths sometimes use a magnet to determine the temperature of steel. It loses magnetic attraction at a useful temperature.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9136.0, "score_ratio": 1.08, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14ypgx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.", "c_root_id_A": "c7hov43", "c_root_id_B": "c7hrmud", "created_at_utc_A": 1355706684, "created_at_utc_B": 1355715851, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": ">Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet?  Attracted, no (as has already been answered)  >I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.  This, OTOH, is a different matter. Molten iron is still conductive, which means that it is repelled by a changing magnetic field. One of the fundamental principles of electromagnetism is that changing electric fields create a magnetic field, and changing magnetic fields produce an electric field. When a conductive material is exposed to a changing magnetic field, a current is induced that produces a magnetic field opposite to the field that created it. This results in a repulsive force between electromagnet and conductor.  So, in this case, while you couldn't suspend the molten iron by pulling it off the ground, you could suspend it by pushing it up into the air.", "human_ref_B": "Molten iron will be in a paramagnetic state while liquid (or rather while it is above the Curie Temperature.) This means it will experience magnetization proportional to the applied field. However, it will not retain this magnetization if you remove said field. Read this for more info: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html  Similarly, if you cool the material below its Curie point while under a strong applied field, you will get a a chuck of iron that is more ferromagnetic ordered than what occurs naturally.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9167.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14ypgx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.", "c_root_id_A": "c7hrmud", "c_root_id_B": "c7hqknt", "created_at_utc_A": 1355715851, "created_at_utc_B": 1355712440, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Molten iron will be in a paramagnetic state while liquid (or rather while it is above the Curie Temperature.) This means it will experience magnetization proportional to the applied field. However, it will not retain this magnetization if you remove said field. Read this for more info: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html  Similarly, if you cool the material below its Curie point while under a strong applied field, you will get a a chuck of iron that is more ferromagnetic ordered than what occurs naturally.", "human_ref_B": "Like everyone else said, no. However apparently you can suspend molten aluminum.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3411.0, "score_ratio": 6.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14ypgx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.", "c_root_id_A": "c7hov43", "c_root_id_B": "c7hovfj", "created_at_utc_A": 1355706684, "created_at_utc_B": 1355706715, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": ">Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet?  Attracted, no (as has already been answered)  >I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.  This, OTOH, is a different matter. Molten iron is still conductive, which means that it is repelled by a changing magnetic field. One of the fundamental principles of electromagnetism is that changing electric fields create a magnetic field, and changing magnetic fields produce an electric field. When a conductive material is exposed to a changing magnetic field, a current is induced that produces a magnetic field opposite to the field that created it. This results in a repulsive force between electromagnet and conductor.  So, in this case, while you couldn't suspend the molten iron by pulling it off the ground, you could suspend it by pushing it up into the air.", "human_ref_B": "This has been well answered but i wanted to add that blacksmiths sometimes use a magnet to determine the temperature of steel. It loses magnetic attraction at a useful temperature.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14ypgx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is molten iron still attracted to a magnet? I was wondering if appropriately calibrated electromagnets could suspend a ball of molten iron.", "c_root_id_A": "c7hwvo0", "c_root_id_B": "c7hqknt", "created_at_utc_A": 1355744674, "created_at_utc_B": 1355712440, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Molten iron is paramagnetic and thus is *weakly* attracted to a magnetic field. It is not ferromagnetic and so isn't what a layperson would call \"magnetic\" itself. However, despite several comments in this thread, the lack of ferromagnetism in molten iron has little to do with the lack of a crystal structure. Amorphous magnets are well known and widely used; they are ferromagnetic despite having no crystal structure. On the other hand, even solid (crystalline) iron is paramagnetic and not ferromagnetic near the melting point because it is above its Curie temperature. So the lack of a crystal structure is really quite irrelevant.  To answer your other question: Electromagnetic levitation is a common technique for levitating conducting materials of all kinds. A material does not have to be ferromagnetic to be levitated in this way.", "human_ref_B": "Like everyone else said, no. However apparently you can suspend molten aluminum.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32234.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1l38e8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Are there any insects that fly at much higher altitudes compared to other flying insects? Is there a max height rule of thumb for insects? I've given it some thought and realized that birds will fly at a much larger altitude than I've ever seen an insect fly. The problem is, insects are small and I can't easily see them if they *do* happen to fly at high altitude.  Is there a general height limit that most insects tend to fly below? Are there any super-fliers that tend to fly at higher altitudes?", "c_root_id_A": "cbvowto", "c_root_id_B": "cbvl7m3", "created_at_utc_A": 1377536301, "created_at_utc_B": 1377524379, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Here is an NPR video called \"The Invisible Highway\"  I suggest you watch the video because its presentation is better than my text format. However, for those who don't have the luxury of watching that video now, I will put some of the interesting parts here in spoiler format.  **Edit**: Apparently spoilers are unique to each subreddits, which askscience does not have any. Below are the key points from the NPR video.   Ladybugs at 6000ft  Gypsy moths at 10,000ft  Spiders at 14,000 ft  Highest insect ever, a single living termite at 19,000 ft (Gressit, 1961)  A 0.6 square mile column of air, has 3 billion insects in it (Jason Chapman, speaking of the UK, suspected more in other areas)  Data from May Berenbaum in American Entomologist Spring 2010 \"Frequent Flyer Miles\"  Also try Insectopedia by Hugh Raffels, NPR used it as a source as well", "human_ref_B": "I remember reading something a while ago saying that it had been discovered that there was a whole 'layer' of insects high up in the atmosphere that was not previously know about.   Did a quick google search and found this: http://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2011/06/01/128389587/look-up-the-billion-bug-highway-you-cant-see  But there are probably better resources out there.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11922.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztl28g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "What is a Lobster's Theoretical Maximum Size? Since lobsters don't die of old age but of external factors, what if we put one in a big, controlled and well-maintained aquarium, and feed it well. Can it reach the size of a car, or will physics or any other factor eventually limit its growth?", "c_root_id_A": "j1evp8g", "c_root_id_B": "j1e14x1", "created_at_utc_A": 1671826485, "created_at_utc_B": 1671814012, "score_A": 3176, "score_B": 1307, "human_ref_A": "The largest one on record was 20 kg (44 lbs) and about 1.2 m (4 ft) from claw tip to tail tip (about half that length is claw and arm).  There are reports of larger lobsters from the colonial era, but it's unclear exactly how reliable they were.  Lobsters continue growing for as long as they are healthy, but molting becomes more difficult as they age, and molting lobsters are more vulnerable to predators.  I suspect maximum lobster is a bit bigger than the biggest known...if one was kept in idea environment with no predators, the best in lobster healthcare, and plenty of food, it ought to be able to successfully molt at larger sizes than wild lobsters.  But how much bigger, it's hard to say for sure.  It probably wouldn't be a huge difference, certainly not car sized.  But I wouldn't be shocked if it was possible to get one up past, say, 1.5 m total length.  If you have a hundred years and a really nice marine lab, you should do this research.", "human_ref_B": "The limitation of it's growth is the energy requirement to moult and regrow it's shell. At a certain point the lobsters body cannot store enough calories and minerals to make it through. And they can't grow larger to hold more because the old shell is constraining them.  So they don't die of old age exactly, but they are limited to a maximum shell size that is survivable.  This size is right about the size of the biggest lobster you have seen. They just don't get freak 6 foot lobsters", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12473.0, "score_ratio": 2.4299923489, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ztl28g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "What is a Lobster's Theoretical Maximum Size? Since lobsters don't die of old age but of external factors, what if we put one in a big, controlled and well-maintained aquarium, and feed it well. Can it reach the size of a car, or will physics or any other factor eventually limit its growth?", "c_root_id_A": "j1e1tax", "c_root_id_B": "j1evp8g", "created_at_utc_A": 1671814277, "created_at_utc_B": 1671826485, "score_A": 97, "score_B": 3176, "human_ref_A": "The limitation is its age - most lobster experts age lobsters by its size & vice versa. The general equation is weight multiplied by 4 plus 3 years (for age). A lobster must be at least 7 years old to harvest. It\u2019s estimated that most lobsters live to be max 100 years old (25 lbs).", "human_ref_B": "The largest one on record was 20 kg (44 lbs) and about 1.2 m (4 ft) from claw tip to tail tip (about half that length is claw and arm).  There are reports of larger lobsters from the colonial era, but it's unclear exactly how reliable they were.  Lobsters continue growing for as long as they are healthy, but molting becomes more difficult as they age, and molting lobsters are more vulnerable to predators.  I suspect maximum lobster is a bit bigger than the biggest known...if one was kept in idea environment with no predators, the best in lobster healthcare, and plenty of food, it ought to be able to successfully molt at larger sizes than wild lobsters.  But how much bigger, it's hard to say for sure.  It probably wouldn't be a huge difference, certainly not car sized.  But I wouldn't be shocked if it was possible to get one up past, say, 1.5 m total length.  If you have a hundred years and a really nice marine lab, you should do this research.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12208.0, "score_ratio": 32.7422680412, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xe18mw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Do we have a handle on the number of diseases that go undiagnosed and contagious? A Chinese doctor discover COVID 19 was circulating. However, we all get sick and go to the doctor to discover we don\u2019t have COVID or Strep and there is no attempt to figure out what is making people sick. (The two things doctors test generally).   Meanwhile lots of people are getting sick and if it progresses to something worse it is defined by what it caused, such as pneumonia or bronchitis.   I find it odd at any university in the US a dozen students in each class are out sick then the next week or two another dozen. Each absence is costly, yet even at Universities when the students go to the doctors on campus they make no attempt to study \u201cwhat is this illness\u201d and whether warning classes about what is spreading or attempt to isolate it or stop it. When it knocks these young adults out for a week it could be a terrible \u201cbug\u201d yet the doctor\u2019s reaction is \u201cit is just some sort of bug.\u201d", "c_root_id_A": "ioehhlr", "c_root_id_B": "ioeipx2", "created_at_utc_A": 1663166466, "created_at_utc_B": 1663166951, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Yes, we do have some ideas based on the prevalence of opportunistic infections in people who are immunocompromised due to HIV infection, cancer chemotherapy, or genetic disorders. (Note that \"opportunistic\" means that the infection does not typically elicit symptoms in healthy people. \"Immunocompromised\" means that the normal functioning of the immune system is not working to prevent infection.) The list of potential infections is enormous and many include many species of bacteria, virus, fungus, and parasites, too many to list here, but some of which can be found in the attached link:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7040525/", "human_ref_B": "No, we don't. I am a continuing medical education grant writer and see the data on how many diseases are difficult to diagnose, are often first misdiagnosed, or go for years not being diagnosed as they progress. Sometimes  misdiagnosis or lack of diagnosis is on the part of the physician who is trained to look for the most common disease matching the symptoms and then decide whether a less common disease is the cause. Very many diseases have similar symptoms and so it can be challenging to drill down to identify rarer diseases.  There are batteries of tests to better pinpoint a disease --but the physician has to warrant whether such tests are necessary. This becomes particularly problematic in the age of managed healthcare in the US and cost controls--and penalties for doctors who drive up diagnostic test costs.  Also, a great many illness are stress-related, including pain syndromes. This does not mean that illness is \"all in one's head.\" It does mean that factors other than physical symptoms control need to be addressed, including examination of lifestyle, lifestyle changes, and certain rehabilitative and mental health efforts.  Lack of diagnosis is also caused by patients themselves who fail to seek out appropriate healthcare or routine screening. As for minipandemics that occur in the school or work settings--people need to be encouraged by their schools *and employers* to stay home if they are sick. There are tactics and medications that can offset or shorten certain viral and bacterial infections--but they are, by definition, infectious. People in the US are generally pressured to \"soldier on\" when ill. In the end, this results in contagion, lost productivity, and increased healthcare costs. Also, note that some people 1. do not get paid sick days and 2. do not get adequate health benefits so taking days off means lost income. Most of these people are already economically disadvantaged and victims of healthcare and socioeconomic disparities. Consider that, during the Covid pandemic, people of color in service jobs were among the most vulnerable--because they could not \"work from home\"--they had to be in the workplace interfacing with other workers and the public.   There is now a big push in continuing education and healthcare trends to address socioeconomic healthcare disparities.  Edit: I am glad for the positive response. I am going put a plug here for a new YouTube channel I just started called Your Health and Well Being. Only a few videos are up but this channel is different from most health info social media sites. No glitz, no teasers. It is mostly stuff I write for doctors rewritten and narrated for a lay person/patient education along with some videos related to my interest in hypnosis.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 485.0, "score_ratio": 2.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rauer", "c_root_id_B": "c1ralxj", "created_at_utc_A": 1303948551, "created_at_utc_B": 1303946028, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Genetic diseases from inbreeding aren't a guarantee, they're just slightly more likely. Inbreeding reduces genetic variation and also brings to light more recessive genetic traits, some of them harmful. Successive generations will be harmed by this but if they can survive long enough to generate a large enough population then natural selection can cull a lot of the more harmful traits and work back towards a more healthy population.  Cheetahs, for example, are believed to have passed through a genetic bottleneck fairly recently.", "human_ref_B": "I don't think this has ever happened.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2523.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rauer", "c_root_id_B": "c1rapv9", "created_at_utc_A": 1303948551, "created_at_utc_B": 1303947241, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Genetic diseases from inbreeding aren't a guarantee, they're just slightly more likely. Inbreeding reduces genetic variation and also brings to light more recessive genetic traits, some of them harmful. Successive generations will be harmed by this but if they can survive long enough to generate a large enough population then natural selection can cull a lot of the more harmful traits and work back towards a more healthy population.  Cheetahs, for example, are believed to have passed through a genetic bottleneck fairly recently.", "human_ref_B": "I don't know if this is an askscience question because it is something people will have to speculate on; but: I would suggest having as many kids with the initial generation as possible, then continually breeding at the maximum rate to try to gain the highest diversity for the next generations", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1310.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rbiz9", "c_root_id_B": "c1ralxj", "created_at_utc_A": 1303955982, "created_at_utc_B": 1303946028, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I don't think you'll ever find any examples of an entire lineage arising from just two animals, much to noah's dismay, but such a thing could feasibly be possible if the two animals have no detrimental genetic traits.    The only problem, aside from societal stigma, with inbreeding is that it magnifies recessive traits by increasing the likelihood of them being expressed.   But inbreeding occurs quite often in the animal worlds with little effect.  At some point though, some X generations, where I don't know what X is, you'd want to breed as far away from the line as possible (so 'cousins Y times removed).  There's some pretty screwed up dog lineages out there due to heavy inbreeding with no regards to genetic well being, but there's some good ones too.    So the possibility lies entirely with the genetic health of the 'founders' of that species.    But again there's no data to back this up.  Even with dogs it's all just isolation, not really the 'last of the two' scenario or anything.  It may be that this has already happened, was non-viable, and we don't see it because of that.  But again we don't know that that has happened so, who knows?  Fun Fact:  Due to careless breeding and poor genetics, the English Bulldog is no longer capable of giving birth naturally.  You have to do C-sections.  There's also a chicken breed (doublebreasted leghorn or something like that) that, through over selection for breast size, is no longer capable of naturally breeding on their own.  The male cannot fertilize the female and the line is propagated solely through AI.  Not the most popular breed since it's expensive.    So that's what poor genetic monitoring and variability gives you eventually.", "human_ref_B": "I don't think this has ever happened.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9954.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rapv9", "c_root_id_B": "c1rbiz9", "created_at_utc_A": 1303947241, "created_at_utc_B": 1303955982, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I don't know if this is an askscience question because it is something people will have to speculate on; but: I would suggest having as many kids with the initial generation as possible, then continually breeding at the maximum rate to try to gain the highest diversity for the next generations", "human_ref_B": "I don't think you'll ever find any examples of an entire lineage arising from just two animals, much to noah's dismay, but such a thing could feasibly be possible if the two animals have no detrimental genetic traits.    The only problem, aside from societal stigma, with inbreeding is that it magnifies recessive traits by increasing the likelihood of them being expressed.   But inbreeding occurs quite often in the animal worlds with little effect.  At some point though, some X generations, where I don't know what X is, you'd want to breed as far away from the line as possible (so 'cousins Y times removed).  There's some pretty screwed up dog lineages out there due to heavy inbreeding with no regards to genetic well being, but there's some good ones too.    So the possibility lies entirely with the genetic health of the 'founders' of that species.    But again there's no data to back this up.  Even with dogs it's all just isolation, not really the 'last of the two' scenario or anything.  It may be that this has already happened, was non-viable, and we don't see it because of that.  But again we don't know that that has happened so, who knows?  Fun Fact:  Due to careless breeding and poor genetics, the English Bulldog is no longer capable of giving birth naturally.  You have to do C-sections.  There's also a chicken breed (doublebreasted leghorn or something like that) that, through over selection for breast size, is no longer capable of naturally breeding on their own.  The male cannot fertilize the female and the line is propagated solely through AI.  Not the most popular breed since it's expensive.    So that's what poor genetic monitoring and variability gives you eventually.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8741.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rbiz9", "c_root_id_B": "c1raz1i", "created_at_utc_A": 1303955982, "created_at_utc_B": 1303949916, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I don't think you'll ever find any examples of an entire lineage arising from just two animals, much to noah's dismay, but such a thing could feasibly be possible if the two animals have no detrimental genetic traits.    The only problem, aside from societal stigma, with inbreeding is that it magnifies recessive traits by increasing the likelihood of them being expressed.   But inbreeding occurs quite often in the animal worlds with little effect.  At some point though, some X generations, where I don't know what X is, you'd want to breed as far away from the line as possible (so 'cousins Y times removed).  There's some pretty screwed up dog lineages out there due to heavy inbreeding with no regards to genetic well being, but there's some good ones too.    So the possibility lies entirely with the genetic health of the 'founders' of that species.    But again there's no data to back this up.  Even with dogs it's all just isolation, not really the 'last of the two' scenario or anything.  It may be that this has already happened, was non-viable, and we don't see it because of that.  But again we don't know that that has happened so, who knows?  Fun Fact:  Due to careless breeding and poor genetics, the English Bulldog is no longer capable of giving birth naturally.  You have to do C-sections.  There's also a chicken breed (doublebreasted leghorn or something like that) that, through over selection for breast size, is no longer capable of naturally breeding on their own.  The male cannot fertilize the female and the line is propagated solely through AI.  Not the most popular breed since it's expensive.    So that's what poor genetic monitoring and variability gives you eventually.", "human_ref_B": "The term for this is founder effect.  Go forth and Google!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6066.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rapv9", "c_root_id_B": "c1rbrbi", "created_at_utc_A": 1303947241, "created_at_utc_B": 1303958540, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I don't know if this is an askscience question because it is something people will have to speculate on; but: I would suggest having as many kids with the initial generation as possible, then continually breeding at the maximum rate to try to gain the highest diversity for the next generations", "human_ref_B": "Just look at \"pure-bred\" dogs. For instance, pugs, as well as other squishy faced breeds, have sinus/nasal issues, and dachsunds are prone to back problems. If you're interested in more rigorous studies, look at Ray Coppinger's work. He's a professor at Hampshire College who studies dog genetics.   EDIT: Oh, to answer your question: yes, two individuals could found a population, but the propagation of negative traits is a function of the mutation rate, birth rate, magnitude of selective pressure resulting from the traits, etc.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11299.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rbrbi", "c_root_id_B": "c1raz1i", "created_at_utc_A": 1303958540, "created_at_utc_B": 1303949916, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Just look at \"pure-bred\" dogs. For instance, pugs, as well as other squishy faced breeds, have sinus/nasal issues, and dachsunds are prone to back problems. If you're interested in more rigorous studies, look at Ray Coppinger's work. He's a professor at Hampshire College who studies dog genetics.   EDIT: Oh, to answer your question: yes, two individuals could found a population, but the propagation of negative traits is a function of the mutation rate, birth rate, magnitude of selective pressure resulting from the traits, etc.", "human_ref_B": "The term for this is founder effect.  Go forth and Google!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8624.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rckqs", "c_root_id_B": "c1rapv9", "created_at_utc_A": 1303967862, "created_at_utc_B": 1303947241, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If I'm not mistaken, cheetahs have practically no genetic variation and are extremely vulnerable to disease epidemics because they went through a bottleneck of fewer than 10 individuals some 10,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "I don't know if this is an askscience question because it is something people will have to speculate on; but: I would suggest having as many kids with the initial generation as possible, then continually breeding at the maximum rate to try to gain the highest diversity for the next generations", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20621.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gytf0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If there are exactly 2 animals left of a species and they are to repopulate, how do successive generations not turn up with all sort of genetic diseases from inbreeding?  I would guess that some gross shit gotta go down like father/dtr, mother/son, bro/sis, 1st cousin etc for the population to rise.  How the hell you not get a bunch of TIMMAYS out of this?", "c_root_id_A": "c1raz1i", "c_root_id_B": "c1rckqs", "created_at_utc_A": 1303949916, "created_at_utc_B": 1303967862, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The term for this is founder effect.  Go forth and Google!", "human_ref_B": "If I'm not mistaken, cheetahs have practically no genetic variation and are extremely vulnerable to disease epidemics because they went through a bottleneck of fewer than 10 individuals some 10,000 years ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17946.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8nqm8y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why is the brain divided? * A search doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.  * Yes, I know that many of the left brain/right brain claims are false.  * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's longitudinal fissure--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?  * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise?", "c_root_id_A": "dzxom0d", "c_root_id_B": "dzxoz8h", "created_at_utc_A": 1527854421, "created_at_utc_B": 1527854944, "score_A": 390, "score_B": 2301, "human_ref_A": "A lot of people have answered the bilateral aspect of body development, so I'll answer the last question. Yes, all animals with brains have bilateral structures. Even animals like worms and insects that we don't necessarily refer to as having \"brains\" but rather collections of neurons known as ganglia have bilaterality of their neurons.   Look up images of comparisons of brains across the different animal groups. There are clear differences, but overall a lot of similarities in the overall structures present.", "human_ref_B": "Trying to explain this from a human-centered perspective won't work, as paired ganglia forming a cord is a common feature of bilateria. And no, it isn't just your brain, your ENTIRE nervous system has a left and right side that are mirror images.   And don't believe the forebrain was a single mass that was selected to split. Remember, the chordate nervous system originates as a hollow tube which closes at the tips (if it doesn't close, you get Spina Bifida or anacephaly), then the walls keep growing in thickness. And this is the embryonic brain  However, remember, the tip of the neural tube is not the frontal lobe of the brain, but the lamina terminalis, which is pretty much in the center of the head, just above the optic chiasm. The hemispheres are LATERAL outgrowths, they are the left and right side of the tube, which grow on their own to the point they cover the remaining parts (in birds and mammals pretty much tho). But lateralization IS the ancestral condition. The longitudinal fissure wasn't selected for, it was a remainder of when worms had left and right ganglia. The thing that was selected for was the Corpum Callossum.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 523.0, "score_ratio": 5.9, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8nqm8y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why is the brain divided? * A search doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.  * Yes, I know that many of the left brain/right brain claims are false.  * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's longitudinal fissure--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?  * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise?", "c_root_id_A": "dzxoz8h", "c_root_id_B": "dzxogq0", "created_at_utc_A": 1527854944, "created_at_utc_B": 1527854211, "score_A": 2301, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "Trying to explain this from a human-centered perspective won't work, as paired ganglia forming a cord is a common feature of bilateria. And no, it isn't just your brain, your ENTIRE nervous system has a left and right side that are mirror images.   And don't believe the forebrain was a single mass that was selected to split. Remember, the chordate nervous system originates as a hollow tube which closes at the tips (if it doesn't close, you get Spina Bifida or anacephaly), then the walls keep growing in thickness. And this is the embryonic brain  However, remember, the tip of the neural tube is not the frontal lobe of the brain, but the lamina terminalis, which is pretty much in the center of the head, just above the optic chiasm. The hemispheres are LATERAL outgrowths, they are the left and right side of the tube, which grow on their own to the point they cover the remaining parts (in birds and mammals pretty much tho). But lateralization IS the ancestral condition. The longitudinal fissure wasn't selected for, it was a remainder of when worms had left and right ganglia. The thing that was selected for was the Corpum Callossum.", "human_ref_B": "It appears that \"lateralization\" is studied at both the neurological level, and population level, which is rather interesting:  > Theoretical models on the evolution of lateralization suggest that the alignment of lateralization at the population level may have evolved as an evolutionary stable strategy in which individually asymmetrical organisms must coordinate their behavior with that of other asymmetrical organisms.\u00a0  To answer \"why\", we'd have to identify either that it's an inevitable or emergent consequence of fundamental EVODEVO structures, or that it's selected for due to individual or population level advantages.  https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00939/full", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 733.0, "score_ratio": 50.0217391304, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8nqm8y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why is the brain divided? * A search doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.  * Yes, I know that many of the left brain/right brain claims are false.  * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's longitudinal fissure--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?  * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise?", "c_root_id_A": "dzxot1h", "c_root_id_B": "dzxoz8h", "created_at_utc_A": 1527854702, "created_at_utc_B": 1527854944, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 2301, "human_ref_A": "Well, the brain does have different tasks segregated to different sides of the brain. Broca's and Wernicke's Areas on the left side are between 10-20 times larger than the homologous areas on the right side. That is NOT to say that language is EXCLUSIVELY a left brain phenomena; the processing of speech done on the right side of the brain is still remarkably important but is concerned with things such as timbre and intonation as opposed to vocabulary and word meaning.   The reason for this type of lateralization of function is theorized to actually be quite simple: you can cram more functions into a smaller area if you have the two adjacent hemispheres do related but non-identical types of processing.   Breaking bi-symmetry in this way is a beautiful evolutionary mechanism and is extraordinarily complex in terms of the genetic mechanisms that result in asymmetry. Look up homeobox genes to get an idea of how this all plays out during embryological development. Its simply miraculous that this happens every time a human being is born.  If you look up pictures of a mouse or rat brain you'll see that there is some 'dividedness' but it is not nearly as prevalent as in primates.  Norman Geschwind did some amazing studies on patients with their corpus callosum severed (the bundle of fiber tracts connecting both hemispheres) and it really gives one an idea of how competent both hemispheres are individually. Octopuses actually have a set up similar to this; each of their 8 arms contains a ganglion that is essentially a mini-brain that is part independent and part controlled by the central 'big brain'. Its fascinating that this segregation of neural processing took such an extreme evolutionary route in these creatures but considering the extreme intelligence that they are said to possess it is not surprising that having distinct neural processing nodes is more advantageous that one large amorphous blob of gray matter.", "human_ref_B": "Trying to explain this from a human-centered perspective won't work, as paired ganglia forming a cord is a common feature of bilateria. And no, it isn't just your brain, your ENTIRE nervous system has a left and right side that are mirror images.   And don't believe the forebrain was a single mass that was selected to split. Remember, the chordate nervous system originates as a hollow tube which closes at the tips (if it doesn't close, you get Spina Bifida or anacephaly), then the walls keep growing in thickness. And this is the embryonic brain  However, remember, the tip of the neural tube is not the frontal lobe of the brain, but the lamina terminalis, which is pretty much in the center of the head, just above the optic chiasm. The hemispheres are LATERAL outgrowths, they are the left and right side of the tube, which grow on their own to the point they cover the remaining parts (in birds and mammals pretty much tho). But lateralization IS the ancestral condition. The longitudinal fissure wasn't selected for, it was a remainder of when worms had left and right ganglia. The thing that was selected for was the Corpum Callossum.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 242.0, "score_ratio": 82.1785714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8nqm8y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why is the brain divided? * A search doesn't reveal anything that answers this question specifically.  * Yes, I know that many of the left brain/right brain claims are false.  * Essentially I'm asking about the cerebrum's longitudinal fissure--why would such a feature be selected for? Doesn't it waste space that could be used for more brain? Is there a benefit from inhibited interhemispheric communication?  * And what about non-human animals--are their brains divided too? How long ago did this feature arise?", "c_root_id_A": "dzxogq0", "c_root_id_B": "dzxom0d", "created_at_utc_A": 1527854211, "created_at_utc_B": 1527854421, "score_A": 46, "score_B": 390, "human_ref_A": "It appears that \"lateralization\" is studied at both the neurological level, and population level, which is rather interesting:  > Theoretical models on the evolution of lateralization suggest that the alignment of lateralization at the population level may have evolved as an evolutionary stable strategy in which individually asymmetrical organisms must coordinate their behavior with that of other asymmetrical organisms.\u00a0  To answer \"why\", we'd have to identify either that it's an inevitable or emergent consequence of fundamental EVODEVO structures, or that it's selected for due to individual or population level advantages.  https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00939/full", "human_ref_B": "A lot of people have answered the bilateral aspect of body development, so I'll answer the last question. Yes, all animals with brains have bilateral structures. Even animals like worms and insects that we don't necessarily refer to as having \"brains\" but rather collections of neurons known as ganglia have bilaterality of their neurons.   Look up images of comparisons of brains across the different animal groups. There are clear differences, but overall a lot of similarities in the overall structures present.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 210.0, "score_ratio": 8.4782608696, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mw1bm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "If I'm on a planet with incredibly high gravity, and thus very slow time, looking through a telescope at a planet with much lower gravity and thus faster time, would I essentially be watching that planet in fast forward? Why or why not? With my (very, very basic) understanding of the theory of relativity, it should look like I'm watching in fast forward, but I can't really argue one way or the other.", "c_root_id_A": "cm84tf2", "c_root_id_B": "cm84xdh", "created_at_utc_A": 1416506420, "created_at_utc_B": 1416506617, "score_A": 301, "score_B": 2193, "human_ref_A": "An important thing to realize is that the time you see ticking away on your own wristwatch will never appear to tick slower. The high gravity of your planet would make people on the outside view your wristwatch as ticking slowly.", "human_ref_B": "Yes you will, and you don't need *incredibly* high gravity for that. Just precise measurement tools. Normal Earth gravity is enough. You can actually observe how time goes ever so slightly faster on the Moon, or on GPS satellites. Though with the GPS satellites the effect is offset somewhat by time dilation due to special relativity, the overall speed up is still positive: a GPS satellite clock goes faster than an Earth bound clock by 45 microseconds a day.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 197.0, "score_ratio": 7.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mw1bm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "If I'm on a planet with incredibly high gravity, and thus very slow time, looking through a telescope at a planet with much lower gravity and thus faster time, would I essentially be watching that planet in fast forward? Why or why not? With my (very, very basic) understanding of the theory of relativity, it should look like I'm watching in fast forward, but I can't really argue one way or the other.", "c_root_id_A": "cm85khk", "c_root_id_B": "cm85g4w", "created_at_utc_A": 1416507770, "created_at_utc_B": 1416507555, "score_A": 147, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "How massive a planet would I need to visit to be able to stay there for, say one year then go back to earth and find everyone I know dead from old age? What's the correlation between mass / gravity and the speed of movement through time?", "human_ref_B": "Our satellites in orbit of our own planet experience time dilation that needs to be corrected for. Typically only massive gravitational forces would result in such obviously measurable dilation. It you were in the process of entering a black hole, the dilation would be so immense that to outside observers everything would appear gradually more stationary as it grew closer to the event horizon. I suppose if you placed a clock on a planet with super high gravity and visually observed it from a huge distance, it would appear to tick more slowly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 215.0, "score_ratio": 4.59375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mw1bm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "If I'm on a planet with incredibly high gravity, and thus very slow time, looking through a telescope at a planet with much lower gravity and thus faster time, would I essentially be watching that planet in fast forward? Why or why not? With my (very, very basic) understanding of the theory of relativity, it should look like I'm watching in fast forward, but I can't really argue one way or the other.", "c_root_id_A": "cm87mnh", "c_root_id_B": "cm85g4w", "created_at_utc_A": 1416511379, "created_at_utc_B": 1416507555, "score_A": 82, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "Conversely, if you were on a space ship, orbiting a planet that was very near a black hole, and 2 of the three occupants left that ship to go down to the planet, leaving one remaining observer with a telescope to watch the 2 explorers, would the observer see them moving in super slow motion?   As in, the time spent on the planet would amount to a couple of hours for the explorers, but would translate to around 23 years for the observer that stayed on the ship. What would that observer see through his telescope during that 23 year span?", "human_ref_B": "Our satellites in orbit of our own planet experience time dilation that needs to be corrected for. Typically only massive gravitational forces would result in such obviously measurable dilation. It you were in the process of entering a black hole, the dilation would be so immense that to outside observers everything would appear gradually more stationary as it grew closer to the event horizon. I suppose if you placed a clock on a planet with super high gravity and visually observed it from a huge distance, it would appear to tick more slowly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3824.0, "score_ratio": 2.5625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mw1bm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "If I'm on a planet with incredibly high gravity, and thus very slow time, looking through a telescope at a planet with much lower gravity and thus faster time, would I essentially be watching that planet in fast forward? Why or why not? With my (very, very basic) understanding of the theory of relativity, it should look like I'm watching in fast forward, but I can't really argue one way or the other.", "c_root_id_A": "cm860ak", "c_root_id_B": "cm87mnh", "created_at_utc_A": 1416508552, "created_at_utc_B": 1416511379, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 82, "human_ref_A": "I want to ask A supplementary question here. I have a basic understanding of relativity when it comes to velocity causing time dilation but I did not learn that gravity has this affect. If someone has the time and patience, please explain how gravity causes time dilation and throw in some math if you can, too. Thank you", "human_ref_B": "Conversely, if you were on a space ship, orbiting a planet that was very near a black hole, and 2 of the three occupants left that ship to go down to the planet, leaving one remaining observer with a telescope to watch the 2 explorers, would the observer see them moving in super slow motion?   As in, the time spent on the planet would amount to a couple of hours for the explorers, but would translate to around 23 years for the observer that stayed on the ship. What would that observer see through his telescope during that 23 year span?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2827.0, "score_ratio": 3.1538461538, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "j7jo7r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Do we know how large dinosaur populations were? When we\u2019re shown concept imagery of dinosaurs, we often see that dino\u2019s were plentiful. Is this accurate to the actual population sizes?", "c_root_id_A": "g85vt7j", "c_root_id_B": "g85w2xm", "created_at_utc_A": 1602199204, "created_at_utc_B": 1602199356, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 183, "human_ref_A": "It is mostly inference based on modern-day analogues that have similar lifestyles (being food types, size, environment, etc.).   Sometimes additional support comes from finding a large of nests together, or fossil digs with a large amount of individuals of the same species, or fossil tracks of herd migration etc.", "human_ref_B": "There are 2 easy ways to infer significant population sizes:  1. Fossilization is a very rare event. Therefore the rich fossil record requires a large potential number of dinosaurs to be fossilized   2. Species do not persist and evolve with small numbers. Disease, bad weather, natural disasters can and frequently do wreak havoc on populations. Small population sizes simply aren\u2019t robust enough to survive in the long term", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 152.0, "score_ratio": 7.0384615385, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "j7jo7r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Do we know how large dinosaur populations were? When we\u2019re shown concept imagery of dinosaurs, we often see that dino\u2019s were plentiful. Is this accurate to the actual population sizes?", "c_root_id_A": "g86n8mq", "c_root_id_B": "g85vt7j", "created_at_utc_A": 1602215006, "created_at_utc_B": 1602199204, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "You might find this interesting, it discussed some of the ways  http://tetzoo.com/blog/2020/5/1/stop-saying-that-there-are-too-many-sauropod-dinosaurs-part-5  Basically, one thing you can do is try to calculate how much the environment could support based on some assumptions about plant productivity and grazer metabolism.  You can also make some comparisons with modern situations.  It's not an exact science.  However, one important thing to note is that dinosaurs population structure was weird.  You had a few large adults and a ton of small juveniles, quite different from modern mammals, because dinosaurs laid a lot of eggs and grew more slowly than mammals.", "human_ref_B": "It is mostly inference based on modern-day analogues that have similar lifestyles (being food types, size, environment, etc.).   Sometimes additional support comes from finding a large of nests together, or fossil digs with a large amount of individuals of the same species, or fossil tracks of herd migration etc.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15802.0, "score_ratio": 1.1923076923, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "38oo21", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If the sun is constantly emitting energy, does that mean it is also constantly losing mass? If so, why is it said that the sun will eventually grow in size?", "c_root_id_A": "crx090h", "c_root_id_B": "crxk7u0", "created_at_utc_A": 1433545703, "created_at_utc_B": 1433603857, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I have read the sun looses 2 million tons per second via it's nuclear reactions. Anyone know if that is correct. If so it just reiterates how massive it really is.", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is the Sun doesn't have a fixed density, since it isn't actually solid, it's plasma. The size of the sun is not the mass multiples by its density to get a volume.  The sun (or any star) is the size where the energy produced from the nuclear fusion at its core is equal to the force of gravity pulling it in. If mass goes down the size will increase (unless it goes down to the point where fusion stops) if the amount of energy produced from fusion goes up it will also grow (this will happen in a few billion years when the sun starts fusing Carbon from Helium).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 58154.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t68gw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why is it that when I pour hot water out of the faucet it is cloudy and murky but clear when I pour cold water? I'm not referring to the steam that might be evaporating from the glass. I find that even when I pour warm-ish/hot water its normally filled with tiny bubbles giving it a cloudy appearance, only to settle down after a minute or so. I doubt the short period of time is enough for the water to cool down completely, so what gives?", "c_root_id_A": "c4k28tg", "c_root_id_B": "c4k1ra6", "created_at_utc_A": 1336146286, "created_at_utc_B": 1336144091, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "What about this - when I pour a bath, the hot water is clear at first. When I try to add more hot water after a few minutes of it being off, it comes out cloudy and gray. Is this the gas bubbles, or something wrong with my hot water heater or pipes?", "human_ref_B": "In addition to the other answers, and if the water is murky or dirty, it may depend on your plumbing.  Cold water taps tend to pour straight from the mains supply, whereas hot water often comes from a storage tank.  If your hot water is excessively dirty, you may want to check you tank is still in good condition, or a cat hasn't died in there or anything...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2195.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t68gw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why is it that when I pour hot water out of the faucet it is cloudy and murky but clear when I pour cold water? I'm not referring to the steam that might be evaporating from the glass. I find that even when I pour warm-ish/hot water its normally filled with tiny bubbles giving it a cloudy appearance, only to settle down after a minute or so. I doubt the short period of time is enough for the water to cool down completely, so what gives?", "c_root_id_A": "c4k7lje", "c_root_id_B": "c4k1ra6", "created_at_utc_A": 1336170907, "created_at_utc_B": 1336144091, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Lime scale build up in your hot water heater or pipes", "human_ref_B": "In addition to the other answers, and if the water is murky or dirty, it may depend on your plumbing.  Cold water taps tend to pour straight from the mains supply, whereas hot water often comes from a storage tank.  If your hot water is excessively dirty, you may want to check you tank is still in good condition, or a cat hasn't died in there or anything...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26816.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t68gw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why is it that when I pour hot water out of the faucet it is cloudy and murky but clear when I pour cold water? I'm not referring to the steam that might be evaporating from the glass. I find that even when I pour warm-ish/hot water its normally filled with tiny bubbles giving it a cloudy appearance, only to settle down after a minute or so. I doubt the short period of time is enough for the water to cool down completely, so what gives?", "c_root_id_A": "c4k2bqn", "c_root_id_B": "c4k7lje", "created_at_utc_A": 1336146638, "created_at_utc_B": 1336170907, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Hot water usually comes from a tank. Water is stored there while it is heated up.  Any impurities in the water will settle to the bottom of the tank. And it will just sit there. When you run your hot water some of these impurities will get stirred up and ultimately end up in your glass.  Do not drink water that comes from your hot water tank. It is not potable water.  My father is a plumber and I have helped change hot water tanks. The first step is to drain the old hot water tank. When you get to the last bit of water in the tank, the water that's coming out is black. Not a little off-colour, not brown, but black.   If you want warm or hot water to drink, fill a kettle with cold water and warm it up, or heat up some cold water in the microwave. Do not drink water that's coming from a hot water tank. It is nasty stuff.", "human_ref_B": "Lime scale build up in your hot water heater or pipes", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24269.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qjh0zo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If salt raises the boiling temp of water, is there additive that will let water freeze at a higher temp also?", "c_root_id_A": "hir1c8s", "c_root_id_B": "hiqzp0u", "created_at_utc_A": 1635677113, "created_at_utc_B": 1635675840, "score_A": 731, "score_B": 40, "human_ref_A": "Adding salt depresses the freezing point of water - that\u2019s why municipalities salt the roads in the winter where it is snowy and icy.  Both the boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are types of colligative properties (in case you want to read more - use that term).  Colligative properties are about how the properties of a solvent (in this case water) can be changed by an added solute. It doesn\u2019t matter what the identity of the solute is, it only matters how many particles are present (the particles essentially get in the way of the interactions between the water molecules).  Fundamentally what occurs is that you lower the vapor pressure curve of the solution relative to the pure solvent. This causes both the boiling point elevation and the freezing point depression. So there is no way to add a substance to water and increase its freezing point, because the solvent is still water.", "human_ref_B": "Boiling breaks the bonds between water molecules.  Adding salt created \u201cbridges\u201d that stabilized the interconnections between water molecules. Hence it took more energy to evaporate.  What\u2019s freezing? Freezing is the locking of water molecules into defined positions to each other.   Technically speaking, I don\u2019t think this is possible as defined.  Update: if some solute concentrations go above a threshold they can raise the melting point of water: https://chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/25123/how-to-raise-the-melting-point-of-water but the problem here is that if a solute is high enough that it\u2019s a heterogeneous mixture then it\u2019s not really a solute anymore & OPs premise fails.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1273.0, "score_ratio": 18.275, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qjh0zo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If salt raises the boiling temp of water, is there additive that will let water freeze at a higher temp also?", "c_root_id_A": "his1oaa", "c_root_id_B": "hirsyc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1635697242, "created_at_utc_B": 1635693441, "score_A": 94, "score_B": 62, "human_ref_A": "Sort of, but not really. Most scientists think there isn't anything (solute) you can add to water to raise its freezing point above 0C.  Water is made up from and one oxygen nucleus bonded to two hydrogen nucleus. By adding neutrons to any of the nucleuses you increase the weight of water, but it's still fundamentally water - it will act pretty much the same. However, one exception is that because the water is heavier, it has a higher freezing point. Heavy water freezes at 3.8C. Heavy water is made from oxygen and two deuterium nucleuses (a hydrogen nucleus with one neutron added). So you've added something, but not in a chemical way - like adding salt.", "human_ref_B": "Great question! What you're touching on here are actually the properties of mixtures.   As many are saying, pure water will always freeze at 0C and most *solvents* will lower that freezing point. But what about other liquids?  When you mix two liquids together, you often end up with a liquid that has properties (BP, FP, vapor pressure, etc.) That are in between the values of the pure components. Now mind you that the effect is *not* a linear dependency on concentration (most mixtures are nonideal). So, in theory, if you added a liquid which freezes at a higher temperature than water, you might end up with a mixture that does also.  Now it is important to note that there are not many things that have this property that are miscible with water. Hydrocarbons of course freeze at high temperatures but they are not miscible. Same with non ionic metals. Waters hydrogen bonding makes it one of the least volatile aqueous solutions. Maybe DMSO water mixtures? Although density would likely drive separation there.   Maybe a colloidal suspension of oil in water like lotion? What is the freezing point of lotion? With colloids you begin to lose some of the lines between solid and liquid to things like gel phases.  Happy reading!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3801.0, "score_ratio": 1.5161290323, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qjh0zo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If salt raises the boiling temp of water, is there additive that will let water freeze at a higher temp also?", "c_root_id_A": "hiqzp0u", "c_root_id_B": "his1oaa", "created_at_utc_A": 1635675840, "created_at_utc_B": 1635697242, "score_A": 40, "score_B": 94, "human_ref_A": "Boiling breaks the bonds between water molecules.  Adding salt created \u201cbridges\u201d that stabilized the interconnections between water molecules. Hence it took more energy to evaporate.  What\u2019s freezing? Freezing is the locking of water molecules into defined positions to each other.   Technically speaking, I don\u2019t think this is possible as defined.  Update: if some solute concentrations go above a threshold they can raise the melting point of water: https://chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/25123/how-to-raise-the-melting-point-of-water but the problem here is that if a solute is high enough that it\u2019s a heterogeneous mixture then it\u2019s not really a solute anymore & OPs premise fails.", "human_ref_B": "Sort of, but not really. Most scientists think there isn't anything (solute) you can add to water to raise its freezing point above 0C.  Water is made up from and one oxygen nucleus bonded to two hydrogen nucleus. By adding neutrons to any of the nucleuses you increase the weight of water, but it's still fundamentally water - it will act pretty much the same. However, one exception is that because the water is heavier, it has a higher freezing point. Heavy water freezes at 3.8C. Heavy water is made from oxygen and two deuterium nucleuses (a hydrogen nucleus with one neutron added). So you've added something, but not in a chemical way - like adding salt.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21402.0, "score_ratio": 2.35, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qjh0zo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If salt raises the boiling temp of water, is there additive that will let water freeze at a higher temp also?", "c_root_id_A": "hirk4vk", "c_root_id_B": "his1oaa", "created_at_utc_A": 1635689321, "created_at_utc_B": 1635697242, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 94, "human_ref_A": "That depends on your definitions. Some salts form hydrated crystal structures containing large amounts of water, and liquefy into a concentrated solution at temperatures well above the melting point of pure water but far below the melting point of the anhydrous salt. For example, sodium sulfate forms a decahydrate (10 molecules of water per molecule of salt) which melts at 32.38 \u00b0C.", "human_ref_B": "Sort of, but not really. Most scientists think there isn't anything (solute) you can add to water to raise its freezing point above 0C.  Water is made up from and one oxygen nucleus bonded to two hydrogen nucleus. By adding neutrons to any of the nucleuses you increase the weight of water, but it's still fundamentally water - it will act pretty much the same. However, one exception is that because the water is heavier, it has a higher freezing point. Heavy water freezes at 3.8C. Heavy water is made from oxygen and two deuterium nucleuses (a hydrogen nucleus with one neutron added). So you've added something, but not in a chemical way - like adding salt.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7921.0, "score_ratio": 5.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qjh0zo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If salt raises the boiling temp of water, is there additive that will let water freeze at a higher temp also?", "c_root_id_A": "hirsyc4", "c_root_id_B": "hiqzp0u", "created_at_utc_A": 1635693441, "created_at_utc_B": 1635675840, "score_A": 62, "score_B": 40, "human_ref_A": "Great question! What you're touching on here are actually the properties of mixtures.   As many are saying, pure water will always freeze at 0C and most *solvents* will lower that freezing point. But what about other liquids?  When you mix two liquids together, you often end up with a liquid that has properties (BP, FP, vapor pressure, etc.) That are in between the values of the pure components. Now mind you that the effect is *not* a linear dependency on concentration (most mixtures are nonideal). So, in theory, if you added a liquid which freezes at a higher temperature than water, you might end up with a mixture that does also.  Now it is important to note that there are not many things that have this property that are miscible with water. Hydrocarbons of course freeze at high temperatures but they are not miscible. Same with non ionic metals. Waters hydrogen bonding makes it one of the least volatile aqueous solutions. Maybe DMSO water mixtures? Although density would likely drive separation there.   Maybe a colloidal suspension of oil in water like lotion? What is the freezing point of lotion? With colloids you begin to lose some of the lines between solid and liquid to things like gel phases.  Happy reading!", "human_ref_B": "Boiling breaks the bonds between water molecules.  Adding salt created \u201cbridges\u201d that stabilized the interconnections between water molecules. Hence it took more energy to evaporate.  What\u2019s freezing? Freezing is the locking of water molecules into defined positions to each other.   Technically speaking, I don\u2019t think this is possible as defined.  Update: if some solute concentrations go above a threshold they can raise the melting point of water: https://chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/25123/how-to-raise-the-melting-point-of-water but the problem here is that if a solute is high enough that it\u2019s a heterogeneous mixture then it\u2019s not really a solute anymore & OPs premise fails.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17601.0, "score_ratio": 1.55, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qjh0zo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "If salt raises the boiling temp of water, is there additive that will let water freeze at a higher temp also?", "c_root_id_A": "hirsyc4", "c_root_id_B": "hirk4vk", "created_at_utc_A": 1635693441, "created_at_utc_B": 1635689321, "score_A": 62, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Great question! What you're touching on here are actually the properties of mixtures.   As many are saying, pure water will always freeze at 0C and most *solvents* will lower that freezing point. But what about other liquids?  When you mix two liquids together, you often end up with a liquid that has properties (BP, FP, vapor pressure, etc.) That are in between the values of the pure components. Now mind you that the effect is *not* a linear dependency on concentration (most mixtures are nonideal). So, in theory, if you added a liquid which freezes at a higher temperature than water, you might end up with a mixture that does also.  Now it is important to note that there are not many things that have this property that are miscible with water. Hydrocarbons of course freeze at high temperatures but they are not miscible. Same with non ionic metals. Waters hydrogen bonding makes it one of the least volatile aqueous solutions. Maybe DMSO water mixtures? Although density would likely drive separation there.   Maybe a colloidal suspension of oil in water like lotion? What is the freezing point of lotion? With colloids you begin to lose some of the lines between solid and liquid to things like gel phases.  Happy reading!", "human_ref_B": "That depends on your definitions. Some salts form hydrated crystal structures containing large amounts of water, and liquefy into a concentrated solution at temperatures well above the melting point of pure water but far below the melting point of the anhydrous salt. For example, sodium sulfate forms a decahydrate (10 molecules of water per molecule of salt) which melts at 32.38 \u00b0C.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4120.0, "score_ratio": 3.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zktcj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "[Genetics] A and B are identical twins. C and D are identical twins. A marries C and B marries D. A and C have a kid, B and D have a kid. If I tested the DNA of A/Cs kid, would it show that A/C are its parents as well as B/D?", "c_root_id_A": "c65hog0", "c_root_id_B": "c65kk3e", "created_at_utc_A": 1347155223, "created_at_utc_B": 1347168883, "score_A": 293, "score_B": 304, "human_ref_A": "And although those two kids would be first cousins, they could genetically be considered siblings.", "human_ref_B": "Variation in crossing over in the production of gametes would lead to differences in the genetic makeup of child A/C and B/D. However, since the parental or recombinant gametes could be the product of either couple, there's no way to detect paternity (assuming there are no significant epigenetic changes in any of the parents).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13660.0, "score_ratio": 1.0375426621, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zktcj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "[Genetics] A and B are identical twins. C and D are identical twins. A marries C and B marries D. A and C have a kid, B and D have a kid. If I tested the DNA of A/Cs kid, would it show that A/C are its parents as well as B/D?", "c_root_id_A": "c65kk3e", "c_root_id_B": "c65k8it", "created_at_utc_A": 1347168883, "created_at_utc_B": 1347167185, "score_A": 304, "score_B": 50, "human_ref_A": "Variation in crossing over in the production of gametes would lead to differences in the genetic makeup of child A/C and B/D. However, since the parental or recombinant gametes could be the product of either couple, there's no way to detect paternity (assuming there are no significant epigenetic changes in any of the parents).", "human_ref_B": "A further similar question i'd be interested in having answered, if a female had an affair with her husband's identical twin brother, and conceived a child, would there be any genetic way of testing the infidelity?  Note: I'm not an identical twin. But always wondered.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1698.0, "score_ratio": 6.08, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ttexr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Is there such a thing as mitochondrial \"cancer?\" I.e., are there any diseases resulting from known or suspected errors in mitochondrial DNA that disrupt the mechanism of mitochondrial replication?", "c_root_id_A": "ceb97ba", "c_root_id_B": "ceb98hq", "created_at_utc_A": 1388166699, "created_at_utc_B": 1388166782, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 370, "human_ref_A": "Leigh's Disease is progressive genetic neurometabolic disorder that can be caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA.   http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/leighsdisease/leighsdisease.htm", "human_ref_B": "This is an interesting question and has multiple answers.  In short, yes there are mutations in mitochondrial DNA that cause specific clinical conditions.  The most well studied are the fission and fusion proteins that control how mitochondria divide and replicate.  If there is improper fission and fusion then you can have specific diseases like Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease  which is a peripheral neuropathy or MERRF syndrome.  Since mitochondria regulate energy production in the cell, any damage to them leads to improper energy regulation that damages organs that require high amounts of energy (brain, nerves, heart etc...)  A good review on fission and fusion and a good review in relation to diseases] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3678461/)  Alternatively, in cancer and other diseases, mitochondria are significantly dysregulated.  In cancer it is often referred to as [the Warburg Hypothesis  Update:  Thanks to u/bebekins for the great clarifications and differentiation between proteins produced from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and genomic DNA.  An alternative answer to the OP's question could be answered in regard to the Multi-Hit-Hypothesis.  This hypothesis states that in order for cancer to arise you need mutations in multiple genes including tumor suppressors and oncogenes.  Some of these tumor suppressors or oncogenes can come from mtDNA.  As an example, there are recent publications implicating mutations in mtDNA that contribute to the progression of endometrial carcinoma and serrated adenomas.  Two final thoughts.  Mitochondrial dysfunction is involved in a lot of diseases and while you wont necessarily have mitochondrial (or organelle) hyperplasia, the mitochondria can swell and look very sick.  If people want to know more, there are great wikipedia articles on [mitochondrial diseases] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_disease).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 83.0, "score_ratio": 123.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ttexr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Is there such a thing as mitochondrial \"cancer?\" I.e., are there any diseases resulting from known or suspected errors in mitochondrial DNA that disrupt the mechanism of mitochondrial replication?", "c_root_id_A": "ceb9cqr", "c_root_id_B": "ceb97ba", "created_at_utc_A": 1388167080, "created_at_utc_B": 1388166699, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "3rd year medical student here.  There are mitochondrial diseases caused by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations or by mutations in nuclear genes that code for different components of the mitochondria, but I'm not aware of mitochondrial \"cancers\".  Defects in enzymes that control mtDNA replication or defects in mitochondrial genes can cause all types of clinical disease.", "human_ref_B": "Leigh's Disease is progressive genetic neurometabolic disorder that can be caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA.   http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/leighsdisease/leighsdisease.htm", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 381.0, "score_ratio": 5.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ttexr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Is there such a thing as mitochondrial \"cancer?\" I.e., are there any diseases resulting from known or suspected errors in mitochondrial DNA that disrupt the mechanism of mitochondrial replication?", "c_root_id_A": "ceb9g68", "c_root_id_B": "ceb97ba", "created_at_utc_A": 1388167319, "created_at_utc_B": 1388166699, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "When I think of cancer, the notion that comes to mind is that a piece of the body has decided to replicate in a way that benefits its own hereditary state, to the detriment of the person's own health. That is, the law of natural selection applies to cancer cells, whereas regular cells aren't \"in it for themselves\".  So can we interpret OP's question about mitochondria in this context? Is there a specific disease where the mitochondria simply reproduce too quickly for the rest of the cell to cope? And if so, can this be viewed as a hostile adaptation by the mitochondria, rather than say a congenital condition?", "human_ref_B": "Leigh's Disease is progressive genetic neurometabolic disorder that can be caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA.   http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/leighsdisease/leighsdisease.htm", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 620.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3v6hhf", "c_root_id_B": "i3vr3q4", "created_at_utc_A": 1649397161, "created_at_utc_B": 1649412890, "score_A": 49, "score_B": 83, "human_ref_A": "Yes. We know this because it\u2019s already happened. Crabs have evolved through different routes 5 times in the fossil record, it\u2019s a well known enough phenomenon there\u2019s a term for it (carcinisation).  So if the same animal can evolve 5 different times over hundreds of millions of years, no reason given the right evolutionary pressures that humans couldn\u2019t do the same.", "human_ref_B": "Technically no because thats impossible, an extinct species cant come back into existence. However, similar creatures that are nearly identical to the original cab and do pop up from time to time.  Millions of years ago there existed an insect that was almoat identical to modern day butterflies.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15729.0, "score_ratio": 1.693877551, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vb1n8", "c_root_id_B": "i3vr3q4", "created_at_utc_A": 1649400392, "created_at_utc_B": 1649412890, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 83, "human_ref_A": "I guess it depends on how exact the extinct species and its replacement has to be to meet your requirement.  There are plenty of examples of convergent evolution, where the species are quite different (one might be a reptile, its replacement a mammal) but look similar because they fulfill the same ecological role in the same environment.", "human_ref_B": "Technically no because thats impossible, an extinct species cant come back into existence. However, similar creatures that are nearly identical to the original cab and do pop up from time to time.  Millions of years ago there existed an insect that was almoat identical to modern day butterflies.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12498.0, "score_ratio": 4.15, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vr3q4", "c_root_id_B": "i3v5asv", "created_at_utc_A": 1649412890, "created_at_utc_B": 1649396387, "score_A": 83, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Technically no because thats impossible, an extinct species cant come back into existence. However, similar creatures that are nearly identical to the original cab and do pop up from time to time.  Millions of years ago there existed an insect that was almoat identical to modern day butterflies.", "human_ref_B": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16503.0, "score_ratio": 11.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vlc1f", "c_root_id_B": "i3vr3q4", "created_at_utc_A": 1649408332, "created_at_utc_B": 1649412890, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 83, "human_ref_A": "Absolutely not, as in even if a new Ape arose and looked very very like us (which in itself would be amazingly unlikely) it would absolutely NOT be the same species.  This is not how species works. Theres not a set plan which nature evolves into, theres no Human 'mould' that would be retained if we all died off. The odds of a new hairless ape, descended from other apes, or if a billion years is your timeline, then possible descended from a Tulip, being nearly exactly like us is so remotely unlikely its near impossible. And anything which looked similar would merely be a similar looking entirely-different-species.  Some animals may have done something vaguely similar, but either the new branch was so close to the old branch in the first place that they were practically the same species anyway and the reinvented species has merely had a few basic adaptations to its new environment that it nowresembles the old species, OR, the new species has some superficial physical resemblance but is entire different underneath.", "human_ref_B": "Technically no because thats impossible, an extinct species cant come back into existence. However, similar creatures that are nearly identical to the original cab and do pop up from time to time.  Millions of years ago there existed an insect that was almoat identical to modern day butterflies.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4558.0, "score_ratio": 13.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3v6hhf", "c_root_id_B": "i3v5asv", "created_at_utc_A": 1649397161, "created_at_utc_B": 1649396387, "score_A": 49, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Yes. We know this because it\u2019s already happened. Crabs have evolved through different routes 5 times in the fossil record, it\u2019s a well known enough phenomenon there\u2019s a term for it (carcinisation).  So if the same animal can evolve 5 different times over hundreds of millions of years, no reason given the right evolutionary pressures that humans couldn\u2019t do the same.", "human_ref_B": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 774.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vrhp8", "c_root_id_B": "i3vyvwx", "created_at_utc_A": 1649413180, "created_at_utc_B": 1649418044, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "This can't happen, as species are defined by their evolutionary relationships   Convergent evolution happens all the time though - things that look like crocodiles have evolved from reptiles, dinosaurs, and even mammalian ancestors", "human_ref_B": "The same species? No, by definition. Similar-looking species might arise but they will be genetically distinct.  Traits? Yes - insects and birds both evolved the ability to fly with wings independently. Look into **convergent evolution**.  Reddit's favourite bit of trivia is that things have evolved to be crab-shaped multiple different times (\"carcinization\").", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4864.0, "score_ratio": 1.380952381, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vb1n8", "c_root_id_B": "i3vyvwx", "created_at_utc_A": 1649400392, "created_at_utc_B": 1649418044, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "I guess it depends on how exact the extinct species and its replacement has to be to meet your requirement.  There are plenty of examples of convergent evolution, where the species are quite different (one might be a reptile, its replacement a mammal) but look similar because they fulfill the same ecological role in the same environment.", "human_ref_B": "The same species? No, by definition. Similar-looking species might arise but they will be genetically distinct.  Traits? Yes - insects and birds both evolved the ability to fly with wings independently. Look into **convergent evolution**.  Reddit's favourite bit of trivia is that things have evolved to be crab-shaped multiple different times (\"carcinization\").", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17652.0, "score_ratio": 1.45, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vyvwx", "c_root_id_B": "i3vvsdg", "created_at_utc_A": 1649418044, "created_at_utc_B": 1649416142, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The same species? No, by definition. Similar-looking species might arise but they will be genetically distinct.  Traits? Yes - insects and birds both evolved the ability to fly with wings independently. Look into **convergent evolution**.  Reddit's favourite bit of trivia is that things have evolved to be crab-shaped multiple different times (\"carcinization\").", "human_ref_B": "Impossible. Convergent evolution at different times could happen, but even if a new species evolved into something virtually identical-looking it would be genetically distinct and not the same species as whatever it resembles.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1902.0, "score_ratio": 2.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vyvwx", "c_root_id_B": "i3v5asv", "created_at_utc_A": 1649418044, "created_at_utc_B": 1649396387, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The same species? No, by definition. Similar-looking species might arise but they will be genetically distinct.  Traits? Yes - insects and birds both evolved the ability to fly with wings independently. Look into **convergent evolution**.  Reddit's favourite bit of trivia is that things have evolved to be crab-shaped multiple different times (\"carcinization\").", "human_ref_B": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21657.0, "score_ratio": 4.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vlc1f", "c_root_id_B": "i3vyvwx", "created_at_utc_A": 1649408332, "created_at_utc_B": 1649418044, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Absolutely not, as in even if a new Ape arose and looked very very like us (which in itself would be amazingly unlikely) it would absolutely NOT be the same species.  This is not how species works. Theres not a set plan which nature evolves into, theres no Human 'mould' that would be retained if we all died off. The odds of a new hairless ape, descended from other apes, or if a billion years is your timeline, then possible descended from a Tulip, being nearly exactly like us is so remotely unlikely its near impossible. And anything which looked similar would merely be a similar looking entirely-different-species.  Some animals may have done something vaguely similar, but either the new branch was so close to the old branch in the first place that they were practically the same species anyway and the reinvented species has merely had a few basic adaptations to its new environment that it nowresembles the old species, OR, the new species has some superficial physical resemblance but is entire different underneath.", "human_ref_B": "The same species? No, by definition. Similar-looking species might arise but they will be genetically distinct.  Traits? Yes - insects and birds both evolved the ability to fly with wings independently. Look into **convergent evolution**.  Reddit's favourite bit of trivia is that things have evolved to be crab-shaped multiple different times (\"carcinization\").", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9712.0, "score_ratio": 4.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vrhp8", "c_root_id_B": "i3wmpen", "created_at_utc_A": 1649413180, "created_at_utc_B": 1649428839, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "This can't happen, as species are defined by their evolutionary relationships   Convergent evolution happens all the time though - things that look like crocodiles have evolved from reptiles, dinosaurs, and even mammalian ancestors", "human_ref_B": "The closest thing to this would be crab carcinisation. Basically throughout the eons crabs or crab like beings have evolved separately a few times from different lineages. If you want more background here ya go!   https://www.popsci.com/story/animals/why-everything-becomes-crab-meme-carcinization/?amp", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15659.0, "score_ratio": 1.0476190476, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vrhp8", "c_root_id_B": "i3vb1n8", "created_at_utc_A": 1649413180, "created_at_utc_B": 1649400392, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "This can't happen, as species are defined by their evolutionary relationships   Convergent evolution happens all the time though - things that look like crocodiles have evolved from reptiles, dinosaurs, and even mammalian ancestors", "human_ref_B": "I guess it depends on how exact the extinct species and its replacement has to be to meet your requirement.  There are plenty of examples of convergent evolution, where the species are quite different (one might be a reptile, its replacement a mammal) but look similar because they fulfill the same ecological role in the same environment.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12788.0, "score_ratio": 1.05, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3v5asv", "c_root_id_B": "i3vrhp8", "created_at_utc_A": 1649396387, "created_at_utc_B": 1649413180, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "human_ref_B": "This can't happen, as species are defined by their evolutionary relationships   Convergent evolution happens all the time though - things that look like crocodiles have evolved from reptiles, dinosaurs, and even mammalian ancestors", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16793.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vrhp8", "c_root_id_B": "i3vlc1f", "created_at_utc_A": 1649413180, "created_at_utc_B": 1649408332, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "This can't happen, as species are defined by their evolutionary relationships   Convergent evolution happens all the time though - things that look like crocodiles have evolved from reptiles, dinosaurs, and even mammalian ancestors", "human_ref_B": "Absolutely not, as in even if a new Ape arose and looked very very like us (which in itself would be amazingly unlikely) it would absolutely NOT be the same species.  This is not how species works. Theres not a set plan which nature evolves into, theres no Human 'mould' that would be retained if we all died off. The odds of a new hairless ape, descended from other apes, or if a billion years is your timeline, then possible descended from a Tulip, being nearly exactly like us is so remotely unlikely its near impossible. And anything which looked similar would merely be a similar looking entirely-different-species.  Some animals may have done something vaguely similar, but either the new branch was so close to the old branch in the first place that they were practically the same species anyway and the reinvented species has merely had a few basic adaptations to its new environment that it nowresembles the old species, OR, the new species has some superficial physical resemblance but is entire different underneath.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4848.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vb1n8", "c_root_id_B": "i3wmpen", "created_at_utc_A": 1649400392, "created_at_utc_B": 1649428839, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "I guess it depends on how exact the extinct species and its replacement has to be to meet your requirement.  There are plenty of examples of convergent evolution, where the species are quite different (one might be a reptile, its replacement a mammal) but look similar because they fulfill the same ecological role in the same environment.", "human_ref_B": "The closest thing to this would be crab carcinisation. Basically throughout the eons crabs or crab like beings have evolved separately a few times from different lineages. If you want more background here ya go!   https://www.popsci.com/story/animals/why-everything-becomes-crab-meme-carcinization/?amp", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28447.0, "score_ratio": 1.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3wmpen", "c_root_id_B": "i3wc6qb", "created_at_utc_A": 1649428839, "created_at_utc_B": 1649424580, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The closest thing to this would be crab carcinisation. Basically throughout the eons crabs or crab like beings have evolved separately a few times from different lineages. If you want more background here ya go!   https://www.popsci.com/story/animals/why-everything-becomes-crab-meme-carcinization/?amp", "human_ref_B": "What you are asking about is called convergent evolution.  Basically, bringing a species back from extinction is impossible (barring some future gene cloning situation).  Once a species is extinct, that's it, it's gone forever.  But another species could then evolve to take on the same role in the environment.   They may even take on the same, or a very similar, form.  That's called convergent evolution.  An example of this is birds and bats both evolving the ability to fly, or dolphins and whales replacing ichthyosaurs about 40 million years after they had become extinct.  As for humans re-evolving, it's unlikely but not impossible.  Understand that this would be a different species that simply evolved to fulfill a similar niche.  It wouldn't be *Homo sapiens*, it would be something else (*Homo novellus* perhaps?) that simply evolved in a similar manner.  If chimpanzees, bonobos or other monkeys/apes survived what wiped out the humans then it's possible that they would be very similar.  But not exactly similar.   They would be a whole new species.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4259.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3wmpen", "c_root_id_B": "i3vvsdg", "created_at_utc_A": 1649428839, "created_at_utc_B": 1649416142, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The closest thing to this would be crab carcinisation. Basically throughout the eons crabs or crab like beings have evolved separately a few times from different lineages. If you want more background here ya go!   https://www.popsci.com/story/animals/why-everything-becomes-crab-meme-carcinization/?amp", "human_ref_B": "Impossible. Convergent evolution at different times could happen, but even if a new species evolved into something virtually identical-looking it would be genetically distinct and not the same species as whatever it resembles.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12697.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3wmpen", "c_root_id_B": "i3v5asv", "created_at_utc_A": 1649428839, "created_at_utc_B": 1649396387, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The closest thing to this would be crab carcinisation. Basically throughout the eons crabs or crab like beings have evolved separately a few times from different lineages. If you want more background here ya go!   https://www.popsci.com/story/animals/why-everything-becomes-crab-meme-carcinization/?amp", "human_ref_B": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32452.0, "score_ratio": 3.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3wmpen", "c_root_id_B": "i3vlc1f", "created_at_utc_A": 1649428839, "created_at_utc_B": 1649408332, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The closest thing to this would be crab carcinisation. Basically throughout the eons crabs or crab like beings have evolved separately a few times from different lineages. If you want more background here ya go!   https://www.popsci.com/story/animals/why-everything-becomes-crab-meme-carcinization/?amp", "human_ref_B": "Absolutely not, as in even if a new Ape arose and looked very very like us (which in itself would be amazingly unlikely) it would absolutely NOT be the same species.  This is not how species works. Theres not a set plan which nature evolves into, theres no Human 'mould' that would be retained if we all died off. The odds of a new hairless ape, descended from other apes, or if a billion years is your timeline, then possible descended from a Tulip, being nearly exactly like us is so remotely unlikely its near impossible. And anything which looked similar would merely be a similar looking entirely-different-species.  Some animals may have done something vaguely similar, but either the new branch was so close to the old branch in the first place that they were practically the same species anyway and the reinvented species has merely had a few basic adaptations to its new environment that it nowresembles the old species, OR, the new species has some superficial physical resemblance but is entire different underneath.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20507.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3wmpen", "c_root_id_B": "i3wgz0m", "created_at_utc_A": 1649428839, "created_at_utc_B": 1649426575, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The closest thing to this would be crab carcinisation. Basically throughout the eons crabs or crab like beings have evolved separately a few times from different lineages. If you want more background here ya go!   https://www.popsci.com/story/animals/why-everything-becomes-crab-meme-carcinization/?amp", "human_ref_B": "That's not how evolution works. But I wouldn't be surprised if a species had gone extinct and later another species had changed to be almost identical. There's already many species that are hard to tell from one another.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2264.0, "score_ratio": 3.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3v5asv", "c_root_id_B": "i3vb1n8", "created_at_utc_A": 1649396387, "created_at_utc_B": 1649400392, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "human_ref_B": "I guess it depends on how exact the extinct species and its replacement has to be to meet your requirement.  There are plenty of examples of convergent evolution, where the species are quite different (one might be a reptile, its replacement a mammal) but look similar because they fulfill the same ecological role in the same environment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4005.0, "score_ratio": 2.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3v5asv", "c_root_id_B": "i3wc6qb", "created_at_utc_A": 1649396387, "created_at_utc_B": 1649424580, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "human_ref_B": "What you are asking about is called convergent evolution.  Basically, bringing a species back from extinction is impossible (barring some future gene cloning situation).  Once a species is extinct, that's it, it's gone forever.  But another species could then evolve to take on the same role in the environment.   They may even take on the same, or a very similar, form.  That's called convergent evolution.  An example of this is birds and bats both evolving the ability to fly, or dolphins and whales replacing ichthyosaurs about 40 million years after they had become extinct.  As for humans re-evolving, it's unlikely but not impossible.  Understand that this would be a different species that simply evolved to fulfill a similar niche.  It wouldn't be *Homo sapiens*, it would be something else (*Homo novellus* perhaps?) that simply evolved in a similar manner.  If chimpanzees, bonobos or other monkeys/apes survived what wiped out the humans then it's possible that they would be very similar.  But not exactly similar.   They would be a whole new species.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28193.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vlc1f", "c_root_id_B": "i3wc6qb", "created_at_utc_A": 1649408332, "created_at_utc_B": 1649424580, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Absolutely not, as in even if a new Ape arose and looked very very like us (which in itself would be amazingly unlikely) it would absolutely NOT be the same species.  This is not how species works. Theres not a set plan which nature evolves into, theres no Human 'mould' that would be retained if we all died off. The odds of a new hairless ape, descended from other apes, or if a billion years is your timeline, then possible descended from a Tulip, being nearly exactly like us is so remotely unlikely its near impossible. And anything which looked similar would merely be a similar looking entirely-different-species.  Some animals may have done something vaguely similar, but either the new branch was so close to the old branch in the first place that they were practically the same species anyway and the reinvented species has merely had a few basic adaptations to its new environment that it nowresembles the old species, OR, the new species has some superficial physical resemblance but is entire different underneath.", "human_ref_B": "What you are asking about is called convergent evolution.  Basically, bringing a species back from extinction is impossible (barring some future gene cloning situation).  Once a species is extinct, that's it, it's gone forever.  But another species could then evolve to take on the same role in the environment.   They may even take on the same, or a very similar, form.  That's called convergent evolution.  An example of this is birds and bats both evolving the ability to fly, or dolphins and whales replacing ichthyosaurs about 40 million years after they had become extinct.  As for humans re-evolving, it's unlikely but not impossible.  Understand that this would be a different species that simply evolved to fulfill a similar niche.  It wouldn't be *Homo sapiens*, it would be something else (*Homo novellus* perhaps?) that simply evolved in a similar manner.  If chimpanzees, bonobos or other monkeys/apes survived what wiped out the humans then it's possible that they would be very similar.  But not exactly similar.   They would be a whole new species.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16248.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3x0plg", "c_root_id_B": "i3v5asv", "created_at_utc_A": 1649434198, "created_at_utc_B": 1649396387, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "No, the same species doesn't come back, because actual ancestry is important.  Something that looks the same still isn't the same species technically speaking.    However, you might be interested in some examples of similar phenomena from the fossil record.  These use the word \"taxon\", which refers to any group - not just species (so it could also be a genus or family or order or whatever)  A Lazarus Taxon is a taxon that disappears from the fossil record and then reappears (either as a fossil or in real life) much later.  The most famous example is the coelacanth.  These aren't _really_ extinct when they are \"missing\", they just aren't leaving any fossils for us to find.    A zombie taxon also refers to a fossil of a species that shows up in the fossil record long after the species was thought to be extinct...but in this case, the fossil has been eroded out of an old rock and deposited into a newer sediment, making it appear to have lived long after it actually died.    An Elvis Taxon is the closest to what you are actually asking about.   It is again, a species or fossil that appears to show up millions of years after the extinction of the group it belongs to...but in this case, the taxon is merely impersonating the original, extinct one.  It looks very similar, but has actually converged on the same form rather than actually being descended from the original taxon.", "human_ref_B": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 37811.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vlc1f", "c_root_id_B": "i3x0plg", "created_at_utc_A": 1649408332, "created_at_utc_B": 1649434198, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Absolutely not, as in even if a new Ape arose and looked very very like us (which in itself would be amazingly unlikely) it would absolutely NOT be the same species.  This is not how species works. Theres not a set plan which nature evolves into, theres no Human 'mould' that would be retained if we all died off. The odds of a new hairless ape, descended from other apes, or if a billion years is your timeline, then possible descended from a Tulip, being nearly exactly like us is so remotely unlikely its near impossible. And anything which looked similar would merely be a similar looking entirely-different-species.  Some animals may have done something vaguely similar, but either the new branch was so close to the old branch in the first place that they were practically the same species anyway and the reinvented species has merely had a few basic adaptations to its new environment that it nowresembles the old species, OR, the new species has some superficial physical resemblance but is entire different underneath.", "human_ref_B": "No, the same species doesn't come back, because actual ancestry is important.  Something that looks the same still isn't the same species technically speaking.    However, you might be interested in some examples of similar phenomena from the fossil record.  These use the word \"taxon\", which refers to any group - not just species (so it could also be a genus or family or order or whatever)  A Lazarus Taxon is a taxon that disappears from the fossil record and then reappears (either as a fossil or in real life) much later.  The most famous example is the coelacanth.  These aren't _really_ extinct when they are \"missing\", they just aren't leaving any fossils for us to find.    A zombie taxon also refers to a fossil of a species that shows up in the fossil record long after the species was thought to be extinct...but in this case, the fossil has been eroded out of an old rock and deposited into a newer sediment, making it appear to have lived long after it actually died.    An Elvis Taxon is the closest to what you are actually asking about.   It is again, a species or fossil that appears to show up millions of years after the extinction of the group it belongs to...but in this case, the taxon is merely impersonating the original, extinct one.  It looks very similar, but has actually converged on the same form rather than actually being descended from the original taxon.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 25866.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3wgz0m", "c_root_id_B": "i3x0plg", "created_at_utc_A": 1649426575, "created_at_utc_B": 1649434198, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "That's not how evolution works. But I wouldn't be surprised if a species had gone extinct and later another species had changed to be almost identical. There's already many species that are hard to tell from one another.", "human_ref_B": "No, the same species doesn't come back, because actual ancestry is important.  Something that looks the same still isn't the same species technically speaking.    However, you might be interested in some examples of similar phenomena from the fossil record.  These use the word \"taxon\", which refers to any group - not just species (so it could also be a genus or family or order or whatever)  A Lazarus Taxon is a taxon that disappears from the fossil record and then reappears (either as a fossil or in real life) much later.  The most famous example is the coelacanth.  These aren't _really_ extinct when they are \"missing\", they just aren't leaving any fossils for us to find.    A zombie taxon also refers to a fossil of a species that shows up in the fossil record long after the species was thought to be extinct...but in this case, the fossil has been eroded out of an old rock and deposited into a newer sediment, making it appear to have lived long after it actually died.    An Elvis Taxon is the closest to what you are actually asking about.   It is again, a species or fossil that appears to show up millions of years after the extinction of the group it belongs to...but in this case, the taxon is merely impersonating the original, extinct one.  It looks very similar, but has actually converged on the same form rather than actually being descended from the original taxon.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7623.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vvsdg", "c_root_id_B": "i3v5asv", "created_at_utc_A": 1649416142, "created_at_utc_B": 1649396387, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Impossible. Convergent evolution at different times could happen, but even if a new species evolved into something virtually identical-looking it would be genetically distinct and not the same species as whatever it resembles.", "human_ref_B": "I once read about a mountain region where two species of frog lived. One species lived at higher altitude on the mountains than the other and the two species would not come into contact for most of the time. However, during certain weather conditions the two would come into contact and breed to produce a new species of frog (yes, I know that by the traditional definition of species this would mean the two are not actually separate species but that definition is limiting).  The new species was distinct from the other two and would exist for a time before disappearing. Once again, it would reemerge when the two frog species came into contact and bred.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19755.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3vvsdg", "c_root_id_B": "i3vlc1f", "created_at_utc_A": 1649416142, "created_at_utc_B": 1649408332, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Impossible. Convergent evolution at different times could happen, but even if a new species evolved into something virtually identical-looking it would be genetically distinct and not the same species as whatever it resembles.", "human_ref_B": "Absolutely not, as in even if a new Ape arose and looked very very like us (which in itself would be amazingly unlikely) it would absolutely NOT be the same species.  This is not how species works. Theres not a set plan which nature evolves into, theres no Human 'mould' that would be retained if we all died off. The odds of a new hairless ape, descended from other apes, or if a billion years is your timeline, then possible descended from a Tulip, being nearly exactly like us is so remotely unlikely its near impossible. And anything which looked similar would merely be a similar looking entirely-different-species.  Some animals may have done something vaguely similar, but either the new branch was so close to the old branch in the first place that they were practically the same species anyway and the reinvented species has merely had a few basic adaptations to its new environment that it nowresembles the old species, OR, the new species has some superficial physical resemblance but is entire different underneath.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7810.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tys1dn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Are there any examples of species that have gone extinct and then much later come back into existence via a totally different evolutionary route? If humans went extinct, could we come back in a billion years in our exact current form?", "c_root_id_A": "i3wgz0m", "c_root_id_B": "i3vlc1f", "created_at_utc_A": 1649426575, "created_at_utc_B": 1649408332, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "That's not how evolution works. But I wouldn't be surprised if a species had gone extinct and later another species had changed to be almost identical. There's already many species that are hard to tell from one another.", "human_ref_B": "Absolutely not, as in even if a new Ape arose and looked very very like us (which in itself would be amazingly unlikely) it would absolutely NOT be the same species.  This is not how species works. Theres not a set plan which nature evolves into, theres no Human 'mould' that would be retained if we all died off. The odds of a new hairless ape, descended from other apes, or if a billion years is your timeline, then possible descended from a Tulip, being nearly exactly like us is so remotely unlikely its near impossible. And anything which looked similar would merely be a similar looking entirely-different-species.  Some animals may have done something vaguely similar, but either the new branch was so close to the old branch in the first place that they were practically the same species anyway and the reinvented species has merely had a few basic adaptations to its new environment that it nowresembles the old species, OR, the new species has some superficial physical resemblance but is entire different underneath.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18243.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zigvpq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Do trees create less oxygen in the winter after their leaves fall off?", "c_root_id_A": "izsfurf", "c_root_id_B": "izsblid", "created_at_utc_A": 1670769868, "created_at_utc_B": 1670767921, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "That said, I'll mention it just in case, that's not an issue at all if you were thinking of the \"stock\" of available oxygen.  A few months after that Avengers movie with the Thanos snap, there was this interesting reddit discussion, in which \"what would happen if that snap also wiped half of the oxygen-producing plants and plankton\" was asked. And the fascinating answer is that the atmosphere contains centuries of oxygen in stock before a risk to run out is even foreseeable. So, we're cool ;)", "human_ref_B": "There's some cool satellite visual data that shows the earth's oxygen, carbon dioxide  cycles...seasons...you could almost call it breathing the way it looks..no link  I just remembered seeing it somewhere..happy hunting", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1947.0, "score_ratio": 1.1875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zigvpq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Do trees create less oxygen in the winter after their leaves fall off?", "c_root_id_A": "izsm92i", "c_root_id_B": "izt1nyq", "created_at_utc_A": 1670772709, "created_at_utc_B": 1670779188, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Yes, in fact many trees in winter have a net intake of oxygen and release carbon dioxide, remember that normally as well as photosynthesising trees are respiring, but when doing it in the summer are net reducers of carbon dioxide.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, seasonal trees cause measurable changes in the amount of co2 and oxygen in earth\u2019s atmosphere.  Here is a graph of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over time.  The long term trend is due to humans, but the yearly wiggles are due to trees. Every summer they grow and pull down CO2 into their bodies, and every winter they decay and release that CO2.  (You may wonder why the northern and southern hemispheres don\u2019t cancel each other out.  Answer: there are fewer trees experiencing winter in the south.)  And here is a graph of oxygen showing exactly the opposite trend, for exactly the same reasons.  An important note: we are not going to run of oxygen.  Because there\u2019s so much oxygen in the air, the changes are relatively tiny: human activity has reduced it by about 0.08 %.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6479.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zigvpq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Do trees create less oxygen in the winter after their leaves fall off?", "c_root_id_A": "izsnuka", "c_root_id_B": "izt1nyq", "created_at_utc_A": 1670773391, "created_at_utc_B": 1670779188, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Not just trees.  Grasslands as well.  Which considering that includes both natural ones and man made ones via agriculture - that's a LOT of acres.  It's compounded by the seasonal cycles of tillage.  Farmers tend to plow in the fall thru spring so that the old crops' plant matter will have decomposed by the time they need to plant again. That decomposition releases CO2.  But there's a cycle to it, and much will be reabsorbed once plant growth kicks back into high gear with spring's warmth.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, seasonal trees cause measurable changes in the amount of co2 and oxygen in earth\u2019s atmosphere.  Here is a graph of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over time.  The long term trend is due to humans, but the yearly wiggles are due to trees. Every summer they grow and pull down CO2 into their bodies, and every winter they decay and release that CO2.  (You may wonder why the northern and southern hemispheres don\u2019t cancel each other out.  Answer: there are fewer trees experiencing winter in the south.)  And here is a graph of oxygen showing exactly the opposite trend, for exactly the same reasons.  An important note: we are not going to run of oxygen.  Because there\u2019s so much oxygen in the air, the changes are relatively tiny: human activity has reduced it by about 0.08 %.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5797.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m40bwl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Is there an upper limit to how fast precipitation can fall? Could, hypothetically, a foot of snow fall all at once? The amount of snow we are supposed to get in Colorado made me wonder how fast show and rain could actually come down.", "c_root_id_A": "gqszy2w", "c_root_id_B": "gqt7wae", "created_at_utc_A": 1615649007, "created_at_utc_B": 1615653321, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 35, "human_ref_A": "The way that precipitation works is you cool down air enough that the moisture in the air cools and falls out of suspension. The hotter the air the more moisture it is able to suspend. In order to drop a foot of snow all at once, you would need very hot air to be cooled extremely quickly. This could hypothetically be done by hot air rising over the for-arc of a mountain that has an extremely abrupt rise to it, while meeting a cold front. Could this all happen yeah sure, but is it unlikely unless under perfect conditions.", "human_ref_B": "1.23 inches of rain in one minute.  It's from thunderstorms which are a runaway freight train of updrafts followed by massive rain.  What happens with a thunderstorm is warm moist air gets pushed upwards, usually from cold denser air moving underneath it but also from good ol' \"hot air rises\" because it's less dense.  As it rises, the pressure goes down and it expands and cools adiabatically.  As it cools, the water in it condenses because that's what water vapor does when it cools.  As it condenses it release the latent heat of vaporization which heats the air even more and drives it upwards even faster.  As it goes upwards faster it cools more, releases more water and so forth.  This resulting updraft is *very* strong.  Like 60 mph up and will blow up the resulting water droplets faster than they can fall.  So the terminal velocity of the drops becomes a non-issue...the rain is going up..not down.  Furthermore...the saturation point of the air is a non issue...these drops aren't in vapor phase. They are liquid.  Hauling ass.  *UP*.  They get so high (think 50,000 feet)...they can freeze and form hail.  They can also start falling and get blown up again and form bigger multi layered hail.  But eventually this wild ride comes to an end and all that rain and hail that formed eventually has to come down.  And it does...  And there you get your 1.23 inches of rain in one minute.  wikipedia for thunderstorms if you're interested.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4314.0, "score_ratio": 8.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m40bwl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Is there an upper limit to how fast precipitation can fall? Could, hypothetically, a foot of snow fall all at once? The amount of snow we are supposed to get in Colorado made me wonder how fast show and rain could actually come down.", "c_root_id_A": "gqt6vnr", "c_root_id_B": "gqt7wae", "created_at_utc_A": 1615652781, "created_at_utc_B": 1615653321, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 35, "human_ref_A": "Theoretically, you could dump an arbitrarily large amount of snow all at once by suddenly cooling / compressing a mass of warm, moist air.  Realistically though, the amount of snow that can fall is limited by the atmospheric conditions that exist here on Earth.  According to Wikipedia (yeah I know, not the best source, but oh well) the most snow recorded in 24 hours was 230 cm (91 in), which is about 10 cm (4 in) per hour", "human_ref_B": "1.23 inches of rain in one minute.  It's from thunderstorms which are a runaway freight train of updrafts followed by massive rain.  What happens with a thunderstorm is warm moist air gets pushed upwards, usually from cold denser air moving underneath it but also from good ol' \"hot air rises\" because it's less dense.  As it rises, the pressure goes down and it expands and cools adiabatically.  As it cools, the water in it condenses because that's what water vapor does when it cools.  As it condenses it release the latent heat of vaporization which heats the air even more and drives it upwards even faster.  As it goes upwards faster it cools more, releases more water and so forth.  This resulting updraft is *very* strong.  Like 60 mph up and will blow up the resulting water droplets faster than they can fall.  So the terminal velocity of the drops becomes a non-issue...the rain is going up..not down.  Furthermore...the saturation point of the air is a non issue...these drops aren't in vapor phase. They are liquid.  Hauling ass.  *UP*.  They get so high (think 50,000 feet)...they can freeze and form hail.  They can also start falling and get blown up again and form bigger multi layered hail.  But eventually this wild ride comes to an end and all that rain and hail that formed eventually has to come down.  And it does...  And there you get your 1.23 inches of rain in one minute.  wikipedia for thunderstorms if you're interested.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 540.0, "score_ratio": 11.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m40bwl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Is there an upper limit to how fast precipitation can fall? Could, hypothetically, a foot of snow fall all at once? The amount of snow we are supposed to get in Colorado made me wonder how fast show and rain could actually come down.", "c_root_id_A": "gqt7wae", "c_root_id_B": "gqt058k", "created_at_utc_A": 1615653321, "created_at_utc_B": 1615649122, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "1.23 inches of rain in one minute.  It's from thunderstorms which are a runaway freight train of updrafts followed by massive rain.  What happens with a thunderstorm is warm moist air gets pushed upwards, usually from cold denser air moving underneath it but also from good ol' \"hot air rises\" because it's less dense.  As it rises, the pressure goes down and it expands and cools adiabatically.  As it cools, the water in it condenses because that's what water vapor does when it cools.  As it condenses it release the latent heat of vaporization which heats the air even more and drives it upwards even faster.  As it goes upwards faster it cools more, releases more water and so forth.  This resulting updraft is *very* strong.  Like 60 mph up and will blow up the resulting water droplets faster than they can fall.  So the terminal velocity of the drops becomes a non-issue...the rain is going up..not down.  Furthermore...the saturation point of the air is a non issue...these drops aren't in vapor phase. They are liquid.  Hauling ass.  *UP*.  They get so high (think 50,000 feet)...they can freeze and form hail.  They can also start falling and get blown up again and form bigger multi layered hail.  But eventually this wild ride comes to an end and all that rain and hail that formed eventually has to come down.  And it does...  And there you get your 1.23 inches of rain in one minute.  wikipedia for thunderstorms if you're interested.", "human_ref_B": "The smaller something is, the relative area to mass is larger, which means more relative drag to mass that gravity can act upon. Aerodynamic drag can more or less be simplified by removing the unknowns and only speaking of the variables, and Drag is a factor of cross sectional area affected by the movement of the air around it for something that has the exact same shape but different size.  Let's say you have a 1x1x1cm cube. This would be 1 mL with a surface area of 6 cm^2. Increase it to a 1x1x1m and you get 6m^2, or 600 cm^2 but a volume of 1000000 mL or 1000 L. Water has an aproximate density of 1 gram per mL, so a 1 cubic metre of water is therefore 1 tonne.  Likewise you can do the opposite and scale it down. Snow flakes are very small and thin relatively speaking to a raindrop but are somewhat flat and therefore have a very large surface area to mass ratio, so they will fall slower than a water droplet on average.   Even if the water droplet had the same mass as the snowflake, the water droplet will on average still fall faster because the cross sectional area experiencing the drag forces of air will be smaller, like comparing a scrunched up piece of paper to an unfolded piece of paper.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4199.0, "score_ratio": 35.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m40bwl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Is there an upper limit to how fast precipitation can fall? Could, hypothetically, a foot of snow fall all at once? The amount of snow we are supposed to get in Colorado made me wonder how fast show and rain could actually come down.", "c_root_id_A": "gqt058k", "c_root_id_B": "gqt6vnr", "created_at_utc_A": 1615649122, "created_at_utc_B": 1615652781, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The smaller something is, the relative area to mass is larger, which means more relative drag to mass that gravity can act upon. Aerodynamic drag can more or less be simplified by removing the unknowns and only speaking of the variables, and Drag is a factor of cross sectional area affected by the movement of the air around it for something that has the exact same shape but different size.  Let's say you have a 1x1x1cm cube. This would be 1 mL with a surface area of 6 cm^2. Increase it to a 1x1x1m and you get 6m^2, or 600 cm^2 but a volume of 1000000 mL or 1000 L. Water has an aproximate density of 1 gram per mL, so a 1 cubic metre of water is therefore 1 tonne.  Likewise you can do the opposite and scale it down. Snow flakes are very small and thin relatively speaking to a raindrop but are somewhat flat and therefore have a very large surface area to mass ratio, so they will fall slower than a water droplet on average.   Even if the water droplet had the same mass as the snowflake, the water droplet will on average still fall faster because the cross sectional area experiencing the drag forces of air will be smaller, like comparing a scrunched up piece of paper to an unfolded piece of paper.", "human_ref_B": "Theoretically, you could dump an arbitrarily large amount of snow all at once by suddenly cooling / compressing a mass of warm, moist air.  Realistically though, the amount of snow that can fall is limited by the atmospheric conditions that exist here on Earth.  According to Wikipedia (yeah I know, not the best source, but oh well) the most snow recorded in 24 hours was 230 cm (91 in), which is about 10 cm (4 in) per hour", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3659.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1h1k9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Now that we have a much larger catalogue of where there are planets in the goldilocks zone, wouldn't that help SETI or other endeavors searching for intelligent life?", "c_root_id_A": "caq2x4q", "c_root_id_B": "caq0y27", "created_at_utc_A": 1372190919, "created_at_utc_B": 1372185962, "score_A": 89, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "It might give them something to point at, but would not dramatically increase the chance that we get a signal generated by alien life. Let's say we find a planet in the Goldilocks zone that's 5 million light years away. So we swing our radio 'scopes to point at it and listen to see if we can catch an alien signal.   Let's further assume that there is an alien civilization there right now, with its own SETI, and they've found Earth, and just pointed *their* scopes at us. What will they get? They'll get what humans were emitting 5 million years ago, which is to say, absolutely nothing. If they were to then conclude \"Oh well, guess there's no intelligent life on Earth,\" they'd be making the error of assuming that Earth's occupants were in the same technological state 5 million years ago as we are today.   In short, we not only have to listen to the right *place,* but we also have to be listening at the right *time.*  For all we know, the planet we're pointing at 5 million light years away had a fantastically advanced civilization 6 million years ago that for whatever reason is no longer there now (now being, of course, 5 million years ago). Or it might have had a civilization 5 million years ago, but that civilization just invented the wheel and therefore wasn't radiating anything. And whatever it's radiating now, we have to wait 5 million years to receive. In short, SETI is up against some tall odds. Finding any signal at all would be a pretty amazing thing, even if the universe is, averaging over time and distance, absolutely bursting with intelligent life.", "human_ref_B": "To my knowledge, these planets have so far either been deemed uninhabitable (e.g. because they're too hot) or already been examined by SETI's methods.  SETI operates by searching the sky for \"un-natural\" signals using radio telescopes.  As long as the stars in question have been under the radio telescope, they've been deemed un-interesting (or SETI's been holding out on us!).    It might be interesting to take a good, hard look at some habitable looking planets using a powerful radio telescope, but that would probably require a prohibitively expensive, purpose built space mission to do much better than what we've already got.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4957.0, "score_ratio": 5.2352941176, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1h1k9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Now that we have a much larger catalogue of where there are planets in the goldilocks zone, wouldn't that help SETI or other endeavors searching for intelligent life?", "c_root_id_A": "caq9np8", "c_root_id_B": "caq5og0", "created_at_utc_A": 1372209574, "created_at_utc_B": 1372197997, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "In addition to the responses given by other posters, I just wanted to bring up an additional point: the goldilocks zone idea assumes that life is \"earth-like\".  Beside the singular example of Earth, we really don't have an accurate reference point of what life is \"supposed\" to be like, if it does exist elsewhere in the universe.    Even the minor benefit of pointing SETI antennas in the direction of suspected habitable planets may be invalidated by that possibility that we are the only \"earth-like\" life around; other life could easily be adapted to live places that would be considered unlivable, even to extremophiles.", "human_ref_B": "Maybe further advanced civilizations realize its better to be in listen only mode to hide their existence.  Somehow blocking all outgoing signals from leaking much beyond their planet(s)/system. Then there would be only a brief period of radiating. I assume with enough money and time this would be possible on Earth without disrupting our reliance on such signals that may radiate to other worlds? I mean if someone can find us and actually reach us then they are far more advanced.... and then we are throwing the dice that they will play nice.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11577.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1h1k9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Now that we have a much larger catalogue of where there are planets in the goldilocks zone, wouldn't that help SETI or other endeavors searching for intelligent life?", "c_root_id_A": "caq9np8", "c_root_id_B": "caq6rhd", "created_at_utc_A": 1372209574, "created_at_utc_B": 1372201048, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "In addition to the responses given by other posters, I just wanted to bring up an additional point: the goldilocks zone idea assumes that life is \"earth-like\".  Beside the singular example of Earth, we really don't have an accurate reference point of what life is \"supposed\" to be like, if it does exist elsewhere in the universe.    Even the minor benefit of pointing SETI antennas in the direction of suspected habitable planets may be invalidated by that possibility that we are the only \"earth-like\" life around; other life could easily be adapted to live places that would be considered unlivable, even to extremophiles.", "human_ref_B": "I doubt it'll actually do anything much for SETI or other projects looking for direct evidence of extrasolar life.  What it probably will do is help better define the range of some of the variables in the Drake Equation.  There's still a lot of them that are going to be wild guesses, how often life arises, the period of intelligent life, etc.  One thing at a time, I guess.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8526.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7gwqkq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.62, "history": "Why are PassPhrases better than AlphaNumeric Passwords? I read very recently that our password system is completely backwards. We encourage long passwords that include Special Characters and Numbers and these end up being hard to remember but easy for a computer to crack. Meanwhile, an easy-to-remember PassPhrase is supposedly much harder for a computer to guess. Is this true and if so, why is this? If a computer is only seeing characters, what does it matter if they\u2019re in an order that *WE* can understand? For an example, does a computer see Dg(hV6<h1s differently than it sees What1sThis", "c_root_id_A": "dqmsa2z", "c_root_id_B": "dqmqr4d", "created_at_utc_A": 1512169050, "created_at_utc_B": 1512167357, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "To add to what has already been said. I really think that the discussion about password hardness is a super huge red herring that has little impact on security.  Online password crackers are basically nonexistent. If you throw up an SSH service on port 22 on AWS and watch what password attempts you get, they won't be complicated. This is largely because rate limiting works well and attackers would rather try to absolute most common passwords.  So why is a hard password useful? The problem is data breaches where salted and hashed password databases get leaked. Now you can use an *offline* attack to try to crack the passwords much much much more effectively than an online attack. So a more complex password will take longer to break.   But wait you say, if somebody already has breached a system and stolen the password database why do they need my password! And this is generally reasonable. The service has already been breached and your password for that service is no longer protecting whatever you had there.  The problem is when you *reuse* the password across multiple services. When your credentials are extracted from stolen database contents, attackers will attempt to reuse them on other services. This approach has a much higher success rate than guessing passwords at random because people are dumb and reuse passwords.   How do you solve this? **Don't reuse passwords**. If you use a password manager to ensure that all of your passwords are absolutely unique, the strength of your password really does not matter all that much beyond the most trivial things. I understand that this is a pretty controversial opinion but I really think that all of this discussion about password selection strategies really just gives people a reason to believe that they are doing the right thing when really they will be reusing these passwords everywhere because no human can remember dozens of unique passwords even if they use this passphrase trick. Users only have so much attention for security advice so the important thing is to give only the most useful advice rather than inundating them with options. For most people, the security benefit of a password manager is greater than the security benefit of harder passwords so I default to just suggesting the former.   All this said, if you are a high value person and expect people to target you *specifically*, most of this advice goes out the window.", "human_ref_B": "Question: Does a dictionary attack not work anymore? It has been probably 15 years since I have played with them, but using (Cane&Abel?), a dictionary attack was able to pick out the words in a password, even around the random letters, numbers and special characters. For example, if i had a known password of beaver56<;94*tail69iht45, the dictionary attack woukd almost immediately reveal beaver#######tail####### before moving on to brute force. Woukd the paraphrase not be immediately broken this way?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1693.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1wi35k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Years ago I read about a highly-publicized pharmaceutical study of a drug known as TGN1412 which caused unexpected, catastrophic health issues for those who received it. Are human clinical studies safer now than they were then as a result? My question relates specifically to a followup report that was mentioned in the wiki, but I wasn't able to find information on the results of that report.  To simplify my question: what, if any, changes have been made to the process for bringing drugs to trial?   My understanding is that the companies involved were judged to have been operating conscientiously when they administered the trial, but that the consequences in humans were unforeseeable (my word, not theirs). Is this study just a statistical fluke, or did it underscore some serious misunderstanding of how drugs interact with humans?   > On 5 April 2006, the MHRA issued an interim report on the TGN1412 trial.[31] They found no deficiencies in TeGenero\u2019s pre-clinical work; there was no evidence of undisclosed studies. Parexel\u2019s records and processes appeared in order (including dose measurement and administration) and the MHRA felt that their actions did not contribute to the serious adverse events, nor were there any deficiencies in the animal work; results accurately reflected the raw data.  > German regulatory authorities inspected the production of the material by Boehringer Ingelheim, looking at the manufacture, testing, storage and distribution of the TGN1412. No deficiencies were identified which could have contributed to the serious adverse effects. Although tests are ongoing on the actual material used, the MHRA state that tests are consistent with the TGN1412 being up to specification at the moment.  > The MHRA have concluded that the most likely cause of the reaction in trial subjects was an unpredicted biological action of the drug in humans. The interim report recognises that important scientific and medical questions about the risks of testing these agents in human subjects have been raised. To that end, the UK Secretary of State for Health has agreed to establish a group of leading international experts to consider those issues and to provide a report on the future authorisation of such trials (with an interim report at three months).  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TGN1412  Sorry this is such a rambling submission. Thanks everyone who reads and responds!", "c_root_id_A": "cf26lmx", "c_root_id_B": "cf28m6h", "created_at_utc_A": 1391035379, "created_at_utc_B": 1391039645, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "To be honest, I a bit confused from Wiki in that matter. I still remember that case and I knew persons involved in clinical studies and also with that company. From that time I know, they made two mistakes during the human tests 1. The pre-studies , means before they could reach the stage of human tests were not complete  2. The procedures of how to react we're not precise and the personnel did not take attention enough", "human_ref_B": "tl;dr: Arguably no, TGN1412 did not impact how clinical trials are run.  TGN1412 was an unfortunate product of how research is done, although the system functioned exactly as it is designed. The first-in-human trials described were Phase 1 trials, which are the first time agents are supposed to be tested in vivo humans (i.e., human subjects). Phase 1 trials are the smallest, most carefully monitored, and are not looking for clinical effect. Rather, they are looking purely at pharmacokinetics (how is the agent processed by the body), and what are potential life threatening reactions.  Phase 1 trials are specifically designed to assure whether this agent is safe enough to be used on Phase 2 subjects which are larger and in number, and to assess whether there is any effect of the intended therapy. Phase 3 and 4 look at increasingly larger populations and comparisons to existing therapies.  TGN1412's Phase 1 failure is debatable whether it could have been prevented. It's easy to see why things went wrong retrospectively; would have things been as obvious previously? That is a much harder question to answer. As we move towards actually making human tissues via iPS cells, we may have better prediction powers, but it is unlikely in the forseeable future how we can predict with 100% sensitivity of drugs that will fail Phase 1 (or any phase, for that matter) short of never trying any drugs in humans.   It is highly unfortunate those subjects suffered as they did. However, there is no mention of unethical selection of subjects (e.g., the mentally incompetent, prisoners, etc), so it is implied they were entirely aware of the risks they undertook. And in all likelihood they were compensated for they volunteerism, which is very much the norm for Phase 1 trials.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4266.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mmjg5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Were fires uncommon phenomena during the early Earth when there wasn't so much oxygen produced from photosynthesis?", "c_root_id_A": "gtsy8np", "c_root_id_B": "gtt0aka", "created_at_utc_A": 1617885738, "created_at_utc_B": 1617886851, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 313, "human_ref_A": "Fire, as we know it, didn't exist until early forms of life had increased the amount of oxygen in the air to the necessary level. Can't remember exactly, but it's over 5% I think.  Cool to think that if we're the only planet in our solar system with life, we're also the only planet where fire can exist.", "human_ref_B": "In the period when there wasn't enough oxygen to burn there also weren't plants on land so nothing to burn fuel wise. The first land plants appeared 470 million yeas ago, maybe as far back as 500 million for fungi. Free oxygen became common before that, it was the oxygen produced by plankton from the oceans that allowed land plants to develop.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1113.0, "score_ratio": 10.7931034483, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mmjg5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Were fires uncommon phenomena during the early Earth when there wasn't so much oxygen produced from photosynthesis?", "c_root_id_A": "gtt1yxf", "c_root_id_B": "gtsy8np", "created_at_utc_A": 1617887725, "created_at_utc_B": 1617885738, "score_A": 94, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Not just uncommon, but fire as we know it (a high-temperature reaction between a fuel and oxygen) is relatively young in terms of the age of the Earth.  While the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old, and the first oxygen on Earth about 3.5 billion years old, oxygen levels in the air had to reach 13% (today it is 21%) before plants would catch fire, which didn't happen until about 450 million years ago. This makes fire about half the age of plants, and younger than many early species of animals.", "human_ref_B": "Fire, as we know it, didn't exist until early forms of life had increased the amount of oxygen in the air to the necessary level. Can't remember exactly, but it's over 5% I think.  Cool to think that if we're the only planet in our solar system with life, we're also the only planet where fire can exist.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1987.0, "score_ratio": 3.2413793103, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mmjg5w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Were fires uncommon phenomena during the early Earth when there wasn't so much oxygen produced from photosynthesis?", "c_root_id_A": "gtsy8np", "c_root_id_B": "gtt59d1", "created_at_utc_A": 1617885738, "created_at_utc_B": 1617889349, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Fire, as we know it, didn't exist until early forms of life had increased the amount of oxygen in the air to the necessary level. Can't remember exactly, but it's over 5% I think.  Cool to think that if we're the only planet in our solar system with life, we're also the only planet where fire can exist.", "human_ref_B": "The one thing that nobody is mentioning here is that without life on land, literally the chemical energy stored in anything that burns wouldn\u2019t exist anywhere besides on beaches. I can\u2019t name a single flammable thing that would have existed on land before life was able to colonize it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3611.0, "score_ratio": 1.6206896552, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l07iui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "How has the amount of water on Earth\u2019s surface changed over geologic time? Is water being subducted into the mantle faster than it\u2019s being out gassed back out? Has the Earth experienced any net loss of water to space?", "c_root_id_A": "gjuqriu", "c_root_id_B": "gjvhzlb", "created_at_utc_A": 1611079429, "created_at_utc_B": 1611091736, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The lightest elements (Hydrogen and Helium) can escape the Earth's atmosphere because they are light enough to get occasionally whisked away into space. So can some light molecules.   >On human timescales, there is a tendency to think of an atmosphere as being as immutable as a planet\u2019s rocks, but over geological time, gases can leak from the top of the atmosphere and escape to space. Fortunately, for the modern Earth, loss rates are tiny even for the lightest gases: about 3 kilograms per second of hydrogen and 50 grams per second of helium. But in the last few decades, we have begun to appreciate how the very existence of an atmosphere depends as much on escape as supply. In particular, the atmospheres on terrestrial planets and outer planet satellites are like the ruins of medieval castles, remnants of riches that have been subject to histories of plunder and decay. Atmospheres of small planets are more like crude forts, poorly defended and extremely vulnerable. For decades people have pondered how the smallness of Mars might be responsible for an atmosphere only one hundredth as dense as Earth\u2019s\u2014but a consideration of escape makes us wonder why Mars has any atmosphere at all. Odd puzzles also exist for larger terrestrial planets. How did Venus steadfastly cling to a thick atmosphere yet thoroughly lose its water?   >To escape, atmospheric gases must attain escape velocity, which is the minimum needed to overcome gravity. One way that this can happen is when gases get too hot to hold on to\u2014so-called thermal escape. Escape can also occur through numerous \u201cnon-thermal\u201d processes, where individual atoms or molecules get an energy boost from chemical or charged particle reactions. A third, completely different process, is when air is blasted away by asteroid or comet impacts.  https://geosci.uchicago.edu/~kite/doc/Catling2009.pdf   I'd expect nearly all the water lost from Earth over the past few hundreds of millions of years to have escaped this way. That is broke down into hydrogen and oxygen by natural processes on earth then the hydrogen finds a way to escape. IIRC H2O can also escape in specific circumstances but its far less than simple hydrogen atoms.", "human_ref_B": "This is a major ongoing question in geology, that I hope to do a PhD project on. Korenaga et al., 2016 came up with a net decrease of water on earth's surface over time, with almost a quadrillion gallons of water going down into the mantle per year.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12307.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ymqdnn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can dead bodies get sunburned?", "c_root_id_A": "iv5h89s", "c_root_id_B": "iv5ezd6", "created_at_utc_A": 1667655523, "created_at_utc_B": 1667654345, "score_A": 6543, "score_B": 712, "human_ref_A": "The cells in your body will die at different rates depending on their energy requirements. Cells that require a lot of oxygen to survive (eg neurons) will die within 5 minutes of the heart stopping. Other cells, like your skin cells, can live on for hours or even 1-2 days.   But will they get sunburned? That depends on what you call a \"sunburn\". Yes they still have DNA and are producing mRNA which can be damaged by UV rays from the sun. However, the pain, redness, and swelling that is associated with sunburns is due to release of inflammatory signals, vasodilation (capillaries opening), and edema (fluid rushing in). There will probably still be release of inflammatory signals, and vasodilation, but without circulating blood there would be no edema and no additional immune cells likely resulting in no change in appearance of the skin.   In short, the skin cells will still get damaged but the skin won't flush as you would see in someone who is alive.   Expert commentary on cell metabolism after organismal death: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-cell-metabolism-after-death/  Dead zebrafish produce mRNA for up to 4 days after death: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsob.160267  Pathophysiology of a sunburn:   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534837/", "human_ref_B": "Sunburn is the result of UV radiation causing damage to the dna in your skin cells. The skin cells basically kill themselves to prevent becoming cancerous. The redness and inflammation of a sun burn is the result of all the dead skin cells and damage to the skin. Since dead bodies don't have any cellular activitiy going on, they wouldn't have the reaction of dying from the UV damage to the dna. So the UV damage would still occur but since there's no cellular activity, there wouldn't be a reaction.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1178.0, "score_ratio": 9.1896067416, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m3iuv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does gravity have a speed? Sorry if I ask anything stupid; I'm new here.  Does gravity have a speed or does the force of gravity act instantaneously?   For example: The Earth orbits the Sun due to the gravitational pull of the Sun acting on the Earth. However, how long does it take for that pull to reach the Earth from the Sun? And because the Sun is moving, does the gravitational pull reaching the Earth actually represent where the Sun was some time ago?", "c_root_id_A": "c2xsp7t", "c_root_id_B": "c2xsiug", "created_at_utc_A": 1320680626, "created_at_utc_B": 1320679338, "score_A": 67, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "There are two ways to answer this question, and both are correct.  The first way is to consider the sudden appearance or disappearance of an object like the sun.  If the sun were to mysteriously vanish, then general relativity tells us that it would take 8 minutes for the earth to experience any changes in gravity.  In other words, these changes propagate at the speed of light.  However, this isn't a very realistic scenario - mass doesn't simply pop out of existence.  If we consider the question \"does the earth orbit where the sun is *now* or where it was 8 minutes ago?\" the answer is a bit more interesting.  It turns out that velocity is a component of Einstein's field equations. So, if you do a lot of complicated math you will arrive at the conclusion that, to a good approximation, the earth orbits where the sun will be when the gravitational influence of the sun reaches earth.  In other words, the earth orbits the actual location of the sun, not the location 8 minutes ago.", "human_ref_B": "This gets asked a lot", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1288.0, "score_ratio": 4.4666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m3iuv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does gravity have a speed? Sorry if I ask anything stupid; I'm new here.  Does gravity have a speed or does the force of gravity act instantaneously?   For example: The Earth orbits the Sun due to the gravitational pull of the Sun acting on the Earth. However, how long does it take for that pull to reach the Earth from the Sun? And because the Sun is moving, does the gravitational pull reaching the Earth actually represent where the Sun was some time ago?", "c_root_id_A": "c2xsllt", "c_root_id_B": "c2xsp7t", "created_at_utc_A": 1320679907, "created_at_utc_B": 1320680626, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 67, "human_ref_A": "While I am not an expert of this matter I will try to answer that question. Basically if you are looking at gravitational effects you have to deal with general relativity. Now GR as its name says includes special relativity, in particular it is Lorentz invariant. Simply speaking any information can only travel as fast as the speed of light and this also includes the propagation of fields (just like electromagnetic waves). Now one such field would be the gravitational field of a massive body. However, the crux of the matter is that gravitation is a very weak force compared to electromagnetic interactions which makes even large fluctuations almost unnoticeable.   That being said it is still strongly believed that graviational waves do exist and travel with the speed of light. There was a nobel price awarded for a supposedly indirect proof of the existence of gravitional waves. There are many experiments (at least one in Hannover, Germany which I know of can measure distances a tiny tiny fraction of the size of an atom)  which try to make a direct observation of gravitational waves but none such has been successfull so far.", "human_ref_B": "There are two ways to answer this question, and both are correct.  The first way is to consider the sudden appearance or disappearance of an object like the sun.  If the sun were to mysteriously vanish, then general relativity tells us that it would take 8 minutes for the earth to experience any changes in gravity.  In other words, these changes propagate at the speed of light.  However, this isn't a very realistic scenario - mass doesn't simply pop out of existence.  If we consider the question \"does the earth orbit where the sun is *now* or where it was 8 minutes ago?\" the answer is a bit more interesting.  It turns out that velocity is a component of Einstein's field equations. So, if you do a lot of complicated math you will arrive at the conclusion that, to a good approximation, the earth orbits where the sun will be when the gravitational influence of the sun reaches earth.  In other words, the earth orbits the actual location of the sun, not the location 8 minutes ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 719.0, "score_ratio": 67000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m3iuv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does gravity have a speed? Sorry if I ask anything stupid; I'm new here.  Does gravity have a speed or does the force of gravity act instantaneously?   For example: The Earth orbits the Sun due to the gravitational pull of the Sun acting on the Earth. However, how long does it take for that pull to reach the Earth from the Sun? And because the Sun is moving, does the gravitational pull reaching the Earth actually represent where the Sun was some time ago?", "c_root_id_A": "c2xsp7t", "c_root_id_B": "c2xsjzl", "created_at_utc_A": 1320680626, "created_at_utc_B": 1320679580, "score_A": 67, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "There are two ways to answer this question, and both are correct.  The first way is to consider the sudden appearance or disappearance of an object like the sun.  If the sun were to mysteriously vanish, then general relativity tells us that it would take 8 minutes for the earth to experience any changes in gravity.  In other words, these changes propagate at the speed of light.  However, this isn't a very realistic scenario - mass doesn't simply pop out of existence.  If we consider the question \"does the earth orbit where the sun is *now* or where it was 8 minutes ago?\" the answer is a bit more interesting.  It turns out that velocity is a component of Einstein's field equations. So, if you do a lot of complicated math you will arrive at the conclusion that, to a good approximation, the earth orbits where the sun will be when the gravitational influence of the sun reaches earth.  In other words, the earth orbits the actual location of the sun, not the location 8 minutes ago.", "human_ref_B": "Good question. We know from relativity that no information can travel faster than the speed of light. Otherwise this would effect causality.  If the sun's gravitational pull was \"turned off\" there would be no way of telling that this had happened instantaneously, it would take time for that information to \"reach\" earth", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1046.0, "score_ratio": -33.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m3iuv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does gravity have a speed? Sorry if I ask anything stupid; I'm new here.  Does gravity have a speed or does the force of gravity act instantaneously?   For example: The Earth orbits the Sun due to the gravitational pull of the Sun acting on the Earth. However, how long does it take for that pull to reach the Earth from the Sun? And because the Sun is moving, does the gravitational pull reaching the Earth actually represent where the Sun was some time ago?", "c_root_id_A": "c2xsllt", "c_root_id_B": "c2xv0zv", "created_at_utc_A": 1320679907, "created_at_utc_B": 1320695206, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "While I am not an expert of this matter I will try to answer that question. Basically if you are looking at gravitational effects you have to deal with general relativity. Now GR as its name says includes special relativity, in particular it is Lorentz invariant. Simply speaking any information can only travel as fast as the speed of light and this also includes the propagation of fields (just like electromagnetic waves). Now one such field would be the gravitational field of a massive body. However, the crux of the matter is that gravitation is a very weak force compared to electromagnetic interactions which makes even large fluctuations almost unnoticeable.   That being said it is still strongly believed that graviational waves do exist and travel with the speed of light. There was a nobel price awarded for a supposedly indirect proof of the existence of gravitional waves. There are many experiments (at least one in Hannover, Germany which I know of can measure distances a tiny tiny fraction of the size of an atom)  which try to make a direct observation of gravitational waves but none such has been successfull so far.", "human_ref_B": "There are at least a couple of experiments in progress right now trying to detect gravity waves.  If physicists believe that gravity waves exist (I know one of the guys on one of the projects and he says theory says they should) then gravity must have a finite speed.  You couldn't have waves in something that propagated instantly.  Also instant propagation would violate causality, since you could theoretically move a massive object towards and away from a distant receiver, and the variation in gravity at the receiver could be detected; if it traveled instantly then you'd have a causality violation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15299.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m3iuv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does gravity have a speed? Sorry if I ask anything stupid; I'm new here.  Does gravity have a speed or does the force of gravity act instantaneously?   For example: The Earth orbits the Sun due to the gravitational pull of the Sun acting on the Earth. However, how long does it take for that pull to reach the Earth from the Sun? And because the Sun is moving, does the gravitational pull reaching the Earth actually represent where the Sun was some time ago?", "c_root_id_A": "c2xv0zv", "c_root_id_B": "c2xsjzl", "created_at_utc_A": 1320695206, "created_at_utc_B": 1320679580, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "There are at least a couple of experiments in progress right now trying to detect gravity waves.  If physicists believe that gravity waves exist (I know one of the guys on one of the projects and he says theory says they should) then gravity must have a finite speed.  You couldn't have waves in something that propagated instantly.  Also instant propagation would violate causality, since you could theoretically move a massive object towards and away from a distant receiver, and the variation in gravity at the receiver could be detected; if it traveled instantly then you'd have a causality violation.", "human_ref_B": "Good question. We know from relativity that no information can travel faster than the speed of light. Otherwise this would effect causality.  If the sun's gravitational pull was \"turned off\" there would be no way of telling that this had happened instantaneously, it would take time for that information to \"reach\" earth", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15626.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m3iuv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does gravity have a speed? Sorry if I ask anything stupid; I'm new here.  Does gravity have a speed or does the force of gravity act instantaneously?   For example: The Earth orbits the Sun due to the gravitational pull of the Sun acting on the Earth. However, how long does it take for that pull to reach the Earth from the Sun? And because the Sun is moving, does the gravitational pull reaching the Earth actually represent where the Sun was some time ago?", "c_root_id_A": "c2xsjzl", "c_root_id_B": "c2xsllt", "created_at_utc_A": 1320679580, "created_at_utc_B": 1320679907, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Good question. We know from relativity that no information can travel faster than the speed of light. Otherwise this would effect causality.  If the sun's gravitational pull was \"turned off\" there would be no way of telling that this had happened instantaneously, it would take time for that information to \"reach\" earth", "human_ref_B": "While I am not an expert of this matter I will try to answer that question. Basically if you are looking at gravitational effects you have to deal with general relativity. Now GR as its name says includes special relativity, in particular it is Lorentz invariant. Simply speaking any information can only travel as fast as the speed of light and this also includes the propagation of fields (just like electromagnetic waves). Now one such field would be the gravitational field of a massive body. However, the crux of the matter is that gravitation is a very weak force compared to electromagnetic interactions which makes even large fluctuations almost unnoticeable.   That being said it is still strongly believed that graviational waves do exist and travel with the speed of light. There was a nobel price awarded for a supposedly indirect proof of the existence of gravitional waves. There are many experiments (at least one in Hannover, Germany which I know of can measure distances a tiny tiny fraction of the size of an atom)  which try to make a direct observation of gravitational waves but none such has been successfull so far.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 327.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m3iuv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does gravity have a speed? Sorry if I ask anything stupid; I'm new here.  Does gravity have a speed or does the force of gravity act instantaneously?   For example: The Earth orbits the Sun due to the gravitational pull of the Sun acting on the Earth. However, how long does it take for that pull to reach the Earth from the Sun? And because the Sun is moving, does the gravitational pull reaching the Earth actually represent where the Sun was some time ago?", "c_root_id_A": "c2xx5fl", "c_root_id_B": "c2xsjzl", "created_at_utc_A": 1320707411, "created_at_utc_B": 1320679580, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Great way to answer to a great question:   http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O-p8yZYxNGc&feature=related", "human_ref_B": "Good question. We know from relativity that no information can travel faster than the speed of light. Otherwise this would effect causality.  If the sun's gravitational pull was \"turned off\" there would be no way of telling that this had happened instantaneously, it would take time for that information to \"reach\" earth", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27831.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m3iuv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does gravity have a speed? Sorry if I ask anything stupid; I'm new here.  Does gravity have a speed or does the force of gravity act instantaneously?   For example: The Earth orbits the Sun due to the gravitational pull of the Sun acting on the Earth. However, how long does it take for that pull to reach the Earth from the Sun? And because the Sun is moving, does the gravitational pull reaching the Earth actually represent where the Sun was some time ago?", "c_root_id_A": "c2xsjzl", "c_root_id_B": "c2y626m", "created_at_utc_A": 1320679580, "created_at_utc_B": 1320781101, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Good question. We know from relativity that no information can travel faster than the speed of light. Otherwise this would effect causality.  If the sun's gravitational pull was \"turned off\" there would be no way of telling that this had happened instantaneously, it would take time for that information to \"reach\" earth", "human_ref_B": "Wouldn't it be **G**?  (6.67x10^-11 m^3 kg^-1 s^-2)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 101521.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lnw663", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "How does Ingenuity (The Mars Helicopter) fly on Mars with such a thin atmosphere? Relative to earth does it require a more significant RPM to achieve flight?   How similar is the viscosity of the air on Mars to earth?", "c_root_id_A": "go4t966", "c_root_id_B": "go4xfd9", "created_at_utc_A": 1613839571, "created_at_utc_B": 1613841651, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "I was thinking about this myself. Someone had to calculate how much thrust they get for a particular blade size and rpm. Thinner atmosphere also has less drag, and if I remember correctly Mars also has weaker gravity so that may help. It may be that drag and thrust cancel out, kind of how a person swims at the same speed in maple syrup as they do in water.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, the rotors spin at 2,800 RPM, which is about 10 times as fast as a typical helicopter.  Viscosity isn't the issue with trying to fly on Mars. The issue is that the atmosphere is so much less dense than Earth's (about 1/100 as dense).   The lift generated by an airfoil moving through a fluid is directly proportional to density and proportional to the square of velocity, meaning that to compensate for the density being reduced by a factor of 100, the velocity must be increased by a factor of 10. Hence the tip RPM being about 10x as large as a typical helicopter.   Unfortunately, the much-less-dense atmosphere also affects control, because the vibratory modes of the rotor have much less damping and that causes flight dynamics that have to be compensated for by the control system.  If you want to learn more about Ingenuity's design, the chief engineer published a brief AIAA paper about the design and testing in 2018.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2080.0, "score_ratio": 25.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswkc5r", "c_root_id_B": "cswlpt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1436385168, "created_at_utc_B": 1436387153, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "You could hit the triple point and boil freeze and steam it all at once! Without changing how much heat there is you could reduce the pressure of the atmosphere and it would boil.", "human_ref_B": "By direct heat do you mean a stove or hot plate? Then yes, you can.   Microwaves are one very easy way of boiling water, as already mentioned. You can also boil water using a blender (which is something that vitamix has touted in the past): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=afssVncbsSk and skip to the end  There are other ways as well", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1985.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswjs5l", "c_root_id_B": "cswlpt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1436384379, "created_at_utc_B": 1436387153, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Microwaves is one way.", "human_ref_B": "By direct heat do you mean a stove or hot plate? Then yes, you can.   Microwaves are one very easy way of boiling water, as already mentioned. You can also boil water using a blender (which is something that vitamix has touted in the past): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=afssVncbsSk and skip to the end  There are other ways as well", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2774.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswlpt1", "c_root_id_B": "cswkmar", "created_at_utc_A": 1436387153, "created_at_utc_B": 1436385564, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "By direct heat do you mean a stove or hot plate? Then yes, you can.   Microwaves are one very easy way of boiling water, as already mentioned. You can also boil water using a blender (which is something that vitamix has touted in the past): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=afssVncbsSk and skip to the end  There are other ways as well", "human_ref_B": "Remove air.  The boiling point lowers as air pressure drops.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1589.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswkqrp", "c_root_id_B": "cswlpt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1436385739, "created_at_utc_B": 1436387153, "score_A": -15, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "This question doesnt really make sense. Boiling water = hot water (specific temperature dependent on the air pressure), so.. the water needs to be heated to boil (and/ or the air pressure decreased). As for HOW one heats the water - doesnt really matter. Be it a flame, microwave, laser, lots of noise..", "human_ref_B": "By direct heat do you mean a stove or hot plate? Then yes, you can.   Microwaves are one very easy way of boiling water, as already mentioned. You can also boil water using a blender (which is something that vitamix has touted in the past): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=afssVncbsSk and skip to the end  There are other ways as well", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1414.0, "score_ratio": -0.7333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswjs5l", "c_root_id_B": "cswkc5r", "created_at_utc_A": 1436384379, "created_at_utc_B": 1436385168, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Microwaves is one way.", "human_ref_B": "You could hit the triple point and boil freeze and steam it all at once! Without changing how much heat there is you could reduce the pressure of the atmosphere and it would boil.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 789.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswyta4", "c_root_id_B": "cswjs5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1436408871, "created_at_utc_B": 1436384379, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "You can add water to the water bottle about half way and constantly shake the bottle for couple of hours and it will be hot enough to cook instant noodles. but be aware, you need some good arm strength for hours", "human_ref_B": "Microwaves is one way.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24492.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswkmar", "c_root_id_B": "cswyta4", "created_at_utc_A": 1436385564, "created_at_utc_B": 1436408871, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Remove air.  The boiling point lowers as air pressure drops.", "human_ref_B": "You can add water to the water bottle about half way and constantly shake the bottle for couple of hours and it will be hot enough to cook instant noodles. but be aware, you need some good arm strength for hours", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23307.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswnsyb", "c_root_id_B": "cswyta4", "created_at_utc_A": 1436390254, "created_at_utc_B": 1436408871, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "this guy did it with sound", "human_ref_B": "You can add water to the water bottle about half way and constantly shake the bottle for couple of hours and it will be hot enough to cook instant noodles. but be aware, you need some good arm strength for hours", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18617.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswyta4", "c_root_id_B": "cswkqrp", "created_at_utc_A": 1436408871, "created_at_utc_B": 1436385739, "score_A": 5, "score_B": -15, "human_ref_A": "You can add water to the water bottle about half way and constantly shake the bottle for couple of hours and it will be hot enough to cook instant noodles. but be aware, you need some good arm strength for hours", "human_ref_B": "This question doesnt really make sense. Boiling water = hot water (specific temperature dependent on the air pressure), so.. the water needs to be heated to boil (and/ or the air pressure decreased). As for HOW one heats the water - doesnt really matter. Be it a flame, microwave, laser, lots of noise..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23132.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3cl05l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is it possible to bring water to a boil by any other source of energy besides direct heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cswnsyb", "c_root_id_B": "cswkqrp", "created_at_utc_A": 1436390254, "created_at_utc_B": 1436385739, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -15, "human_ref_A": "this guy did it with sound", "human_ref_B": "This question doesnt really make sense. Boiling water = hot water (specific temperature dependent on the air pressure), so.. the water needs to be heated to boil (and/ or the air pressure decreased). As for HOW one heats the water - doesnt really matter. Be it a flame, microwave, laser, lots of noise..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4515.0, "score_ratio": -0.1333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "prfm7t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can lightning really crack rocks and damage mountains like we see in fiction? In fiction we usually see lightning as an incredible force capable of splintering stones, like a TNT charge would. Does this actually happen in nature?", "c_root_id_A": "hdk0brr", "c_root_id_B": "hdk70hv", "created_at_utc_A": 1632113073, "created_at_utc_B": 1632117719, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 148, "human_ref_A": "Speaking from experience, we were driving up to one of the peaks at estes park about 20 years ago and it was storming. There was a lightning bolt that struck out of sight around the curve ahead of us. When we came up to where it had struck we found the car ahead of us stopped and a hole about the size of a basketball in the asphalt. They said it was where the lightning struck.  Edit: spelling", "human_ref_B": "I haven't seen any exploding rocks, but I do have first hand experience with a massive strike that hit in my front yard years ago. It left a large trench in the ground where it hit. There was a thin crack in the ground leading from the end of the large trench that traveled to our well 60 feet away with enough power left to flip the circuit breaker to the pump. It blew fist-sized chunks of wet, Georgia clay a couple yards from the hole, and smaller pieces farther than that.   At first look, we thought it had hit a nearby tree and come down into a root to cause the explosion of dirt. However, after closer inspection, there was no damage to any trees and no signs of an exploded root anywhere in the trench or otherwise. The tree still stands healthy as ever 10 years later. This leads me to believe that it just hit the dirt and exploded.   https://imgur.com/a/t6Unyz5", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4646.0, "score_ratio": 4.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "prfm7t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can lightning really crack rocks and damage mountains like we see in fiction? In fiction we usually see lightning as an incredible force capable of splintering stones, like a TNT charge would. Does this actually happen in nature?", "c_root_id_A": "hdk0brr", "c_root_id_B": "hdkerh4", "created_at_utc_A": 1632113073, "created_at_utc_B": 1632124059, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 124, "human_ref_A": "Speaking from experience, we were driving up to one of the peaks at estes park about 20 years ago and it was storming. There was a lightning bolt that struck out of sight around the curve ahead of us. When we came up to where it had struck we found the car ahead of us stopped and a hole about the size of a basketball in the asphalt. They said it was where the lightning struck.  Edit: spelling", "human_ref_B": "The invention of the lightning rod was largely to prevent this very thing from destroying castle, cathedrals, and other large stone structures. In fact lightning strikes was the leading cause of repair for stone structures up until the lightning rod.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10986.0, "score_ratio": 3.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "prfm7t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can lightning really crack rocks and damage mountains like we see in fiction? In fiction we usually see lightning as an incredible force capable of splintering stones, like a TNT charge would. Does this actually happen in nature?", "c_root_id_A": "hdkgk45", "c_root_id_B": "hdk0brr", "created_at_utc_A": 1632125704, "created_at_utc_B": 1632113073, "score_A": 67, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "Yes they can. Here's a picture of damage done to a mountain trail in Tatra mountains by a huge thunderstorm in 2019.    https://d-art.ppstatic.pl/kadry/k/r/1/53/37/5d63b53624c70\\_o\\_large.jpg", "human_ref_B": "Speaking from experience, we were driving up to one of the peaks at estes park about 20 years ago and it was storming. There was a lightning bolt that struck out of sight around the curve ahead of us. When we came up to where it had struck we found the car ahead of us stopped and a hole about the size of a basketball in the asphalt. They said it was where the lightning struck.  Edit: spelling", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12631.0, "score_ratio": 2.09375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "42p3bi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What would happen if we create a sufficiently large gear and I rotate it so fast that the tangential speed gets faster than the speed of light? We all know that the speed of light is the maximum speed anything can reach. But theoretically it may be possible to build a gear large enough to make a reasonable angular speed into a tangential speed faster than light. Of course it would not be possible with the technology we have today but other celestial bodies, such as really large planets, come to mind.", "c_root_id_A": "czcc2ev", "c_root_id_B": "czckqqz", "created_at_utc_A": 1453796230, "created_at_utc_B": 1453821193, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "You wouldn't be able to turn it that fast because it would take infinite energy. Nothing made of matter can travel faster than light and as it approaches lightspeed, it becomes infinitely massive, requiring infinite energy to move. Relativity doesn't go on spring break just because you hooked a whole bunch of matter together.         To anticipate the next option - a gear large enough that the teeth would move faster than light immediately - you would never be able to turn the gear.", "human_ref_B": "/u/rantonels has the best technical answer but I wanted to point out that this question is a very good example of how most things we deal with in every day life are approximations. For another example we usually treat the Earth as a sphere, it's not but it works almost all the time.  What we consider a gear (or a rod which is another popular form of the same question) is also just a useful approximation for what is really a collection of elementary particles. For every day purposes you can consider a gear to be a completely rigid object. Once you move outside these limits the gear approximation breaks down and you need to take other factors into account.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24963.0, "score_ratio": -1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gcl7k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If the moon were to crash into earth, what would happen as the moon got closer to our planet? How close would the moon have to get before actually killing us? Would entire planet be destroyed? Could this actually happen? If so, what would cause it to happen?  Just something I thought of last night.", "c_root_id_A": "c1mku9m", "c_root_id_B": "c1mkxdi", "created_at_utc_A": 1301249672, "created_at_utc_B": 1301250814, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "There'd probably be a massive tidal wave as the oceans scrambled to adjust to the much stronger lunar gravitational field. This would be short lived, however, because the moon would collide shortly after and pretty much tear the surface of the Earth asunder.", "human_ref_B": "imagining a situation where the moon continues to move around the Earth as it moves closer, the tides would become worse and worse until eventually there would be planet-wide tsunamis moving from east to west every day, with sea levels drastically dropping on the other side of the earth as the masses of water are attracted to the portion facing the moon. Eventually the earth's mantle would also be disturbed and there would be volcanoes erupting all around the world, like on Io. By the time the moon hit the earth, most animal and plant life would have been wiped out by the violence of the elements. The only things that could cause the moon to fall onto the earth would be a massive planet-sized celestial body moving closeby and disturbing it's orbit, or something moon-sized smashing into it in a direction opposite to it's movement, making it lose it's momentum, or the sun becoming a red giant to the point where it's gases reach the earth and the drag eventually slows the moon down. of course we'd be long dead from the heat and the radiation.  EDIT: on a general note, I wish someone would make a CGI artist's impression of a planetary collision from a man's point of view at sunset...I imagine you would see a second horizon above the earth's, closing in more and more, making you only see the sun in front of you and the two landscapes facing each other and closing in until.... heheh.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1142.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gcl7k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If the moon were to crash into earth, what would happen as the moon got closer to our planet? How close would the moon have to get before actually killing us? Would entire planet be destroyed? Could this actually happen? If so, what would cause it to happen?  Just something I thought of last night.", "c_root_id_A": "c1mmjyi", "c_root_id_B": "c1ml8pv", "created_at_utc_A": 1301275805, "created_at_utc_B": 1301254809, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There was actually a very well done simulation of this produced a few years ago that got a lot of attention. I'm surprised no one has posted it yet. I'm not sure I completely agree with how it deals with the timeline of events (they seem to jump around a bit) but it's definitely worth checking out.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ER9X67a_GII", "human_ref_B": "I think that I'll definitely give the Math a whirl later, this math is going to be fun!.  I will attempt to verbalize what I think will happen and the factors you need to take into account.    Let's say the Moon and the Earth are stationary to simplify (forget the sun and the rest of the Universe).  Let's say the moon is 375,000 km away from earth.  You need the universal law of gravitation as a function of time as the distances, velocities, and acceleration will vary throughout this problem.  As the moons is pulled to the earth, so too is the earth pulled towards the moon, though in a smaller proportion.  As they get closer the the acceleration of each grows larger.  It's just falling straight at us, there is just going to be a large swell where it falls towards.  So you could look forward to flooding at the place of the fall.  The Earth won't be pulled on evenly.  The moon will pull harder on the parts closest to it and cause some tremors or earthquakes I would guess.  Since most of the Earth's surface is water and because of the swell you can bet a lot of the impact will hit water and because the journey through the earth's atmosphere should heat up the moon and the atmosphere you can also bet that when it hits, it's going to generate a lot of steam.  Using the average speed of the Moon through the atmosphere and the average surface area during this descent we can figure out how much friction it has experienced and get figures for how much the impact velocity will be slowed down by that friction.  The surface area exposed to the atmosphere will increase as the time of impact comes nearer.  From these same figures we can figure out how much heat roughly the moon has taken on and whether it will be molten at impact.  If it is not molten at impact then there will be more Fracture and crumbliness (I would think).  So depending on that, it might be either a more splatty or crackly impact.  At the moment of impact, the kinetic energy will begin to be transformed into thermal energy.  They will merge, converting almost all of the kinetic energy into thermal energy.  It will probably crack the crust and apply tremendous pressure into the mantle, causing volcano eruptions worldwide.  As well the impact would create a tremendously large and hot shockwave that might envelop the Earth.  It's bad news.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20996.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gcl7k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If the moon were to crash into earth, what would happen as the moon got closer to our planet? How close would the moon have to get before actually killing us? Would entire planet be destroyed? Could this actually happen? If so, what would cause it to happen?  Just something I thought of last night.", "c_root_id_A": "c1mn9jv", "c_root_id_B": "c1mpeac", "created_at_utc_A": 1301285103, "created_at_utc_B": 1301328483, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "DAWN OF THE FINAL DAY. 72 HOURS REMAIN.", "human_ref_B": "exponential increase in shagging, praying and wearing brown trousers.  \r (not necessarily in that order)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 43380.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nzruj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If people were to be born, raised and lived their life on the moon then travel to Earth, how would their bodies react to the change in gravity? I want to know what the short term effect and if they were to stay, the longer term effects. Assuming they are a fit and healthy individual, how would their muscles, bones and even organs react to being in 8 times more gravity then they were used to.  Now obviously the human body can take Earths gravity and one lifespan isn't enough to destroy millions of years of evolution. However I still think their muscle structure would be significantly altered due to the massive change in gravity.  This is clearly all theoretical, I was just hoping someone somewhere may have a theoretical answer for me.", "c_root_id_A": "c3e5cxj", "c_root_id_B": "c3dbb5b", "created_at_utc_A": 1325768196, "created_at_utc_B": 1325535842, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "They would react by getting out of breath a lot faster, and generally feeling weak.", "human_ref_B": "I expect short-term, they would have extreme difficulty getting out of bed or the pool.  Longer-term, I expect healthy people would 'beef-up' and increase bone density, until they might be almost as strong as a normal Earthling.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 232354.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4al6us", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "There is a video of a man folding a piece of paper with a hydraulic press 7 times. The 7th time seems to essentially break the piece of paper, what happened here? Here is the video I'm referring to. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuG_CeEZV6w&feature=youtu.be", "c_root_id_A": "d11tt11", "c_root_id_B": "d1202my", "created_at_utc_A": 1458127486, "created_at_utc_B": 1458140276, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 48, "human_ref_A": "It seems as if the explosion was due to compressive combustion. As the gasses trapped between the fibers compress, they heat up. The heat and pressure causes the hydrocarbons in the cellulose to gasify and nearly instantly combust due to the pressure rising so exponentially in the last fraction of a second. This is just a theory, it might simply have been the fibers all failing simultaneously that made it seem like an explosion.", "human_ref_B": "The process which likely caused this to occur can be attributed to the production of thermal energy from kinetic energy in the form of friction. Cellulose can break down in two know ways, one of these is known as thermolysis. Thermolysis occurs when cellulose fibres (Wood fibres) reach termperaturs of 350 to 600 degrees celsius. This process turns the fibres into solid char, seen in the video, and vapors.  Here are some *resources* for you to learn more about the process. This is not a source, but a resource.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_decomposition  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12790.0, "score_ratio": 2.5263157895, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4al6us", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "There is a video of a man folding a piece of paper with a hydraulic press 7 times. The 7th time seems to essentially break the piece of paper, what happened here? Here is the video I'm referring to. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuG_CeEZV6w&feature=youtu.be", "c_root_id_A": "d120d77", "c_root_id_B": "d11tt11", "created_at_utc_A": 1458140701, "created_at_utc_B": 1458127486, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Since speculation seems to be the order of the day on this one...  What I find really interesting is that after it _shattered_, it no longer even felt like paper.  \"Soft stone or plastic\" was how he described it, and pieces of it were clearly easily breaking off.  Very un-paper-like.  So what happened to the cellulose fibers to do that?  Were they forcibly restructured into some kind of... crystal?  Which then exploded under the force of the press?  Somewhat analogous to going from graphite to diamond?", "human_ref_B": "It seems as if the explosion was due to compressive combustion. As the gasses trapped between the fibers compress, they heat up. The heat and pressure causes the hydrocarbons in the cellulose to gasify and nearly instantly combust due to the pressure rising so exponentially in the last fraction of a second. This is just a theory, it might simply have been the fibers all failing simultaneously that made it seem like an explosion.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13215.0, "score_ratio": 1.2105263158, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zk201", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "To what extent do animals perceive time? Im thinking dogs/cats in particular just because they are most common as pets. As they have no concept of minutes or hours, I imagine they must measure short periods of time by daylight. But do they comprehend long lengths of time?  Ive seen the youtubes of christian the lion, and elephants being reunited after 20 years etc, but do they notice the difference between you being gone for 6 days vs 6 weeks vs 6 years?", "c_root_id_A": "c65ge9m", "c_root_id_B": "c66jxwp", "created_at_utc_A": 1347148999, "created_at_utc_B": 1347363385, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I think it has something to do with the fact that we experience time as a perception of it's entirety. When you have already lived a long amount of time, the seconds going by start seeming trivial. I believe that a fly would perceive it the same way a baby would, especially since they don't have a long period of intellectual development. Elderly people seem to feel time passing by faster. I know I've seen the same effect as I've grown.", "human_ref_B": "I don't know to what extent it would be considered as \"perceiving\" time, but most life on the planet has some form of a circadian rhythm. The majority of life forms have evolved under the rhythmic day/night cycle of the planet so have evolved mechanisms to detect it, and in many studied cases have evolved ways to use it (eg. metabolism in humans is closely linked to the circaidan rhythm - drugs can be more toxic if given first thing in the morning than later in the day for instance). Not sure if you would class this as perceiving time per se but it's likely that dogs and cats have some kind of internal rhythm based on the time/length of day and being that length of day follows a rhythmic cycle over a year there may be some level of difference perceived between 6 days and 6 years.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 214386.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5n5xmu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Do all functions have integrals? And if not, is that a proven fact or are they simply undiscovered? Is it possible to look at a function and know for certain whether or not it has an integral? I'm taking Calculus AB, and this question occurred to me in class today.", "c_root_id_A": "dc92r05", "c_root_id_B": "dc9godk", "created_at_utc_A": 1484073893, "created_at_utc_B": 1484090440, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "/u/functor7's answer is great, but since you originally confused antiderivatives with integrals, you might want to know some functions to look out for that don't have elementary antiderivatives. If you find yourself attempting one as part of a problem, chances are you've made a mistake somewhere, unless your teachers are fond of setting impossible problems.  There's a list of them here: https://owlcation.com/stem/List-of-Functions-You-Cannot-Integrate-No-Antiderivatives  If you do physics, exp(x^(n)), exp(x)/x^n, and sin(x)/x^n can ruin your day quite often.", "human_ref_B": "I'm slightly confused. Is it still (or was it ever) correct to say that the antiderivative is a function which describes the area under the original curve? For example if F'(x)=f(x), is F(x) the area under f(x) from 0 to a point x?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16547.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5n5xmu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Do all functions have integrals? And if not, is that a proven fact or are they simply undiscovered? Is it possible to look at a function and know for certain whether or not it has an integral? I'm taking Calculus AB, and this question occurred to me in class today.", "c_root_id_A": "dc92r05", "c_root_id_B": "dc9pvqe", "created_at_utc_A": 1484073893, "created_at_utc_B": 1484102169, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "/u/functor7's answer is great, but since you originally confused antiderivatives with integrals, you might want to know some functions to look out for that don't have elementary antiderivatives. If you find yourself attempting one as part of a problem, chances are you've made a mistake somewhere, unless your teachers are fond of setting impossible problems.  There's a list of them here: https://owlcation.com/stem/List-of-Functions-You-Cannot-Integrate-No-Antiderivatives  If you do physics, exp(x^(n)), exp(x)/x^n, and sin(x)/x^n can ruin your day quite often.", "human_ref_B": "Are you asking whether all functions have antiderivatives that can be expressed in terms of everyday (or elementary) functions? Definitely not. Simple examples include things like e^(-x^2) and x^(x). Of course, these functions do have integrals - they're smooth and continuous and all that, so they have areas under their curves - so (using the fundamental theorem of calculus) you can use those areas to construct, at each point, its antiderivative. You just won't be able to express it in terms of sines or exponentials or polynomials or what have you.  In fact, mathematicians do this all the time - given some function you want to integrate, or some differential equation to solve, you just define the answer to be some *new* function, and you can work with that. /u/functor7 mentioned the error function, which is the integral of e^(-x^2), and gets used all the time in probability and statistics (hence its name). Even though you can't express it in terms of elementary functions, you can still work out a lot of its properties just from its definition as an antiderivative.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28276.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rc2zd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Do single-celled organisms experience aging? I was thinking about how aging is caused (I believe) by inaccuracies during replication. So do single-celled organisms, or even just lesser organisms in general, experience something akin to aging?", "c_root_id_A": "c44mo3j", "c_root_id_B": "c44levs", "created_at_utc_A": 1332644818, "created_at_utc_B": 1332636584, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It is generally believed that the first organisms did not age, and that aging thus evolved at some point in the history of life. When and why this transition occurred is a fundamental question in evolutionary biology. Recent reports of aging in bacteria suggest that aging predates the emergence of eukaryotes and originated in simple unicellular organisms. So yes, bacetria do age, but the mechanism is not well understood.  References:  * Bacteria as a new model system for aging studies: investigations using light microscopy.  * Experimental evolution of aging in a bacterium.", "human_ref_B": "In regards to single celled organisms the answer is closer to no. When a cell divides you could argue it produced two daughters and no longer exists, or that it produced a clone but regardless it will not reach a point where it can no longer divide due too many replications (like many of our cells). It can still have errors during replication of course that produce mutations etc.   I do not know the answer for lesser organisms.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8234.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rc2zd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Do single-celled organisms experience aging? I was thinking about how aging is caused (I believe) by inaccuracies during replication. So do single-celled organisms, or even just lesser organisms in general, experience something akin to aging?", "c_root_id_A": "c44m1ep", "c_root_id_B": "c44mo3j", "created_at_utc_A": 1332640743, "created_at_utc_B": 1332644818, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Even though these are single-celled organisms, you have to consider them at a population level. Just like natural selection in higher organisms, the ones with bad mutations die out, and the ones with no mutations (or beneficial, or irrelevant mutations) live to divide again, and again and again...  Also, my knowledge on this is limited, but whereas adult humans don't produce much telomerase in their somatic cells, other organisms may continue to produce the same amount of telomerase throughout their lifespan.", "human_ref_B": "It is generally believed that the first organisms did not age, and that aging thus evolved at some point in the history of life. When and why this transition occurred is a fundamental question in evolutionary biology. Recent reports of aging in bacteria suggest that aging predates the emergence of eukaryotes and originated in simple unicellular organisms. So yes, bacetria do age, but the mechanism is not well understood.  References:  * Bacteria as a new model system for aging studies: investigations using light microscopy.  * Experimental evolution of aging in a bacterium.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4075.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vmnk7l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "What did the mile-high ice sheet covering North America look like? I\u2019ve read lots of references to the Laurentide ice sheet being a mile thick layer of ice covering Canada and part of the US but I\u2019m struggling to visualize what this would look like.   Did it eventually slope down to ground/sea level at its edges? Or could you walk on dry ground next to it with open air on one side and a mile high wall of ice on the other?   What happened when it encountered mountains? Did the ice move like glaciers or did the sheet just add and lose ice at the edges?   How did weather work over the ice sheet if for thousands of miles in any direction, the \u201cground\u201d was a over 5,000 feet higher than the rest of the continent and surrounding oceans? Did clouds run into it and get stuck? Did they exist over it?", "c_root_id_A": "ie2l6cd", "c_root_id_B": "ie3eyq3", "created_at_utc_A": 1656433305, "created_at_utc_B": 1656445072, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "I can't possibly say anything better than u/CrustalTrudger, but I'll just add how fascinating North American land is at the former leading edge of the glaciers. Like Long Island, NY, exists only because of glaciers (glacial moraines). The Wisconsin glacier pushed land forward and then dug out/filled what is now Long Island Sound as it retreated and melted. The same with kettle ponds; some Long Island woods have trails where all of a sudden you'll see a nearly perfect circular pond, a shape left over from the glacier 20,000 years ago.  Someone correct me if I haven't described that all accurately. It's just what I've understood from the wiki on it (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Long_Island#Geology) and my own hikes in the area.", "human_ref_B": "I'm not going to beat /u/CrustalTrudger for technical detail, but I'll take a shot at \"what would it *look* like?\" with a few real-world examples from the modern Earth and a little fluid mechanics.  Modern Earth has Antarctica and Greenland as two good examples of large-scale ice sheets, both are pretty similar to what the Laurentide would have looked like.  On top, away from the edges, they both look like this:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/AntarcticaDomeCSnow.jpg  Near the shorelines of the Laurentide ice sheet, the ice would flow into the sea, forming floating \"ice shelves\" around the edges of the continent, as happens in Antarctica today.  Ice shelves are much thinner than grounded ice because there's no bottom friction to slow their spread, typically a few hundred meters thick.  These would normally be surrounded by a margin of sea ice a few meters thick, and might look like this if you were standing on the sea ice:  https://nsidc.org/sites/nsidc.org/files/images//NOAA1.jpg  But what you really care about is what the ice margin looked like on land, in say Iowa or Indiana.  Unfortunately, there aren't any good large-scale examples of this today.  Both Antarctica and Greenland are completely ice-covered up to their coastlines, apart from a few small \"dry valleys\" in Antarctica.  Here are a few pictures of dry valley glaciers:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor\\_Glacier#/media/File:Taylor\\_Glacier,\\_Antarctica\\_2.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright\\_Upper\\_Glacier#/media/File:Wright\\_Upper\\_Glacier,\\_Wright\\_Valley,\\_McMurdo\\_Dry\\_Valleys.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Antarctica\\_Hiking\\_the\\_Commonwealth\\_Glacier.jpg  Notice that these all have pretty steep front edges: this is pretty common with grounded ice.  Thin ice flows very slowly and just sits there and melts,  but thick ice flows fast and tends to overtake the thin ice, creating a steeper edge over time.  See figure 1.2 here.  However, these aren't great examples because they're fast-flowing glaciers in cold, dry, narrow valleys rather than broad flows across a whole continent, and while an ice sheet may have a \"steep edge\" on a continental scale, it may look pretty gradual up close.  Probably the best modern example of large-scale ice sheets terminating on land is in the highlands of Iceland, which has several large warm ice caps that end on flat ground.  I've been lucky enough to visit the edge of the Langjokull ice cap.  There's nothing dramatic, it just sort of gradually tapers out into a dirty rocky icy melty mess, like this:  http://aresproject.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/xxxxD8E\\_8553.jpg  This video of a tourist operation shows a pretty good view of the same area at 0:40.  When I was there, the tourist icecrawlers just drove up onto the ice cap like a smooth ramp.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KexJMufIG7U  Anyway, the edge of the Laurentide ice sheet probably varied from place to place, but the Iceland ice caps and the Antarctic dry valleys give you a sense of the range of possibilities.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11767.0, "score_ratio": 1.3913043478, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vmnk7l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "What did the mile-high ice sheet covering North America look like? I\u2019ve read lots of references to the Laurentide ice sheet being a mile thick layer of ice covering Canada and part of the US but I\u2019m struggling to visualize what this would look like.   Did it eventually slope down to ground/sea level at its edges? Or could you walk on dry ground next to it with open air on one side and a mile high wall of ice on the other?   What happened when it encountered mountains? Did the ice move like glaciers or did the sheet just add and lose ice at the edges?   How did weather work over the ice sheet if for thousands of miles in any direction, the \u201cground\u201d was a over 5,000 feet higher than the rest of the continent and surrounding oceans? Did clouds run into it and get stuck? Did they exist over it?", "c_root_id_A": "ie34bfz", "c_root_id_B": "ie3eyq3", "created_at_utc_A": 1656440811, "created_at_utc_B": 1656445072, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "We have a lot of big boulders all around and it's intriguing to know that most of them came from Canada. I live in Ohio and I remember once they were building a neighborhood close to us and they ended up finding a boulder that was nearly the size of the house that was to be built. It took them months to break and bust it up", "human_ref_B": "I'm not going to beat /u/CrustalTrudger for technical detail, but I'll take a shot at \"what would it *look* like?\" with a few real-world examples from the modern Earth and a little fluid mechanics.  Modern Earth has Antarctica and Greenland as two good examples of large-scale ice sheets, both are pretty similar to what the Laurentide would have looked like.  On top, away from the edges, they both look like this:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/AntarcticaDomeCSnow.jpg  Near the shorelines of the Laurentide ice sheet, the ice would flow into the sea, forming floating \"ice shelves\" around the edges of the continent, as happens in Antarctica today.  Ice shelves are much thinner than grounded ice because there's no bottom friction to slow their spread, typically a few hundred meters thick.  These would normally be surrounded by a margin of sea ice a few meters thick, and might look like this if you were standing on the sea ice:  https://nsidc.org/sites/nsidc.org/files/images//NOAA1.jpg  But what you really care about is what the ice margin looked like on land, in say Iowa or Indiana.  Unfortunately, there aren't any good large-scale examples of this today.  Both Antarctica and Greenland are completely ice-covered up to their coastlines, apart from a few small \"dry valleys\" in Antarctica.  Here are a few pictures of dry valley glaciers:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor\\_Glacier#/media/File:Taylor\\_Glacier,\\_Antarctica\\_2.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright\\_Upper\\_Glacier#/media/File:Wright\\_Upper\\_Glacier,\\_Wright\\_Valley,\\_McMurdo\\_Dry\\_Valleys.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Antarctica\\_Hiking\\_the\\_Commonwealth\\_Glacier.jpg  Notice that these all have pretty steep front edges: this is pretty common with grounded ice.  Thin ice flows very slowly and just sits there and melts,  but thick ice flows fast and tends to overtake the thin ice, creating a steeper edge over time.  See figure 1.2 here.  However, these aren't great examples because they're fast-flowing glaciers in cold, dry, narrow valleys rather than broad flows across a whole continent, and while an ice sheet may have a \"steep edge\" on a continental scale, it may look pretty gradual up close.  Probably the best modern example of large-scale ice sheets terminating on land is in the highlands of Iceland, which has several large warm ice caps that end on flat ground.  I've been lucky enough to visit the edge of the Langjokull ice cap.  There's nothing dramatic, it just sort of gradually tapers out into a dirty rocky icy melty mess, like this:  http://aresproject.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/xxxxD8E\\_8553.jpg  This video of a tourist operation shows a pretty good view of the same area at 0:40.  When I was there, the tourist icecrawlers just drove up onto the ice cap like a smooth ramp.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KexJMufIG7U  Anyway, the edge of the Laurentide ice sheet probably varied from place to place, but the Iceland ice caps and the Antarctic dry valleys give you a sense of the range of possibilities.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4261.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66x55h", "c_root_id_B": "i66whpg", "created_at_utc_A": 1650926543, "created_at_utc_B": 1650926261, "score_A": 1856, "score_B": 940, "human_ref_A": "From *Antibiotic Discovery and Development*:  >The story of the discovery of the antibacterial properties of molds goes back to the earliest recorded history \\50, 135\\]: in 3000 BC [\\[sic\\], Chinese scribes documented the use of moldy soya beans to treat infected wounds \\[22\\]; in the sixteenth century BC, a Greek peasant woman reputedly cured wounded soldiers using mold scraped from cheese \\[82\\]; the Ebers papyrus from Egypt, dated around 1550 BC, gives a prescription for treating infected wounds with \u201cspoiled barley bread\u201d \\[52\\]; in the second century BC, soldiers in Sri Lanka applied poultices made from moldy oilcakes to wounds. The therapeutic usage of molds continued in such ways through to the nineteenth century without much consideration of how the molds might be exerting their influence.  It then goes on to talk about various experiments with penicillin in the 19th and 20th centuries. The bit I quoted seems to be the most relevant to your interest in folk uses. Hope that helps!", "human_ref_B": "Here\u2019s an article from 1885 on the use of poultice including bread. Irish Times  Interestingly enough some old school equestrians still use traditional poultice recipes including wet bread in order to draw out & treat infections.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 282.0, "score_ratio": 1.9744680851, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66x55h", "c_root_id_B": "i66vfue", "created_at_utc_A": 1650926543, "created_at_utc_B": 1650925804, "score_A": 1856, "score_B": 752, "human_ref_A": "From *Antibiotic Discovery and Development*:  >The story of the discovery of the antibacterial properties of molds goes back to the earliest recorded history \\50, 135\\]: in 3000 BC [\\[sic\\], Chinese scribes documented the use of moldy soya beans to treat infected wounds \\[22\\]; in the sixteenth century BC, a Greek peasant woman reputedly cured wounded soldiers using mold scraped from cheese \\[82\\]; the Ebers papyrus from Egypt, dated around 1550 BC, gives a prescription for treating infected wounds with \u201cspoiled barley bread\u201d \\[52\\]; in the second century BC, soldiers in Sri Lanka applied poultices made from moldy oilcakes to wounds. The therapeutic usage of molds continued in such ways through to the nineteenth century without much consideration of how the molds might be exerting their influence.  It then goes on to talk about various experiments with penicillin in the 19th and 20th centuries. The bit I quoted seems to be the most relevant to your interest in folk uses. Hope that helps!", "human_ref_B": "Ernest Duchesne did some research into penicillium a little bit before Fleming. One anecdote goes like this: he discovered Arab stable boys in France were known to allow a penicillium mold to grow on their saddles, because it would help prevent saddle sore infections. So it seemed to be part of folk medicine in at least one instance.  *edit: here is a short review that has a lot of info on this and other examples: https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/71/3/572/2364412", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 739.0, "score_ratio": 2.4680851064, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66x55h", "c_root_id_B": "i66rwf6", "created_at_utc_A": 1650926543, "created_at_utc_B": 1650924296, "score_A": 1856, "score_B": 605, "human_ref_A": "From *Antibiotic Discovery and Development*:  >The story of the discovery of the antibacterial properties of molds goes back to the earliest recorded history \\50, 135\\]: in 3000 BC [\\[sic\\], Chinese scribes documented the use of moldy soya beans to treat infected wounds \\[22\\]; in the sixteenth century BC, a Greek peasant woman reputedly cured wounded soldiers using mold scraped from cheese \\[82\\]; the Ebers papyrus from Egypt, dated around 1550 BC, gives a prescription for treating infected wounds with \u201cspoiled barley bread\u201d \\[52\\]; in the second century BC, soldiers in Sri Lanka applied poultices made from moldy oilcakes to wounds. The therapeutic usage of molds continued in such ways through to the nineteenth century without much consideration of how the molds might be exerting their influence.  It then goes on to talk about various experiments with penicillin in the 19th and 20th centuries. The bit I quoted seems to be the most relevant to your interest in folk uses. Hope that helps!", "human_ref_B": "Physician here, deal with lots of wounds.  I don\u2019t know the answer to your question.   But I wanted to clarify, please do not rub mold or any other substance into wounds.  The body will heal wounds well on its own unless there\u2019s some major underlying issue.    The hardest part of wounds for patients is to BE PATIENT and don\u2019t mess with it.   We have all sorts of stuff to help wounds heal, but the reality is that for 98% of wounds, you can essentially leave them alone and they will heal.  As long as they have good blood flow, and can drain on their own, the body can sort out even very large wounds.  So, again, don\u2019t rub anything in wounds without specific guidance from a physician.  It may make it worse, it\u2019s unlikely to help, and your body can do it without the help anyways.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2247.0, "score_ratio": 3.067768595, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66hkzm", "c_root_id_B": "i66x55h", "created_at_utc_A": 1650920089, "created_at_utc_B": 1650926543, "score_A": 155, "score_B": 1856, "human_ref_A": "Not sure, but I remember reading about John Bradmore who treated King Henry V and I thought about this. He extracted the arrow and cleaned the wound with a bunch of different things, but one being wads of cloth soaked in mushy bread. It was a really bad wound for the day, but he lived and never developed infection. I always wondered if the bread was moldy and he was unknowingly using penicillin.", "human_ref_B": "From *Antibiotic Discovery and Development*:  >The story of the discovery of the antibacterial properties of molds goes back to the earliest recorded history \\50, 135\\]: in 3000 BC [\\[sic\\], Chinese scribes documented the use of moldy soya beans to treat infected wounds \\[22\\]; in the sixteenth century BC, a Greek peasant woman reputedly cured wounded soldiers using mold scraped from cheese \\[82\\]; the Ebers papyrus from Egypt, dated around 1550 BC, gives a prescription for treating infected wounds with \u201cspoiled barley bread\u201d \\[52\\]; in the second century BC, soldiers in Sri Lanka applied poultices made from moldy oilcakes to wounds. The therapeutic usage of molds continued in such ways through to the nineteenth century without much consideration of how the molds might be exerting their influence.  It then goes on to talk about various experiments with penicillin in the 19th and 20th centuries. The bit I quoted seems to be the most relevant to your interest in folk uses. Hope that helps!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6454.0, "score_ratio": 11.9741935484, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i669mdf", "c_root_id_B": "i66x55h", "created_at_utc_A": 1650916949, "created_at_utc_B": 1650926543, "score_A": 114, "score_B": 1856, "human_ref_A": "If you don't get an answer here, you can also try /r/askhistorians or /r/historyofmedicine", "human_ref_B": "From *Antibiotic Discovery and Development*:  >The story of the discovery of the antibacterial properties of molds goes back to the earliest recorded history \\50, 135\\]: in 3000 BC [\\[sic\\], Chinese scribes documented the use of moldy soya beans to treat infected wounds \\[22\\]; in the sixteenth century BC, a Greek peasant woman reputedly cured wounded soldiers using mold scraped from cheese \\[82\\]; the Ebers papyrus from Egypt, dated around 1550 BC, gives a prescription for treating infected wounds with \u201cspoiled barley bread\u201d \\[52\\]; in the second century BC, soldiers in Sri Lanka applied poultices made from moldy oilcakes to wounds. The therapeutic usage of molds continued in such ways through to the nineteenth century without much consideration of how the molds might be exerting their influence.  It then goes on to talk about various experiments with penicillin in the 19th and 20th centuries. The bit I quoted seems to be the most relevant to your interest in folk uses. Hope that helps!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9594.0, "score_ratio": 16.2807017544, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66x55h", "c_root_id_B": "i66uszy", "created_at_utc_A": 1650926543, "created_at_utc_B": 1650925530, "score_A": 1856, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "From *Antibiotic Discovery and Development*:  >The story of the discovery of the antibacterial properties of molds goes back to the earliest recorded history \\50, 135\\]: in 3000 BC [\\[sic\\], Chinese scribes documented the use of moldy soya beans to treat infected wounds \\[22\\]; in the sixteenth century BC, a Greek peasant woman reputedly cured wounded soldiers using mold scraped from cheese \\[82\\]; the Ebers papyrus from Egypt, dated around 1550 BC, gives a prescription for treating infected wounds with \u201cspoiled barley bread\u201d \\[52\\]; in the second century BC, soldiers in Sri Lanka applied poultices made from moldy oilcakes to wounds. The therapeutic usage of molds continued in such ways through to the nineteenth century without much consideration of how the molds might be exerting their influence.  It then goes on to talk about various experiments with penicillin in the 19th and 20th centuries. The bit I quoted seems to be the most relevant to your interest in folk uses. Hope that helps!", "human_ref_B": "That sounds like sourdough - yeast, not mold.  Instead of keeping starter in a jar, just keeping the bowl unwashed would introduce the yeasts into the dough so it could rise.  Not sure how it (or straight up mold, either) would help.  Helpful or neutral bacteria might outcompete the infection but as far as I know bread starter needs the yeast to have ourcompeted bacteria so the dough will rise instead of spoiling.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1013.0, "score_ratio": 80.6956521739, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66vfue", "c_root_id_B": "i66whpg", "created_at_utc_A": 1650925804, "created_at_utc_B": 1650926261, "score_A": 752, "score_B": 940, "human_ref_A": "Ernest Duchesne did some research into penicillium a little bit before Fleming. One anecdote goes like this: he discovered Arab stable boys in France were known to allow a penicillium mold to grow on their saddles, because it would help prevent saddle sore infections. So it seemed to be part of folk medicine in at least one instance.  *edit: here is a short review that has a lot of info on this and other examples: https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/71/3/572/2364412", "human_ref_B": "Here\u2019s an article from 1885 on the use of poultice including bread. Irish Times  Interestingly enough some old school equestrians still use traditional poultice recipes including wet bread in order to draw out & treat infections.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 457.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66rwf6", "c_root_id_B": "i66whpg", "created_at_utc_A": 1650924296, "created_at_utc_B": 1650926261, "score_A": 605, "score_B": 940, "human_ref_A": "Physician here, deal with lots of wounds.  I don\u2019t know the answer to your question.   But I wanted to clarify, please do not rub mold or any other substance into wounds.  The body will heal wounds well on its own unless there\u2019s some major underlying issue.    The hardest part of wounds for patients is to BE PATIENT and don\u2019t mess with it.   We have all sorts of stuff to help wounds heal, but the reality is that for 98% of wounds, you can essentially leave them alone and they will heal.  As long as they have good blood flow, and can drain on their own, the body can sort out even very large wounds.  So, again, don\u2019t rub anything in wounds without specific guidance from a physician.  It may make it worse, it\u2019s unlikely to help, and your body can do it without the help anyways.", "human_ref_B": "Here\u2019s an article from 1885 on the use of poultice including bread. Irish Times  Interestingly enough some old school equestrians still use traditional poultice recipes including wet bread in order to draw out & treat infections.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1965.0, "score_ratio": 1.5537190083, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66hkzm", "c_root_id_B": "i66whpg", "created_at_utc_A": 1650920089, "created_at_utc_B": 1650926261, "score_A": 155, "score_B": 940, "human_ref_A": "Not sure, but I remember reading about John Bradmore who treated King Henry V and I thought about this. He extracted the arrow and cleaned the wound with a bunch of different things, but one being wads of cloth soaked in mushy bread. It was a really bad wound for the day, but he lived and never developed infection. I always wondered if the bread was moldy and he was unknowingly using penicillin.", "human_ref_B": "Here\u2019s an article from 1885 on the use of poultice including bread. Irish Times  Interestingly enough some old school equestrians still use traditional poultice recipes including wet bread in order to draw out & treat infections.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6172.0, "score_ratio": 6.064516129, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i669mdf", "c_root_id_B": "i66whpg", "created_at_utc_A": 1650916949, "created_at_utc_B": 1650926261, "score_A": 114, "score_B": 940, "human_ref_A": "If you don't get an answer here, you can also try /r/askhistorians or /r/historyofmedicine", "human_ref_B": "Here\u2019s an article from 1885 on the use of poultice including bread. Irish Times  Interestingly enough some old school equestrians still use traditional poultice recipes including wet bread in order to draw out & treat infections.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9312.0, "score_ratio": 8.2456140351, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66whpg", "c_root_id_B": "i66uszy", "created_at_utc_A": 1650926261, "created_at_utc_B": 1650925530, "score_A": 940, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Here\u2019s an article from 1885 on the use of poultice including bread. Irish Times  Interestingly enough some old school equestrians still use traditional poultice recipes including wet bread in order to draw out & treat infections.", "human_ref_B": "That sounds like sourdough - yeast, not mold.  Instead of keeping starter in a jar, just keeping the bowl unwashed would introduce the yeasts into the dough so it could rise.  Not sure how it (or straight up mold, either) would help.  Helpful or neutral bacteria might outcompete the infection but as far as I know bread starter needs the yeast to have ourcompeted bacteria so the dough will rise instead of spoiling.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 731.0, "score_ratio": 40.8695652174, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66vfue", "c_root_id_B": "i66rwf6", "created_at_utc_A": 1650925804, "created_at_utc_B": 1650924296, "score_A": 752, "score_B": 605, "human_ref_A": "Ernest Duchesne did some research into penicillium a little bit before Fleming. One anecdote goes like this: he discovered Arab stable boys in France were known to allow a penicillium mold to grow on their saddles, because it would help prevent saddle sore infections. So it seemed to be part of folk medicine in at least one instance.  *edit: here is a short review that has a lot of info on this and other examples: https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/71/3/572/2364412", "human_ref_B": "Physician here, deal with lots of wounds.  I don\u2019t know the answer to your question.   But I wanted to clarify, please do not rub mold or any other substance into wounds.  The body will heal wounds well on its own unless there\u2019s some major underlying issue.    The hardest part of wounds for patients is to BE PATIENT and don\u2019t mess with it.   We have all sorts of stuff to help wounds heal, but the reality is that for 98% of wounds, you can essentially leave them alone and they will heal.  As long as they have good blood flow, and can drain on their own, the body can sort out even very large wounds.  So, again, don\u2019t rub anything in wounds without specific guidance from a physician.  It may make it worse, it\u2019s unlikely to help, and your body can do it without the help anyways.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1508.0, "score_ratio": 1.2429752066, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66hkzm", "c_root_id_B": "i66vfue", "created_at_utc_A": 1650920089, "created_at_utc_B": 1650925804, "score_A": 155, "score_B": 752, "human_ref_A": "Not sure, but I remember reading about John Bradmore who treated King Henry V and I thought about this. He extracted the arrow and cleaned the wound with a bunch of different things, but one being wads of cloth soaked in mushy bread. It was a really bad wound for the day, but he lived and never developed infection. I always wondered if the bread was moldy and he was unknowingly using penicillin.", "human_ref_B": "Ernest Duchesne did some research into penicillium a little bit before Fleming. One anecdote goes like this: he discovered Arab stable boys in France were known to allow a penicillium mold to grow on their saddles, because it would help prevent saddle sore infections. So it seemed to be part of folk medicine in at least one instance.  *edit: here is a short review that has a lot of info on this and other examples: https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/71/3/572/2364412", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5715.0, "score_ratio": 4.8516129032, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66vfue", "c_root_id_B": "i669mdf", "created_at_utc_A": 1650925804, "created_at_utc_B": 1650916949, "score_A": 752, "score_B": 114, "human_ref_A": "Ernest Duchesne did some research into penicillium a little bit before Fleming. One anecdote goes like this: he discovered Arab stable boys in France were known to allow a penicillium mold to grow on their saddles, because it would help prevent saddle sore infections. So it seemed to be part of folk medicine in at least one instance.  *edit: here is a short review that has a lot of info on this and other examples: https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/71/3/572/2364412", "human_ref_B": "If you don't get an answer here, you can also try /r/askhistorians or /r/historyofmedicine", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8855.0, "score_ratio": 6.5964912281, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66uszy", "c_root_id_B": "i66vfue", "created_at_utc_A": 1650925530, "created_at_utc_B": 1650925804, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 752, "human_ref_A": "That sounds like sourdough - yeast, not mold.  Instead of keeping starter in a jar, just keeping the bowl unwashed would introduce the yeasts into the dough so it could rise.  Not sure how it (or straight up mold, either) would help.  Helpful or neutral bacteria might outcompete the infection but as far as I know bread starter needs the yeast to have ourcompeted bacteria so the dough will rise instead of spoiling.", "human_ref_B": "Ernest Duchesne did some research into penicillium a little bit before Fleming. One anecdote goes like this: he discovered Arab stable boys in France were known to allow a penicillium mold to grow on their saddles, because it would help prevent saddle sore infections. So it seemed to be part of folk medicine in at least one instance.  *edit: here is a short review that has a lot of info on this and other examples: https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/71/3/572/2364412", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 274.0, "score_ratio": 32.6956521739, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66rwf6", "c_root_id_B": "i66hkzm", "created_at_utc_A": 1650924296, "created_at_utc_B": 1650920089, "score_A": 605, "score_B": 155, "human_ref_A": "Physician here, deal with lots of wounds.  I don\u2019t know the answer to your question.   But I wanted to clarify, please do not rub mold or any other substance into wounds.  The body will heal wounds well on its own unless there\u2019s some major underlying issue.    The hardest part of wounds for patients is to BE PATIENT and don\u2019t mess with it.   We have all sorts of stuff to help wounds heal, but the reality is that for 98% of wounds, you can essentially leave them alone and they will heal.  As long as they have good blood flow, and can drain on their own, the body can sort out even very large wounds.  So, again, don\u2019t rub anything in wounds without specific guidance from a physician.  It may make it worse, it\u2019s unlikely to help, and your body can do it without the help anyways.", "human_ref_B": "Not sure, but I remember reading about John Bradmore who treated King Henry V and I thought about this. He extracted the arrow and cleaned the wound with a bunch of different things, but one being wads of cloth soaked in mushy bread. It was a really bad wound for the day, but he lived and never developed infection. I always wondered if the bread was moldy and he was unknowingly using penicillin.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4207.0, "score_ratio": 3.9032258065, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66rwf6", "c_root_id_B": "i669mdf", "created_at_utc_A": 1650924296, "created_at_utc_B": 1650916949, "score_A": 605, "score_B": 114, "human_ref_A": "Physician here, deal with lots of wounds.  I don\u2019t know the answer to your question.   But I wanted to clarify, please do not rub mold or any other substance into wounds.  The body will heal wounds well on its own unless there\u2019s some major underlying issue.    The hardest part of wounds for patients is to BE PATIENT and don\u2019t mess with it.   We have all sorts of stuff to help wounds heal, but the reality is that for 98% of wounds, you can essentially leave them alone and they will heal.  As long as they have good blood flow, and can drain on their own, the body can sort out even very large wounds.  So, again, don\u2019t rub anything in wounds without specific guidance from a physician.  It may make it worse, it\u2019s unlikely to help, and your body can do it without the help anyways.", "human_ref_B": "If you don't get an answer here, you can also try /r/askhistorians or /r/historyofmedicine", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7347.0, "score_ratio": 5.3070175439, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i669mdf", "c_root_id_B": "i66hkzm", "created_at_utc_A": 1650916949, "created_at_utc_B": 1650920089, "score_A": 114, "score_B": 155, "human_ref_A": "If you don't get an answer here, you can also try /r/askhistorians or /r/historyofmedicine", "human_ref_B": "Not sure, but I remember reading about John Bradmore who treated King Henry V and I thought about this. He extracted the arrow and cleaned the wound with a bunch of different things, but one being wads of cloth soaked in mushy bread. It was a really bad wound for the day, but he lived and never developed infection. I always wondered if the bread was moldy and he was unknowingly using penicillin.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3140.0, "score_ratio": 1.3596491228, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i672th8", "c_root_id_B": "i669mdf", "created_at_utc_A": 1650929030, "created_at_utc_B": 1650916949, "score_A": 145, "score_B": 114, "human_ref_A": "Not quite on topic but don't forget Howard Florey in all this. If not for him penicillin would have remained a footnote in Fleming's lab book.   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey.    \"Although Fleming received most of the credit for the discovery of penicillin, it was Florey who carried out the first clinical trials of penicillin in 1941 at the\u00a0Radcliffe Infirmary\u00a0in\u00a0Oxford\u00a0on the first patient, a\u00a0police constable\u00a0from Oxford. The patient started to recover, but subsequently died because Florey was unable, at that time, to make enough penicillin. It was Florey and Chain who actually made a useful and effective drug out of penicillin, after the task had been abandoned as too difficult.  Florey's discoveries, along with the discoveries of Fleming and Ernst Chain, are estimated to have saved over 200 million lives,[4]\u00a0and he is consequently regarded by the Australian scientific and medical community as one of its greatest figures.\u00a0Sir Robert Menzies, Australia's longest-serving\u00a0Prime Minister, said, \"In terms of world well-being, Florey was the most important man ever born in Australia.\"[5]\"", "human_ref_B": "If you don't get an answer here, you can also try /r/askhistorians or /r/historyofmedicine", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12081.0, "score_ratio": 1.2719298246, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i66uszy", "c_root_id_B": "i672th8", "created_at_utc_A": 1650925530, "created_at_utc_B": 1650929030, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 145, "human_ref_A": "That sounds like sourdough - yeast, not mold.  Instead of keeping starter in a jar, just keeping the bowl unwashed would introduce the yeasts into the dough so it could rise.  Not sure how it (or straight up mold, either) would help.  Helpful or neutral bacteria might outcompete the infection but as far as I know bread starter needs the yeast to have ourcompeted bacteria so the dough will rise instead of spoiling.", "human_ref_B": "Not quite on topic but don't forget Howard Florey in all this. If not for him penicillin would have remained a footnote in Fleming's lab book.   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey.    \"Although Fleming received most of the credit for the discovery of penicillin, it was Florey who carried out the first clinical trials of penicillin in 1941 at the\u00a0Radcliffe Infirmary\u00a0in\u00a0Oxford\u00a0on the first patient, a\u00a0police constable\u00a0from Oxford. The patient started to recover, but subsequently died because Florey was unable, at that time, to make enough penicillin. It was Florey and Chain who actually made a useful and effective drug out of penicillin, after the task had been abandoned as too difficult.  Florey's discoveries, along with the discoveries of Fleming and Ernst Chain, are estimated to have saved over 200 million lives,[4]\u00a0and he is consequently regarded by the Australian scientific and medical community as one of its greatest figures.\u00a0Sir Robert Menzies, Australia's longest-serving\u00a0Prime Minister, said, \"In terms of world well-being, Florey was the most important man ever born in Australia.\"[5]\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3500.0, "score_ratio": 6.3043478261, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i677018", "c_root_id_B": "i66uszy", "created_at_utc_A": 1650930894, "created_at_utc_B": 1650925530, "score_A": 51, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Flemming noticed Penicillin but didnt have the equipment to isolate the active ingredient in the mold that produces the antibiotic Penicillin. It took several years and many other scientists to isolate Penicillin with finally the best strain of mold coming from a cantaloupe. To get to the root of your question though many fungi produce antibiotic compounds that kill bacteria. this article goes over fungi natural antibiotic properties .   Now knowing that bread is the product of yeast and fermentation, i.e. yeast consumes the sugar and produces CO2. It might be that the yeast in bread could produce some antiobiotic compounds that would supress an infection. It might not be the same fungi that produces Penicillin too, seeing as there have been many different antibiotic compounds that have been discovered through fungi.This link talks about sourdough starter and antimicrobial properties", "human_ref_B": "That sounds like sourdough - yeast, not mold.  Instead of keeping starter in a jar, just keeping the bowl unwashed would introduce the yeasts into the dough so it could rise.  Not sure how it (or straight up mold, either) would help.  Helpful or neutral bacteria might outcompete the infection but as far as I know bread starter needs the yeast to have ourcompeted bacteria so the dough will rise instead of spoiling.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5364.0, "score_ratio": 2.2173913043, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ubrekq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Before Fleming's accidental discovery of penicillin in 1928, was bread mold a \"folk remedy\" for treating wounds at home? The title is the TL;DR, but I'll also add my personal interest in this question (a family legend), and some preliminary Googling that makes me believe this is plausible.   My grandfather was born in 1906 in Poland (bordering Russia, so sometimes Russia, but that's another story.) It was a tiny subsistence farming village. My grandfather barely attended some elementary school and then worked on the family farm before emigrating to the USA just after WW1.  There was no modern medicine or medical education in this rural area, but my grandfather described an interesting folk remedy for wounds on the farm. Basically, his family had a large wooden bowl that was designated for mixing and kneading bread dough. It was never washed or even scraped clean, never used for anything but bread, and it was used a LOT (poor farming family, so something like 14 siblings, parents and assorted uncles and aunts). No one knows where the tradition came from, but when there was an injury with a open wound-- say, my grandfather fell and a stone scraped his shin or knee badly enough to bleed-- the others would take a sharp spoon, scrape out a spoonful of the old dried-out layers of residue in the bowl, and create a poultice out of it.  When penicillin was discovered a decade or two later, my grandfather was like, \"ha! We knew about penicillin on the farm long before that.\" And often repeated this story to illustrate that modern medicine sometimes \"discovers\" health information already known in folk remedies.   So I was reading more about the discovery of penicillin on the web, and almost every website repeats the familiar story about Fleming. He goes away on holiday, leaves a window open, returns to find mold growing on some of his petri dishes, and then notices that the petri dishes with mold appear to have inhibited the growth of the staph bacteria he was cultivating.   I can't find much information about what if anything was known prior to this, but there are some suggestive sentences. For instance, from the Wikipedia article on Penicillin (Discovery subsection):  \"Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect.\"   The citation for this sentence is: Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). Antibiotic Discovery and Development. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 79\u201380.   I do not have access to the full text, so my easiest question is whether someone with access can provide the context in that text?   More generally, I'd be interested in any other sources on mold being used in \"folk medicine\" prior to 1928. If anyone out there has expert knowledge on this esoteric question, I would be delighted. I know the rest of my family would be delighted to learn more, too, as this is one of the more intriguing bits of family apocrypha.  Thank you for any information or sources you might be able to share about this topic.", "c_root_id_A": "i67dr37", "c_root_id_B": "i66uszy", "created_at_utc_A": 1650933864, "created_at_utc_B": 1650925530, "score_A": 51, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "bread back then almost certainly sourdough, so the dough bowl was infused with live, non-harmful, bacteria and yeast, while there may have been trace amounts of mold in the bowl, sourdough is in fact quite resistant to molding compared to commercial yeast breads. my guess is that any benefit of the dough scraping was due to properties of sourdough and its live cultures, not penicillin.", "human_ref_B": "That sounds like sourdough - yeast, not mold.  Instead of keeping starter in a jar, just keeping the bowl unwashed would introduce the yeasts into the dough so it could rise.  Not sure how it (or straight up mold, either) would help.  Helpful or neutral bacteria might outcompete the infection but as far as I know bread starter needs the yeast to have ourcompeted bacteria so the dough will rise instead of spoiling.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8334.0, "score_ratio": 2.2173913043, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x54pg6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Are there any new lakes and rivers being formed naturally right now?", "c_root_id_A": "in1b56k", "c_root_id_B": "in1hlro", "created_at_utc_A": 1662284733, "created_at_utc_B": 1662289928, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I figure I might post this as a top level comment:  In the Swiss alps there is currently a fair bit of instability in the rock. There have been large landslides recently, in one instance an entire sub peak dislodging, and from what I gather one of the major concerns is the current pile sliding further and, along with crushing a lot of buildings, potentially blocking the river. Right next to this area there is already a 1000+ year old lake formed in the same way, so I\u2019d say that\u2019s certainly a likely spot, although they\u2019re doing everything they can to stop that happening. I\u2019m sure it\u2019s not entirely unique in this regard.", "human_ref_B": "I watched a video that mentioned the Mississippi River wants to redirect itself due south in Louisiana. This would make it no longer go past Baton Rouge and New Orleans. That would be detrimental to shipping goods in and out of those cities. Due to some civil engineering at the point it wants to redirect, they're keeping it at its current path.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5195.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cab9sy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "What makes H+ so special as to have a specific scale for its concentration, the pH scale? What I mean by this question is: what are the chemical properties that make H+ (and OH- as well) so special to make it, for example, so corrosive and so harmful to some substances?   That was the main doubt. Some other related questions are the following:  Why is that some proteins only work in acidic or alkaline media?  Are there \"H+-like\" ions in other liquids. What I mean by that is that H+ is a product of the self-ionization of water. Do other liquids undergo a similar reaction? Do these products resemble the behavior of H+ and OH-?", "c_root_id_A": "et82uv1", "c_root_id_B": "et84ng0", "created_at_utc_A": 1562544983, "created_at_utc_B": 1562546401, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "the reason H+ and OH- are scaled and the reason they are so corrosive, is that they are very reactive. When they get near other chemicals they tend to tug or try and give protons. This will of course change the behavior of the compound and could allow them to react to air or the surrounding area. Some acid and bases pull water from their source because of this heavy need to donate their proton or take one, and this can cause materials to dehydrate which allows them to react with the surrounding air.    They are measured because of their reactivity and how easy they are to give and take from things. You don't need to be an acid or a base to be corrosive, but most acids and bases (strong) will easy break bonds and break down materials that are susceptible to these protons.", "human_ref_B": "First question was answered so i\u2019ll answer the second.  Some proteins only work in acidic or basic environments because protein residues such as Aspartic acid and Glutamic acid can accept protons and their charged oxygen will then be uncharged, decreasing its likelihood that it will participate in a reaction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1418.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hv1wua", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is there a natural reference for the correct time, down to the milliseconds? If all our time-keeping devices shut down, how do we reset them again to the correct time? What defines the correct time in absolute term?", "c_root_id_A": "fyr6gmx", "c_root_id_B": "fyrhwvr", "created_at_utc_A": 1595329572, "created_at_utc_B": 1595338210, "score_A": 98, "score_B": 399, "human_ref_A": "1 second is   >defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency \u2206*\u03bd*Cs, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s\u22121.\\[1\\]\\[2\\] Because the Earth's rotation varies and is also slowing ever so slightly, a leap second is periodically added to clock time\\[nb 1\\] to keep clocks in sync with Earth's rotation.    So basically they measure the swinging frequency of the most stable atom they could find and measure time by extrapolating from this natural measurement.  The second has been defined as exactly \"the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom\" (at a temperature of 0 K).", "human_ref_B": "Astronomer here! One I haven\u2019t seen mentioned yet are pulsars, which are rapidly spinning neutron stars that give off a regular radio pulse. They are *so* regular that we can model the pulses to within one second in a million years, and every pulsar is different in its pulsar profile. So I\u2019ve heard it said that in the far future we could use them for interstellar GPS of sorts.   So yeah you could definitely use pulsars for this reference assuming you lost all the clocks on Earth but kept all the info about pulsars and radio astronomy. Some pulsars are even millisecond pulsars, meaning they spin every few milliseconds, so you could even cover that part of the time scale.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8638.0, "score_ratio": 4.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hv1wua", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is there a natural reference for the correct time, down to the milliseconds? If all our time-keeping devices shut down, how do we reset them again to the correct time? What defines the correct time in absolute term?", "c_root_id_A": "fyr8ycs", "c_root_id_B": "fyrhwvr", "created_at_utc_A": 1595331827, "created_at_utc_B": 1595338210, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 399, "human_ref_A": "There isn't a correct time. We don't measure the current time as an absolute reference - like we can light intensity or temperature or mass - because you can't sense time.   So if every means we had of measuring time stopped working, we'd have no way of knowing what the \"correct time\" is. We could estimate based on predictions - say, if someone had a printed list of sunrises and sunsets and had counted the days since the clocks had stopped working, you could use the listed times as a reference to reset some master clock - but the best you could manage would be an estimate.  In essense, \"correct time\" would no longer mean anything without working clocks. The clocks being reset would instigate a *new* \"correct time\".", "human_ref_B": "Astronomer here! One I haven\u2019t seen mentioned yet are pulsars, which are rapidly spinning neutron stars that give off a regular radio pulse. They are *so* regular that we can model the pulses to within one second in a million years, and every pulsar is different in its pulsar profile. So I\u2019ve heard it said that in the far future we could use them for interstellar GPS of sorts.   So yeah you could definitely use pulsars for this reference assuming you lost all the clocks on Earth but kept all the info about pulsars and radio astronomy. Some pulsars are even millisecond pulsars, meaning they spin every few milliseconds, so you could even cover that part of the time scale.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6383.0, "score_ratio": 7.6730769231, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1zqxra", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Do the types particle collisions done at The LHC happen naturally? If so, how common are they? And would we notice if a collision took place in front of us? Tl:DR Are high speed particle collisions common without human involvement?", "c_root_id_A": "cfw5l0j", "c_root_id_B": "cfw63ut", "created_at_utc_A": 1394141099, "created_at_utc_B": 1394142138, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I wouldn't say common. Especially at the energy scales involved in the LHC. There are definitely high speed particle collisions in stars, both thermonuclear reactions and \"scattering\" collisions in general. And in the accretion disks around black holes there are also collisions.   And quark gluon plasmas may exist in the cores of neutron stars, but it's a different kind of QGP than the kinds we produce at LHC/RHIC. There's is \"cold\" high pressure QGP, and ours is usually hot \"low pressure\" QGP. (trillions of degrees hot)", "human_ref_B": "High speed particle collisions are extraordinarily common in the universe. Cosmic rays is the name for high-energy particles, mostly either atomic nuclei or occasional electrons, which have been accelerated in astrophysical phenomena like supernovae or quasars. They are constantly undergoing collisions with other particles all over the place, including in Earth's atmosphere.   The highest-energy collisions in the LHC involve about 7 tera electron volts (which is about a millionth of a joule). The highest-energy cosmic ray ever recorded was about 300 exa electron volts (or 3 x 10^20 eV, or about 50 joules-- the energy of a baseball traveling at 60 mph). Of course, most cosmic rays are not *that* energetic, but nonetheless there are utterly gargantuan numbers of cosmic rays impacting the Earth's atmosphere every second.  For particles of energy about 1 TeV, there are roughly 500 trillion of them impacting the Earth's atmosphere every second. So yes, extremely common.  These collisions are not noticeable to the human eye, although there are detectors which can pick up on the Cherenkov light produced by high-speed particles in the atmosphere which are due to high-energy particles impacting the camera and stimulating the detector.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1039.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fugrc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "Is Dark Matter expected to interact with a black hole in any way other than the way that boring baryonic matter does? I'm guessing that a black hole will trap Dark Matter just like it does everything else, but I have nothing to back this up other than some hand waving, which probably wouldn't convince anyone.", "c_root_id_A": "c1ipoek", "c_root_id_B": "c1ipkwu", "created_at_utc_A": 1298921971, "created_at_utc_B": 1298920905, "score_A": 40, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Imagine a heavy thing in an otherwise empty universe. It can be a star, a planet, a black hole or a bowling ball; doesn't matter.  Now imagine a much smaller thing orbiting the heavy thing at some reasonable distance.  What happens? Nothing happens. Literally. The smaller thing continues to orbit the heavy thing forever and ever, because nothing exists to perturb it.  Now, instead of imagining the heavy thing being orbited by a single small thing, imagine that it's surrounded by a cloud of particles. Each particle is in its own orbit \u2014 that is to say, each particle has the right amount of angular momentum relative to the big object to maintain a stable orbit indefinitely if nothing interesting happens in the meantime. But this time, rather than each particle orbiting the heavy thing indefinitely, we find that the cloud collapses quite quickly, all things considered.  Why is this? Because each little particle interacts with all the other little particles. On average, when any pair of the little particles interacts, there's going to be a loss of angular momentum somewhere. One particle will have more angular momentum and the other will have less, and the interaction will have the net effect of transferring some angular momentum from the faster-moving particle to the slower-moving one. In this way, the faster-moving particle will be pulled down into a lower orbit, while the slower-moving particle will be pulled up into a higher one.  Some particles will end up losing so much of their angular momentum that they fall all the way to the center, colliding with the heavy thing. Others will end up gaining so much angular momentum that their orbits become hyperbolic, and they escape from the system entirely, wandering off into the void. The net result, over the course of a great many interactions, is that the total angular momentum of the cloud declines, so the cloud tends to collapse to some point of more-or-less stability.  Dark matter is more like the first scenario than the second. Because dark matter particles do not participate at all in the electromagnetic interaction \u2014 or at least do so very, very, really very weakly \u2014\u00a0most of the time they pass right through both normal matter and each other as if they weren't even there. A cloud of dark matter, therefore, will not tend to collapse the same way a cloud of normal matter will. It remains stable at much higher angular momentum, so it stays sparse and spread-out.  What does this have to do with black holes? Black holes are no different, really, than the big thing at the center of our thought experiment. They don't *suck* things in. Rather, things just happen to fall in. When they do \u2014\u00a0be they matter or dark matter \u2014 that's it. They're gone forever. But if they *don't,* then they just orbit the black hole, or if their relative angular momentum is large enough, escape its gravitation entirely.  When ordinary matter falls into a black hole \u2014 say stellar matter in a black-hole binary system \u2014 it interacts *like crazy.* It gets very hot and very bright, and some of it becomes so energetic from the interaction that it escapes, while the rest collapses closer and closer to the black hole, just like the cloud of particles in our thought experiment.  But dark matter doesn't. Interact, I mean. It doesn't get hot as it falls into a black hole. It behaves, for the most part, as if each particle of dark matter is orbiting the black hole all by itself in an otherwise empty universe. Since there aren't any interactions \u2014\u00a0or at least not nearly as many interactions as occur with ordinary electromagnetic matter \u2014 a cloud of dark matter would remain stable-ish around a black hole far longer than a cloud of ordinary matter would.  So the answer to your question is yes-and-no. Dark matter that falls into a black hole disappears, just like anything does. But because dark matter is so misanthropic, it will tend *not* to fall into black holes more so than ordinary matter will, because it tends not to give its momentum away as promiscuously as ordinary matter does.", "human_ref_B": "There's no reason to expect anything different. Black holes are just gravitation, and baryonic matter and dark matter (as far as we know) respond the same way to gravitation.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1066.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l447d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "A question about black holes, and I promise I'm not high. I realize that this will probably sound like wallbanger moon logic, but here goes anyway:  As I understand it, the distance from the event horizon to the center of a black hole is greater than the diameter of the event horizon itself, and this distortion is created by the superdensity of the matter of whatever initially created the black hole. The actual matter of a black hole exists in a kind of spatial asymptote.  My question is this: Would it be possible for a chunk of matter to have sufficient density to hide itself in a spatial distortion *without* crossing over the threshold into planet-eating singularity territory? In other words, could an object's density create a spatial bubble exactly equal to the physical volume of the hypothetical object without creating the discontinuity of an asymptote?  I fully accept that the only dense thing here might be me, and that the very nature of this question might well belie a vast and embarrassing misunderstanding of singularities, gravity, or even basic arithmetic.  I promise that the reasoning underlying the question was not induced by recreational chemicals. In my defense, questions about black holes and spatial distortions will, by their very nature, tend to sound drug-induced.", "c_root_id_A": "c2poims", "c_root_id_B": "c2pofot", "created_at_utc_A": 1318016068, "created_at_utc_B": 1318015532, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "You know, it wouldn't have been the worst thing in the world if you were high when you came up with this idea.  Some of the greatest ideas in the world were thought up while under the influence.  Besides, most deep scholarly conversations about physics are nearly indistinguishable from pot-talk anyway.", "human_ref_B": "My problem with this question - if we are to have a super-massive object to bypass some physicality of a black hole, wouldn't the extra mass make for a much larger gravatic target? So, wouldn't the black hole would be exerting a *lot* of force on our dense object?    Also, why are you so worried about sounding high? Drug induced questions can be just as legitimate!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 536.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l447d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "A question about black holes, and I promise I'm not high. I realize that this will probably sound like wallbanger moon logic, but here goes anyway:  As I understand it, the distance from the event horizon to the center of a black hole is greater than the diameter of the event horizon itself, and this distortion is created by the superdensity of the matter of whatever initially created the black hole. The actual matter of a black hole exists in a kind of spatial asymptote.  My question is this: Would it be possible for a chunk of matter to have sufficient density to hide itself in a spatial distortion *without* crossing over the threshold into planet-eating singularity territory? In other words, could an object's density create a spatial bubble exactly equal to the physical volume of the hypothetical object without creating the discontinuity of an asymptote?  I fully accept that the only dense thing here might be me, and that the very nature of this question might well belie a vast and embarrassing misunderstanding of singularities, gravity, or even basic arithmetic.  I promise that the reasoning underlying the question was not induced by recreational chemicals. In my defense, questions about black holes and spatial distortions will, by their very nature, tend to sound drug-induced.", "c_root_id_A": "c2po7pj", "c_root_id_B": "c2pofot", "created_at_utc_A": 1318014064, "created_at_utc_B": 1318015532, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As i see it, you want an solid with constant shape, as such for each point in the solid there must be a timelike path such that it stays in the same spot in the solid, or for a slightly more 'dynamic' solid, it is only required that the timelike paths of the particles the solid consists of keep the density and the flow in the solid constant everywhere. Note that in these solids, we basically allow arbitrarily large forces.  Having 'defined' a solid, i think what you want that all timelike paths lead inward, at some point(like a black hole) around the solid. This really sounds unlikely!  It is interesting enough if there are solids with gravitational one way streets. I think a result on that would affect the answer on the question whether there are ways out of black holes.  Note that the Kerr metric has a ring for the singularity, but i wouldn't consider that a solid. The charged black hole; the Reissner\u2013Nordstr\u00f6m metric could internally have objects, but it involves charge.", "human_ref_B": "My problem with this question - if we are to have a super-massive object to bypass some physicality of a black hole, wouldn't the extra mass make for a much larger gravatic target? So, wouldn't the black hole would be exerting a *lot* of force on our dense object?    Also, why are you so worried about sounding high? Drug induced questions can be just as legitimate!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1468.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l447d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "A question about black holes, and I promise I'm not high. I realize that this will probably sound like wallbanger moon logic, but here goes anyway:  As I understand it, the distance from the event horizon to the center of a black hole is greater than the diameter of the event horizon itself, and this distortion is created by the superdensity of the matter of whatever initially created the black hole. The actual matter of a black hole exists in a kind of spatial asymptote.  My question is this: Would it be possible for a chunk of matter to have sufficient density to hide itself in a spatial distortion *without* crossing over the threshold into planet-eating singularity territory? In other words, could an object's density create a spatial bubble exactly equal to the physical volume of the hypothetical object without creating the discontinuity of an asymptote?  I fully accept that the only dense thing here might be me, and that the very nature of this question might well belie a vast and embarrassing misunderstanding of singularities, gravity, or even basic arithmetic.  I promise that the reasoning underlying the question was not induced by recreational chemicals. In my defense, questions about black holes and spatial distortions will, by their very nature, tend to sound drug-induced.", "c_root_id_A": "c2poims", "c_root_id_B": "c2po7pj", "created_at_utc_A": 1318016068, "created_at_utc_B": 1318014064, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You know, it wouldn't have been the worst thing in the world if you were high when you came up with this idea.  Some of the greatest ideas in the world were thought up while under the influence.  Besides, most deep scholarly conversations about physics are nearly indistinguishable from pot-talk anyway.", "human_ref_B": "As i see it, you want an solid with constant shape, as such for each point in the solid there must be a timelike path such that it stays in the same spot in the solid, or for a slightly more 'dynamic' solid, it is only required that the timelike paths of the particles the solid consists of keep the density and the flow in the solid constant everywhere. Note that in these solids, we basically allow arbitrarily large forces.  Having 'defined' a solid, i think what you want that all timelike paths lead inward, at some point(like a black hole) around the solid. This really sounds unlikely!  It is interesting enough if there are solids with gravitational one way streets. I think a result on that would affect the answer on the question whether there are ways out of black holes.  Note that the Kerr metric has a ring for the singularity, but i wouldn't consider that a solid. The charged black hole; the Reissner\u2013Nordstr\u00f6m metric could internally have objects, but it involves charge.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2004.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l447d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "A question about black holes, and I promise I'm not high. I realize that this will probably sound like wallbanger moon logic, but here goes anyway:  As I understand it, the distance from the event horizon to the center of a black hole is greater than the diameter of the event horizon itself, and this distortion is created by the superdensity of the matter of whatever initially created the black hole. The actual matter of a black hole exists in a kind of spatial asymptote.  My question is this: Would it be possible for a chunk of matter to have sufficient density to hide itself in a spatial distortion *without* crossing over the threshold into planet-eating singularity territory? In other words, could an object's density create a spatial bubble exactly equal to the physical volume of the hypothetical object without creating the discontinuity of an asymptote?  I fully accept that the only dense thing here might be me, and that the very nature of this question might well belie a vast and embarrassing misunderstanding of singularities, gravity, or even basic arithmetic.  I promise that the reasoning underlying the question was not induced by recreational chemicals. In my defense, questions about black holes and spatial distortions will, by their very nature, tend to sound drug-induced.", "c_root_id_A": "c2prbrg", "c_root_id_B": "c2po7pj", "created_at_utc_A": 1318039209, "created_at_utc_B": 1318014064, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm not sure I understand what you're asking, but this may be of interest to you.", "human_ref_B": "As i see it, you want an solid with constant shape, as such for each point in the solid there must be a timelike path such that it stays in the same spot in the solid, or for a slightly more 'dynamic' solid, it is only required that the timelike paths of the particles the solid consists of keep the density and the flow in the solid constant everywhere. Note that in these solids, we basically allow arbitrarily large forces.  Having 'defined' a solid, i think what you want that all timelike paths lead inward, at some point(like a black hole) around the solid. This really sounds unlikely!  It is interesting enough if there are solids with gravitational one way streets. I think a result on that would affect the answer on the question whether there are ways out of black holes.  Note that the Kerr metric has a ring for the singularity, but i wouldn't consider that a solid. The charged black hole; the Reissner\u2013Nordstr\u00f6m metric could internally have objects, but it involves charge.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25145.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5e7pz9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "We know that matter is transformed in energy inside stars. Is there anything else on the universe that does the opposite, where energy is converted to matter ?", "c_root_id_A": "daaygtp", "c_root_id_B": "daavm16", "created_at_utc_A": 1479823862, "created_at_utc_B": 1479817854, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There are a few possible answers to this. For instance, depending on how you define matter (note that there is no strict definition of what matter is), a black hole could be an example. Light that enters the event horizon contributes to the rest mass of the black hole, so energy becomes \"matter\".  But if you want to find cases of energy being converted into baryonic matter (e.g. atoms) you'll find it is pretty rare. Unless the density of energy is really high, converting energy into matter is associated with a decrease in entropy. So it won't happen spontaneously except for rare events.  These rare events can accumulate though. In stars, for instance, you mostly are fusing light elements to form heavier elements, and converting mass to energy along the way. You stop fusing once you form iron, which is the one of the lightest elements relative to the sum of its protons and neutron (i.e. highest mass defect) and therefore one of the elements that has \"lost\" the most mass to energy. But some nuclei in the star continue to capture stray neutrons, forming heavier elements through the S-process. About half the atoms heavier than iron are formed this way. So there is a little bit of energy being converted into matter alongside the much larger conversion of matter to energy in a star. In a similar vein, we can create synthetic elements in reactors, spending lots of energy at once to convert a little of it into extra mass.  There are also some conditions where a lot of matter is generated all at once. As I alluded to earlier, if you raise the temperature enough you create energy so dense that forming matter is now associated with an increase in entropy. Supernova briefly reach temperatures where heavy elements are created rapidly, and this is the source of the other half of elements heavier than iron in the universe. We can create these high temperatures in very small volumes using particle colliders as well, so the LHC briefly creates a cloud of massive particles from the energetic collisions of nuclei. But the biggest example of energy being converted into matter is the Big Bang itself. In the first second after the Big Bang, most of the matter in the universe was formed.  If you want to keep track of all this, look at this color-coded periodic table. Besides the formation of protons and neutrons in the Big Bang, extra mass is only being created when elements heavier than nickel/iron are formed.  Finally, keep in mind that any system that absorbs energy gets a little more massive. Heating an object makes it more massive. Converting CO2 and water into sugars during photosynthesis creates a little extra mass. These changes in mass are so tiny we can't really measure them, but thanks to relativity we know the increase in mass is there. So technically \"matter\" is being created and destroyed in small amounts all around you right now.", "human_ref_B": "It's more complicated.  The source of all star's light and heat is fusion, where hydrogen (and heavier elements) are forced together to create helium (and heavier elements).  This releases energy because lighter elements have less energy when bound into a larger one.  On the flip side, fission is the breaking of REALLY bog elements into smaller ones. This releases energy because the element is smaller large that it's more favorable for it to be smaller. The energy comes from the energy bound up in the bindING the nucleus together.  So fusion and fission don't create or destroy matter; it does however alter the total mass because the binding energy of the nucleus contributes to the total mass!  There are processes that do create 'matter' if you count matter as one of the classical elementary particles-- a high energy photon can become a positron and electron, this is pair production!  The reality is that 'matter' is a fairly nebulous term so it's hard to answer the question beyond this.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6008.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rhgajg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "In a developing embryo or fetus, how do cells know what type to turn into and where to go in the body? How do the first bone, skin, organ, blood etc cells come about? How are the first of each type created?How does a cell know what type to become? How do they know where in the body to go? Are there ever any errors, and if so what happens then?     Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "hoql7if", "c_root_id_B": "hoqlvea", "created_at_utc_A": 1639627190, "created_at_utc_B": 1639627520, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "This is a complicated question and in fact, I spent a quarter studying developmental biology as a student decades ago. People who specialize in this topic obviously take more and more detailed courses.  What I remember is early on cells have the ability to become all types of matter (bone, skin, cartilage, etc.). This is why stem cells, which are present in some amounts in adults and in higher amounts in umbilical cords, are so valuable and why they have been studied to be used in conditions like spinal cord injuries. The hope is they can \"grow up\" to become spinal cord cells. The process by which cells grow up and start to specialize is called 'differentiation\" so a young cell is described as \"undifferentiated\" or \"pluripotent.\"  I don't recall the whole process of how differentiation occurs but some of what happens includes cells receiving hormonal signals and changing the messenger RNA and consequently the proteins they make. There are some classic experiments where researchers could determine/ change what a cell became by exposing them to different environments and locations. Here is what appears to be a basic video about the process from Khan academy:  https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/v/cellular-specialization-differentiation", "human_ref_B": "So to elaborate on u/synesthesiah's answer, embryogenesis is the stepwise process by which the cells of the zygote multiple and differentiate to form all the specific tissues and cells of the body. It is a horribly complicated process, but fundamentally everything comes cells signalling to each other what to do based upon their relative positions at any given time.  There are a couple of fundamental ideas that need to be clarified for this process to make sense. The first a process called **differentiation**. Every cell in your body has the same genes (i.e. the same DNA sequence). What separates a bone cell from a skin cell from a liver cell is *which genes are on and off in a given cell* (what we call **gene expression**). For instance, while every cell in your body has the gene to make hemoglobin, that gene is only active in cells that will become red blood cells. Those same cells don't express the genes for making making steroid hormones though. So the identity and function of each cell is defined by the set of genes being expressed at a given time.  Embryogenesis is the slow stepwise process by which the many cells of the zygote (what we would call omnipotent stem cells with the potential to transform into any kind of cell) become more and more restricted in what kind of genes they can express that eventually they've formed all the kinds of cells of the body.  As I said above, fundamentally this comes down to the relative position of cells, which allows them to tell each other what kind of cell to become. Here are a few examples:  1. Gastrulation: this is the process whereby the blastula (a big hallow ball of cells in the early embryo) invaginates to form three distinct layers. The outer layer is the ectoderm which will eventually form epidermis and nervous system; the middle layer is the mesoderm that will go on to form muscles, bones, the heart, and other organs; the inner layer is the endodermis that will form the digestive tract, liver, and pancreas. Once the cells have aligned into those three layers and differentiated they never go back - a mesodermal cell will never give rise to an endodermal cell.  2. Hand development is a good example of how cells actually communicate with each other with every bio student's favourite gene, Sonic Hedgehog (SHH). So when the hand begins to form it starts as a kind of blob. But the more posterior cells on that blob begin to produce SHH and SHH starts to diffuse across the blob of cells. This produces a concentration gradient of SHH that's high on one side of the blob and low on the other side. The high SHH concentration stimulates those cells to form Digit V (little finger), the furthest cells with low SHH exposure form Digit I (the thumb), and the areas in between become Digits II-IV based upon how much SHH they are exposed to.  This process can be screwed up by mutations that cause SHH to be secreted from more than one area. Now the SHH concentration gradient is missed up and that leads to polydactylyl where extra digits are formed.  So to summarize, there's a lot to embryogenesis which helps cells figure out what kind of cells to become, but there are some important principles to remember. Cells differentiate by turning on and off specific groups of genes to restrict the roles its descendants can play. And cells tell each other what kind of cell to differentiate to based upon things like their relative positions by sending signals to each other.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 330.0, "score_ratio": 10.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rhgajg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "In a developing embryo or fetus, how do cells know what type to turn into and where to go in the body? How do the first bone, skin, organ, blood etc cells come about? How are the first of each type created?How does a cell know what type to become? How do they know where in the body to go? Are there ever any errors, and if so what happens then?     Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "hoqf4gl", "c_root_id_B": "hoqlvea", "created_at_utc_A": 1639624372, "created_at_utc_B": 1639627520, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "It\u2019s all in the genes, really. Embryonic stem cells are capable of becoming all three germ layers. They can infinitely divide, with the daughter cells becoming more specialized with each division. Once they reach a mature cell stage, they stop dividing.   How do they know what to become? They talk to each other, and differentiate accordingly.   If there are errors, that is likely the result of genetics, either a poor copy, or defect. The cells would be destroyed, or if the genetic issue is widespread enough, become a congenital birth defect.   Someone can correct me if I\u2019m wrong, I only know what I know based on being pregnant for way too long.", "human_ref_B": "So to elaborate on u/synesthesiah's answer, embryogenesis is the stepwise process by which the cells of the zygote multiple and differentiate to form all the specific tissues and cells of the body. It is a horribly complicated process, but fundamentally everything comes cells signalling to each other what to do based upon their relative positions at any given time.  There are a couple of fundamental ideas that need to be clarified for this process to make sense. The first a process called **differentiation**. Every cell in your body has the same genes (i.e. the same DNA sequence). What separates a bone cell from a skin cell from a liver cell is *which genes are on and off in a given cell* (what we call **gene expression**). For instance, while every cell in your body has the gene to make hemoglobin, that gene is only active in cells that will become red blood cells. Those same cells don't express the genes for making making steroid hormones though. So the identity and function of each cell is defined by the set of genes being expressed at a given time.  Embryogenesis is the slow stepwise process by which the many cells of the zygote (what we would call omnipotent stem cells with the potential to transform into any kind of cell) become more and more restricted in what kind of genes they can express that eventually they've formed all the kinds of cells of the body.  As I said above, fundamentally this comes down to the relative position of cells, which allows them to tell each other what kind of cell to become. Here are a few examples:  1. Gastrulation: this is the process whereby the blastula (a big hallow ball of cells in the early embryo) invaginates to form three distinct layers. The outer layer is the ectoderm which will eventually form epidermis and nervous system; the middle layer is the mesoderm that will go on to form muscles, bones, the heart, and other organs; the inner layer is the endodermis that will form the digestive tract, liver, and pancreas. Once the cells have aligned into those three layers and differentiated they never go back - a mesodermal cell will never give rise to an endodermal cell.  2. Hand development is a good example of how cells actually communicate with each other with every bio student's favourite gene, Sonic Hedgehog (SHH). So when the hand begins to form it starts as a kind of blob. But the more posterior cells on that blob begin to produce SHH and SHH starts to diffuse across the blob of cells. This produces a concentration gradient of SHH that's high on one side of the blob and low on the other side. The high SHH concentration stimulates those cells to form Digit V (little finger), the furthest cells with low SHH exposure form Digit I (the thumb), and the areas in between become Digits II-IV based upon how much SHH they are exposed to.  This process can be screwed up by mutations that cause SHH to be secreted from more than one area. Now the SHH concentration gradient is missed up and that leads to polydactylyl where extra digits are formed.  So to summarize, there's a lot to embryogenesis which helps cells figure out what kind of cells to become, but there are some important principles to remember. Cells differentiate by turning on and off specific groups of genes to restrict the roles its descendants can play. And cells tell each other what kind of cell to differentiate to based upon things like their relative positions by sending signals to each other.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3148.0, "score_ratio": 10.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rhgajg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "In a developing embryo or fetus, how do cells know what type to turn into and where to go in the body? How do the first bone, skin, organ, blood etc cells come about? How are the first of each type created?How does a cell know what type to become? How do they know where in the body to go? Are there ever any errors, and if so what happens then?     Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "hoql7if", "c_root_id_B": "hoqqq23", "created_at_utc_A": 1639627190, "created_at_utc_B": 1639630015, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "This is a complicated question and in fact, I spent a quarter studying developmental biology as a student decades ago. People who specialize in this topic obviously take more and more detailed courses.  What I remember is early on cells have the ability to become all types of matter (bone, skin, cartilage, etc.). This is why stem cells, which are present in some amounts in adults and in higher amounts in umbilical cords, are so valuable and why they have been studied to be used in conditions like spinal cord injuries. The hope is they can \"grow up\" to become spinal cord cells. The process by which cells grow up and start to specialize is called 'differentiation\" so a young cell is described as \"undifferentiated\" or \"pluripotent.\"  I don't recall the whole process of how differentiation occurs but some of what happens includes cells receiving hormonal signals and changing the messenger RNA and consequently the proteins they make. There are some classic experiments where researchers could determine/ change what a cell became by exposing them to different environments and locations. Here is what appears to be a basic video about the process from Khan academy:  https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/v/cellular-specialization-differentiation", "human_ref_B": "Others can give more complete answers, but it's worth keeping in mind that while we have a tendency to personify things sometimes, their are a relatively limited number of forces that can \"act\" on cells of the embryo.  During the differentiation steps, no cell \"decides\" what to be, it becomes what it becomes due to one of the forces below:  Fluid Pressure (effected in part by gravity/buoyancy)  Diffusion Gradients (this would include presence/absence of core \"building block\" chemicals of a tissue, along with presence/absence of enzymes that may aid chemical reactions and presence/absence of proteins/hormones created in other nearby cells)  Chemicals (Mostly Hormones) from the Uterus/Mother   Also, cells don't develop and then \"figure out\" where to go to get to the right place.  Largely, thankfully, they tend to develop the way they due because a stem cell (or a pluripotent cell) is in a location and the relative concentrations / arrangements compared to other cells is \"correct\" for it to express genes that will turn it into XXX or YYY.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2825.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rhgajg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "In a developing embryo or fetus, how do cells know what type to turn into and where to go in the body? How do the first bone, skin, organ, blood etc cells come about? How are the first of each type created?How does a cell know what type to become? How do they know where in the body to go? Are there ever any errors, and if so what happens then?     Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "hoqf4gl", "c_root_id_B": "hoqqq23", "created_at_utc_A": 1639624372, "created_at_utc_B": 1639630015, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "It\u2019s all in the genes, really. Embryonic stem cells are capable of becoming all three germ layers. They can infinitely divide, with the daughter cells becoming more specialized with each division. Once they reach a mature cell stage, they stop dividing.   How do they know what to become? They talk to each other, and differentiate accordingly.   If there are errors, that is likely the result of genetics, either a poor copy, or defect. The cells would be destroyed, or if the genetic issue is widespread enough, become a congenital birth defect.   Someone can correct me if I\u2019m wrong, I only know what I know based on being pregnant for way too long.", "human_ref_B": "Others can give more complete answers, but it's worth keeping in mind that while we have a tendency to personify things sometimes, their are a relatively limited number of forces that can \"act\" on cells of the embryo.  During the differentiation steps, no cell \"decides\" what to be, it becomes what it becomes due to one of the forces below:  Fluid Pressure (effected in part by gravity/buoyancy)  Diffusion Gradients (this would include presence/absence of core \"building block\" chemicals of a tissue, along with presence/absence of enzymes that may aid chemical reactions and presence/absence of proteins/hormones created in other nearby cells)  Chemicals (Mostly Hormones) from the Uterus/Mother   Also, cells don't develop and then \"figure out\" where to go to get to the right place.  Largely, thankfully, they tend to develop the way they due because a stem cell (or a pluripotent cell) is in a location and the relative concentrations / arrangements compared to other cells is \"correct\" for it to express genes that will turn it into XXX or YYY.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5643.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vdtl7s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "How do skin care products work? This is more of a science topic but r/science is only urls.  Isn\u2019t the skin waterproof? Also, some say that they restore natural ph levels, ph is -log[H3O^+] and H3O^+ is in a solution. Your skin isn\u2019t a solution, but a solid. Isn\u2019t applying skin care stuff useless, because the matter won\u2019t come in? If this is really off topic I will remove this.", "c_root_id_A": "icmmk6x", "c_root_id_B": "icnhzio", "created_at_utc_A": 1655413095, "created_at_utc_B": 1655427778, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "You can definitely absorb chemicals thorough your skin. This is why people wear gloves when handling chemicals as you can poison yourself by absorbing chemicals through your skin (even if you have no cuts or scrapes).     -  Wiki info)  Additionally, using sunscreen is important in skin care as it helps prevent/reduce UV damage that occurs even if you spend little time outside in a given day.", "human_ref_B": "Your skin has holes in it!    Important: you're skin is water-proof, not water resistant.  It is very good at keeping water OUT, but not good at keeping in INSIDE.  **Structure of the skin**.  Your skin is composed of three layers.  The top layer is the *epidermis*, the middle layer is the *dermis* and the bottom layer is called *subcutaneous fat* (it's essentially a layer of oil).  The reason your skin is *waterproof* is because the *epidermis* is coated in a very thin layer of oil, called *sebum*.  As an experiment, wipe the outside of your nose with your finger and really look at what comes off - that's a mixture of oils and proteins we call *sebum*.  This *sebum* oil comes from *sebaceous glands* at the base of hair follicles.  When you remove all of that sebum oil such as by washing with soap, your skin is much easier to penetrate with chemicals.  The *epidermis* is physical barrier.  It can stop big solid particles like dirt and sand, but it's not very resistant to liquids or gases.  It is also *low permeability* not *zero*.  You also have sweat glands.  That's another type of hole in the skin barrier.  Your pores are not waterproof or water resistant.  **How skin care products work**.  Any product is going to be a mixture of fats/oils to form a nice thick barrier ontop of your skin.  That's basically sunscreens, moisturizers, chapsticks, etc.   You can include some small molecules that can fit between the skin cells, such as vitamin E or hyalauranoic acids.  These fit in between your skin cells and *do stuff*.  For topical medications they include some chemicals that can open up pores to channel in other chemicals, or easier is to just straight up use chemicals that diffuse through the layers of skin.  They maybe look a little bit like skin cells, so they squeeze through the same way a person squeezes through a crowd at a concert/busy train station.  **Why we care about skin pH and skincare product pH**.  The top layer of your skin has a natural pH that is slightly acidic, close to pH 5.5.  It's that mixture of oils, sweat, humdity and other things on your skin.  As you get older, or your skin gets damaged, the pH naturally starts to increase - which is bad.  It makes your skin more prone to further damage such as cracking, drying, etc.    Have you enter noticed that slightly dry skin can lead to more dry skin?  Maybe you have dry lips so you lick them, then in a few minutes your lips are now really dry, sore and cracked?  When you make a skin care product you need to the target the pH of the product.  First glance is you formulate the product to match the natural pH at 5.5, that way you aren't irritating anything.  However, ideally you make it slightly more acidic so that it corrects that older/damaged/high pH natural skin.  A normal skin person won't notice the slightly more acidic product, but a damaged skin person will find some relief as it moves closer to the natural skin pH.  Solid bar soap or most face cleansers are really high pH.  That helps them strip oils easily.  But that also slightly damages the surface of your skin.  For most people, no big deal, they have loads of skin to spare.  However, for anyone with damaged skin, you want a gentler \"balanced pH\" cleanser close to that natural pH 5.5 to avoid further damage.  **Acne in particular deserves attention for skin pH and product pH**.  Anyone with a lot of acne has damaged skin and their natural skin pH has drifted to higher pH.  The theory is that the bacteria causing acne, or the skin damage from the acne is then further damaging the skin.  One mild therapy is to attempt to lower that surface pH back to the more acidic pH 5.5 by using cleansers and moisturizers that leave a thin layer of something at the preferred pH.  At worst, it doesn't make things worse and it gives the person some relief from using harsher soaps.  At best, it's that little 5% betterment that helps push other treatments further in the correct direction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14683.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vdtl7s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "How do skin care products work? This is more of a science topic but r/science is only urls.  Isn\u2019t the skin waterproof? Also, some say that they restore natural ph levels, ph is -log[H3O^+] and H3O^+ is in a solution. Your skin isn\u2019t a solution, but a solid. Isn\u2019t applying skin care stuff useless, because the matter won\u2019t come in? If this is really off topic I will remove this.", "c_root_id_A": "icnhzio", "c_root_id_B": "icndghh", "created_at_utc_A": 1655427778, "created_at_utc_B": 1655425472, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Your skin has holes in it!    Important: you're skin is water-proof, not water resistant.  It is very good at keeping water OUT, but not good at keeping in INSIDE.  **Structure of the skin**.  Your skin is composed of three layers.  The top layer is the *epidermis*, the middle layer is the *dermis* and the bottom layer is called *subcutaneous fat* (it's essentially a layer of oil).  The reason your skin is *waterproof* is because the *epidermis* is coated in a very thin layer of oil, called *sebum*.  As an experiment, wipe the outside of your nose with your finger and really look at what comes off - that's a mixture of oils and proteins we call *sebum*.  This *sebum* oil comes from *sebaceous glands* at the base of hair follicles.  When you remove all of that sebum oil such as by washing with soap, your skin is much easier to penetrate with chemicals.  The *epidermis* is physical barrier.  It can stop big solid particles like dirt and sand, but it's not very resistant to liquids or gases.  It is also *low permeability* not *zero*.  You also have sweat glands.  That's another type of hole in the skin barrier.  Your pores are not waterproof or water resistant.  **How skin care products work**.  Any product is going to be a mixture of fats/oils to form a nice thick barrier ontop of your skin.  That's basically sunscreens, moisturizers, chapsticks, etc.   You can include some small molecules that can fit between the skin cells, such as vitamin E or hyalauranoic acids.  These fit in between your skin cells and *do stuff*.  For topical medications they include some chemicals that can open up pores to channel in other chemicals, or easier is to just straight up use chemicals that diffuse through the layers of skin.  They maybe look a little bit like skin cells, so they squeeze through the same way a person squeezes through a crowd at a concert/busy train station.  **Why we care about skin pH and skincare product pH**.  The top layer of your skin has a natural pH that is slightly acidic, close to pH 5.5.  It's that mixture of oils, sweat, humdity and other things on your skin.  As you get older, or your skin gets damaged, the pH naturally starts to increase - which is bad.  It makes your skin more prone to further damage such as cracking, drying, etc.    Have you enter noticed that slightly dry skin can lead to more dry skin?  Maybe you have dry lips so you lick them, then in a few minutes your lips are now really dry, sore and cracked?  When you make a skin care product you need to the target the pH of the product.  First glance is you formulate the product to match the natural pH at 5.5, that way you aren't irritating anything.  However, ideally you make it slightly more acidic so that it corrects that older/damaged/high pH natural skin.  A normal skin person won't notice the slightly more acidic product, but a damaged skin person will find some relief as it moves closer to the natural skin pH.  Solid bar soap or most face cleansers are really high pH.  That helps them strip oils easily.  But that also slightly damages the surface of your skin.  For most people, no big deal, they have loads of skin to spare.  However, for anyone with damaged skin, you want a gentler \"balanced pH\" cleanser close to that natural pH 5.5 to avoid further damage.  **Acne in particular deserves attention for skin pH and product pH**.  Anyone with a lot of acne has damaged skin and their natural skin pH has drifted to higher pH.  The theory is that the bacteria causing acne, or the skin damage from the acne is then further damaging the skin.  One mild therapy is to attempt to lower that surface pH back to the more acidic pH 5.5 by using cleansers and moisturizers that leave a thin layer of something at the preferred pH.  At worst, it doesn't make things worse and it gives the person some relief from using harsher soaps.  At best, it's that little 5% betterment that helps push other treatments further in the correct direction.", "human_ref_B": "The skin is a tissue, so it is made of multiple different types of cells. Cells are selectively permeable, which means they can allow certain products in while preventing others from entering. Since the skin is meant to be a barrier, it generally controls these substances quite tightly but this doesn\u2019t mean it acts like a solid surface.   It\u2019s hard to answer this question without naming a specific product through, because they don\u2019t all work the same way. For example, Vaseline is an occlusive moisturiser- it\u2019s good at trapping water that is already in the cells but if your skin is dry, it won\u2019t do much. In contrast, anything with hyularonic acid is a humectant- it pulls water towards itself which can help hydrate the skin but it is often suggested that you put it on damp skin since if the air is dry, it can pull moisture out of the skin.   When products refer to restoring pH, you might find   this paper useful. Basically, the surface of the skin is meant to be acidic because it protects against pathogens. If you\u2019re trying to treat something like acne vulgaris, disrupting the bacteria that cause inflammation is important. Some sources talk about an \u201cacid mantle\u201d- a thin film layer outside the skin, but it seems like scientists are debating about whether it actually exists or not.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2306.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "afrl9r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Does the efficiency of a nuclear power plant depend on the level of uranium enrichment? And if so, where is the \u201csweet spot\u201d of enrichment? Context: I was reading a little on the Iran nuclear deal in the news and they mentioned that the deal limited them to a pretty low percentage, but the Iranians had considered making a plant that could produce up to 20% enrichment. A quick google search suggested 80-90% enrichment is needed for weapons.... so what would the higher enriched uranium be good for?", "c_root_id_A": "ee1wlyz", "c_root_id_B": "ee1pkab", "created_at_utc_A": 1547481005, "created_at_utc_B": 1547474877, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The term \"efficiency\" is a loaded word when it comes to engineering, so you'll need to be more specific if this isn't what you're looking for.  Typically, when we talk about the efficiency of a power plant we're either talking about (1) the theoretical thermal efficiency expressed as the Carnot efficiency or (2) the actual measured efficiency.  In either case, the level of enrichment does not directly impact the efficiency of the system as a whole. In the first case, the only two relevant factors are the temperature of the \"hot side\" of the power plant (the reactor) and the temperature of the \"cold side\" of the power plant (the temperature of the plant output after all energy extracting steps have finished). Nuclear power plants are not limited by the amount of heat capable of being produced- even lightly enriched uranium produces so much heat that the limiting factor is the plant's ability to moderate heat production and dissipate heat, not the ability to produce heat. (Producing too much heat beyond the ability of the plant to handle it is the worst-case \"melt down\" scenario.)  The Carnot efficiency gives us a theoretical upper bound on the efficiency of a plant. It's not the actual efficiency. The actual efficiency is the total amount of energy produced in the reactor compared to the actual amount of energy delivered from the plant. In this case the efficiency only depends on how much nuclear fuel was put in the reactor to start and how much remains when the fuel is removed, but not the actual enrichment level. This is computed through measures such as burnup.   Most civilian power plants run on anywhere from 1% to 5% enriched uranium. But, there are proposals to use up to 20% enriched \"high assay\" uranium. A more highly enriched fuel would allow for smaller nuclear reactors and smaller nuclear fuel assemblies, which has benefits from a design and waste disposal point of view. It also allows for higher levels of burnup, which is the proportion of nuclear fuel that is burned before the fuel is removed from the reactor and replaced, so this allows the reactor to be refueled less often, which is an expensive and time consuming process during which the reactor is not generating power.", "human_ref_B": "At higher levels you need to refuel the reactor less often. For example US nuclear submarines use highly enriched uranium so they only need to be refueled one every 30 years or so. A civilian reactor on the other hand needs refueling about once a year.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6128.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x7zsa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "When I cook food in the oven, what does hotter temperatures versus a longer cooking time do to the physical structure of my food? This is something I wonder about whenever I fire up my toaster oven. How does turning the heat up versus leaving it in for longer affect my food?   Do they have discrete properties that affect the food? Or is it just a mathematical function? heat x time = heat energy radiated into my food. Could I halve the cooking temperature and double the cook time and have the same result?   I see how some kinds of food like meat or fish would only cook at a certain temperature, so some recipes would necessitate a certain cook temp.   What combination results in the most even cook? As in, the inside of the food heats up at the same speed as the outside.   Why are almost all recipes either 350F, 375F, or 400F? Why is nothing at 200F or 800F?", "c_root_id_A": "c5k1yd3", "c_root_id_B": "c5k3zeu", "created_at_utc_A": 1343359909, "created_at_utc_B": 1343368824, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There are many different types of cooking, the 300-400F range is usually the best for shortest amount of cooking time without drying out/burning the food. sous vide is a mothod of cooking food in a water bath at say 160F for up to 72 hours. keeps the food really moist anf flavorful.  there are other methods such as slow cooking, and smoking/BBQ foods for long amounts of time with certain types of meat. this meat has has connective tissue that breaks down/Melts if kept at a certain temp for a certain time.  check out r/cooking for more details", "human_ref_B": "Professional Chef here. When working the saut\u00e9e or chauterceire stations, our timing for plating is incredibly important. Phaz is completely correct in his comment. Most proteins are seared and then roasted or broiled to come to just below temperature, taking into account the weight and shape. A 16oz ribeye will cook faster than a 16oz chateaubriand. When the desired tempature is reached, we pull it from the fire, and let it 'rest'. I pull a steak served rare at 115, so that in five minutes of resting it reaches 125. This 'carry over' allows for bacteria to die, and more importantly, juices and fats to redistribute throughout the muscle fibers.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8915.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x7zsa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "When I cook food in the oven, what does hotter temperatures versus a longer cooking time do to the physical structure of my food? This is something I wonder about whenever I fire up my toaster oven. How does turning the heat up versus leaving it in for longer affect my food?   Do they have discrete properties that affect the food? Or is it just a mathematical function? heat x time = heat energy radiated into my food. Could I halve the cooking temperature and double the cook time and have the same result?   I see how some kinds of food like meat or fish would only cook at a certain temperature, so some recipes would necessitate a certain cook temp.   What combination results in the most even cook? As in, the inside of the food heats up at the same speed as the outside.   Why are almost all recipes either 350F, 375F, or 400F? Why is nothing at 200F or 800F?", "c_root_id_A": "c5k3zeu", "c_root_id_B": "c5k25ay", "created_at_utc_A": 1343368824, "created_at_utc_B": 1343360679, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Professional Chef here. When working the saut\u00e9e or chauterceire stations, our timing for plating is incredibly important. Phaz is completely correct in his comment. Most proteins are seared and then roasted or broiled to come to just below temperature, taking into account the weight and shape. A 16oz ribeye will cook faster than a 16oz chateaubriand. When the desired tempature is reached, we pull it from the fire, and let it 'rest'. I pull a steak served rare at 115, so that in five minutes of resting it reaches 125. This 'carry over' allows for bacteria to die, and more importantly, juices and fats to redistribute throughout the muscle fibers.", "human_ref_B": "I don't know the chemistry, but I suspect most recipes fall within a narrow range because that happens to be what our ovens are designed for. It works well for baking and roasting; however, isn't necessarily optimal for other things like pizza. Most home recipes for pizza won't call for a 700 F oven though, because most home ovens can't produce those temperatures.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8145.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x7zsa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "When I cook food in the oven, what does hotter temperatures versus a longer cooking time do to the physical structure of my food? This is something I wonder about whenever I fire up my toaster oven. How does turning the heat up versus leaving it in for longer affect my food?   Do they have discrete properties that affect the food? Or is it just a mathematical function? heat x time = heat energy radiated into my food. Could I halve the cooking temperature and double the cook time and have the same result?   I see how some kinds of food like meat or fish would only cook at a certain temperature, so some recipes would necessitate a certain cook temp.   What combination results in the most even cook? As in, the inside of the food heats up at the same speed as the outside.   Why are almost all recipes either 350F, 375F, or 400F? Why is nothing at 200F or 800F?", "c_root_id_A": "c5k1yd3", "c_root_id_B": "c5k2bnu", "created_at_utc_A": 1343359909, "created_at_utc_B": 1343361387, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "There are many different types of cooking, the 300-400F range is usually the best for shortest amount of cooking time without drying out/burning the food. sous vide is a mothod of cooking food in a water bath at say 160F for up to 72 hours. keeps the food really moist anf flavorful.  there are other methods such as slow cooking, and smoking/BBQ foods for long amounts of time with certain types of meat. this meat has has connective tissue that breaks down/Melts if kept at a certain temp for a certain time.  check out r/cooking for more details", "human_ref_B": "Boonamobile, otterbry & whatsnew all gave good answers. I would also add that changing the time/temp grid not only affects things like collagens and proteins in meat, it also affects the way moisture is evaporated and starches//sugars are caramelized.   Baking a pizza at 500F or higher is a really good way of crisping up the crust (caramelizing the starch) without drying out the toppings, because they're only going to cook for 20 minutes or so. Pro ovens usually bake them at 800-1000F for 10min, if I remember correctly, which is why their results are superior. Cooking pizza at a low temp, say 350F, for longer than optimal, will result in hard-as-rock dough and dessicated toppings, as too much moisture will be driven out of both before the lower temp caramelizes the crust properly.  Using the hot-and-fast method for banana bread, however, would be a disaster, as it will have a still-liquid centre and dry, over-caramelized, burned edges. *It* wants to be cooked at a lower temp for longer, so the baking powder has time to form little bubbles of CO2, making it light, and the flour in the batter (being soupy and un-kneaded) has plenty of time to combine with the egg proteins to form the long, starchy chemical chains that form the crumb, as its moisture is slowly and evenly evaporated out.   So here's the rule: pizza, quickly at (ideally) 800 so the sugars caramelize; barbeque, slowly at 200 so the tough proteins denature, and everything else somewhere in between.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1478.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x7zsa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "When I cook food in the oven, what does hotter temperatures versus a longer cooking time do to the physical structure of my food? This is something I wonder about whenever I fire up my toaster oven. How does turning the heat up versus leaving it in for longer affect my food?   Do they have discrete properties that affect the food? Or is it just a mathematical function? heat x time = heat energy radiated into my food. Could I halve the cooking temperature and double the cook time and have the same result?   I see how some kinds of food like meat or fish would only cook at a certain temperature, so some recipes would necessitate a certain cook temp.   What combination results in the most even cook? As in, the inside of the food heats up at the same speed as the outside.   Why are almost all recipes either 350F, 375F, or 400F? Why is nothing at 200F or 800F?", "c_root_id_A": "c5k25ay", "c_root_id_B": "c5k2bnu", "created_at_utc_A": 1343360679, "created_at_utc_B": 1343361387, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I don't know the chemistry, but I suspect most recipes fall within a narrow range because that happens to be what our ovens are designed for. It works well for baking and roasting; however, isn't necessarily optimal for other things like pizza. Most home recipes for pizza won't call for a 700 F oven though, because most home ovens can't produce those temperatures.", "human_ref_B": "Boonamobile, otterbry & whatsnew all gave good answers. I would also add that changing the time/temp grid not only affects things like collagens and proteins in meat, it also affects the way moisture is evaporated and starches//sugars are caramelized.   Baking a pizza at 500F or higher is a really good way of crisping up the crust (caramelizing the starch) without drying out the toppings, because they're only going to cook for 20 minutes or so. Pro ovens usually bake them at 800-1000F for 10min, if I remember correctly, which is why their results are superior. Cooking pizza at a low temp, say 350F, for longer than optimal, will result in hard-as-rock dough and dessicated toppings, as too much moisture will be driven out of both before the lower temp caramelizes the crust properly.  Using the hot-and-fast method for banana bread, however, would be a disaster, as it will have a still-liquid centre and dry, over-caramelized, burned edges. *It* wants to be cooked at a lower temp for longer, so the baking powder has time to form little bubbles of CO2, making it light, and the flour in the batter (being soupy and un-kneaded) has plenty of time to combine with the egg proteins to form the long, starchy chemical chains that form the crumb, as its moisture is slowly and evenly evaporated out.   So here's the rule: pizza, quickly at (ideally) 800 so the sugars caramelize; barbeque, slowly at 200 so the tough proteins denature, and everything else somewhere in between.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 708.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x7zsa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "When I cook food in the oven, what does hotter temperatures versus a longer cooking time do to the physical structure of my food? This is something I wonder about whenever I fire up my toaster oven. How does turning the heat up versus leaving it in for longer affect my food?   Do they have discrete properties that affect the food? Or is it just a mathematical function? heat x time = heat energy radiated into my food. Could I halve the cooking temperature and double the cook time and have the same result?   I see how some kinds of food like meat or fish would only cook at a certain temperature, so some recipes would necessitate a certain cook temp.   What combination results in the most even cook? As in, the inside of the food heats up at the same speed as the outside.   Why are almost all recipes either 350F, 375F, or 400F? Why is nothing at 200F or 800F?", "c_root_id_A": "c5k3irt", "c_root_id_B": "c5k1yd3", "created_at_utc_A": 1343366578, "created_at_utc_B": 1343359909, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There are recipes that use low cooking temps.  A popular way to cook a steak at home is to bake it in an oven at a low temperature, about 250F.  Once the center reaches 95F, you take it out and throw it in a hot frying pan with oil just starting to smoke, about 450F.  Fry for 2 minutes each side and then the edges to create the crust and kill surface bacteria.  This yields a tender rare/med-rare steak with a crust.    In my experience: starting with a steak sitting at room temp for 30 minutes, it takes roughly 22-30 minutes for a 1lb NY steak cut in two to reach 95 in the center using a 250F oven.  I use a digital instant read thermometer to measure the temperature.  I cannot link the article because Cooks Illustrated is a subscription site.  The explanation they give on how this works is that enzymes in the meat break down meat, essentially tenderizing it, when cooked at a low temperature.  These enzymes increase activity until they reach 122F at which point they stop.  This is the idea behind dry aging but that is done over a longer period of time in a fridge.", "human_ref_B": "There are many different types of cooking, the 300-400F range is usually the best for shortest amount of cooking time without drying out/burning the food. sous vide is a mothod of cooking food in a water bath at say 160F for up to 72 hours. keeps the food really moist anf flavorful.  there are other methods such as slow cooking, and smoking/BBQ foods for long amounts of time with certain types of meat. this meat has has connective tissue that breaks down/Melts if kept at a certain temp for a certain time.  check out r/cooking for more details", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6669.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x7zsa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "When I cook food in the oven, what does hotter temperatures versus a longer cooking time do to the physical structure of my food? This is something I wonder about whenever I fire up my toaster oven. How does turning the heat up versus leaving it in for longer affect my food?   Do they have discrete properties that affect the food? Or is it just a mathematical function? heat x time = heat energy radiated into my food. Could I halve the cooking temperature and double the cook time and have the same result?   I see how some kinds of food like meat or fish would only cook at a certain temperature, so some recipes would necessitate a certain cook temp.   What combination results in the most even cook? As in, the inside of the food heats up at the same speed as the outside.   Why are almost all recipes either 350F, 375F, or 400F? Why is nothing at 200F or 800F?", "c_root_id_A": "c5k25ay", "c_root_id_B": "c5k3irt", "created_at_utc_A": 1343360679, "created_at_utc_B": 1343366578, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I don't know the chemistry, but I suspect most recipes fall within a narrow range because that happens to be what our ovens are designed for. It works well for baking and roasting; however, isn't necessarily optimal for other things like pizza. Most home recipes for pizza won't call for a 700 F oven though, because most home ovens can't produce those temperatures.", "human_ref_B": "There are recipes that use low cooking temps.  A popular way to cook a steak at home is to bake it in an oven at a low temperature, about 250F.  Once the center reaches 95F, you take it out and throw it in a hot frying pan with oil just starting to smoke, about 450F.  Fry for 2 minutes each side and then the edges to create the crust and kill surface bacteria.  This yields a tender rare/med-rare steak with a crust.    In my experience: starting with a steak sitting at room temp for 30 minutes, it takes roughly 22-30 minutes for a 1lb NY steak cut in two to reach 95 in the center using a 250F oven.  I use a digital instant read thermometer to measure the temperature.  I cannot link the article because Cooks Illustrated is a subscription site.  The explanation they give on how this works is that enzymes in the meat break down meat, essentially tenderizing it, when cooked at a low temperature.  These enzymes increase activity until they reach 122F at which point they stop.  This is the idea behind dry aging but that is done over a longer period of time in a fridge.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5899.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2eyv6t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "I hope this isn't a dumb question. I am taking ekg classes to further my education, and one lead on the machine I am using is the \"ground\". My question is this: what is the natural \"ground\" for the electrical activity in the heart? Everything I have learned about closed electrical systems has come from working in an automotive shop for 15 years, and replacing or installing electrical outlets in my home.   I do understand how the heart works, chemically and anatomically. I just can't seem to understand the grounding part. I have a BSN, but this was never touched on that I can recall. Google gives me nothing, no matter how I ask.  Edit: google, rrrrrr.", "c_root_id_A": "ck4fetg", "c_root_id_B": "ck4folw", "created_at_utc_A": 1409375758, "created_at_utc_B": 1409376684, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Electricity travels in loops, otherwise known as circuits. It doesn't require a ground. In many circuits (you mention automotive circuits, domestic outlets and ekg machines) there is a good reason to connect one point of the circuit (loop) to the earth in order that this point is the same potential as the earth. This \"grounding\" of one point in the loop is however not a requirement for the electricity to flow around the loop.", "human_ref_B": "The ground in an EKG is used as a baseline.  It is derived from a location on the body far from the heart so that it does not pick up the signals that are generated there.  The EKG can then \"subtract\" the ground measurement which removes any noise in the environment giving a much cleaner reading of the hearts electrical activity.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 926.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2eyv6t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "I hope this isn't a dumb question. I am taking ekg classes to further my education, and one lead on the machine I am using is the \"ground\". My question is this: what is the natural \"ground\" for the electrical activity in the heart? Everything I have learned about closed electrical systems has come from working in an automotive shop for 15 years, and replacing or installing electrical outlets in my home.   I do understand how the heart works, chemically and anatomically. I just can't seem to understand the grounding part. I have a BSN, but this was never touched on that I can recall. Google gives me nothing, no matter how I ask.  Edit: google, rrrrrr.", "c_root_id_A": "ck4folw", "c_root_id_B": "ck4e1ab", "created_at_utc_A": 1409376684, "created_at_utc_B": 1409371557, "score_A": 15, "score_B": -4, "human_ref_A": "The ground in an EKG is used as a baseline.  It is derived from a location on the body far from the heart so that it does not pick up the signals that are generated there.  The EKG can then \"subtract\" the ground measurement which removes any noise in the environment giving a much cleaner reading of the hearts electrical activity.", "human_ref_B": "Electrical current is caused by a potential difference between positive charges and negative charges.  The ground is the point of lowest potential.   In the body, this potential difference is caused by ions and, ultimately, by the positively-charged nucleus of an atom and the negatively-charged electrical orbitals around it or its neighbors.  In the body, the lowest potential (ground) is a neutral atom.  Electrons are constantly on the move from atom to atom.  For more information, you might want to check out topics like electronegativity, electron affinity, and ionization energies of various atoms.  Some atoms/ions have more of a pull for electrons than others.  In a car, the lowest potential (ground) is where the electricity would go if you turned off the car (battery).  The heart is no different than the rest of the body.  Nerves are the cells that carry potential differences (charge) which is accomplished by ions lined up across the cell membrane of the axon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5127.0, "score_ratio": -3.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2eyv6t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "I hope this isn't a dumb question. I am taking ekg classes to further my education, and one lead on the machine I am using is the \"ground\". My question is this: what is the natural \"ground\" for the electrical activity in the heart? Everything I have learned about closed electrical systems has come from working in an automotive shop for 15 years, and replacing or installing electrical outlets in my home.   I do understand how the heart works, chemically and anatomically. I just can't seem to understand the grounding part. I have a BSN, but this was never touched on that I can recall. Google gives me nothing, no matter how I ask.  Edit: google, rrrrrr.", "c_root_id_A": "ck4gi6t", "c_root_id_B": "ck4fetg", "created_at_utc_A": 1409379770, "created_at_utc_B": 1409375758, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Some great answers already, and I think they answer your question. I studied biomedical engineering in undergrad and I am a physician, so I have studied the heart and EKGs and can hopefully offer another view.   To start off, the other answers on the movement of ions across the membrane are correct. Electricity is defined as a movement of charged particles. In a car, it is the movements of electrons. In biology, the electricity is the movement of positively and negatively charged particles across the cell membrane.   In your heart, there is a difference in charge across the cell membrane. You can think of it as having a ton of positive ions and few negative ions on one side of the membrane and the other side is the opposite with more negative than positive ions. So one side has a net positive charge and the other has a net negative charge. This difference in charges is called voltage, or a potential difference. When there is a difference in charge, it is the tendency for the charge to travel until it is normalized. This flow of ions (charge) is the current you measure with the EKG.   The term \"ground\" has more than one use. A ground can be a reference point so you can measure a voltage (voltage is a difference in charge between two points, so you need a reference to be able to get that difference). A ground can also mean a common return path to complete a circuit (in a car, this is often the frame or body, as most of the circuits connect to the body or frame which then connects to the negative terminal on the car). A ground can also be a direct connection to the earth or an \"infinite sink\" where stray electrons can go to prevent \"unwanted voltage to go places we don't want it to\" as another user already stated. In my experience, these are the most common uses of the word ground.  When talking about the heart we have to use the appropriate form of the word \"ground.\" There really isn't a common return path like there is in a car. Others have already pointed this out. The current we are measuring is the tiny movement of ions across a cell membrane and also how this propagates from cell to cell. These form tiny circuits and there isn't a common return path that all the charged particles follow like there is in a car.  The only definition that applies to the heart is the reference point from where we measure the voltages. It doesn't matter where you chose this reference point, but it makes it easier to chose a point with equal positive and negative charges (such as a neutral charge as another user stated) because the math is easier.   All of this has already been explained in one form or another and I feel others have answered the question you asked. I do feel, however, that there is another question that is unanswered. The part that hasn't been discussed is the ground lead on an EKG.   A common misconception is that the ground lead is used as a reference point for the other leads. However, no lead uses the ground as a comparison so this isn't accurate.  The real purpose of the ground lead is to minimize noise. The EKG machine is measuring tiny changes in voltage, and there is a ton of noise that obscures this measurement. To simplify things, thie ground lead basically senses the noise and then inputs the inverse of the noise back into the system to cancel it out. It is like using noise cancelling headphones so you can hear your music better.  In short: there isn't a grounding system in heart like there is in a conventional electrical system such as your car. Think of it more like a simple circuit with a battery and a light without a common ground. It is much more complex, but for the purpose of this discussion I think that analogy applies.   In addition, the ground lead on the EKG isn't measuring the \"ground\" of your heart. This lead is just used to cancel out the inherent noise in the system giving you a prettier EKG printout.", "human_ref_B": "Electricity travels in loops, otherwise known as circuits. It doesn't require a ground. In many circuits (you mention automotive circuits, domestic outlets and ekg machines) there is a good reason to connect one point of the circuit (loop) to the earth in order that this point is the same potential as the earth. This \"grounding\" of one point in the loop is however not a requirement for the electricity to flow around the loop.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4012.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2eyv6t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "I hope this isn't a dumb question. I am taking ekg classes to further my education, and one lead on the machine I am using is the \"ground\". My question is this: what is the natural \"ground\" for the electrical activity in the heart? Everything I have learned about closed electrical systems has come from working in an automotive shop for 15 years, and replacing or installing electrical outlets in my home.   I do understand how the heart works, chemically and anatomically. I just can't seem to understand the grounding part. I have a BSN, but this was never touched on that I can recall. Google gives me nothing, no matter how I ask.  Edit: google, rrrrrr.", "c_root_id_A": "ck4e1ab", "c_root_id_B": "ck4gi6t", "created_at_utc_A": 1409371557, "created_at_utc_B": 1409379770, "score_A": -4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Electrical current is caused by a potential difference between positive charges and negative charges.  The ground is the point of lowest potential.   In the body, this potential difference is caused by ions and, ultimately, by the positively-charged nucleus of an atom and the negatively-charged electrical orbitals around it or its neighbors.  In the body, the lowest potential (ground) is a neutral atom.  Electrons are constantly on the move from atom to atom.  For more information, you might want to check out topics like electronegativity, electron affinity, and ionization energies of various atoms.  Some atoms/ions have more of a pull for electrons than others.  In a car, the lowest potential (ground) is where the electricity would go if you turned off the car (battery).  The heart is no different than the rest of the body.  Nerves are the cells that carry potential differences (charge) which is accomplished by ions lined up across the cell membrane of the axon.", "human_ref_B": "Some great answers already, and I think they answer your question. I studied biomedical engineering in undergrad and I am a physician, so I have studied the heart and EKGs and can hopefully offer another view.   To start off, the other answers on the movement of ions across the membrane are correct. Electricity is defined as a movement of charged particles. In a car, it is the movements of electrons. In biology, the electricity is the movement of positively and negatively charged particles across the cell membrane.   In your heart, there is a difference in charge across the cell membrane. You can think of it as having a ton of positive ions and few negative ions on one side of the membrane and the other side is the opposite with more negative than positive ions. So one side has a net positive charge and the other has a net negative charge. This difference in charges is called voltage, or a potential difference. When there is a difference in charge, it is the tendency for the charge to travel until it is normalized. This flow of ions (charge) is the current you measure with the EKG.   The term \"ground\" has more than one use. A ground can be a reference point so you can measure a voltage (voltage is a difference in charge between two points, so you need a reference to be able to get that difference). A ground can also mean a common return path to complete a circuit (in a car, this is often the frame or body, as most of the circuits connect to the body or frame which then connects to the negative terminal on the car). A ground can also be a direct connection to the earth or an \"infinite sink\" where stray electrons can go to prevent \"unwanted voltage to go places we don't want it to\" as another user already stated. In my experience, these are the most common uses of the word ground.  When talking about the heart we have to use the appropriate form of the word \"ground.\" There really isn't a common return path like there is in a car. Others have already pointed this out. The current we are measuring is the tiny movement of ions across a cell membrane and also how this propagates from cell to cell. These form tiny circuits and there isn't a common return path that all the charged particles follow like there is in a car.  The only definition that applies to the heart is the reference point from where we measure the voltages. It doesn't matter where you chose this reference point, but it makes it easier to chose a point with equal positive and negative charges (such as a neutral charge as another user stated) because the math is easier.   All of this has already been explained in one form or another and I feel others have answered the question you asked. I do feel, however, that there is another question that is unanswered. The part that hasn't been discussed is the ground lead on an EKG.   A common misconception is that the ground lead is used as a reference point for the other leads. However, no lead uses the ground as a comparison so this isn't accurate.  The real purpose of the ground lead is to minimize noise. The EKG machine is measuring tiny changes in voltage, and there is a ton of noise that obscures this measurement. To simplify things, thie ground lead basically senses the noise and then inputs the inverse of the noise back into the system to cancel it out. It is like using noise cancelling headphones so you can hear your music better.  In short: there isn't a grounding system in heart like there is in a conventional electrical system such as your car. Think of it more like a simple circuit with a battery and a light without a common ground. It is much more complex, but for the purpose of this discussion I think that analogy applies.   In addition, the ground lead on the EKG isn't measuring the \"ground\" of your heart. This lead is just used to cancel out the inherent noise in the system giving you a prettier EKG printout.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8213.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2eyv6t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "I hope this isn't a dumb question. I am taking ekg classes to further my education, and one lead on the machine I am using is the \"ground\". My question is this: what is the natural \"ground\" for the electrical activity in the heart? Everything I have learned about closed electrical systems has come from working in an automotive shop for 15 years, and replacing or installing electrical outlets in my home.   I do understand how the heart works, chemically and anatomically. I just can't seem to understand the grounding part. I have a BSN, but this was never touched on that I can recall. Google gives me nothing, no matter how I ask.  Edit: google, rrrrrr.", "c_root_id_A": "ck4fetg", "c_root_id_B": "ck4e1ab", "created_at_utc_A": 1409375758, "created_at_utc_B": 1409371557, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -4, "human_ref_A": "Electricity travels in loops, otherwise known as circuits. It doesn't require a ground. In many circuits (you mention automotive circuits, domestic outlets and ekg machines) there is a good reason to connect one point of the circuit (loop) to the earth in order that this point is the same potential as the earth. This \"grounding\" of one point in the loop is however not a requirement for the electricity to flow around the loop.", "human_ref_B": "Electrical current is caused by a potential difference between positive charges and negative charges.  The ground is the point of lowest potential.   In the body, this potential difference is caused by ions and, ultimately, by the positively-charged nucleus of an atom and the negatively-charged electrical orbitals around it or its neighbors.  In the body, the lowest potential (ground) is a neutral atom.  Electrons are constantly on the move from atom to atom.  For more information, you might want to check out topics like electronegativity, electron affinity, and ionization energies of various atoms.  Some atoms/ions have more of a pull for electrons than others.  In a car, the lowest potential (ground) is where the electricity would go if you turned off the car (battery).  The heart is no different than the rest of the body.  Nerves are the cells that carry potential differences (charge) which is accomplished by ions lined up across the cell membrane of the axon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4201.0, "score_ratio": -0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9zgrem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Can anyone help me settle a chemistry debate with my wife? My daughter sometimes wets the bed in the middle of the night, but our neighbors kept complaining about doing laundry at night, so now we have to wait until morning.    My wife is insistent that we not use bleach because urine has ammonia and everyone knows mixing bleach and ammonia is bad.   I think we should use bleach because overnight pee?  Sanitize that!  The thing is, I don't actually know much about the ammonia/bleach reaction aside from don't do it, and I can't imagine that the amount of ammonia is enough to make some kind of reaction in a washing machine.  So, dear Reddit scientists, who is right?  Is it actually dangerous to wash pee sheets with bleach?    Would there be enough bacterial growth overnight to warrant sanitizing?   Who worries too much?", "c_root_id_A": "ea9ci04", "c_root_id_B": "ea9djor", "created_at_utc_A": 1542923400, "created_at_utc_B": 1542924428, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "While I'm not qualified to weigh in on the chemistry side of things, I do have a vast experience of doing laundry of varying degrees of grossness.  You don't need to bleach your daughter's sheets in order for them to be really clean. The main grossness factor in urine is the smell, which is easily rinsed out. Just wash on a hot cycle with regular detergent. You can add white vinegar to the load as well (in your washer's bleach slot, conveniently), and that will help, as well as keeping your washer in good condition. Alternatively, if you have a utility sink, I'd suggest putting the sheets in to soak rather than leaving them in the washer til morning.", "human_ref_B": "When you mix bleach and ammonia they react to form chloramines which are highly toxic  Bleach is used in laundry primarily because it whitens stains. Bleaching damages the fabric and shortens its life.   Your daughter's urine is sterile, and contains almost no ammonia (assuming she doesn't have a serious kidney problem.)  You can safely bleach the sheets, but there is absolutely no need to do so.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1028.0, "score_ratio": 5.9090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9zgrem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Can anyone help me settle a chemistry debate with my wife? My daughter sometimes wets the bed in the middle of the night, but our neighbors kept complaining about doing laundry at night, so now we have to wait until morning.    My wife is insistent that we not use bleach because urine has ammonia and everyone knows mixing bleach and ammonia is bad.   I think we should use bleach because overnight pee?  Sanitize that!  The thing is, I don't actually know much about the ammonia/bleach reaction aside from don't do it, and I can't imagine that the amount of ammonia is enough to make some kind of reaction in a washing machine.  So, dear Reddit scientists, who is right?  Is it actually dangerous to wash pee sheets with bleach?    Would there be enough bacterial growth overnight to warrant sanitizing?   Who worries too much?", "c_root_id_A": "ea9djor", "c_root_id_B": "ea9b9wj", "created_at_utc_A": 1542924428, "created_at_utc_B": 1542922254, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "When you mix bleach and ammonia they react to form chloramines which are highly toxic  Bleach is used in laundry primarily because it whitens stains. Bleaching damages the fabric and shortens its life.   Your daughter's urine is sterile, and contains almost no ammonia (assuming she doesn't have a serious kidney problem.)  You can safely bleach the sheets, but there is absolutely no need to do so.", "human_ref_B": "The issue with using bleach is unless the sheets are white you run the risk of ruining them. Color safe bleach doesn't disinfect so using it would not eliminate your concern.  So try this idea instead.  https://www.hunker.com/13422713/how-to-use-ammonia-in-the-laundry  Treat Stains  Ammonia makes certain types of stains disappear with minimal effort on your part.  Make an all-purpose stain remover\u00a0by combining equal parts water, ammonia and liquid dish detergent or your regular laundry detergent in a spray bottle. Spritz this on food spills, ink stains, barely-there grass stains and other marks at least 30 minutes before rinsing the solution out and laundering.  For a\u00a0gentler version\u00a0that doesn't need to be rinsed out, combine 1/2 ounce of ammonia with 1 ounce of detergent and 2 cups of water. This contains less soap, so it is less effective, but perfect for minor discolorations.  Tackle blood, grass and urine stains\u00a0by combining equal parts ammonia and water. Apply the solution to the mark with a soft cloth or sponge and wait about 30 minutes before laundering per usual.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2174.0, "score_ratio": 32.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9zgrem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Can anyone help me settle a chemistry debate with my wife? My daughter sometimes wets the bed in the middle of the night, but our neighbors kept complaining about doing laundry at night, so now we have to wait until morning.    My wife is insistent that we not use bleach because urine has ammonia and everyone knows mixing bleach and ammonia is bad.   I think we should use bleach because overnight pee?  Sanitize that!  The thing is, I don't actually know much about the ammonia/bleach reaction aside from don't do it, and I can't imagine that the amount of ammonia is enough to make some kind of reaction in a washing machine.  So, dear Reddit scientists, who is right?  Is it actually dangerous to wash pee sheets with bleach?    Would there be enough bacterial growth overnight to warrant sanitizing?   Who worries too much?", "c_root_id_A": "ea9dzl8", "c_root_id_B": "ea9ci04", "created_at_utc_A": 1542924861, "created_at_utc_B": 1542923400, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Urine only contains about 1% ammonia. It's also pretty soluble in water so a water pre-wash would take it out.  It's so low that nobody worries about bleaching fabric nappies. Did she use reusable or disposable ones and, if the former, did she bleach them?  In the other hand, urine isn't faeces so bleaching isn't really necessary anyway.  In short, I think you're **both** over-reacting!", "human_ref_B": "While I'm not qualified to weigh in on the chemistry side of things, I do have a vast experience of doing laundry of varying degrees of grossness.  You don't need to bleach your daughter's sheets in order for them to be really clean. The main grossness factor in urine is the smell, which is easily rinsed out. Just wash on a hot cycle with regular detergent. You can add white vinegar to the load as well (in your washer's bleach slot, conveniently), and that will help, as well as keeping your washer in good condition. Alternatively, if you have a utility sink, I'd suggest putting the sheets in to soak rather than leaving them in the washer til morning.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1461.0, "score_ratio": 4.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9zgrem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Can anyone help me settle a chemistry debate with my wife? My daughter sometimes wets the bed in the middle of the night, but our neighbors kept complaining about doing laundry at night, so now we have to wait until morning.    My wife is insistent that we not use bleach because urine has ammonia and everyone knows mixing bleach and ammonia is bad.   I think we should use bleach because overnight pee?  Sanitize that!  The thing is, I don't actually know much about the ammonia/bleach reaction aside from don't do it, and I can't imagine that the amount of ammonia is enough to make some kind of reaction in a washing machine.  So, dear Reddit scientists, who is right?  Is it actually dangerous to wash pee sheets with bleach?    Would there be enough bacterial growth overnight to warrant sanitizing?   Who worries too much?", "c_root_id_A": "ea9b9wj", "c_root_id_B": "ea9dzl8", "created_at_utc_A": 1542922254, "created_at_utc_B": 1542924861, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "The issue with using bleach is unless the sheets are white you run the risk of ruining them. Color safe bleach doesn't disinfect so using it would not eliminate your concern.  So try this idea instead.  https://www.hunker.com/13422713/how-to-use-ammonia-in-the-laundry  Treat Stains  Ammonia makes certain types of stains disappear with minimal effort on your part.  Make an all-purpose stain remover\u00a0by combining equal parts water, ammonia and liquid dish detergent or your regular laundry detergent in a spray bottle. Spritz this on food spills, ink stains, barely-there grass stains and other marks at least 30 minutes before rinsing the solution out and laundering.  For a\u00a0gentler version\u00a0that doesn't need to be rinsed out, combine 1/2 ounce of ammonia with 1 ounce of detergent and 2 cups of water. This contains less soap, so it is less effective, but perfect for minor discolorations.  Tackle blood, grass and urine stains\u00a0by combining equal parts ammonia and water. Apply the solution to the mark with a soft cloth or sponge and wait about 30 minutes before laundering per usual.", "human_ref_B": "Urine only contains about 1% ammonia. It's also pretty soluble in water so a water pre-wash would take it out.  It's so low that nobody worries about bleaching fabric nappies. Did she use reusable or disposable ones and, if the former, did she bleach them?  In the other hand, urine isn't faeces so bleaching isn't really necessary anyway.  In short, I think you're **both** over-reacting!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2607.0, "score_ratio": 23.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9zgrem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Can anyone help me settle a chemistry debate with my wife? My daughter sometimes wets the bed in the middle of the night, but our neighbors kept complaining about doing laundry at night, so now we have to wait until morning.    My wife is insistent that we not use bleach because urine has ammonia and everyone knows mixing bleach and ammonia is bad.   I think we should use bleach because overnight pee?  Sanitize that!  The thing is, I don't actually know much about the ammonia/bleach reaction aside from don't do it, and I can't imagine that the amount of ammonia is enough to make some kind of reaction in a washing machine.  So, dear Reddit scientists, who is right?  Is it actually dangerous to wash pee sheets with bleach?    Would there be enough bacterial growth overnight to warrant sanitizing?   Who worries too much?", "c_root_id_A": "ea9b9wj", "c_root_id_B": "ea9ci04", "created_at_utc_A": 1542922254, "created_at_utc_B": 1542923400, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The issue with using bleach is unless the sheets are white you run the risk of ruining them. Color safe bleach doesn't disinfect so using it would not eliminate your concern.  So try this idea instead.  https://www.hunker.com/13422713/how-to-use-ammonia-in-the-laundry  Treat Stains  Ammonia makes certain types of stains disappear with minimal effort on your part.  Make an all-purpose stain remover\u00a0by combining equal parts water, ammonia and liquid dish detergent or your regular laundry detergent in a spray bottle. Spritz this on food spills, ink stains, barely-there grass stains and other marks at least 30 minutes before rinsing the solution out and laundering.  For a\u00a0gentler version\u00a0that doesn't need to be rinsed out, combine 1/2 ounce of ammonia with 1 ounce of detergent and 2 cups of water. This contains less soap, so it is less effective, but perfect for minor discolorations.  Tackle blood, grass and urine stains\u00a0by combining equal parts ammonia and water. Apply the solution to the mark with a soft cloth or sponge and wait about 30 minutes before laundering per usual.", "human_ref_B": "While I'm not qualified to weigh in on the chemistry side of things, I do have a vast experience of doing laundry of varying degrees of grossness.  You don't need to bleach your daughter's sheets in order for them to be really clean. The main grossness factor in urine is the smell, which is easily rinsed out. Just wash on a hot cycle with regular detergent. You can add white vinegar to the load as well (in your washer's bleach slot, conveniently), and that will help, as well as keeping your washer in good condition. Alternatively, if you have a utility sink, I'd suggest putting the sheets in to soak rather than leaving them in the washer til morning.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1146.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9zgrem", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Can anyone help me settle a chemistry debate with my wife? My daughter sometimes wets the bed in the middle of the night, but our neighbors kept complaining about doing laundry at night, so now we have to wait until morning.    My wife is insistent that we not use bleach because urine has ammonia and everyone knows mixing bleach and ammonia is bad.   I think we should use bleach because overnight pee?  Sanitize that!  The thing is, I don't actually know much about the ammonia/bleach reaction aside from don't do it, and I can't imagine that the amount of ammonia is enough to make some kind of reaction in a washing machine.  So, dear Reddit scientists, who is right?  Is it actually dangerous to wash pee sheets with bleach?    Would there be enough bacterial growth overnight to warrant sanitizing?   Who worries too much?", "c_root_id_A": "ea9eqa2", "c_root_id_B": "ea9b9wj", "created_at_utc_A": 1542925592, "created_at_utc_B": 1542922254, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Humans get rid of Nitrogen in their body mainly through producing ureum, not ammonia. Ureum is less soluble in water than ammonia (which most fish make to get rid of their nitrogen), but easier to make than uric acid (which most birds make to get the nitrogen out of their system). I don't know the exact chemistry of the reaction between bleach and ureum, but the ureum molecule first needs to be cleaved in order to make ammonia.", "human_ref_B": "The issue with using bleach is unless the sheets are white you run the risk of ruining them. Color safe bleach doesn't disinfect so using it would not eliminate your concern.  So try this idea instead.  https://www.hunker.com/13422713/how-to-use-ammonia-in-the-laundry  Treat Stains  Ammonia makes certain types of stains disappear with minimal effort on your part.  Make an all-purpose stain remover\u00a0by combining equal parts water, ammonia and liquid dish detergent or your regular laundry detergent in a spray bottle. Spritz this on food spills, ink stains, barely-there grass stains and other marks at least 30 minutes before rinsing the solution out and laundering.  For a\u00a0gentler version\u00a0that doesn't need to be rinsed out, combine 1/2 ounce of ammonia with 1 ounce of detergent and 2 cups of water. This contains less soap, so it is less effective, but perfect for minor discolorations.  Tackle blood, grass and urine stains\u00a0by combining equal parts ammonia and water. Apply the solution to the mark with a soft cloth or sponge and wait about 30 minutes before laundering per usual.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3338.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ltzaj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can copper treat infections and kill germs, specifically? Ancient civilizations used copper for this purpose, but we're doing it nowadays, too. Is it 100% effective against germs?", "c_root_id_A": "cv9clj1", "c_root_id_B": "cv9bv6v", "created_at_utc_A": 1442864281, "created_at_utc_B": 1442863198, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Well it's not necessarily a single reaction; metal surfaces catalyze many chemical reactions. You see it everywhere from industrial chemical production to catalytic converters in cars. But the most direct and everyday example is the 'metal smell' you experience when handling (for instance) iron objects. That smell is not from the iron metal itself but is in fact from the degradation products](doi.wiley.com/10.1002/anie.200602100) of skin lipids (fatty molecules), catalyzed by Fe^2+ ions. Specifically Fe^2+ being oxidized to Fe^3+ and [lipid peroxide radicals being reduced.  The exact mechanism with copper is not known, but it's likely to be along similar lines. Cu^2+ ions can cause DNA damage through how they catalyze reactions with reactive oxygen species (peroxides, superoxides, singlet oxygen) - things that cause oxidation damage in cells normally as well. Cu^2+ ions have been implicated because in experiments with bacteria in combination with substances that bind Cu^2+ show lower bacteria-killing power then. It's possible the cell membrane and other things get damaged as well.   Having done some work in that area myself, I can tell you there are _many, many_ biological reactions out there involving oxidation, radicals and metal ions. Including ones that cells themselves use to break down 'trash' compounds (i.e. cytochrome p450).   So broadly speaking it's not surprising, chemically, that metal surfaces can have this effect. But for partly the same reason it's difficult to nail down the precise cause - both theoretically and experimentally - since it can be quite a few things. And as I said at the start, not necessarily a single reaction.", "human_ref_B": "Copper is pretty effective in killing bacteria. It still isn't clear exactly how copper kills bacteria. One mechanism proposed is that copper takes part in Fenton-like reactions which generate hydroxyl radicals. These reactive oxygen species then can cause cellular damage and ultimately death. Macrophages may also use copper to destroy pathogens they have engulfed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1083.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ltzaj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can copper treat infections and kill germs, specifically? Ancient civilizations used copper for this purpose, but we're doing it nowadays, too. Is it 100% effective against germs?", "c_root_id_A": "cv9ah5l", "c_root_id_B": "cv9clj1", "created_at_utc_A": 1442861098, "created_at_utc_B": 1442864281, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "It's not 100% but it's pretty damn close. How exactly it works is unknown but last I heard they were thinking about something like quantum tunneling  (through the membrane of the bacteria). Important point being that of we can find out how copper works and if we can find the mechanism there's possibility of materials that express that property but are cheaper than copper and more practical in terms of coating medical equipment in it.", "human_ref_B": "Well it's not necessarily a single reaction; metal surfaces catalyze many chemical reactions. You see it everywhere from industrial chemical production to catalytic converters in cars. But the most direct and everyday example is the 'metal smell' you experience when handling (for instance) iron objects. That smell is not from the iron metal itself but is in fact from the degradation products](doi.wiley.com/10.1002/anie.200602100) of skin lipids (fatty molecules), catalyzed by Fe^2+ ions. Specifically Fe^2+ being oxidized to Fe^3+ and [lipid peroxide radicals being reduced.  The exact mechanism with copper is not known, but it's likely to be along similar lines. Cu^2+ ions can cause DNA damage through how they catalyze reactions with reactive oxygen species (peroxides, superoxides, singlet oxygen) - things that cause oxidation damage in cells normally as well. Cu^2+ ions have been implicated because in experiments with bacteria in combination with substances that bind Cu^2+ show lower bacteria-killing power then. It's possible the cell membrane and other things get damaged as well.   Having done some work in that area myself, I can tell you there are _many, many_ biological reactions out there involving oxidation, radicals and metal ions. Including ones that cells themselves use to break down 'trash' compounds (i.e. cytochrome p450).   So broadly speaking it's not surprising, chemically, that metal surfaces can have this effect. But for partly the same reason it's difficult to nail down the precise cause - both theoretically and experimentally - since it can be quite a few things. And as I said at the start, not necessarily a single reaction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3183.0, "score_ratio": -10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ltzaj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can copper treat infections and kill germs, specifically? Ancient civilizations used copper for this purpose, but we're doing it nowadays, too. Is it 100% effective against germs?", "c_root_id_A": "cv9ah5l", "c_root_id_B": "cv9bv6v", "created_at_utc_A": 1442861098, "created_at_utc_B": 1442863198, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "It's not 100% but it's pretty damn close. How exactly it works is unknown but last I heard they were thinking about something like quantum tunneling  (through the membrane of the bacteria). Important point being that of we can find out how copper works and if we can find the mechanism there's possibility of materials that express that property but are cheaper than copper and more practical in terms of coating medical equipment in it.", "human_ref_B": "Copper is pretty effective in killing bacteria. It still isn't clear exactly how copper kills bacteria. One mechanism proposed is that copper takes part in Fenton-like reactions which generate hydroxyl radicals. These reactive oxygen species then can cause cellular damage and ultimately death. Macrophages may also use copper to destroy pathogens they have engulfed.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2100.0, "score_ratio": -4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6lcwvu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "When we say \"the electromagnetic interaction is mediated by photons\", what's actually happening in terms of the wave function/Schroedinger's equation?", "c_root_id_A": "djsvwcm", "c_root_id_B": "djt58ie", "created_at_utc_A": 1499248691, "created_at_utc_B": 1499265532, "score_A": 110, "score_B": 113, "human_ref_A": "What happens is that you expand the S-matrix in powers of the coupling constant. The S-matrix elements are matrix elements of the time-ordered exponential of the interaction Lagrangian, which for QED contains terms like \u03a8^(T)A^(\u03bc)\u03b3*_\u03bc_*\u03a8, where \u03a8 represents a fermion field and A represents the photon field.  The various terms in this power series look like a bunch of intermediate particles being created and destroyed, linking the same initial and final states. These intermediate particles are called \"virtual particles\", and they only *seem* to exist because of how you've chosen to do your calculation. They do not literally exist.  If you look at Feynman diagrams like the ones shown here, these represent the lowest-order terms in that series expansion for the case of electron-electron scattering. You can see that there is a virtual photon in both of them.", "human_ref_B": "The statement that the photon is the mediating particle of the electromagnetic force means that the electromagnetic field which causes that force can be decomposed into objects called photons.  This is not something easy to see in quantum mechanics--one needs to use quantum field theory to treat photons mathematically. This is because the wavefunction is a function of the positions of a predefined set of objects being treated in a problem. In such a context, the reaction between two objects can only involve those objects themselves--because there is no way to directly compare the wavefunction of  two systems with a different number of particles.  The mediation of the electromagnetic force by photons requires creating and destroying photons--an electron emits a photon and another electron absorbs it. Quantum field theory is a framework that allows that allows particles to be created and destroyed, and so describes the mediation process. This works because as a field theory, QFT describes the state of a set of fields defined over space-time, rather than as a function of a discrete number of points.  However, the notion of mediation is a bit, shall we say, loose. The coulomb force is an effect that arises because of \"virtual photons\"-- as someone else said, these are not real particles because their properties are dependent on how the calculation is done (for those seeking deeper, read about electromagnetic gauge) and by their nature are not experimentally observable--so they are a way of a mathematical book-keeping. Pinning down in a very precise way what mediation means requires some non physical philosophy of QFT. But what's definitely true is this: There is an electromagnetic field that causes the force between electrons. Because there is a field, there is a particle associated with that field. If there were no electromagnetic force, there would be no photons--and vise versa; the two are inextricable.  The term \"mediates\" is used because the calculations involve photons that communicate the necessary information between elections.  Feynman wrote a really great and accessible book called QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter, that gives the reader a surprisingly accurate qualitative description of what is going on in quantum electrodynamics without introducing the (extensive) math required to actually carry out calculations in QFT. I recommend it to anyone with an interest in quantum field theory- be them a hobbyist, a dedicated student of physics, or even a researcher who might like to think about how to communicate core concepts to laymen of QFT.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16841.0, "score_ratio": 1.0272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6lcwvu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "When we say \"the electromagnetic interaction is mediated by photons\", what's actually happening in terms of the wave function/Schroedinger's equation?", "c_root_id_A": "djszjcp", "c_root_id_B": "djt58ie", "created_at_utc_A": 1499257238, "created_at_utc_B": 1499265532, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 113, "human_ref_A": "Those kinds of processes are not described using Schr\u00f6dinger's equation or any other wave equation. The way photons appear in computations is only as a name for terms in a perturbation series for scattering processes.", "human_ref_B": "The statement that the photon is the mediating particle of the electromagnetic force means that the electromagnetic field which causes that force can be decomposed into objects called photons.  This is not something easy to see in quantum mechanics--one needs to use quantum field theory to treat photons mathematically. This is because the wavefunction is a function of the positions of a predefined set of objects being treated in a problem. In such a context, the reaction between two objects can only involve those objects themselves--because there is no way to directly compare the wavefunction of  two systems with a different number of particles.  The mediation of the electromagnetic force by photons requires creating and destroying photons--an electron emits a photon and another electron absorbs it. Quantum field theory is a framework that allows that allows particles to be created and destroyed, and so describes the mediation process. This works because as a field theory, QFT describes the state of a set of fields defined over space-time, rather than as a function of a discrete number of points.  However, the notion of mediation is a bit, shall we say, loose. The coulomb force is an effect that arises because of \"virtual photons\"-- as someone else said, these are not real particles because their properties are dependent on how the calculation is done (for those seeking deeper, read about electromagnetic gauge) and by their nature are not experimentally observable--so they are a way of a mathematical book-keeping. Pinning down in a very precise way what mediation means requires some non physical philosophy of QFT. But what's definitely true is this: There is an electromagnetic field that causes the force between electrons. Because there is a field, there is a particle associated with that field. If there were no electromagnetic force, there would be no photons--and vise versa; the two are inextricable.  The term \"mediates\" is used because the calculations involve photons that communicate the necessary information between elections.  Feynman wrote a really great and accessible book called QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter, that gives the reader a surprisingly accurate qualitative description of what is going on in quantum electrodynamics without introducing the (extensive) math required to actually carry out calculations in QFT. I recommend it to anyone with an interest in quantum field theory- be them a hobbyist, a dedicated student of physics, or even a researcher who might like to think about how to communicate core concepts to laymen of QFT.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8294.0, "score_ratio": 2.756097561, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sd3s3u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "What determines the number of propeller blades a vehicle has? Some aircrafts have three, while some have seven balded props. Similarly helicopters and submarines also have different number of propellers.", "c_root_id_A": "hubnbj9", "c_root_id_B": "huakxf8", "created_at_utc_A": 1643219927, "created_at_utc_B": 1643205332, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Submarine propellers are almost always prime numbers (5, 7, 11) because that makes for a quieter submarine.  Short explanation here:https://books.google.com/books?id=GgkyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=submarine+propeller+%22prime+number%22&source=bl&ots=5G97U8aUtS&sig=ACfU3U2lJCpQpF7v-uebCxGbBmDCe5NBWA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwis27rx_s_1AhV4kWoFHUmEA5QQ6AF6BAgtEAM#v=onepage&q=submarine%20propeller%20%22prime%20number%22&f=false", "human_ref_B": "From back when I worked on drones....having a prime number of blades will help to avoid resonance coupling into the structure.  3 blades is very common since it's a good compromise between drag/material required and performance.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14595.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sd3s3u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "What determines the number of propeller blades a vehicle has? Some aircrafts have three, while some have seven balded props. Similarly helicopters and submarines also have different number of propellers.", "c_root_id_A": "hub8juu", "c_root_id_B": "hubnbj9", "created_at_utc_A": 1643214732, "created_at_utc_B": 1643219927, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "Propellers exist to **convert power to thrust**.  You can only convert so much power to thrust from a given propeller design.  So if your engines become more powerful, you can either redesign the prop, or add more of them.  Conversely, adding propellers for the sake of adding them creates extra weight and drag that the engine has to overcome.  Effectively you match the propeller to the engine output.  Propellers are basically just rotating wings and thus follow the same lift aerodynamics. You can increase lift here in a few ways.  * Velocity - Make the propeller able to spin faster (Usually it has to be shorter)  * Surface area - Make the propeller larger / longer (**This is the effect of using more propellers**)  * Coefficient of lift - Basically the combination of the propeller shape and angle of attack.  I highly recommend this video", "human_ref_B": "Submarine propellers are almost always prime numbers (5, 7, 11) because that makes for a quieter submarine.  Short explanation here:https://books.google.com/books?id=GgkyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=submarine+propeller+%22prime+number%22&source=bl&ots=5G97U8aUtS&sig=ACfU3U2lJCpQpF7v-uebCxGbBmDCe5NBWA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwis27rx_s_1AhV4kWoFHUmEA5QQ6AF6BAgtEAM#v=onepage&q=submarine%20propeller%20%22prime%20number%22&f=false", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5195.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh4i03", "c_root_id_B": "fnh6691", "created_at_utc_A": 1586954627, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955815, "score_A": 54, "score_B": 152, "human_ref_A": "What do you think of the paper released yesterday by a University of Ottawa researcher that claims COVID-19 originated in stray dogs that ate scraps of bat meat?  https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/doi/10.1093/molbev/msaa094/5819559", "human_ref_B": "Does the virus survive on dog fur for any length of time? As a vet tech that's still working with dogs and restraining them everyday, I've wondered what my risk is if I just regard the dog as another surface where the virus can live. Thanks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1188.0, "score_ratio": 2.8148148148, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyqik", "c_root_id_B": "fnh6691", "created_at_utc_A": 1586949779, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955815, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 152, "human_ref_A": "Hey, thank you for your work and for taking the time to do this AMA! So given this record of animals getting infected by being in direct contact with infected humans, do you think we should extend all social distancing measures to pets and animals in general as well - for their sake and for ours?", "human_ref_B": "Does the virus survive on dog fur for any length of time? As a vet tech that's still working with dogs and restraining them everyday, I've wondered what my risk is if I just regard the dog as another surface where the virus can live. Thanks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6036.0, "score_ratio": 2.9230769231, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh6691", "c_root_id_B": "fnh1qmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1586955815, "created_at_utc_B": 1586952464, "score_A": 152, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Does the virus survive on dog fur for any length of time? As a vet tech that's still working with dogs and restraining them everyday, I've wondered what my risk is if I just regard the dog as another surface where the virus can live. Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3351.0, "score_ratio": 10.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh50h8", "c_root_id_B": "fnh6691", "created_at_utc_A": 1586954996, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955815, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 152, "human_ref_A": "Will COVID-19 transmit from animal to human? How likely is it? What can I do if it happens?", "human_ref_B": "Does the virus survive on dog fur for any length of time? As a vet tech that's still working with dogs and restraining them everyday, I've wondered what my risk is if I just regard the dog as another surface where the virus can live. Thanks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 819.0, "score_ratio": 10.1333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh5kov", "c_root_id_B": "fnh6691", "created_at_utc_A": 1586955397, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955815, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 152, "human_ref_A": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "human_ref_B": "Does the virus survive on dog fur for any length of time? As a vet tech that's still working with dogs and restraining them everyday, I've wondered what my risk is if I just regard the dog as another surface where the virus can live. Thanks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 418.0, "score_ratio": 15.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh6691", "c_root_id_B": "fngyz6a", "created_at_utc_A": 1586955815, "created_at_utc_B": 1586950005, "score_A": 152, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Does the virus survive on dog fur for any length of time? As a vet tech that's still working with dogs and restraining them everyday, I've wondered what my risk is if I just regard the dog as another surface where the virus can live. Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5810.0, "score_ratio": 21.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe6b9", "c_root_id_B": "fnh4i03", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960684, "created_at_utc_B": 1586954627, "score_A": 70, "score_B": 54, "human_ref_A": "One test for humans involves sticking a cotton swab up the nose into the sinuses.  How did they test the tiger?", "human_ref_B": "What do you think of the paper released yesterday by a University of Ottawa researcher that claims COVID-19 originated in stray dogs that ate scraps of bat meat?  https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/doi/10.1093/molbev/msaa094/5819559", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6057.0, "score_ratio": 1.2962962963, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyqik", "c_root_id_B": "fnhe6b9", "created_at_utc_A": 1586949779, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960684, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 70, "human_ref_A": "Hey, thank you for your work and for taking the time to do this AMA! So given this record of animals getting infected by being in direct contact with infected humans, do you think we should extend all social distancing measures to pets and animals in general as well - for their sake and for ours?", "human_ref_B": "One test for humans involves sticking a cotton swab up the nose into the sinuses.  How did they test the tiger?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10905.0, "score_ratio": 1.3461538462, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe6b9", "c_root_id_B": "fnh1qmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960684, "created_at_utc_B": 1586952464, "score_A": 70, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "One test for humans involves sticking a cotton swab up the nose into the sinuses.  How did they test the tiger?", "human_ref_B": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8220.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe6b9", "c_root_id_B": "fnh50h8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960684, "created_at_utc_B": 1586954996, "score_A": 70, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "One test for humans involves sticking a cotton swab up the nose into the sinuses.  How did they test the tiger?", "human_ref_B": "Will COVID-19 transmit from animal to human? How likely is it? What can I do if it happens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5688.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe6b9", "c_root_id_B": "fnhdzzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960684, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960587, "score_A": 70, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "One test for humans involves sticking a cotton swab up the nose into the sinuses.  How did they test the tiger?", "human_ref_B": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 97.0, "score_ratio": 5.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe6b9", "c_root_id_B": "fnh5kov", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960684, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955397, "score_A": 70, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "One test for humans involves sticking a cotton swab up the nose into the sinuses.  How did they test the tiger?", "human_ref_B": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5287.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnhe6b9", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960684, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 70, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "One test for humans involves sticking a cotton swab up the nose into the sinuses.  How did they test the tiger?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10679.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyqik", "c_root_id_B": "fnh4i03", "created_at_utc_A": 1586949779, "created_at_utc_B": 1586954627, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 54, "human_ref_A": "Hey, thank you for your work and for taking the time to do this AMA! So given this record of animals getting infected by being in direct contact with infected humans, do you think we should extend all social distancing measures to pets and animals in general as well - for their sake and for ours?", "human_ref_B": "What do you think of the paper released yesterday by a University of Ottawa researcher that claims COVID-19 originated in stray dogs that ate scraps of bat meat?  https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/doi/10.1093/molbev/msaa094/5819559", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4848.0, "score_ratio": 1.0384615385, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh1qmv", "c_root_id_B": "fnh4i03", "created_at_utc_A": 1586952464, "created_at_utc_B": 1586954627, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 54, "human_ref_A": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "human_ref_B": "What do you think of the paper released yesterday by a University of Ottawa researcher that claims COVID-19 originated in stray dogs that ate scraps of bat meat?  https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/doi/10.1093/molbev/msaa094/5819559", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2163.0, "score_ratio": 3.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnh4i03", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586954627, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 54, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "What do you think of the paper released yesterday by a University of Ottawa researcher that claims COVID-19 originated in stray dogs that ate scraps of bat meat?  https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/doi/10.1093/molbev/msaa094/5819559", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4622.0, "score_ratio": 7.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhh9vw", "c_root_id_B": "fnhes63", "created_at_utc_A": 1586962378, "created_at_utc_B": 1586961019, "score_A": 45, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best thing we can do to keep our dogs as active as possible as they age? Are there any joint supplements that have been scientifically found to help as a preventive/comfort measure? Anything else you would recommend?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1359.0, "score_ratio": 1.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhh9vw", "c_root_id_B": "fnhe87i", "created_at_utc_A": 1586962378, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960713, "score_A": 45, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve read some things online that argue that SARS-Cov2 can transmit from humans to animals, but not from an animal back to humans.   It seems to me like this is an overabundance of scientific caution because there\u2019s no observational evidence that a human has been infected from an infected animal, but I don\u2019t see a physical reason why this could not happen.   Are there any potential biochemical/molecular biology reasons why virions produced in Species 2 might not be able to infect Species 1 (that can be infected by transmission from their own species, or even other species)? I\u2019m thinking of something like differences in alternative splicing of the transcript that makes the Spike protein (or another protein that\u2019s assembled on the capsid) between species that prevents effective transmission of the virus.   Are there any examples of something like this among other viruses with cross-species transmission in the veterinary world? Where a species produces virions with the same viral genome sequence, but for some reason the virions are different in an important way from virions produced in other species? (Caused by alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications, epigenetic modifications, etc. Something to do with production and assembly of the virion in that species. Anything other than actual mutations in sequence of the viral genome itself).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1665.0, "score_ratio": 1.6071428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhedcc", "c_root_id_B": "fnhh9vw", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960792, "created_at_utc_B": 1586962378, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "human_ref_B": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1586.0, "score_ratio": 45.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhgg4x", "c_root_id_B": "fnhh9vw", "created_at_utc_A": 1586961937, "created_at_utc_B": 1586962378, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "Had an interesting conversation with my friend last week about our dogs and public places.   With regards to dogs being potential carriers, if so, should restrictions on dogs in public places be put in place ? (At cafes/restaurants etc)", "human_ref_B": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 441.0, "score_ratio": 2.8125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh1qmv", "c_root_id_B": "fnhh9vw", "created_at_utc_A": 1586952464, "created_at_utc_B": 1586962378, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "human_ref_B": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9914.0, "score_ratio": 3.2142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh50h8", "c_root_id_B": "fnhh9vw", "created_at_utc_A": 1586954996, "created_at_utc_B": 1586962378, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "Will COVID-19 transmit from animal to human? How likely is it? What can I do if it happens?", "human_ref_B": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7382.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhdzzq", "c_root_id_B": "fnhh9vw", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960587, "created_at_utc_B": 1586962378, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "human_ref_B": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1791.0, "score_ratio": 3.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh5kov", "c_root_id_B": "fnhh9vw", "created_at_utc_A": 1586955397, "created_at_utc_B": 1586962378, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "human_ref_B": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6981.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhh9vw", "c_root_id_B": "fngyz6a", "created_at_utc_A": 1586962378, "created_at_utc_B": 1586950005, "score_A": 45, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "How does one tell when an older dog is getting tired on a walk, especially a breed like labs and other working dogs who just go and go and go?", "human_ref_B": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12373.0, "score_ratio": 6.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe87i", "c_root_id_B": "fnhes63", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960713, "created_at_utc_B": 1586961019, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve read some things online that argue that SARS-Cov2 can transmit from humans to animals, but not from an animal back to humans.   It seems to me like this is an overabundance of scientific caution because there\u2019s no observational evidence that a human has been infected from an infected animal, but I don\u2019t see a physical reason why this could not happen.   Are there any potential biochemical/molecular biology reasons why virions produced in Species 2 might not be able to infect Species 1 (that can be infected by transmission from their own species, or even other species)? I\u2019m thinking of something like differences in alternative splicing of the transcript that makes the Spike protein (or another protein that\u2019s assembled on the capsid) between species that prevents effective transmission of the virus.   Are there any examples of something like this among other viruses with cross-species transmission in the veterinary world? Where a species produces virions with the same viral genome sequence, but for some reason the virions are different in an important way from virions produced in other species? (Caused by alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications, epigenetic modifications, etc. Something to do with production and assembly of the virion in that species. Anything other than actual mutations in sequence of the viral genome itself).", "human_ref_B": "What is the best thing we can do to keep our dogs as active as possible as they age? Are there any joint supplements that have been scientifically found to help as a preventive/comfort measure? Anything else you would recommend?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 306.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhedcc", "c_root_id_B": "fnhes63", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960792, "created_at_utc_B": 1586961019, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "human_ref_B": "What is the best thing we can do to keep our dogs as active as possible as they age? Are there any joint supplements that have been scientifically found to help as a preventive/comfort measure? Anything else you would recommend?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 227.0, "score_ratio": 42.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh1qmv", "c_root_id_B": "fnhes63", "created_at_utc_A": 1586952464, "created_at_utc_B": 1586961019, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best thing we can do to keep our dogs as active as possible as they age? Are there any joint supplements that have been scientifically found to help as a preventive/comfort measure? Anything else you would recommend?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8555.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhes63", "c_root_id_B": "fnh50h8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586961019, "created_at_utc_B": 1586954996, "score_A": 42, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "What is the best thing we can do to keep our dogs as active as possible as they age? Are there any joint supplements that have been scientifically found to help as a preventive/comfort measure? Anything else you would recommend?", "human_ref_B": "Will COVID-19 transmit from animal to human? How likely is it? What can I do if it happens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6023.0, "score_ratio": 2.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhes63", "c_root_id_B": "fnhdzzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1586961019, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960587, "score_A": 42, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "What is the best thing we can do to keep our dogs as active as possible as they age? Are there any joint supplements that have been scientifically found to help as a preventive/comfort measure? Anything else you would recommend?", "human_ref_B": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 432.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh5kov", "c_root_id_B": "fnhes63", "created_at_utc_A": 1586955397, "created_at_utc_B": 1586961019, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best thing we can do to keep our dogs as active as possible as they age? Are there any joint supplements that have been scientifically found to help as a preventive/comfort measure? Anything else you would recommend?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5622.0, "score_ratio": 4.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnhes63", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586961019, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best thing we can do to keep our dogs as active as possible as they age? Are there any joint supplements that have been scientifically found to help as a preventive/comfort measure? Anything else you would recommend?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11014.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe87i", "c_root_id_B": "fnh1qmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960713, "created_at_utc_B": 1586952464, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve read some things online that argue that SARS-Cov2 can transmit from humans to animals, but not from an animal back to humans.   It seems to me like this is an overabundance of scientific caution because there\u2019s no observational evidence that a human has been infected from an infected animal, but I don\u2019t see a physical reason why this could not happen.   Are there any potential biochemical/molecular biology reasons why virions produced in Species 2 might not be able to infect Species 1 (that can be infected by transmission from their own species, or even other species)? I\u2019m thinking of something like differences in alternative splicing of the transcript that makes the Spike protein (or another protein that\u2019s assembled on the capsid) between species that prevents effective transmission of the virus.   Are there any examples of something like this among other viruses with cross-species transmission in the veterinary world? Where a species produces virions with the same viral genome sequence, but for some reason the virions are different in an important way from virions produced in other species? (Caused by alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications, epigenetic modifications, etc. Something to do with production and assembly of the virion in that species. Anything other than actual mutations in sequence of the viral genome itself).", "human_ref_B": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8249.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh50h8", "c_root_id_B": "fnhe87i", "created_at_utc_A": 1586954996, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960713, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Will COVID-19 transmit from animal to human? How likely is it? What can I do if it happens?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve read some things online that argue that SARS-Cov2 can transmit from humans to animals, but not from an animal back to humans.   It seems to me like this is an overabundance of scientific caution because there\u2019s no observational evidence that a human has been infected from an infected animal, but I don\u2019t see a physical reason why this could not happen.   Are there any potential biochemical/molecular biology reasons why virions produced in Species 2 might not be able to infect Species 1 (that can be infected by transmission from their own species, or even other species)? I\u2019m thinking of something like differences in alternative splicing of the transcript that makes the Spike protein (or another protein that\u2019s assembled on the capsid) between species that prevents effective transmission of the virus.   Are there any examples of something like this among other viruses with cross-species transmission in the veterinary world? Where a species produces virions with the same viral genome sequence, but for some reason the virions are different in an important way from virions produced in other species? (Caused by alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications, epigenetic modifications, etc. Something to do with production and assembly of the virion in that species. Anything other than actual mutations in sequence of the viral genome itself).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5717.0, "score_ratio": 1.8666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe87i", "c_root_id_B": "fnhdzzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960713, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960587, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve read some things online that argue that SARS-Cov2 can transmit from humans to animals, but not from an animal back to humans.   It seems to me like this is an overabundance of scientific caution because there\u2019s no observational evidence that a human has been infected from an infected animal, but I don\u2019t see a physical reason why this could not happen.   Are there any potential biochemical/molecular biology reasons why virions produced in Species 2 might not be able to infect Species 1 (that can be infected by transmission from their own species, or even other species)? I\u2019m thinking of something like differences in alternative splicing of the transcript that makes the Spike protein (or another protein that\u2019s assembled on the capsid) between species that prevents effective transmission of the virus.   Are there any examples of something like this among other viruses with cross-species transmission in the veterinary world? Where a species produces virions with the same viral genome sequence, but for some reason the virions are different in an important way from virions produced in other species? (Caused by alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications, epigenetic modifications, etc. Something to do with production and assembly of the virion in that species. Anything other than actual mutations in sequence of the viral genome itself).", "human_ref_B": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 126.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhe87i", "c_root_id_B": "fnh5kov", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960713, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955397, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve read some things online that argue that SARS-Cov2 can transmit from humans to animals, but not from an animal back to humans.   It seems to me like this is an overabundance of scientific caution because there\u2019s no observational evidence that a human has been infected from an infected animal, but I don\u2019t see a physical reason why this could not happen.   Are there any potential biochemical/molecular biology reasons why virions produced in Species 2 might not be able to infect Species 1 (that can be infected by transmission from their own species, or even other species)? I\u2019m thinking of something like differences in alternative splicing of the transcript that makes the Spike protein (or another protein that\u2019s assembled on the capsid) between species that prevents effective transmission of the virus.   Are there any examples of something like this among other viruses with cross-species transmission in the veterinary world? Where a species produces virions with the same viral genome sequence, but for some reason the virions are different in an important way from virions produced in other species? (Caused by alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications, epigenetic modifications, etc. Something to do with production and assembly of the virion in that species. Anything other than actual mutations in sequence of the viral genome itself).", "human_ref_B": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5316.0, "score_ratio": 2.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnhe87i", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960713, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve read some things online that argue that SARS-Cov2 can transmit from humans to animals, but not from an animal back to humans.   It seems to me like this is an overabundance of scientific caution because there\u2019s no observational evidence that a human has been infected from an infected animal, but I don\u2019t see a physical reason why this could not happen.   Are there any potential biochemical/molecular biology reasons why virions produced in Species 2 might not be able to infect Species 1 (that can be infected by transmission from their own species, or even other species)? I\u2019m thinking of something like differences in alternative splicing of the transcript that makes the Spike protein (or another protein that\u2019s assembled on the capsid) between species that prevents effective transmission of the virus.   Are there any examples of something like this among other viruses with cross-species transmission in the veterinary world? Where a species produces virions with the same viral genome sequence, but for some reason the virions are different in an important way from virions produced in other species? (Caused by alternative splicing, posttranslational modifications, epigenetic modifications, etc. Something to do with production and assembly of the virion in that species. Anything other than actual mutations in sequence of the viral genome itself).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10708.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhgg4x", "c_root_id_B": "fnhedcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1586961937, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960792, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Had an interesting conversation with my friend last week about our dogs and public places.   With regards to dogs being potential carriers, if so, should restrictions on dogs in public places be put in place ? (At cafes/restaurants etc)", "human_ref_B": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1145.0, "score_ratio": 16.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhvg13", "c_root_id_B": "fnhedcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1586969520, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960792, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "human_ref_B": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8728.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fni6fu8", "c_root_id_B": "fnhedcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1586974777, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960792, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "human_ref_B": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13985.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhhpyu", "c_root_id_B": "fnhedcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1586962619, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960792, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Something I think about a lot and would like some pros to explain (plus the project name) will we ever be able to reasonably and healthy extend a dogs life? Genetic modification, breeding certain lines, things I'm not aware of, etc.  Will there ever be a time dogs can have an average life expectancy of 25 for example?  If this is too off base then please feel free to ignore,", "human_ref_B": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1827.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhitr2", "c_root_id_B": "fnhedcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963205, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960792, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I have a service dog, but we are both at home quarantined. What\u2019s a good way to help keep up her training on ignoring distractions without public spaces, people, or other dogs around?", "human_ref_B": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2413.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhedcc", "c_root_id_B": "fnhjj41", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960792, "created_at_utc_B": 1586963571, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "human_ref_B": "I signed my dog up for your project. He is almost ten and his old age, even for a small dog is becoming more apparent. Should I be keeping any kinds of records, for our use or for yours if he becomes part of a study?  Thanks for doing this - dogs are life!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2779.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhedcc", "c_root_id_B": "fnhjn3o", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960792, "created_at_utc_B": 1586963630, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "human_ref_B": "Are there any methods outside of standard healthy living I can take with my dog to give him the longest and best life possible?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2838.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhedcc", "c_root_id_B": "fniv50u", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960792, "created_at_utc_B": 1586986907, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "human_ref_B": "Is there any difference in COVID risk between dolichocephalic and brachycephalic breeds?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26115.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhizdh", "c_root_id_B": "fnhedcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963287, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960792, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is there an ETA for when you are going to start collecting data for the project?  Or have you started? I signed up in November, but have only been getting newsletters, nothing about setting anything else up.", "human_ref_B": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2495.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhedcc", "c_root_id_B": "fnirvy8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960792, "created_at_utc_B": 1586985282, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "This is a reminder that we don\u2019t offer personal medical/safety advice here, and requests for it will be removed.  >Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC).", "human_ref_B": "Do you think it's possible for dogs to be used/trained to detect COVID19? If so, would it be safe?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24490.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh1qmv", "c_root_id_B": "fnhgg4x", "created_at_utc_A": 1586952464, "created_at_utc_B": 1586961937, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "human_ref_B": "Had an interesting conversation with my friend last week about our dogs and public places.   With regards to dogs being potential carriers, if so, should restrictions on dogs in public places be put in place ? (At cafes/restaurants etc)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9473.0, "score_ratio": 1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhgg4x", "c_root_id_B": "fnh50h8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586961937, "created_at_utc_B": 1586954996, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Had an interesting conversation with my friend last week about our dogs and public places.   With regards to dogs being potential carriers, if so, should restrictions on dogs in public places be put in place ? (At cafes/restaurants etc)", "human_ref_B": "Will COVID-19 transmit from animal to human? How likely is it? What can I do if it happens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6941.0, "score_ratio": 1.0666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhgg4x", "c_root_id_B": "fnhdzzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1586961937, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960587, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Had an interesting conversation with my friend last week about our dogs and public places.   With regards to dogs being potential carriers, if so, should restrictions on dogs in public places be put in place ? (At cafes/restaurants etc)", "human_ref_B": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1350.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhgg4x", "c_root_id_B": "fnh5kov", "created_at_utc_A": 1586961937, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955397, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Had an interesting conversation with my friend last week about our dogs and public places.   With regards to dogs being potential carriers, if so, should restrictions on dogs in public places be put in place ? (At cafes/restaurants etc)", "human_ref_B": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6540.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhgg4x", "c_root_id_B": "fngyz6a", "created_at_utc_A": 1586961937, "created_at_utc_B": 1586950005, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Had an interesting conversation with my friend last week about our dogs and public places.   With regards to dogs being potential carriers, if so, should restrictions on dogs in public places be put in place ? (At cafes/restaurants etc)", "human_ref_B": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11932.0, "score_ratio": 2.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh1qmv", "c_root_id_B": "fnh50h8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586952464, "created_at_utc_B": 1586954996, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "human_ref_B": "Will COVID-19 transmit from animal to human? How likely is it? What can I do if it happens?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2532.0, "score_ratio": 1.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnh1qmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586952464, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "If this infection spreads back and forth among species:  *is this unprecedented in any way? *would the same vaccine work across species? *what challenges does this present for containment? *what controllable differences in cross-species interaction would you recommend?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2459.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh50h8", "c_root_id_B": "fngyz6a", "created_at_utc_A": 1586954996, "created_at_utc_B": 1586950005, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Will COVID-19 transmit from animal to human? How likely is it? What can I do if it happens?", "human_ref_B": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4991.0, "score_ratio": 2.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhvg13", "c_root_id_B": "fnhdzzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1586969520, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960587, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "human_ref_B": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8933.0, "score_ratio": 1.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhvg13", "c_root_id_B": "fnh5kov", "created_at_utc_A": 1586969520, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955397, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "human_ref_B": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14123.0, "score_ratio": 1.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhhpyu", "c_root_id_B": "fnhvg13", "created_at_utc_A": 1586962619, "created_at_utc_B": 1586969520, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Something I think about a lot and would like some pros to explain (plus the project name) will we ever be able to reasonably and healthy extend a dogs life? Genetic modification, breeding certain lines, things I'm not aware of, etc.  Will there ever be a time dogs can have an average life expectancy of 25 for example?  If this is too off base then please feel free to ignore,", "human_ref_B": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6901.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnhvg13", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586969520, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19515.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhvg13", "c_root_id_B": "fnhitr2", "created_at_utc_A": 1586969520, "created_at_utc_B": 1586963205, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "human_ref_B": "I have a service dog, but we are both at home quarantined. What\u2019s a good way to help keep up her training on ignoring distractions without public spaces, people, or other dogs around?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6315.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhjj41", "c_root_id_B": "fnhvg13", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963571, "created_at_utc_B": 1586969520, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "I signed my dog up for your project. He is almost ten and his old age, even for a small dog is becoming more apparent. Should I be keeping any kinds of records, for our use or for yours if he becomes part of a study?  Thanks for doing this - dogs are life!", "human_ref_B": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5949.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhjn3o", "c_root_id_B": "fnhvg13", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963630, "created_at_utc_B": 1586969520, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Are there any methods outside of standard healthy living I can take with my dog to give him the longest and best life possible?", "human_ref_B": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5890.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhizdh", "c_root_id_B": "fnhvg13", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963287, "created_at_utc_B": 1586969520, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Is there an ETA for when you are going to start collecting data for the project?  Or have you started? I signed up in November, but have only been getting newsletters, nothing about setting anything else up.", "human_ref_B": "I have a Saint Bernard puppy that must get to the bark park or she looses her mind. The people practice social distancing there, but no one can resist petting her. If this safe for her? Is it safe for us to pet her afterward?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6233.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhdzzq", "c_root_id_B": "fni6fu8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960587, "created_at_utc_B": 1586974777, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "human_ref_B": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14190.0, "score_ratio": 1.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnh5kov", "c_root_id_B": "fni6fu8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586955397, "created_at_utc_B": 1586974777, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "human_ref_B": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19380.0, "score_ratio": 1.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fni6fu8", "c_root_id_B": "fnhhpyu", "created_at_utc_A": 1586974777, "created_at_utc_B": 1586962619, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "human_ref_B": "Something I think about a lot and would like some pros to explain (plus the project name) will we ever be able to reasonably and healthy extend a dogs life? Genetic modification, breeding certain lines, things I'm not aware of, etc.  Will there ever be a time dogs can have an average life expectancy of 25 for example?  If this is too off base then please feel free to ignore,", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12158.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fni6fu8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586974777, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24772.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fni6fu8", "c_root_id_B": "fnhitr2", "created_at_utc_A": 1586974777, "created_at_utc_B": 1586963205, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "human_ref_B": "I have a service dog, but we are both at home quarantined. What\u2019s a good way to help keep up her training on ignoring distractions without public spaces, people, or other dogs around?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11572.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fni6fu8", "c_root_id_B": "fnhjj41", "created_at_utc_A": 1586974777, "created_at_utc_B": 1586963571, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "human_ref_B": "I signed my dog up for your project. He is almost ten and his old age, even for a small dog is becoming more apparent. Should I be keeping any kinds of records, for our use or for yours if he becomes part of a study?  Thanks for doing this - dogs are life!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11206.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhjn3o", "c_root_id_B": "fni6fu8", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963630, "created_at_utc_B": 1586974777, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Are there any methods outside of standard healthy living I can take with my dog to give him the longest and best life possible?", "human_ref_B": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11147.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fni6fu8", "c_root_id_B": "fnhizdh", "created_at_utc_A": 1586974777, "created_at_utc_B": 1586963287, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "We received a question in /r/dogs, where this AMA was crossposted. /u/agawl81 asks:  >Should we be delaying preventative vet care (neutering, shots, annual checkup for flea and heart worm meds) until the emergency is over? I saw somewhere that this may last into 2021 or later.  Many veterinarians are limiting visits to emergency or urgent only until the peak period of infection passes and/or are asking that the pet be dropped off so as to minimize human-human contact. We encourage you to contact your veterinarian to determine how urgent your dog\u2019s visit is and what precautions the clinic is taking.  \\-- Dr. Tolbert", "human_ref_B": "Is there an ETA for when you are going to start collecting data for the project?  Or have you started? I signed up in November, but have only been getting newsletters, nothing about setting anything else up.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11490.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhdzzq", "c_root_id_B": "fnh5kov", "created_at_utc_A": 1586960587, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955397, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "human_ref_B": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5190.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnhdzzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586960587, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "Many people are fostering or buying new pets during this time.  Do you have any advice for foster or new pet owners?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10582.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnh5kov", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586955397, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "Can dogs get coronavirus from humans?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5392.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fngyz6a", "c_root_id_B": "fnhhpyu", "created_at_utc_A": 1586950005, "created_at_utc_B": 1586962619, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Thank You for taking the time to answer our questions. Besides a healthy diet and keeping his weight down, what can I do to extend the life of my dog?", "human_ref_B": "Something I think about a lot and would like some pros to explain (plus the project name) will we ever be able to reasonably and healthy extend a dogs life? Genetic modification, breeding certain lines, things I'm not aware of, etc.  Will there ever be a time dogs can have an average life expectancy of 25 for example?  If this is too off base then please feel free to ignore,", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12614.0, "score_ratio": 1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhjj41", "c_root_id_B": "fnhizdh", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963571, "created_at_utc_B": 1586963287, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I signed my dog up for your project. He is almost ten and his old age, even for a small dog is becoming more apparent. Should I be keeping any kinds of records, for our use or for yours if he becomes part of a study?  Thanks for doing this - dogs are life!", "human_ref_B": "Is there an ETA for when you are going to start collecting data for the project?  Or have you started? I signed up in November, but have only been getting newsletters, nothing about setting anything else up.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 284.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhjn3o", "c_root_id_B": "fnhizdh", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963630, "created_at_utc_B": 1586963287, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Are there any methods outside of standard healthy living I can take with my dog to give him the longest and best life possible?", "human_ref_B": "Is there an ETA for when you are going to start collecting data for the project?  Or have you started? I signed up in November, but have only been getting newsletters, nothing about setting anything else up.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 343.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnhizdh", "c_root_id_B": "fniv50u", "created_at_utc_A": 1586963287, "created_at_utc_B": 1586986907, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Is there an ETA for when you are going to start collecting data for the project?  Or have you started? I signed up in November, but have only been getting newsletters, nothing about setting anything else up.", "human_ref_B": "Is there any difference in COVID risk between dolichocephalic and brachycephalic breeds?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23620.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g1ptjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything! The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.  We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.   There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.   We're here to answer questions about:  + Coronaviruses and companion animals + Human-to-animal transmission + Staying safe during the pandemic + Interpreting signs of illness in animals + What to do if your dog gets sick + What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity  *We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.*  ABOUT US:  **Dr. Kate E. Creevy**, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.  **Dr. Audrey Ruple**, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.  **Dr. Katherine Tolbert**, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.  Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.  Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!  Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy", "c_root_id_A": "fnirvy8", "c_root_id_B": "fniv50u", "created_at_utc_A": 1586985282, "created_at_utc_B": 1586986907, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Do you think it's possible for dogs to be used/trained to detect COVID19? If so, would it be safe?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any difference in COVID risk between dolichocephalic and brachycephalic breeds?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1625.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iamss", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "I understand that we have less chromosomes than the rest of the great apes, but how did the first individual with that change reproduce? From my knowledge or reproduction (educated layman) I don't understand how an individual with that mutation could reproduce with an individual that did not have it.  Educate me!", "c_root_id_A": "c22chh6", "c_root_id_B": "c229my1", "created_at_utc_A": 1309253856, "created_at_utc_B": 1309218902, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "Read this: The 44 Chromosome Man And What He Reveals About Our Genetic Past", "human_ref_B": "Could it also be boiled down to reasoning and logic? For instance one species evolves well beyond the means of another but through logic and reasoning that stronger species is able to teach the lesser species. Eventually over time it all clicks and everyone gets it, then make with the nookie and evolution advances one step further, Rinse, Repeat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 34954.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xq8jz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do we see consistent progression in some olympic disciplines (such as the 100m, swimming times etc), but not in others like the long jump? Just curious if anyone has looked into why particular sports are more susceptible to improved performances, yet we haven't seen increases in the long/triple jump distances for the best part of two decades? It seems strange how we think the science of sport is constantly improving, or that people are athletically improving when it comes to the reason for the improvements in certain sports, yet we don't see the same progression in others?", "c_root_id_A": "c5omujq", "c_root_id_B": "c5ot55c", "created_at_utc_A": 1344199352, "created_at_utc_B": 1344226292, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Take a look at Nate Silver's NY Times blog post on this subject.", "human_ref_B": "Part of the reason there hasn't been a noticeable improvement on the long jump is that two of the advancements of the record were in (pardon the pun) huge leaps and bounds.  Jesse Owens blew by the old record by a distance of 15cm.  It took the rest of the world 25 years to beat that.  Then, 8 years after someone broke Owens jump (and the record had advanced another 14 cm), along comes Bob Beamon in 1968.  He goes and destroys the record by 55 cm.  Mankind has to wait another 23 years before someone beat it (Mike Powell, 1991).  I personally think Owens/Beamon/Powell simply \"out jumped\" history.  All other record advancements in the sport have been gradual.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26940.0, "score_ratio": 1.2941176471, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x86c4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are traditional vaccines so slow to develop compared to mRNA vaccines? I understand that some vaccines are created by attenuating live virus by replicating many successively weaker generations, and why that might take a long time. But what about inactivated viruses? Wikipedia says viruses can be inactivated by heat, chemicals, or radiation. What about this process takes so long? In my ignorance, mRNA vaccines would seem more complex and difficult to develop.", "c_root_id_A": "inl3525", "c_root_id_B": "inlcbcf", "created_at_utc_A": 1662643262, "created_at_utc_B": 1662647197, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "mRNA vaccines is a long story. The first mRNA flu vaccine was tested in mice in the 1990s and when the first mRNA vaccines for rabies were tested in humans in 2013. Work on them has been lasting for a very long time. The public simply didn't know about this before the beginning of the pandemic.", "human_ref_B": "TLDR: mRNA vaccines can be made with the biotech equivalent of a 3d printer. Scaling up to mass production is also more or less \"plug and play\".  Biotech had gotten pretty good at sequencing and synthesis of sequences. You can pretty easily sequence a virus in a couple of days if you have a rough idea of what you are looking for. From there you pick a protein to target and stick the RNA sequence for that protein into a company website and a few days later you have the RNA. From there you can immediately begin testing to see if you made an effective vaccine. You can iterate just as quickly.  Second a factory for mRNA vaccines can make basically any mRNA vaccine with minimal retooling. You can use PCR to mass produce RNA in hours with easy purification. I would think that bacteria could also be used for RNA production, though the purification step is harder then. However the process is the same no matter what mRNA sequence you are making.  For inactivated vaccines you have to grow the virus before you inactive it. Usually that means setting up cell cultures which is pretty specific to the virus. One of the viruses I work on, HCV can't really be cultured. (You can get one or two strains to grow in culture but it's not easy to do in general). You have to find a way to separate the virus from the rest of the junk in the cell culture. Then you have to find a way to inactivate that doesn't destroy the virus too much. Which can be a crap shoot.  Protein unit bases vaccines like HPV can be easier than traditional vaccines. But protein mass production and purification is harder than mRNA.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3935.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x86c4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are traditional vaccines so slow to develop compared to mRNA vaccines? I understand that some vaccines are created by attenuating live virus by replicating many successively weaker generations, and why that might take a long time. But what about inactivated viruses? Wikipedia says viruses can be inactivated by heat, chemicals, or radiation. What about this process takes so long? In my ignorance, mRNA vaccines would seem more complex and difficult to develop.", "c_root_id_A": "inlcbcf", "c_root_id_B": "inki329", "created_at_utc_A": 1662647197, "created_at_utc_B": 1662631039, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "TLDR: mRNA vaccines can be made with the biotech equivalent of a 3d printer. Scaling up to mass production is also more or less \"plug and play\".  Biotech had gotten pretty good at sequencing and synthesis of sequences. You can pretty easily sequence a virus in a couple of days if you have a rough idea of what you are looking for. From there you pick a protein to target and stick the RNA sequence for that protein into a company website and a few days later you have the RNA. From there you can immediately begin testing to see if you made an effective vaccine. You can iterate just as quickly.  Second a factory for mRNA vaccines can make basically any mRNA vaccine with minimal retooling. You can use PCR to mass produce RNA in hours with easy purification. I would think that bacteria could also be used for RNA production, though the purification step is harder then. However the process is the same no matter what mRNA sequence you are making.  For inactivated vaccines you have to grow the virus before you inactive it. Usually that means setting up cell cultures which is pretty specific to the virus. One of the viruses I work on, HCV can't really be cultured. (You can get one or two strains to grow in culture but it's not easy to do in general). You have to find a way to separate the virus from the rest of the junk in the cell culture. Then you have to find a way to inactivate that doesn't destroy the virus too much. Which can be a crap shoot.  Protein unit bases vaccines like HPV can be easier than traditional vaccines. But protein mass production and purification is harder than mRNA.", "human_ref_B": "I mean, if we're talking about in the context of the recent pandemic, part of the reason that the development of the COVID mRNA vaccines was quicker than other vaccination programs (not all of it, but part of it certainly) is will and funding. Most vaccinations could be developed much, much quicker than they typically are if they recieved funding and support on the scale of the COVID vaccinations.  Unfortunately, this comes down not to a question of science, but capitalist economics - A shocking amount of man hours is spent on grant and funding applications and lobbying when vaccines are being developed (and then again in chasing approval for use), and that is the process that tends to slow them down - financing and bureaucracy. A vaccine is only a profit making venture if it works, and so investing money into the research of possible vaccines is a gamble, one that capitalists organisations will want to make as cheaply as they can, and one where they will only invest the money after substantial hoop-jumping by the research team to prove it's a risk worth taking.  The wide reaching economic impact of COVID is what prompted the virtually blank cheque funding that enabled the vaccine development to go so quickly. Labs could employ as many scientists as they needed to do the work, they had vast resources allocated, there was no sitting around for months on end waiting for grants and budgets and approval. Ultimately, no matter the cost of developing an effective vaccine quickly, it was going to be cheaper than the on going economic damage of multiple successive lockdowns and vastly overwhelmed healthcare systems and seriously ill workforces.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16158.0, "score_ratio": 1.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x86c4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are traditional vaccines so slow to develop compared to mRNA vaccines? I understand that some vaccines are created by attenuating live virus by replicating many successively weaker generations, and why that might take a long time. But what about inactivated viruses? Wikipedia says viruses can be inactivated by heat, chemicals, or radiation. What about this process takes so long? In my ignorance, mRNA vaccines would seem more complex and difficult to develop.", "c_root_id_A": "inlcbcf", "c_root_id_B": "inl7d7y", "created_at_utc_A": 1662647197, "created_at_utc_B": 1662645128, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "TLDR: mRNA vaccines can be made with the biotech equivalent of a 3d printer. Scaling up to mass production is also more or less \"plug and play\".  Biotech had gotten pretty good at sequencing and synthesis of sequences. You can pretty easily sequence a virus in a couple of days if you have a rough idea of what you are looking for. From there you pick a protein to target and stick the RNA sequence for that protein into a company website and a few days later you have the RNA. From there you can immediately begin testing to see if you made an effective vaccine. You can iterate just as quickly.  Second a factory for mRNA vaccines can make basically any mRNA vaccine with minimal retooling. You can use PCR to mass produce RNA in hours with easy purification. I would think that bacteria could also be used for RNA production, though the purification step is harder then. However the process is the same no matter what mRNA sequence you are making.  For inactivated vaccines you have to grow the virus before you inactive it. Usually that means setting up cell cultures which is pretty specific to the virus. One of the viruses I work on, HCV can't really be cultured. (You can get one or two strains to grow in culture but it's not easy to do in general). You have to find a way to separate the virus from the rest of the junk in the cell culture. Then you have to find a way to inactivate that doesn't destroy the virus too much. Which can be a crap shoot.  Protein unit bases vaccines like HPV can be easier than traditional vaccines. But protein mass production and purification is harder than mRNA.", "human_ref_B": "Microprocessor companies donated huge amount of High Performance Computing for machine learning algorithms to run and search the protein sequences that would be affected by the viral RNA  https://www.amd.com/en/corporate/covid-19-hpc-fund  On the public health policy side: a draconian and arguably invasive requirement for full lab PCR sequencing of suspected infections, quickly sequenced the virus, its variants, and provided data for the computer AI to search for mutations that would match the S1 and S2 spike protein fits. It is picking a RNA sequence and mutating a simulated genome while looking (not too un-similar from computer vision that searches for cats in pictures, but in 4 dimensions and looking at protein shapes and their trajectory over time) identifying for protein structures that would match what the virus would use to infect. Once the target mRNA is identified to induce appropriate cell mutations, mRNA vaccine technology was already developed for years prior (as another response pointed out, mRNA vaccines have been worked on since 1970s) That was simply the delivery vector, the real trick was to find the right sequence which is where AI and simulation helped a lot.  Just search up \"Computer vision protein design\" and tons of recent scholarly papers will show up. I was lucky to get the presentation from Danny Diaz at UT Ausin live, and most entertainingly the 9 minute mark where he asks \"Did the model make or mistake or did Nature make a mistake\" is a bit of an attention grabber for me  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gaoeipwx5p4  On the FDA/approval side, others are right, huge amounts of money were thrown at this from the private sector given the high confidence of success due to simulation in AI. The vaccine was being mass produced prior to even being approved. Additionally the technology allowed the human trials to be approved in unprecedented reduced timeline and much smaller sample size (\\~40K participants)... most importantly in the words of the director of the NIH (Francis collins is Fauci's boss) at around the 1 hour 8 minute mark \"We just kept the lawyers out of the room\"  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRZE-SJShkE  Additionally, on the money investment front, though far less interesting and mostly marketing for Pfizer, here is the same interviewer talking to their CEO  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z\\_LhPMhkEdw  In case you are concerned about getting your information from a podcaster, the host is a PhD and professor of Engineering from MIT focused on AI, computer vision. While layman friendly for idiots like me, he does ask rather academically appropriate questions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2069.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x86c4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are traditional vaccines so slow to develop compared to mRNA vaccines? I understand that some vaccines are created by attenuating live virus by replicating many successively weaker generations, and why that might take a long time. But what about inactivated viruses? Wikipedia says viruses can be inactivated by heat, chemicals, or radiation. What about this process takes so long? In my ignorance, mRNA vaccines would seem more complex and difficult to develop.", "c_root_id_A": "inlcbcf", "c_root_id_B": "inl9az4", "created_at_utc_A": 1662647197, "created_at_utc_B": 1662645948, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "TLDR: mRNA vaccines can be made with the biotech equivalent of a 3d printer. Scaling up to mass production is also more or less \"plug and play\".  Biotech had gotten pretty good at sequencing and synthesis of sequences. You can pretty easily sequence a virus in a couple of days if you have a rough idea of what you are looking for. From there you pick a protein to target and stick the RNA sequence for that protein into a company website and a few days later you have the RNA. From there you can immediately begin testing to see if you made an effective vaccine. You can iterate just as quickly.  Second a factory for mRNA vaccines can make basically any mRNA vaccine with minimal retooling. You can use PCR to mass produce RNA in hours with easy purification. I would think that bacteria could also be used for RNA production, though the purification step is harder then. However the process is the same no matter what mRNA sequence you are making.  For inactivated vaccines you have to grow the virus before you inactive it. Usually that means setting up cell cultures which is pretty specific to the virus. One of the viruses I work on, HCV can't really be cultured. (You can get one or two strains to grow in culture but it's not easy to do in general). You have to find a way to separate the virus from the rest of the junk in the cell culture. Then you have to find a way to inactivate that doesn't destroy the virus too much. Which can be a crap shoot.  Protein unit bases vaccines like HPV can be easier than traditional vaccines. But protein mass production and purification is harder than mRNA.", "human_ref_B": "My work is making vaccins for animals (I'm an worker, not an inventor). the way we make the inactivated vaccins is by growing cells, then growing the virus in those cells.   Now a there has to be a demand for a vaccin in order for research to start. Then researchers start researching what virus it is, and how to grow it outside of a body. Since the cells in your lungs are different from those in your intestine, they need to find suitable host cells, and the perfect environment for the cells AND the virus to grow. And how to make that possible on a large scale, then you make your vaccine, the  you start your testing phase, first on animals, the  on healthy humans, then on sick humans, and then you get it approved. For a vaccine we worked on that took 20 years, that is 20 years of paying (PhD) researchers before you can start to get a return on your investment.   In the farmacutical research we also want to get rid of animal testing, but it has to be done by law.   I'd say it's 30% research, 40% testing, 30% proving that your tests were good and your vaccine is safe.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1249.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x86c4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are traditional vaccines so slow to develop compared to mRNA vaccines? I understand that some vaccines are created by attenuating live virus by replicating many successively weaker generations, and why that might take a long time. But what about inactivated viruses? Wikipedia says viruses can be inactivated by heat, chemicals, or radiation. What about this process takes so long? In my ignorance, mRNA vaccines would seem more complex and difficult to develop.", "c_root_id_A": "inki329", "c_root_id_B": "inl3525", "created_at_utc_A": 1662631039, "created_at_utc_B": 1662643262, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "I mean, if we're talking about in the context of the recent pandemic, part of the reason that the development of the COVID mRNA vaccines was quicker than other vaccination programs (not all of it, but part of it certainly) is will and funding. Most vaccinations could be developed much, much quicker than they typically are if they recieved funding and support on the scale of the COVID vaccinations.  Unfortunately, this comes down not to a question of science, but capitalist economics - A shocking amount of man hours is spent on grant and funding applications and lobbying when vaccines are being developed (and then again in chasing approval for use), and that is the process that tends to slow them down - financing and bureaucracy. A vaccine is only a profit making venture if it works, and so investing money into the research of possible vaccines is a gamble, one that capitalists organisations will want to make as cheaply as they can, and one where they will only invest the money after substantial hoop-jumping by the research team to prove it's a risk worth taking.  The wide reaching economic impact of COVID is what prompted the virtually blank cheque funding that enabled the vaccine development to go so quickly. Labs could employ as many scientists as they needed to do the work, they had vast resources allocated, there was no sitting around for months on end waiting for grants and budgets and approval. Ultimately, no matter the cost of developing an effective vaccine quickly, it was going to be cheaper than the on going economic damage of multiple successive lockdowns and vastly overwhelmed healthcare systems and seriously ill workforces.", "human_ref_B": "mRNA vaccines is a long story. The first mRNA flu vaccine was tested in mice in the 1990s and when the first mRNA vaccines for rabies were tested in humans in 2013. Work on them has been lasting for a very long time. The public simply didn't know about this before the beginning of the pandemic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12223.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x86c4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are traditional vaccines so slow to develop compared to mRNA vaccines? I understand that some vaccines are created by attenuating live virus by replicating many successively weaker generations, and why that might take a long time. But what about inactivated viruses? Wikipedia says viruses can be inactivated by heat, chemicals, or radiation. What about this process takes so long? In my ignorance, mRNA vaccines would seem more complex and difficult to develop.", "c_root_id_A": "innqd0h", "c_root_id_B": "inl7d7y", "created_at_utc_A": 1662680940, "created_at_utc_B": 1662645128, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It's not so much that mRNA vaccines are faster than other options. It's that the combination of speed, safety, and effectiveness worked out best for mRNA vaccines; at least this time.  For example, DNA vaccines would be just as quick to develop, if not more so, and probably would be just as safe if not more so. But DNA vaccines (which have been around even longer than mRNA vaccines) in general are less effective at driving immunity, so they were not as attractive approaches (although they have been tested).  Inactivated vaccines can be quick to develop, but have safety concerns -- not only \"What if the inactivation isn't complete?\" but also, to get a certain amount of inactivated virus you need to start with probably ten times that amount of live virus; so risks at the manufacturing stage. These vaccines also turned out to be less effective in general than mRNA vaccines, although that wasn't predictable up front.  Attenuated vaccines take a relatively long time to develop, and confirming safety can be a slow process.  Recombinant vaccines, like the adenovirus vectors, can be quick, safe, and effective, and several recombinant adenovirus COVID vaccines were almost neck and neck with the mRNA approach. They still take a little longer up front, and that probably let the mRNA vaccines start with animal testing earlier and just gradually pull ahead.  There was a moderate surprise with mRNA vaccines -- that they actually turned out as effective as they did; most previous mRNA vaccines didn't look quite as good. The big surprise was the effective manufacture, which at the industrial scale was really a new process. I don't know details but I believe that several governments heavily subsidized the production plants, which of course sped up production a lot.", "human_ref_B": "Microprocessor companies donated huge amount of High Performance Computing for machine learning algorithms to run and search the protein sequences that would be affected by the viral RNA  https://www.amd.com/en/corporate/covid-19-hpc-fund  On the public health policy side: a draconian and arguably invasive requirement for full lab PCR sequencing of suspected infections, quickly sequenced the virus, its variants, and provided data for the computer AI to search for mutations that would match the S1 and S2 spike protein fits. It is picking a RNA sequence and mutating a simulated genome while looking (not too un-similar from computer vision that searches for cats in pictures, but in 4 dimensions and looking at protein shapes and their trajectory over time) identifying for protein structures that would match what the virus would use to infect. Once the target mRNA is identified to induce appropriate cell mutations, mRNA vaccine technology was already developed for years prior (as another response pointed out, mRNA vaccines have been worked on since 1970s) That was simply the delivery vector, the real trick was to find the right sequence which is where AI and simulation helped a lot.  Just search up \"Computer vision protein design\" and tons of recent scholarly papers will show up. I was lucky to get the presentation from Danny Diaz at UT Ausin live, and most entertainingly the 9 minute mark where he asks \"Did the model make or mistake or did Nature make a mistake\" is a bit of an attention grabber for me  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gaoeipwx5p4  On the FDA/approval side, others are right, huge amounts of money were thrown at this from the private sector given the high confidence of success due to simulation in AI. The vaccine was being mass produced prior to even being approved. Additionally the technology allowed the human trials to be approved in unprecedented reduced timeline and much smaller sample size (\\~40K participants)... most importantly in the words of the director of the NIH (Francis collins is Fauci's boss) at around the 1 hour 8 minute mark \"We just kept the lawyers out of the room\"  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRZE-SJShkE  Additionally, on the money investment front, though far less interesting and mostly marketing for Pfizer, here is the same interviewer talking to their CEO  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z\\_LhPMhkEdw  In case you are concerned about getting your information from a podcaster, the host is a PhD and professor of Engineering from MIT focused on AI, computer vision. While layman friendly for idiots like me, he does ask rather academically appropriate questions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 35812.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x86c4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are traditional vaccines so slow to develop compared to mRNA vaccines? I understand that some vaccines are created by attenuating live virus by replicating many successively weaker generations, and why that might take a long time. But what about inactivated viruses? Wikipedia says viruses can be inactivated by heat, chemicals, or radiation. What about this process takes so long? In my ignorance, mRNA vaccines would seem more complex and difficult to develop.", "c_root_id_A": "innqd0h", "c_root_id_B": "inl9az4", "created_at_utc_A": 1662680940, "created_at_utc_B": 1662645948, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It's not so much that mRNA vaccines are faster than other options. It's that the combination of speed, safety, and effectiveness worked out best for mRNA vaccines; at least this time.  For example, DNA vaccines would be just as quick to develop, if not more so, and probably would be just as safe if not more so. But DNA vaccines (which have been around even longer than mRNA vaccines) in general are less effective at driving immunity, so they were not as attractive approaches (although they have been tested).  Inactivated vaccines can be quick to develop, but have safety concerns -- not only \"What if the inactivation isn't complete?\" but also, to get a certain amount of inactivated virus you need to start with probably ten times that amount of live virus; so risks at the manufacturing stage. These vaccines also turned out to be less effective in general than mRNA vaccines, although that wasn't predictable up front.  Attenuated vaccines take a relatively long time to develop, and confirming safety can be a slow process.  Recombinant vaccines, like the adenovirus vectors, can be quick, safe, and effective, and several recombinant adenovirus COVID vaccines were almost neck and neck with the mRNA approach. They still take a little longer up front, and that probably let the mRNA vaccines start with animal testing earlier and just gradually pull ahead.  There was a moderate surprise with mRNA vaccines -- that they actually turned out as effective as they did; most previous mRNA vaccines didn't look quite as good. The big surprise was the effective manufacture, which at the industrial scale was really a new process. I don't know details but I believe that several governments heavily subsidized the production plants, which of course sped up production a lot.", "human_ref_B": "My work is making vaccins for animals (I'm an worker, not an inventor). the way we make the inactivated vaccins is by growing cells, then growing the virus in those cells.   Now a there has to be a demand for a vaccin in order for research to start. Then researchers start researching what virus it is, and how to grow it outside of a body. Since the cells in your lungs are different from those in your intestine, they need to find suitable host cells, and the perfect environment for the cells AND the virus to grow. And how to make that possible on a large scale, then you make your vaccine, the  you start your testing phase, first on animals, the  on healthy humans, then on sick humans, and then you get it approved. For a vaccine we worked on that took 20 years, that is 20 years of paying (PhD) researchers before you can start to get a return on your investment.   In the farmacutical research we also want to get rid of animal testing, but it has to be done by law.   I'd say it's 30% research, 40% testing, 30% proving that your tests were good and your vaccine is safe.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 34992.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q1lnv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How do the lipid nanoparticles in mRNA vaccines trigger membrane fusion? As far as I know, enveloped viruses have proteins that cause the viral envelope to fuse with cell membranes. It doesn't look like the vaccine lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have any such proteins, so why are they able to fuse with cell membranes without them when viruses don't seem to be able to do that?   Also, is there any evidence that we're going to have the same worry with LNP formulations that we do with adenovirus-based vaccines -- namely, prior exposure to that particular vector may cause the immune system to attack it before it can deliver its payload?", "c_root_id_A": "hfgpszq", "c_root_id_B": "hfgqepm", "created_at_utc_A": 1633430549, "created_at_utc_B": 1633431038, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "The necessary mechanisms are part of the target cells themselves - the vector only needs to have the correct lipid composition in order to fuse with the appropriate target cells (what is actually being regulated is the net charge of the LNP).  > Organ selectivity can also be achieved by adjusting the proportions of lipid components ...  > Once they reach target cells, lipid nanoparticles can be internalized by multiple mechanisms, including macropinocytosis and clathrin-mediated and caveolae-mediated endocytosis ...  Source  Related work (cited by source): [1] [2]  This comprehensive paper on mRNA delivery using LNPs published in 2016 shows the main features and advantages of LNP-based delivery. As a historic note, the technique has been used in vaccines a lot earlier than the ones currently in use against SARS-CoV-2.   There *can* also be unwanted activation of the immune system by the LNPs themselves, which is explored in this work. It does conclude, however, that:   > ... it is well demonstrated that an enhanced understanding of all nanoparticle compositions is required to address their immunotoxicity  But also, a properly screened LNP can generate additional immune responses (e.g. complement activation) that can (e.g.) enhance vaccine efficacy:  >  In certain cases, immunostimulatory activity of nanoparticles could be advantageous, especially for vaccine delivery ...  Essentially, there *can* be unwanted immune system activation *if* the LNP has not been screened for immunotoxicity. An LPN that has been screened should not exhibit such effects (emphasis mine):   > As an increasing number of nanotechnology-based products are **failing early clinical trials due to unexpected immune responses**, characterization of immunotoxicity for nanoparticle candidates is becoming important in preclinical toxicology screening.  Conclusion: yes, there is the potential for the immune system to attack the LNP *if* the screening of the LNP used was inadequate.", "human_ref_B": "LNPs do not trigger membrane fusion. The mechanism of entry is macropinocytosis or endocytosis. This creates an endosome and the charge ratio of the mRNA to the cationic lipids facilitates endosome escape of the mRNA.  https://www.nature.com/articles/nbt.2634  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-12275-6", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 489.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q1lnv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How do the lipid nanoparticles in mRNA vaccines trigger membrane fusion? As far as I know, enveloped viruses have proteins that cause the viral envelope to fuse with cell membranes. It doesn't look like the vaccine lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have any such proteins, so why are they able to fuse with cell membranes without them when viruses don't seem to be able to do that?   Also, is there any evidence that we're going to have the same worry with LNP formulations that we do with adenovirus-based vaccines -- namely, prior exposure to that particular vector may cause the immune system to attack it before it can deliver its payload?", "c_root_id_A": "hfgng4w", "c_root_id_B": "hfgqepm", "created_at_utc_A": 1633428552, "created_at_utc_B": 1633431038, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Membranes consist of lipids. Lpids are hydrofobic and fuse together. Lipid nanoparticles physicaly fuse in the cell walls. Also lipid nanoparticles are not proteins and our immune system is searching almost only for proteins. mRNA istelf is altered to avoid attacks from immune system.", "human_ref_B": "LNPs do not trigger membrane fusion. The mechanism of entry is macropinocytosis or endocytosis. This creates an endosome and the charge ratio of the mRNA to the cationic lipids facilitates endosome escape of the mRNA.  https://www.nature.com/articles/nbt.2634  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-12275-6", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2486.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q1lnv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How do the lipid nanoparticles in mRNA vaccines trigger membrane fusion? As far as I know, enveloped viruses have proteins that cause the viral envelope to fuse with cell membranes. It doesn't look like the vaccine lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have any such proteins, so why are they able to fuse with cell membranes without them when viruses don't seem to be able to do that?   Also, is there any evidence that we're going to have the same worry with LNP formulations that we do with adenovirus-based vaccines -- namely, prior exposure to that particular vector may cause the immune system to attack it before it can deliver its payload?", "c_root_id_A": "hfgpszq", "c_root_id_B": "hfgng4w", "created_at_utc_A": 1633430549, "created_at_utc_B": 1633428552, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The necessary mechanisms are part of the target cells themselves - the vector only needs to have the correct lipid composition in order to fuse with the appropriate target cells (what is actually being regulated is the net charge of the LNP).  > Organ selectivity can also be achieved by adjusting the proportions of lipid components ...  > Once they reach target cells, lipid nanoparticles can be internalized by multiple mechanisms, including macropinocytosis and clathrin-mediated and caveolae-mediated endocytosis ...  Source  Related work (cited by source): [1] [2]  This comprehensive paper on mRNA delivery using LNPs published in 2016 shows the main features and advantages of LNP-based delivery. As a historic note, the technique has been used in vaccines a lot earlier than the ones currently in use against SARS-CoV-2.   There *can* also be unwanted activation of the immune system by the LNPs themselves, which is explored in this work. It does conclude, however, that:   > ... it is well demonstrated that an enhanced understanding of all nanoparticle compositions is required to address their immunotoxicity  But also, a properly screened LNP can generate additional immune responses (e.g. complement activation) that can (e.g.) enhance vaccine efficacy:  >  In certain cases, immunostimulatory activity of nanoparticles could be advantageous, especially for vaccine delivery ...  Essentially, there *can* be unwanted immune system activation *if* the LNP has not been screened for immunotoxicity. An LPN that has been screened should not exhibit such effects (emphasis mine):   > As an increasing number of nanotechnology-based products are **failing early clinical trials due to unexpected immune responses**, characterization of immunotoxicity for nanoparticle candidates is becoming important in preclinical toxicology screening.  Conclusion: yes, there is the potential for the immune system to attack the LNP *if* the screening of the LNP used was inadequate.", "human_ref_B": "Membranes consist of lipids. Lpids are hydrofobic and fuse together. Lipid nanoparticles physicaly fuse in the cell walls. Also lipid nanoparticles are not proteins and our immune system is searching almost only for proteins. mRNA istelf is altered to avoid attacks from immune system.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1997.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vbkon", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do we know LEDs have a lifespan of 25+ years when the technology hasn't even been around that long?", "c_root_id_A": "ceqmz59", "c_root_id_B": "ceqmrgf", "created_at_utc_A": 1389834749, "created_at_utc_B": 1389834273, "score_A": 1449, "score_B": 88, "human_ref_A": "> How do we know LEDs have a lifespan of 25+ years when the technology hasn't even been around that long?  LEDs first appeared as practical electronic components in 1962. Over fifty years ago.  In a more general answer to your question however, one can determine long MTBF times via accelerated life testing.", "human_ref_B": "LEDs don't just fail spontaneously, they tend to die gradually depending on the failure mode.  You can read about specific failure modes here.  Most of them will never be an issue if designed and used properly, so you can rule those out.  Specifically, almost all of the 'stress' and 'packaging' failure modes can be avoided with good design and proper use.  With the semiconductor related failure modes, they tend to happen gradually so you can study them and extrapolate from your data how much longer they might last.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 476.0, "score_ratio": 16.4659090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vbkon", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do we know LEDs have a lifespan of 25+ years when the technology hasn't even been around that long?", "c_root_id_A": "cequxeo", "c_root_id_B": "ceqmrgf", "created_at_utc_A": 1389853470, "created_at_utc_B": 1389834273, "score_A": 92, "score_B": 88, "human_ref_A": "I love lighting questions.  I'll assume you're talking about commercial or residential grade LEDs used for general or decorative lighting. The short answer is accelerated temperature based extrapolation from empirical data in a standardized method.  The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) developed two documents that outline the details (which you can probably find in your local university library). LM-80 is a temperature measurement test standard. In this test, a temperature sensor is installed on the PCB associated with the LED chip. This acts as a proxy for the junction temperature, which ultimately impacts overall lumen depreciation of the chip. The temperature data is collected at three ambient temperatures (55C, 85C, and manufacturer's choice). ***edit to remove incorrect info***  The second document, Technical Memorandum 21 (TM-21) uses empirical data to consistently & accurately extrapolate the lumen maintenance from 6,000 hours collected in the LM-80 to up to 100,000 hours.  I say lumen maintenance here specifically because LEDs (short of electrical failures) should not die. Over time, the LED will dim, gradually. In lighting design, most people use the L70 standard, or when light output falls below 70% initial, the LED source is considered to be exhausted and should be replaced. This lighting standard is based on human physiological studies which show most people cannot visually perceive a difference in brightness when when the output is decreased by anything less than 30%.  When an LED manufacturer says a product will last 25,000 hours, they're really saying that the product will operate an visually consistent (to the human eye anyway) level for 25,000 hours, after which the drop in apparent brightness will necessitate a replacement product.", "human_ref_B": "LEDs don't just fail spontaneously, they tend to die gradually depending on the failure mode.  You can read about specific failure modes here.  Most of them will never be an issue if designed and used properly, so you can rule those out.  Specifically, almost all of the 'stress' and 'packaging' failure modes can be avoided with good design and proper use.  With the semiconductor related failure modes, they tend to happen gradually so you can study them and extrapolate from your data how much longer they might last.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19197.0, "score_ratio": 1.0454545455, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "55raco", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "If everything consists of probability waves, why do I see things where they are? Why does a book appear at an exact location to me and everyone else but not in an infinite possibility of locations?", "c_root_id_A": "d8ddz8t", "c_root_id_B": "d8da0lz", "created_at_utc_A": 1475580394, "created_at_utc_B": 1475567080, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "There are different ways to approach this problem,but truth is that there is no universal agreement in the community on how exactly the quantum realm connects to the macroscopic reality we are used to.  There are however special situations where we can model quite well how a classical behavior can be obtained as a limit of quantum mechanics.", "human_ref_B": "the book is a large object that is made out of many particles.  the quantum fluctuations are very small in comparison, negligible, and you can approximate the observables by their mean values. at this scale quantum mechanics reduces to classical mechanics  (wikipedia ehrenfest theorem).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13314.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j1zrb2q", "c_root_id_B": "j1zypsk", "created_at_utc_A": 1672246190, "created_at_utc_B": 1672249099, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "How does standard Economics model the economies of authoritarian nations, like Russia, Iran and China, or nations in war like the Ukraine?  Are those models useful?", "human_ref_B": "In the Sherlock Holmes books numbers are often in the form of e.g. \"two-and-twenty\" instead of the currently usual form of \"twenty-two\". To me this change to start with the more significant number makes sense. But what led to this change in numbering and when did it take place? Did it follow a longer debate? Was there a transition period? Could a similar transition happen to other languages like german, where at the moment a \"two-and-twenty\"-style numbering is in place?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2909.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j1zyldy", "c_root_id_B": "j1zypsk", "created_at_utc_A": 1672249052, "created_at_utc_B": 1672249099, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Are there truly big mysteries around \u201cmissing links\u201d in anthropological genetics? Are there currently anthropologists who seriously study the possibility that something or someone \u201chelped\u201d our genetics along?", "human_ref_B": "In the Sherlock Holmes books numbers are often in the form of e.g. \"two-and-twenty\" instead of the currently usual form of \"twenty-two\". To me this change to start with the more significant number makes sense. But what led to this change in numbering and when did it take place? Did it follow a longer debate? Was there a transition period? Could a similar transition happen to other languages like german, where at the moment a \"two-and-twenty\"-style numbering is in place?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 47.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j201zsg", "c_root_id_B": "j2014fc", "created_at_utc_A": 1672250385, "created_at_utc_B": 1672250040, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "What would happen to a human if they were placed under a giant plunger (the kind you use in a toliet or sink) and plunged? Would the person rip apart?", "human_ref_B": "Do we now when language started?   Was it before or after we migrated out of Africa?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 345.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j201zsg", "c_root_id_B": "j1zrb2q", "created_at_utc_A": 1672250385, "created_at_utc_B": 1672246190, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "What would happen to a human if they were placed under a giant plunger (the kind you use in a toliet or sink) and plunged? Would the person rip apart?", "human_ref_B": "How does standard Economics model the economies of authoritarian nations, like Russia, Iran and China, or nations in war like the Ukraine?  Are those models useful?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4195.0, "score_ratio": 1.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j201zsg", "c_root_id_B": "j1zyldy", "created_at_utc_A": 1672250385, "created_at_utc_B": 1672249052, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What would happen to a human if they were placed under a giant plunger (the kind you use in a toliet or sink) and plunged? Would the person rip apart?", "human_ref_B": "Are there truly big mysteries around \u201cmissing links\u201d in anthropological genetics? Are there currently anthropologists who seriously study the possibility that something or someone \u201chelped\u201d our genetics along?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1333.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j2014fc", "c_root_id_B": "j20bhv9", "created_at_utc_A": 1672250040, "created_at_utc_B": 1672254114, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Do we now when language started?   Was it before or after we migrated out of Africa?", "human_ref_B": "In terms of linguistic classification, when do two different dialects of the same language diverge into two entirely different languages?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4074.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20bhv9", "c_root_id_B": "j1zrb2q", "created_at_utc_A": 1672254114, "created_at_utc_B": 1672246190, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "In terms of linguistic classification, when do two different dialects of the same language diverge into two entirely different languages?", "human_ref_B": "How does standard Economics model the economies of authoritarian nations, like Russia, Iran and China, or nations in war like the Ukraine?  Are those models useful?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7924.0, "score_ratio": 1.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20bhv9", "c_root_id_B": "j203mu5", "created_at_utc_A": 1672254114, "created_at_utc_B": 1672251029, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "In terms of linguistic classification, when do two different dialects of the same language diverge into two entirely different languages?", "human_ref_B": "Does a language have an \"easiest and hardest to learn\" counterpart? For example, if someone only speaks and understands English, Japanese or Ethiopian, is there a language considered the easiest and hardest to learn from that starting point?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3085.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20bhv9", "c_root_id_B": "j20391s", "created_at_utc_A": 1672254114, "created_at_utc_B": 1672250879, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "In terms of linguistic classification, when do two different dialects of the same language diverge into two entirely different languages?", "human_ref_B": "In what ways is the US stock market different today vs inception, and what are the affects?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3235.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j1zyldy", "c_root_id_B": "j20bhv9", "created_at_utc_A": 1672249052, "created_at_utc_B": 1672254114, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Are there truly big mysteries around \u201cmissing links\u201d in anthropological genetics? Are there currently anthropologists who seriously study the possibility that something or someone \u201chelped\u201d our genetics along?", "human_ref_B": "In terms of linguistic classification, when do two different dialects of the same language diverge into two entirely different languages?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5062.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21bjxj", "c_root_id_B": "j2014fc", "created_at_utc_A": 1672268625, "created_at_utc_B": 1672250040, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "human_ref_B": "Do we now when language started?   Was it before or after we migrated out of Africa?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18585.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j1zrb2q", "c_root_id_B": "j21bjxj", "created_at_utc_A": 1672246190, "created_at_utc_B": 1672268625, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "How does standard Economics model the economies of authoritarian nations, like Russia, Iran and China, or nations in war like the Ukraine?  Are those models useful?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22435.0, "score_ratio": 1.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j203mu5", "c_root_id_B": "j21bjxj", "created_at_utc_A": 1672251029, "created_at_utc_B": 1672268625, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Does a language have an \"easiest and hardest to learn\" counterpart? For example, if someone only speaks and understands English, Japanese or Ethiopian, is there a language considered the easiest and hardest to learn from that starting point?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17596.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21bjxj", "c_root_id_B": "j20391s", "created_at_utc_A": 1672268625, "created_at_utc_B": 1672250879, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "human_ref_B": "In what ways is the US stock market different today vs inception, and what are the affects?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17746.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21bjxj", "c_root_id_B": "j1zyldy", "created_at_utc_A": 1672268625, "created_at_utc_B": 1672249052, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "human_ref_B": "Are there truly big mysteries around \u201cmissing links\u201d in anthropological genetics? Are there currently anthropologists who seriously study the possibility that something or someone \u201chelped\u201d our genetics along?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19573.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21bjxj", "c_root_id_B": "j20c2xd", "created_at_utc_A": 1672268625, "created_at_utc_B": 1672254347, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "human_ref_B": "Linguistics:  What do scientists think of SRS (spaced repetition software, see link) techniques for vocabulary retention, e.g. ANKI  Also is there an even better way?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14278.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20lyz2", "c_root_id_B": "j21bjxj", "created_at_utc_A": 1672258263, "created_at_utc_B": 1672268625, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Economics.  We claim to be a \u201cfree market\u201d economy but don\u2019t question FED setting rates instead of market forces.  Why is money different than shoes or bread?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10362.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20feek", "c_root_id_B": "j21bjxj", "created_at_utc_A": 1672255667, "created_at_utc_B": 1672268625, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Which celestial body that we know of would most likely harbor life/be capable of harboring life?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12958.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21bjxj", "c_root_id_B": "j20pnog", "created_at_utc_A": 1672268625, "created_at_utc_B": 1672259719, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "human_ref_B": "Why haven't economics \"solved\" the economy? Why do we still have recessions and bubbles? Is it even possible to completely prevent unwanted financial effects? Will there always be winners and losers in the economy?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8906.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20wzte", "c_root_id_B": "j21bjxj", "created_at_utc_A": 1672262618, "created_at_utc_B": 1672268625, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "At what age would a baby become distressed by viewing a gruesome video/picture e.g. narcos murders, degloving, etc.", "human_ref_B": "What is the best / most widely accepted / simplest model of political orientation? The left/right dimension is well known, and popular online systems like political compass add an authoritarian/libertarian dimension to make a 2D model.   What does the academic literature say? Specific references sought, preferably.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6007.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j1zrb2q", "c_root_id_B": "j2014fc", "created_at_utc_A": 1672246190, "created_at_utc_B": 1672250040, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "How does standard Economics model the economies of authoritarian nations, like Russia, Iran and China, or nations in war like the Ukraine?  Are those models useful?", "human_ref_B": "Do we now when language started?   Was it before or after we migrated out of Africa?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3850.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j2014fc", "c_root_id_B": "j1zyldy", "created_at_utc_A": 1672250040, "created_at_utc_B": 1672249052, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Do we now when language started?   Was it before or after we migrated out of Africa?", "human_ref_B": "Are there truly big mysteries around \u201cmissing links\u201d in anthropological genetics? Are there currently anthropologists who seriously study the possibility that something or someone \u201chelped\u201d our genetics along?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 988.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21dkte", "c_root_id_B": "j1zrb2q", "created_at_utc_A": 1672269472, "created_at_utc_B": 1672246190, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "human_ref_B": "How does standard Economics model the economies of authoritarian nations, like Russia, Iran and China, or nations in war like the Ukraine?  Are those models useful?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23282.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j203mu5", "c_root_id_B": "j21dkte", "created_at_utc_A": 1672251029, "created_at_utc_B": 1672269472, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Does a language have an \"easiest and hardest to learn\" counterpart? For example, if someone only speaks and understands English, Japanese or Ethiopian, is there a language considered the easiest and hardest to learn from that starting point?", "human_ref_B": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18443.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21dkte", "c_root_id_B": "j20391s", "created_at_utc_A": 1672269472, "created_at_utc_B": 1672250879, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "human_ref_B": "In what ways is the US stock market different today vs inception, and what are the affects?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18593.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21dkte", "c_root_id_B": "j1zyldy", "created_at_utc_A": 1672269472, "created_at_utc_B": 1672249052, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "human_ref_B": "Are there truly big mysteries around \u201cmissing links\u201d in anthropological genetics? Are there currently anthropologists who seriously study the possibility that something or someone \u201chelped\u201d our genetics along?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20420.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21dkte", "c_root_id_B": "j20c2xd", "created_at_utc_A": 1672269472, "created_at_utc_B": 1672254347, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "human_ref_B": "Linguistics:  What do scientists think of SRS (spaced repetition software, see link) techniques for vocabulary retention, e.g. ANKI  Also is there an even better way?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15125.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21dkte", "c_root_id_B": "j20lyz2", "created_at_utc_A": 1672269472, "created_at_utc_B": 1672258263, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "human_ref_B": "Economics.  We claim to be a \u201cfree market\u201d economy but don\u2019t question FED setting rates instead of market forces.  Why is money different than shoes or bread?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11209.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20feek", "c_root_id_B": "j21dkte", "created_at_utc_A": 1672255667, "created_at_utc_B": 1672269472, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Which celestial body that we know of would most likely harbor life/be capable of harboring life?", "human_ref_B": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13805.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20pnog", "c_root_id_B": "j21dkte", "created_at_utc_A": 1672259719, "created_at_utc_B": 1672269472, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Why haven't economics \"solved\" the economy? Why do we still have recessions and bubbles? Is it even possible to completely prevent unwanted financial effects? Will there always be winners and losers in the economy?", "human_ref_B": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9753.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21dkte", "c_root_id_B": "j20wzte", "created_at_utc_A": 1672269472, "created_at_utc_B": 1672262618, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Economics question on the current levels of inflation around the world: Milton Friedman once gave **this response** to the cause of inflation, stating it primarily caused by governments printing money via central banks.  > **\"Consumers don't produce it, producers don't produce it, the trade unions don't produce it, foreign sheikhs don't produce it, oil imports don't produce it. What produces it is too much government spending and too much government creation of money, and nothing else.\"**  This makes sense to me as printing money dilutes the value of currency, making everything more expensive across the board rather than one specific sector.  Covid caused massive turmoil in March 2020 where indexes dipped more than in 2008, but it only lasted 1.5 months opposed to 2 years because this time governments started printing money to support markets, buying up bonds and other assets.  If you look at the balance sheets of **these central banks** it shows that they all printed hundreds of billions or even trillions of dollars just after March 2020, presumably to keep the markets afloat. Those balance sheets now show a strong correlation with **current global inflation levels**, just skewed a year or so.  So is that it? Is the main cause of all this inflation just the knock on effect of governments spending their way out of a crash during covid? And if so, it's my understanding that the only way to truly reduce that inflation is to remove the printed money back out via a \"market correction\" period, aka a crash. Is that right? Insight from experts in the field would be welcome.", "human_ref_B": "At what age would a baby become distressed by viewing a gruesome video/picture e.g. narcos murders, degloving, etc.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6854.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20391s", "c_root_id_B": "j203mu5", "created_at_utc_A": 1672250879, "created_at_utc_B": 1672251029, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "In what ways is the US stock market different today vs inception, and what are the affects?", "human_ref_B": "Does a language have an \"easiest and hardest to learn\" counterpart? For example, if someone only speaks and understands English, Japanese or Ethiopian, is there a language considered the easiest and hardest to learn from that starting point?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 150.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j1zyldy", "c_root_id_B": "j203mu5", "created_at_utc_A": 1672249052, "created_at_utc_B": 1672251029, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Are there truly big mysteries around \u201cmissing links\u201d in anthropological genetics? Are there currently anthropologists who seriously study the possibility that something or someone \u201chelped\u201d our genetics along?", "human_ref_B": "Does a language have an \"easiest and hardest to learn\" counterpart? For example, if someone only speaks and understands English, Japanese or Ethiopian, is there a language considered the easiest and hardest to learn from that starting point?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1977.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21kxle", "c_root_id_B": "j20391s", "created_at_utc_A": 1672272587, "created_at_utc_B": 1672250879, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I've heard Ideal Anarchism referred to as a \"Stateless, Classless, Moneyless, society\"  Now, studiously trying to avoid a political debate, what does the \"Moneyless\" part of that entail?  While money can of course be used in a corrupt manner, it is at base, as far as I understand, an abstraction of the value of human labor used to make exchanges of good and services easier and more efficient.   By calling for an abolition of money, it seems like they'd be calling for an abolition of such exchanges.  Which even if all primary needs are met by communal contribution, seems like it would needlessly limit long-range trade and a whole host of interpersonal interactions.  Have I misunderstood or misrepresented something?  Because while I can kind of grok what a stateless and classless society would look like, and why some might advocate for it, a moneyless one just seems like it would be going back to the barter system for no particular reason.", "human_ref_B": "In what ways is the US stock market different today vs inception, and what are the affects?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21708.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21kxle", "c_root_id_B": "j1zyldy", "created_at_utc_A": 1672272587, "created_at_utc_B": 1672249052, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I've heard Ideal Anarchism referred to as a \"Stateless, Classless, Moneyless, society\"  Now, studiously trying to avoid a political debate, what does the \"Moneyless\" part of that entail?  While money can of course be used in a corrupt manner, it is at base, as far as I understand, an abstraction of the value of human labor used to make exchanges of good and services easier and more efficient.   By calling for an abolition of money, it seems like they'd be calling for an abolition of such exchanges.  Which even if all primary needs are met by communal contribution, seems like it would needlessly limit long-range trade and a whole host of interpersonal interactions.  Have I misunderstood or misrepresented something?  Because while I can kind of grok what a stateless and classless society would look like, and why some might advocate for it, a moneyless one just seems like it would be going back to the barter system for no particular reason.", "human_ref_B": "Are there truly big mysteries around \u201cmissing links\u201d in anthropological genetics? Are there currently anthropologists who seriously study the possibility that something or someone \u201chelped\u201d our genetics along?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23535.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20c2xd", "c_root_id_B": "j21kxle", "created_at_utc_A": 1672254347, "created_at_utc_B": 1672272587, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Linguistics:  What do scientists think of SRS (spaced repetition software, see link) techniques for vocabulary retention, e.g. ANKI  Also is there an even better way?", "human_ref_B": "I've heard Ideal Anarchism referred to as a \"Stateless, Classless, Moneyless, society\"  Now, studiously trying to avoid a political debate, what does the \"Moneyless\" part of that entail?  While money can of course be used in a corrupt manner, it is at base, as far as I understand, an abstraction of the value of human labor used to make exchanges of good and services easier and more efficient.   By calling for an abolition of money, it seems like they'd be calling for an abolition of such exchanges.  Which even if all primary needs are met by communal contribution, seems like it would needlessly limit long-range trade and a whole host of interpersonal interactions.  Have I misunderstood or misrepresented something?  Because while I can kind of grok what a stateless and classless society would look like, and why some might advocate for it, a moneyless one just seems like it would be going back to the barter system for no particular reason.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18240.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21kxle", "c_root_id_B": "j20lyz2", "created_at_utc_A": 1672272587, "created_at_utc_B": 1672258263, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've heard Ideal Anarchism referred to as a \"Stateless, Classless, Moneyless, society\"  Now, studiously trying to avoid a political debate, what does the \"Moneyless\" part of that entail?  While money can of course be used in a corrupt manner, it is at base, as far as I understand, an abstraction of the value of human labor used to make exchanges of good and services easier and more efficient.   By calling for an abolition of money, it seems like they'd be calling for an abolition of such exchanges.  Which even if all primary needs are met by communal contribution, seems like it would needlessly limit long-range trade and a whole host of interpersonal interactions.  Have I misunderstood or misrepresented something?  Because while I can kind of grok what a stateless and classless society would look like, and why some might advocate for it, a moneyless one just seems like it would be going back to the barter system for no particular reason.", "human_ref_B": "Economics.  We claim to be a \u201cfree market\u201d economy but don\u2019t question FED setting rates instead of market forces.  Why is money different than shoes or bread?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14324.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21kxle", "c_root_id_B": "j20feek", "created_at_utc_A": 1672272587, "created_at_utc_B": 1672255667, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I've heard Ideal Anarchism referred to as a \"Stateless, Classless, Moneyless, society\"  Now, studiously trying to avoid a political debate, what does the \"Moneyless\" part of that entail?  While money can of course be used in a corrupt manner, it is at base, as far as I understand, an abstraction of the value of human labor used to make exchanges of good and services easier and more efficient.   By calling for an abolition of money, it seems like they'd be calling for an abolition of such exchanges.  Which even if all primary needs are met by communal contribution, seems like it would needlessly limit long-range trade and a whole host of interpersonal interactions.  Have I misunderstood or misrepresented something?  Because while I can kind of grok what a stateless and classless society would look like, and why some might advocate for it, a moneyless one just seems like it would be going back to the barter system for no particular reason.", "human_ref_B": "Which celestial body that we know of would most likely harbor life/be capable of harboring life?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16920.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21kxle", "c_root_id_B": "j20pnog", "created_at_utc_A": 1672272587, "created_at_utc_B": 1672259719, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I've heard Ideal Anarchism referred to as a \"Stateless, Classless, Moneyless, society\"  Now, studiously trying to avoid a political debate, what does the \"Moneyless\" part of that entail?  While money can of course be used in a corrupt manner, it is at base, as far as I understand, an abstraction of the value of human labor used to make exchanges of good and services easier and more efficient.   By calling for an abolition of money, it seems like they'd be calling for an abolition of such exchanges.  Which even if all primary needs are met by communal contribution, seems like it would needlessly limit long-range trade and a whole host of interpersonal interactions.  Have I misunderstood or misrepresented something?  Because while I can kind of grok what a stateless and classless society would look like, and why some might advocate for it, a moneyless one just seems like it would be going back to the barter system for no particular reason.", "human_ref_B": "Why haven't economics \"solved\" the economy? Why do we still have recessions and bubbles? Is it even possible to completely prevent unwanted financial effects? Will there always be winners and losers in the economy?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12868.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j21kxle", "c_root_id_B": "j20wzte", "created_at_utc_A": 1672272587, "created_at_utc_B": 1672262618, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I've heard Ideal Anarchism referred to as a \"Stateless, Classless, Moneyless, society\"  Now, studiously trying to avoid a political debate, what does the \"Moneyless\" part of that entail?  While money can of course be used in a corrupt manner, it is at base, as far as I understand, an abstraction of the value of human labor used to make exchanges of good and services easier and more efficient.   By calling for an abolition of money, it seems like they'd be calling for an abolition of such exchanges.  Which even if all primary needs are met by communal contribution, seems like it would needlessly limit long-range trade and a whole host of interpersonal interactions.  Have I misunderstood or misrepresented something?  Because while I can kind of grok what a stateless and classless society would look like, and why some might advocate for it, a moneyless one just seems like it would be going back to the barter system for no particular reason.", "human_ref_B": "At what age would a baby become distressed by viewing a gruesome video/picture e.g. narcos murders, degloving, etc.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9969.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20feek", "c_root_id_B": "j20lyz2", "created_at_utc_A": 1672255667, "created_at_utc_B": 1672258263, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Which celestial body that we know of would most likely harbor life/be capable of harboring life?", "human_ref_B": "Economics.  We claim to be a \u201cfree market\u201d economy but don\u2019t question FED setting rates instead of market forces.  Why is money different than shoes or bread?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2596.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j22266q", "c_root_id_B": "j20feek", "created_at_utc_A": 1672280170, "created_at_utc_B": 1672255667, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If trans-Neptunian objects are too dim to see with most telescopes, why is it not an option to just... light them up? Wouldn't a powerful laser from Earth be able to illuminate a small corner of the sky for observation?", "human_ref_B": "Which celestial body that we know of would most likely harbor life/be capable of harboring life?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24503.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20pnog", "c_root_id_B": "j22266q", "created_at_utc_A": 1672259719, "created_at_utc_B": 1672280170, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Why haven't economics \"solved\" the economy? Why do we still have recessions and bubbles? Is it even possible to completely prevent unwanted financial effects? Will there always be winners and losers in the economy?", "human_ref_B": "If trans-Neptunian objects are too dim to see with most telescopes, why is it not an option to just... light them up? Wouldn't a powerful laser from Earth be able to illuminate a small corner of the sky for observation?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20451.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zxbnwz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "j20wzte", "c_root_id_B": "j22266q", "created_at_utc_A": 1672262618, "created_at_utc_B": 1672280170, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "At what age would a baby become distressed by viewing a gruesome video/picture e.g. narcos murders, degloving, etc.", "human_ref_B": "If trans-Neptunian objects are too dim to see with most telescopes, why is it not an option to just... light them up? Wouldn't a powerful laser from Earth be able to illuminate a small corner of the sky for observation?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17552.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxxipc", "c_root_id_B": "isxzwll", "created_at_utc_A": 1666190842, "created_at_utc_B": 1666191822, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 62, "human_ref_A": "What developments are there in the computer science field that will eventually make it to consumers in the next ten years (or later)?", "human_ref_B": "How far away are we from reaching the limit CPU die shrink? What will be the next advance in performance after that? And how far away do you think that is from market?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 980.0, "score_ratio": 1.9375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxzwll", "c_root_id_B": "isxrfed", "created_at_utc_A": 1666191822, "created_at_utc_B": 1666188252, "score_A": 62, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "How far away are we from reaching the limit CPU die shrink? What will be the next advance in performance after that? And how far away do you think that is from market?", "human_ref_B": "Can we really terraform Mars with our existing technology?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3570.0, "score_ratio": 2.2962962963, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxuz5j", "c_root_id_B": "isxzwll", "created_at_utc_A": 1666189783, "created_at_utc_B": 1666191822, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 62, "human_ref_A": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "human_ref_B": "How far away are we from reaching the limit CPU die shrink? What will be the next advance in performance after that? And how far away do you think that is from market?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2039.0, "score_ratio": 7.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxzwll", "c_root_id_B": "isxyivf", "created_at_utc_A": 1666191822, "created_at_utc_B": 1666191254, "score_A": 62, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "How far away are we from reaching the limit CPU die shrink? What will be the next advance in performance after that? And how far away do you think that is from market?", "human_ref_B": "What are \"operations on a binary tree\"?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 568.0, "score_ratio": 8.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy4mpy", "c_root_id_B": "isy2j9b", "created_at_utc_A": 1666193726, "created_at_utc_B": 1666192888, "score_A": 43, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "Bluetooth question - When I'm listening to music on my phone with Bluetooth headphones and I use the microwave, and stand nearby the connection gets spotty. This part makes sense to me, although I would appreciate an elaboration as I thought the microwaves are largely contained. My main question is that after a few seconds my connection always seems to improve. How does this happen? And how is it detected?", "human_ref_B": "I have a slightly curved piece of metal similar in shape to a parenthesis. How do I measure the radius?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 838.0, "score_ratio": 1.1315789474, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxxipc", "c_root_id_B": "isy4mpy", "created_at_utc_A": 1666190842, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193726, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "What developments are there in the computer science field that will eventually make it to consumers in the next ten years (or later)?", "human_ref_B": "Bluetooth question - When I'm listening to music on my phone with Bluetooth headphones and I use the microwave, and stand nearby the connection gets spotty. This part makes sense to me, although I would appreciate an elaboration as I thought the microwaves are largely contained. My main question is that after a few seconds my connection always seems to improve. How does this happen? And how is it detected?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2884.0, "score_ratio": 1.34375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxrfed", "c_root_id_B": "isy4mpy", "created_at_utc_A": 1666188252, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193726, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "Can we really terraform Mars with our existing technology?", "human_ref_B": "Bluetooth question - When I'm listening to music on my phone with Bluetooth headphones and I use the microwave, and stand nearby the connection gets spotty. This part makes sense to me, although I would appreciate an elaboration as I thought the microwaves are largely contained. My main question is that after a few seconds my connection always seems to improve. How does this happen? And how is it detected?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5474.0, "score_ratio": 1.5925925926, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy4mpy", "c_root_id_B": "isy4awa", "created_at_utc_A": 1666193726, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193594, "score_A": 43, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Bluetooth question - When I'm listening to music on my phone with Bluetooth headphones and I use the microwave, and stand nearby the connection gets spotty. This part makes sense to me, although I would appreciate an elaboration as I thought the microwaves are largely contained. My main question is that after a few seconds my connection always seems to improve. How does this happen? And how is it detected?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we have big G as a constant in Newtons universal law of gravitation? Doesn\u2019t that suggest that some other standard measure is incorrect and that G is just a correction factor for the mass to radius ratio?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 132.0, "score_ratio": 4.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxuz5j", "c_root_id_B": "isy4mpy", "created_at_utc_A": 1666189783, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193726, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "human_ref_B": "Bluetooth question - When I'm listening to music on my phone with Bluetooth headphones and I use the microwave, and stand nearby the connection gets spotty. This part makes sense to me, although I would appreciate an elaboration as I thought the microwaves are largely contained. My main question is that after a few seconds my connection always seems to improve. How does this happen? And how is it detected?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3943.0, "score_ratio": 5.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy4mpy", "c_root_id_B": "isxyivf", "created_at_utc_A": 1666193726, "created_at_utc_B": 1666191254, "score_A": 43, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Bluetooth question - When I'm listening to music on my phone with Bluetooth headphones and I use the microwave, and stand nearby the connection gets spotty. This part makes sense to me, although I would appreciate an elaboration as I thought the microwaves are largely contained. My main question is that after a few seconds my connection always seems to improve. How does this happen? And how is it detected?", "human_ref_B": "What are \"operations on a binary tree\"?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2472.0, "score_ratio": 6.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxxipc", "c_root_id_B": "isy2j9b", "created_at_utc_A": 1666190842, "created_at_utc_B": 1666192888, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "What developments are there in the computer science field that will eventually make it to consumers in the next ten years (or later)?", "human_ref_B": "I have a slightly curved piece of metal similar in shape to a parenthesis. How do I measure the radius?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2046.0, "score_ratio": 1.1875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy2j9b", "c_root_id_B": "isxrfed", "created_at_utc_A": 1666192888, "created_at_utc_B": 1666188252, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "I have a slightly curved piece of metal similar in shape to a parenthesis. How do I measure the radius?", "human_ref_B": "Can we really terraform Mars with our existing technology?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4636.0, "score_ratio": 1.4074074074, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy2j9b", "c_root_id_B": "isxuz5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1666192888, "created_at_utc_B": 1666189783, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I have a slightly curved piece of metal similar in shape to a parenthesis. How do I measure the radius?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3105.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxyivf", "c_root_id_B": "isy2j9b", "created_at_utc_A": 1666191254, "created_at_utc_B": 1666192888, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "What are \"operations on a binary tree\"?", "human_ref_B": "I have a slightly curved piece of metal similar in shape to a parenthesis. How do I measure the radius?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1634.0, "score_ratio": 5.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxxipc", "c_root_id_B": "isxrfed", "created_at_utc_A": 1666190842, "created_at_utc_B": 1666188252, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "What developments are there in the computer science field that will eventually make it to consumers in the next ten years (or later)?", "human_ref_B": "Can we really terraform Mars with our existing technology?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2590.0, "score_ratio": 1.1851851852, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxuz5j", "c_root_id_B": "isxxipc", "created_at_utc_A": 1666189783, "created_at_utc_B": 1666190842, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "human_ref_B": "What developments are there in the computer science field that will eventually make it to consumers in the next ten years (or later)?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1059.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy4awa", "c_root_id_B": "isy5zg8", "created_at_utc_A": 1666193594, "created_at_utc_B": 1666194268, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Why do we have big G as a constant in Newtons universal law of gravitation? Doesn\u2019t that suggest that some other standard measure is incorrect and that G is just a correction factor for the mass to radius ratio?", "human_ref_B": "Could we make a tiny habitual planet like from dragon ball z?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 674.0, "score_ratio": 2.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy5zg8", "c_root_id_B": "isy4pw5", "created_at_utc_A": 1666194268, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193762, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Could we make a tiny habitual planet like from dragon ball z?", "human_ref_B": "Why is P/NP such an important problem? Or with all the research into encryption, why is it even considered a problem anymore, when there are clearly things easier to verify than solve?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 506.0, "score_ratio": 2.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy5zg8", "c_root_id_B": "isxuz5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1666194268, "created_at_utc_B": 1666189783, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Could we make a tiny habitual planet like from dragon ball z?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4485.0, "score_ratio": 3.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy5zg8", "c_root_id_B": "isxyivf", "created_at_utc_A": 1666194268, "created_at_utc_B": 1666191254, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Could we make a tiny habitual planet like from dragon ball z?", "human_ref_B": "What are \"operations on a binary tree\"?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3014.0, "score_ratio": 3.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyxofw", "c_root_id_B": "isy4awa", "created_at_utc_A": 1666205072, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193594, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I believe I have invented two new fractals as a lemma to a paper in my PhD on applied stats in healthcare. A bit like Sierpi\u00f1ski triangles but different. I am aware of the OEIS for integer series - are there databases of registered fractals?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we have big G as a constant in Newtons universal law of gravitation? Doesn\u2019t that suggest that some other standard measure is incorrect and that G is just a correction factor for the mass to radius ratio?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11478.0, "score_ratio": 1.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxuz5j", "c_root_id_B": "isy4awa", "created_at_utc_A": 1666189783, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193594, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we have big G as a constant in Newtons universal law of gravitation? Doesn\u2019t that suggest that some other standard measure is incorrect and that G is just a correction factor for the mass to radius ratio?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3811.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isxyivf", "c_root_id_B": "isy4awa", "created_at_utc_A": 1666191254, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193594, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What are \"operations on a binary tree\"?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we have big G as a constant in Newtons universal law of gravitation? Doesn\u2019t that suggest that some other standard measure is incorrect and that G is just a correction factor for the mass to radius ratio?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2340.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyxofw", "c_root_id_B": "isy4pw5", "created_at_utc_A": 1666205072, "created_at_utc_B": 1666193762, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I believe I have invented two new fractals as a lemma to a paper in my PhD on applied stats in healthcare. A bit like Sierpi\u00f1ski triangles but different. I am aware of the OEIS for integer series - are there databases of registered fractals?", "human_ref_B": "Why is P/NP such an important problem? Or with all the research into encryption, why is it even considered a problem anymore, when there are clearly things easier to verify than solve?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11310.0, "score_ratio": 1.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy4pw5", "c_root_id_B": "isxuz5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1666193762, "created_at_utc_B": 1666189783, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Why is P/NP such an important problem? Or with all the research into encryption, why is it even considered a problem anymore, when there are clearly things easier to verify than solve?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3979.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isy4pw5", "c_root_id_B": "isxyivf", "created_at_utc_A": 1666193762, "created_at_utc_B": 1666191254, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Why is P/NP such an important problem? Or with all the research into encryption, why is it even considered a problem anymore, when there are clearly things easier to verify than solve?", "human_ref_B": "What are \"operations on a binary tree\"?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2508.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyxofw", "c_root_id_B": "isyqu1l", "created_at_utc_A": 1666205072, "created_at_utc_B": 1666202404, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "I believe I have invented two new fractals as a lemma to a paper in my PhD on applied stats in healthcare. A bit like Sierpi\u00f1ski triangles but different. I am aware of the OEIS for integer series - are there databases of registered fractals?", "human_ref_B": "Engineers: why aren't intermittent windshield wiper settings continuous? Like why can I only pick 4 speed settings with detents on the knob? It seems obvious to me that it should just be a linear potentiometer so that I can set any speed I want. My 2013 Honda has enough detents so that it's almost continuous, but it's still not enough for me lol.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2668.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyqu1l", "c_root_id_B": "isxuz5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1666202404, "created_at_utc_B": 1666189783, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Engineers: why aren't intermittent windshield wiper settings continuous? Like why can I only pick 4 speed settings with detents on the knob? It seems obvious to me that it should just be a linear potentiometer so that I can set any speed I want. My 2013 Honda has enough detents so that it's almost continuous, but it's still not enough for me lol.", "human_ref_B": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12621.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyqu1l", "c_root_id_B": "isxyivf", "created_at_utc_A": 1666202404, "created_at_utc_B": 1666191254, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Engineers: why aren't intermittent windshield wiper settings continuous? Like why can I only pick 4 speed settings with detents on the knob? It seems obvious to me that it should just be a linear potentiometer so that I can set any speed I want. My 2013 Honda has enough detents so that it's almost continuous, but it's still not enough for me lol.", "human_ref_B": "What are \"operations on a binary tree\"?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11150.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyi39v", "c_root_id_B": "isyqu1l", "created_at_utc_A": 1666199008, "created_at_utc_B": 1666202404, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "What causes radiation?  I understand it's random. But I'm trying to talk about beta radiation for example, with my kid on a high school level. I say, \"a neutron becomes a proton and an electron...,\" And my kid asks why. It just does, randomly? Heat and pressure have an effect probably I guess, but do we really know what causes the split?", "human_ref_B": "Engineers: why aren't intermittent windshield wiper settings continuous? Like why can I only pick 4 speed settings with detents on the knob? It seems obvious to me that it should just be a linear potentiometer so that I can set any speed I want. My 2013 Honda has enough detents so that it's almost continuous, but it's still not enough for me lol.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3396.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyxofw", "c_root_id_B": "isxuz5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1666205072, "created_at_utc_B": 1666189783, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I believe I have invented two new fractals as a lemma to a paper in my PhD on applied stats in healthcare. A bit like Sierpi\u00f1ski triangles but different. I am aware of the OEIS for integer series - are there databases of registered fractals?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we only see one side of the moon when everything else (including the sun which spins around the center of our galaxy) rotates?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15289.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyxofw", "c_root_id_B": "isxyivf", "created_at_utc_A": 1666205072, "created_at_utc_B": 1666191254, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I believe I have invented two new fractals as a lemma to a paper in my PhD on applied stats in healthcare. A bit like Sierpi\u00f1ski triangles but different. I am aware of the OEIS for integer series - are there databases of registered fractals?", "human_ref_B": "What are \"operations on a binary tree\"?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13818.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y83iat", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "isyi39v", "c_root_id_B": "isyxofw", "created_at_utc_A": 1666199008, "created_at_utc_B": 1666205072, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "What causes radiation?  I understand it's random. But I'm trying to talk about beta radiation for example, with my kid on a high school level. I say, \"a neutron becomes a proton and an electron...,\" And my kid asks why. It just does, randomly? Heat and pressure have an effect probably I guess, but do we really know what causes the split?", "human_ref_B": "I believe I have invented two new fractals as a lemma to a paper in my PhD on applied stats in healthcare. A bit like Sierpi\u00f1ski triangles but different. I am aware of the OEIS for integer series - are there databases of registered fractals?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6064.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixiop2m", "c_root_id_B": "ixi7swy", "created_at_utc_A": 1669229974, "created_at_utc_B": 1669223383, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What are some interesting things average people do subconsciously that they're oblivious to?", "human_ref_B": "Is it possible to scientifically prove that someone is in love with someone else", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6591.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixi3quy", "c_root_id_B": "ixiop2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1669221794, "created_at_utc_B": 1669229974, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are elements on nutrition facts labels the same as the elements on the periodic table (ex. iron, magnesium, zinc, etc.)?", "human_ref_B": "What are some interesting things average people do subconsciously that they're oblivious to?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8180.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixi7swy", "c_root_id_B": "ixkc93d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669223383, "created_at_utc_B": 1669255973, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is it possible to scientifically prove that someone is in love with someone else", "human_ref_B": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32590.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixiu1sf", "c_root_id_B": "ixkc93d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669232109, "created_at_utc_B": 1669255973, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How do memories work?  I had a bit of neuroscience in my bachelor and learned about how memories are basically just synapses forming. But what makes one memory different from the other? If I have two memories regarding the same topic, wouldn't the same brain areas be connected by those newly formed memories?", "human_ref_B": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23864.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixjvnjk", "c_root_id_B": "ixkc93d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669248014, "created_at_utc_B": 1669255973, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I have been donating plasma for 2 years twice a week.  I noticed that one of the questions they ask in the screening process is if you have had contact with someone who has had the smallpox vaccine in the last 5 weeks. I have asked almost every person who works there and nobody knows why.I asked on this community and nobody answered. Can anyone tell me why this is and why 5 weeks. Thanks in advance i am very curious.", "human_ref_B": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7959.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixk47rl", "c_root_id_B": "ixkc93d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669252088, "created_at_utc_B": 1669255973, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Does CRISPR and gene editing technology have potential to provide therapeutic effects to genetic disorders in children and adults.", "human_ref_B": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3885.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixkc93d", "c_root_id_B": "ixi3quy", "created_at_utc_A": 1669255973, "created_at_utc_B": 1669221794, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "human_ref_B": "Are elements on nutrition facts labels the same as the elements on the periodic table (ex. iron, magnesium, zinc, etc.)?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 34179.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixkc93d", "c_root_id_B": "ixj23mh", "created_at_utc_A": 1669255973, "created_at_utc_B": 1669235293, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "human_ref_B": "What are the best textbooks for pharmacology? I am reading langes basic and clinical pharmacology and plan on reading gillman and gibsons pharmacologic basis of therapeutics next.  Also, I like medicinal chemistry and also want to know a lot about the mechanisms behind medications, like for example the norepinephrine transporter is only mentioned but I'd like to know things like how it works and why and how some drugs and conditions like ischaemia can reverse its transport. what textbooks might you recommend for a deeper understanding than what is available in pharmacology textbooks?  I am a and a high school dropout and considering getting my ged and going back to school. I was thinking synthetic organic chemistry, but am not liking the synthesis as much as I used to. what are some other choices?  feel free to answer none, a part, or all of my questions. know it's a lot. thanks", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20680.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixj5tp9", "c_root_id_B": "ixkc93d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669236777, "created_at_utc_B": 1669255973, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is narcolepsy something you develop after illness/trauma/etc or are you born with it already part of you - waiting to become active?", "human_ref_B": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19196.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixk62qi", "c_root_id_B": "ixkc93d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669252993, "created_at_utc_B": 1669255973, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Why the direction of the current is inverse to the flow of electrons?", "human_ref_B": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2980.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixkc93d", "c_root_id_B": "ixk6vi5", "created_at_utc_A": 1669255973, "created_at_utc_B": 1669253383, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "human_ref_B": "Will new elements come from space, earth or be manmade?   Assuming you know where new elements will be on the Periodic table what important properties are new elements likely to have?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2590.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixkc93d", "c_root_id_B": "ixk71ae", "created_at_utc_A": 1669255973, "created_at_utc_B": 1669253461, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "human_ref_B": "If an organ needs more blood perfusion, is vasodilatation the main mechanism by which the body solved this? if i had vasodilatation is there more or less blood flowing?  I get really confused because i have in theory i have wider space for blood to pass but less pressure", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2512.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixk7c79", "c_root_id_B": "ixkc93d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669253608, "created_at_utc_B": 1669255973, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How does the acetaminophen act as an antipiretic?", "human_ref_B": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2365.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixk7vg6", "c_root_id_B": "ixkc93d", "created_at_utc_A": 1669253869, "created_at_utc_B": 1669255973, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What resources would you recommend for someone wishing to study psychology as a hobby?", "human_ref_B": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2104.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixkc93d", "c_root_id_B": "ixk87kk", "created_at_utc_A": 1669255973, "created_at_utc_B": 1669254032, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I've sucked in physics during high school. Now, I really want to understand the basic concepts of calculus , electromagnetism, how different theories gave way to where we are today in the world of physics. I need a book/books that can help me understand all this in the simple words with analogies. I as a kid didn't have good teachers and the books we had in schools couldn't help much. I really want to learn these concepts and make kids around me to get excited about science.  PS. If the books you recommend can be accessed freely (pdf and such) that will be very helpful.", "human_ref_B": "What does the IR fingerprint signals mean?  What type of vibrations are taking into account?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1941.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixi3quy", "c_root_id_B": "ixi7swy", "created_at_utc_A": 1669221794, "created_at_utc_B": 1669223383, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Are elements on nutrition facts labels the same as the elements on the periodic table (ex. iron, magnesium, zinc, etc.)?", "human_ref_B": "Is it possible to scientifically prove that someone is in love with someone else", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1589.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixi3quy", "c_root_id_B": "ixiu1sf", "created_at_utc_A": 1669221794, "created_at_utc_B": 1669232109, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Are elements on nutrition facts labels the same as the elements on the periodic table (ex. iron, magnesium, zinc, etc.)?", "human_ref_B": "How do memories work?  I had a bit of neuroscience in my bachelor and learned about how memories are basically just synapses forming. But what makes one memory different from the other? If I have two memories regarding the same topic, wouldn't the same brain areas be connected by those newly formed memories?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10315.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixi3quy", "c_root_id_B": "ixjvnjk", "created_at_utc_A": 1669221794, "created_at_utc_B": 1669248014, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Are elements on nutrition facts labels the same as the elements on the periodic table (ex. iron, magnesium, zinc, etc.)?", "human_ref_B": "I have been donating plasma for 2 years twice a week.  I noticed that one of the questions they ask in the screening process is if you have had contact with someone who has had the smallpox vaccine in the last 5 weeks. I have asked almost every person who works there and nobody knows why.I asked on this community and nobody answered. Can anyone tell me why this is and why 5 weeks. Thanks in advance i am very curious.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26220.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixj23mh", "c_root_id_B": "ixjvnjk", "created_at_utc_A": 1669235293, "created_at_utc_B": 1669248014, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What are the best textbooks for pharmacology? I am reading langes basic and clinical pharmacology and plan on reading gillman and gibsons pharmacologic basis of therapeutics next.  Also, I like medicinal chemistry and also want to know a lot about the mechanisms behind medications, like for example the norepinephrine transporter is only mentioned but I'd like to know things like how it works and why and how some drugs and conditions like ischaemia can reverse its transport. what textbooks might you recommend for a deeper understanding than what is available in pharmacology textbooks?  I am a and a high school dropout and considering getting my ged and going back to school. I was thinking synthetic organic chemistry, but am not liking the synthesis as much as I used to. what are some other choices?  feel free to answer none, a part, or all of my questions. know it's a lot. thanks", "human_ref_B": "I have been donating plasma for 2 years twice a week.  I noticed that one of the questions they ask in the screening process is if you have had contact with someone who has had the smallpox vaccine in the last 5 weeks. I have asked almost every person who works there and nobody knows why.I asked on this community and nobody answered. Can anyone tell me why this is and why 5 weeks. Thanks in advance i am very curious.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12721.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixjvnjk", "c_root_id_B": "ixj5tp9", "created_at_utc_A": 1669248014, "created_at_utc_B": 1669236777, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I have been donating plasma for 2 years twice a week.  I noticed that one of the questions they ask in the screening process is if you have had contact with someone who has had the smallpox vaccine in the last 5 weeks. I have asked almost every person who works there and nobody knows why.I asked on this community and nobody answered. Can anyone tell me why this is and why 5 weeks. Thanks in advance i am very curious.", "human_ref_B": "Is narcolepsy something you develop after illness/trauma/etc or are you born with it already part of you - waiting to become active?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11237.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixk47rl", "c_root_id_B": "ixi3quy", "created_at_utc_A": 1669252088, "created_at_utc_B": 1669221794, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Does CRISPR and gene editing technology have potential to provide therapeutic effects to genetic disorders in children and adults.", "human_ref_B": "Are elements on nutrition facts labels the same as the elements on the periodic table (ex. iron, magnesium, zinc, etc.)?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30294.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixk47rl", "c_root_id_B": "ixj23mh", "created_at_utc_A": 1669252088, "created_at_utc_B": 1669235293, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Does CRISPR and gene editing technology have potential to provide therapeutic effects to genetic disorders in children and adults.", "human_ref_B": "What are the best textbooks for pharmacology? I am reading langes basic and clinical pharmacology and plan on reading gillman and gibsons pharmacologic basis of therapeutics next.  Also, I like medicinal chemistry and also want to know a lot about the mechanisms behind medications, like for example the norepinephrine transporter is only mentioned but I'd like to know things like how it works and why and how some drugs and conditions like ischaemia can reverse its transport. what textbooks might you recommend for a deeper understanding than what is available in pharmacology textbooks?  I am a and a high school dropout and considering getting my ged and going back to school. I was thinking synthetic organic chemistry, but am not liking the synthesis as much as I used to. what are some other choices?  feel free to answer none, a part, or all of my questions. know it's a lot. thanks", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16795.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z2ram2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ixj5tp9", "c_root_id_B": "ixk47rl", "created_at_utc_A": 1669236777, "created_at_utc_B": 1669252088, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is narcolepsy something you develop after illness/trauma/etc or are you born with it already part of you - waiting to become active?", "human_ref_B": "Does CRISPR and gene editing technology have potential to provide therapeutic effects to genetic disorders in children and adults.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15311.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1f32n", "c_root_id_B": "is1aod7", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592374, "created_at_utc_B": 1665590642, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The Andromeda paradox. Alice is sitting and watching the Andromeda galaxy through a telescope. Bob is running toward Alice and is also watching the galaxy through his teleccope. Apparently Bob (moving in regard to Alice) is seeing the galaxy at a point of time which is ahead of what Alice sees (who is \"stationary\").  I know it can be calculated just howuchnis differs, but is it possible to explain it so I can understand the principle? Why does moving alter the view (timewise) through the telescope and what happens if the stationary Alice viewer starts moving and catches up with Bob while still looking through her telescope?", "human_ref_B": "What are the most promising hypotheses for why galaxies rotate? What is the relevance of black holes?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1732.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1f32n", "c_root_id_B": "is1d74d", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592374, "created_at_utc_B": 1665591636, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The Andromeda paradox. Alice is sitting and watching the Andromeda galaxy through a telescope. Bob is running toward Alice and is also watching the galaxy through his teleccope. Apparently Bob (moving in regard to Alice) is seeing the galaxy at a point of time which is ahead of what Alice sees (who is \"stationary\").  I know it can be calculated just howuchnis differs, but is it possible to explain it so I can understand the principle? Why does moving alter the view (timewise) through the telescope and what happens if the stationary Alice viewer starts moving and catches up with Bob while still looking through her telescope?", "human_ref_B": "Why don't I see satellites after sunset or at night during the winter?   Is it due to the angulation of Earth relative to the sun?  Is it due to air density?  Is it a combination of factors?     Background: I live in upstate NY where the skies are generally free of light pollution.  I star gaze nearly every night that it is clear.  I have noticed that when the air gets cold that I do not see any manmade satellites passing overhead.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 738.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1ect9", "c_root_id_B": "is1f32n", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592086, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592374, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "If near FTL speeds were ever achieved, or even some of the speeds that current satellites are going, how would they effect the human body?  I assume due to the size of the earth and how small we are the speed isn't registered by us due to relative sizes, does this mean that any vessel we create to travel those speeds needs to be proportionally scaled to say moon sized?", "human_ref_B": "The Andromeda paradox. Alice is sitting and watching the Andromeda galaxy through a telescope. Bob is running toward Alice and is also watching the galaxy through his teleccope. Apparently Bob (moving in regard to Alice) is seeing the galaxy at a point of time which is ahead of what Alice sees (who is \"stationary\").  I know it can be calculated just howuchnis differs, but is it possible to explain it so I can understand the principle? Why does moving alter the view (timewise) through the telescope and what happens if the stationary Alice viewer starts moving and catches up with Bob while still looking through her telescope?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 288.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1d74d", "c_root_id_B": "is1feyr", "created_at_utc_A": 1665591636, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592505, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Why don't I see satellites after sunset or at night during the winter?   Is it due to the angulation of Earth relative to the sun?  Is it due to air density?  Is it a combination of factors?     Background: I live in upstate NY where the skies are generally free of light pollution.  I star gaze nearly every night that it is clear.  I have noticed that when the air gets cold that I do not see any manmade satellites passing overhead.", "human_ref_B": "I was looking at the ancient city of Shangdu on Google Earth.  I zoomed out and it kind of looks like it is on the edge of a huge ancient crater.    Is it?  https://www.google.com/maps/place/42%C2%B021'35.0%22N+116%C2%B010'45.0%22E/@41.5339446,116.1155478,98007a,35y,33.89t/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x0:0x72bca4680496990!8m2!3d42.359722!4d116.179167?hl=en", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 869.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1ect9", "c_root_id_B": "is1feyr", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592086, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592505, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "If near FTL speeds were ever achieved, or even some of the speeds that current satellites are going, how would they effect the human body?  I assume due to the size of the earth and how small we are the speed isn't registered by us due to relative sizes, does this mean that any vessel we create to travel those speeds needs to be proportionally scaled to say moon sized?", "human_ref_B": "I was looking at the ancient city of Shangdu on Google Earth.  I zoomed out and it kind of looks like it is on the edge of a huge ancient crater.    Is it?  https://www.google.com/maps/place/42%C2%B021'35.0%22N+116%C2%B010'45.0%22E/@41.5339446,116.1155478,98007a,35y,33.89t/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x0:0x72bca4680496990!8m2!3d42.359722!4d116.179167?hl=en", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 419.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1gckm", "c_root_id_B": "is1fmuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592869, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592591, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Could we make boat sails out of solar panels?", "human_ref_B": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 278.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1hs6o", "c_root_id_B": "is1rdcz", "created_at_utc_A": 1665593425, "created_at_utc_B": 1665597166, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m still not grasping the concept from the recent nobel prize awarded for proof of the non reality of local space.  Am I just misunderstanding the mathematical definitions of words like reality?", "human_ref_B": "I have a question about Quantum Entanglement.    If I understand things correctly, massless particles travel at the speed of light, and at the speed of light, within the frame of that particle, time is frozen.    If time is frozen within the frame of the particle from the moment it is.... created?.... then is this the explanation for why Quantum Entanglement works the way it does?  The two particles are split but no time is passing for them so their orientation can't be set, but when we interact with the particle we interfere with it's frame causing time to begin moving within that frame which is what causes the system to collapse into it's final state?  If the two particles had started life not moving at the speed of light would they have already collapsed?  Thanks, really appreciate all of you :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3741.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1i9pw", "c_root_id_B": "is1rdcz", "created_at_utc_A": 1665593609, "created_at_utc_B": 1665597166, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What are some really good books you recommend reading in the Astronomy and Planetary Science fields?", "human_ref_B": "I have a question about Quantum Entanglement.    If I understand things correctly, massless particles travel at the speed of light, and at the speed of light, within the frame of that particle, time is frozen.    If time is frozen within the frame of the particle from the moment it is.... created?.... then is this the explanation for why Quantum Entanglement works the way it does?  The two particles are split but no time is passing for them so their orientation can't be set, but when we interact with the particle we interfere with it's frame causing time to begin moving within that frame which is what causes the system to collapse into it's final state?  If the two particles had started life not moving at the speed of light would they have already collapsed?  Thanks, really appreciate all of you :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3557.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1rdcz", "c_root_id_B": "is1levy", "created_at_utc_A": 1665597166, "created_at_utc_B": 1665594847, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I have a question about Quantum Entanglement.    If I understand things correctly, massless particles travel at the speed of light, and at the speed of light, within the frame of that particle, time is frozen.    If time is frozen within the frame of the particle from the moment it is.... created?.... then is this the explanation for why Quantum Entanglement works the way it does?  The two particles are split but no time is passing for them so their orientation can't be set, but when we interact with the particle we interfere with it's frame causing time to begin moving within that frame which is what causes the system to collapse into it's final state?  If the two particles had started life not moving at the speed of light would they have already collapsed?  Thanks, really appreciate all of you :)", "human_ref_B": "If our Moon was tidally locked to the Earth, from the beginning, how would the side not always facing the moon be impacted if at all?  Example: Moon in a position that doesn't impact wobble and tilt and is always facing the Eastern Hemisphere.   (I'm writing a story and trying to give a scientific reason why life exists on this one continent and thought this could be a reasonable reason why life didn't develop to the same level anywhere else.  I'm probably wrong)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2319.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1fmuj", "c_root_id_B": "is1rdcz", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592591, "created_at_utc_B": 1665597166, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "human_ref_B": "I have a question about Quantum Entanglement.    If I understand things correctly, massless particles travel at the speed of light, and at the speed of light, within the frame of that particle, time is frozen.    If time is frozen within the frame of the particle from the moment it is.... created?.... then is this the explanation for why Quantum Entanglement works the way it does?  The two particles are split but no time is passing for them so their orientation can't be set, but when we interact with the particle we interfere with it's frame causing time to begin moving within that frame which is what causes the system to collapse into it's final state?  If the two particles had started life not moving at the speed of light would they have already collapsed?  Thanks, really appreciate all of you :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4575.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1fmuj", "c_root_id_B": "is1hs6o", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592591, "created_at_utc_B": 1665593425, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m still not grasping the concept from the recent nobel prize awarded for proof of the non reality of local space.  Am I just misunderstanding the mathematical definitions of words like reality?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 834.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1i9pw", "c_root_id_B": "is1fmuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1665593609, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592591, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What are some really good books you recommend reading in the Astronomy and Planetary Science fields?", "human_ref_B": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1018.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1levy", "c_root_id_B": "is1fmuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1665594847, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592591, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "If our Moon was tidally locked to the Earth, from the beginning, how would the side not always facing the moon be impacted if at all?  Example: Moon in a position that doesn't impact wobble and tilt and is always facing the Eastern Hemisphere.   (I'm writing a story and trying to give a scientific reason why life exists on this one continent and thought this could be a reasonable reason why life didn't develop to the same level anywhere else.  I'm probably wrong)", "human_ref_B": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2256.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1ryzq", "c_root_id_B": "is1fmuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1665597399, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592591, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm still confused exactly what 'heat' is. What is heat?", "human_ref_B": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4808.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1fmuj", "c_root_id_B": "is207y6", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592591, "created_at_utc_B": 1665600616, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "human_ref_B": "Why does the earth not move closer or farther to/from the sun over time and how solid is the theory explaining why it doesn't?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8025.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is207y6", "c_root_id_B": "is1vq84", "created_at_utc_A": 1665600616, "created_at_utc_B": 1665598864, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why does the earth not move closer or farther to/from the sun over time and how solid is the theory explaining why it doesn't?", "human_ref_B": "Gravity is measured at 9.8m/s. Would we notice a difference if that somehow changed to 9.75m/s, or would the change have to be more drastic to notice a difference?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1752.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is2i7kd", "c_root_id_B": "is1fmuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1665607471, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592591, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is our understanding of quantum physics limited by how intelligent the human brain is? I. E. Do we need an Einstein to come along every now and then  to understand it and be able to convey it in simpler terms to other intelligent people?", "human_ref_B": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14880.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1vq84", "c_root_id_B": "is2i7kd", "created_at_utc_A": 1665598864, "created_at_utc_B": 1665607471, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Gravity is measured at 9.8m/s. Would we notice a difference if that somehow changed to 9.75m/s, or would the change have to be more drastic to notice a difference?", "human_ref_B": "Is our understanding of quantum physics limited by how intelligent the human brain is? I. E. Do we need an Einstein to come along every now and then  to understand it and be able to convey it in simpler terms to other intelligent people?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8607.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is2q9nt", "c_root_id_B": "is1fmuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1665610580, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592591, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Have we found an exoplanet that rotates so fast that the speed of an object on its surface exceeds the orbit velocity ?", "human_ref_B": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17989.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1vq84", "c_root_id_B": "is2q9nt", "created_at_utc_A": 1665598864, "created_at_utc_B": 1665610580, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Gravity is measured at 9.8m/s. Would we notice a difference if that somehow changed to 9.75m/s, or would the change have to be more drastic to notice a difference?", "human_ref_B": "Have we found an exoplanet that rotates so fast that the speed of an object on its surface exceeds the orbit velocity ?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11716.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is3c5z6", "c_root_id_B": "is1fmuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1665620136, "created_at_utc_B": 1665592591, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is time quantized? Can there be a smallest unit of time?", "human_ref_B": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27545.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is3c5z6", "c_root_id_B": "is1vq84", "created_at_utc_A": 1665620136, "created_at_utc_B": 1665598864, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is time quantized? Can there be a smallest unit of time?", "human_ref_B": "Gravity is measured at 9.8m/s. Would we notice a difference if that somehow changed to 9.75m/s, or would the change have to be more drastic to notice a difference?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21272.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is1fmuj", "c_root_id_B": "is3m02s", "created_at_utc_A": 1665592591, "created_at_utc_B": 1665624427, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hypothetical question  Imagine you had a 1x1x1 cubic ft area of nothing but space. This is all that exists. Now imagine you teleported in a particle into the middle of this area. Does the total amount of space inside the cube increase, decrease, or stay the same? Does the space inside \"move out of the way\" to \"make room\" for the new object?  EDIT: To make it a bit more clear, I'm changing the example from a bowling ball to just a single particle.", "human_ref_B": "If a alien civilization, say 10 to 50 million light years away developed a JWST and pointed it at our solar system. What and how much information they would they discover about us? I ask this because the JWST is promising to find exoplanets and their composition. I was wondering what it would look like from the opposite side to hopefully understand better on how the telescope works. (this is hypothetical, so imagine the the civilization is 10 to 50 million years in the future and looking at present day)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31836.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y24qed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "is3m02s", "c_root_id_B": "is1vq84", "created_at_utc_A": 1665624427, "created_at_utc_B": 1665598864, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "If a alien civilization, say 10 to 50 million light years away developed a JWST and pointed it at our solar system. What and how much information they would they discover about us? I ask this because the JWST is promising to find exoplanets and their composition. I was wondering what it would look like from the opposite side to hopefully understand better on how the telescope works. (this is hypothetical, so imagine the the civilization is 10 to 50 million years in the future and looking at present day)", "human_ref_B": "Gravity is measured at 9.8m/s. Would we notice a difference if that somehow changed to 9.75m/s, or would the change have to be more drastic to notice a difference?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25563.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3mzkqd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why do people faint because of low blood sugar when they haven't had a meal for a long time if the body can turn stored glycogen into glucose? It can also synthesize glucose from protein or fat, but why won't the body do it?", "c_root_id_A": "cvjn95v", "c_root_id_B": "cvjmv9n", "created_at_utc_A": 1443641527, "created_at_utc_B": 1443640989, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "If we are assuming the an individual is otherwise healthy, then there are two likely reasons. 1) they already have used all available fuel sources (ie glycogen, fat, protein) and then they are probably near death. Or 2) they are asking their body to use fuel faster than they are able to metabolized secondary fuel sources.  It is a function of what kind of activity or energy consumption they are asking their body to do (running, walking, sitting on the couch) vs. how much glucose their livers can convert from glycogen at any one time and then mobilize this glucose to get to the appropriate organs.  This is true for both fats and proteins although the conversion of fats and proteins is not secluded to the liver.", "human_ref_B": "Usually (healthy) people faint after they have already exhausted all these measures. Other times it is because they have a hormonal disturbance (diabetes being the most obvious culprit in that regard) that prevents them from reacting appropriately to the situation.  Type 1 diabetics will sometimes inject too much insulin by mistake which prompts the adipose tissue (fat tissue) and large muscles to take it up and store it as fat and glycogen. If a sufficient amount of insulin is injected this will continue to happen even after blood glucose falls dangerously low, causing them to faint. Under the affect of insulin, the liver won't have the necessary hormonal stimulus to release it's glycogen stores into the blood. My clinical terminology may be off, but I believe this is referred to as insulin shock.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 538.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "v2hx4l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "are the effects of faraday cages made of multiple materials aditional to each other? Language isn't my strong suit so let me explain my question. If I was to make a faraday cage to protect a peice of equipment but I was trying to do so cheaply and get the most EMP protection possible could I use a metal mesh, then an insulating layer, then a foil layer, then more insulation? And would the mesh add to the protection? Or is the amount of protection limited by the most effective layer and all additional layers effectively do nothing.   Bonus question: under what circumstances would I have to ground the faraday cage to properly EMP protect the equipment?", "c_root_id_A": "iasg3en", "c_root_id_B": "iash8a8", "created_at_utc_A": 1654093624, "created_at_utc_B": 1654094129, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "I think EMP resistance is not what faraday cages are for. I may be entirely wrong, but I've seen them used to contain or otherwise stop plasma bolts from tesla coils; such as in the case where a guy wears a full chainmail suit and is almost entirely protected from the electricity because it conducts through the metal sooner than anything else like a person or anything outside of the cage", "human_ref_B": "Does a faraday cage protect a device against any EMP? First, remember that an EMP (and you are probably envisioning a nuclear weapon generated EMP, so a NEMP) is a pulse, so it will have energy distributed over a wide frequency range (power frequencies to microwaves).  Second, the NEMP is formed by the interaction of fast electrons (from the weapon) interacting with Earth\u2019s magnetic field. The optimum altitude for the burst is about 100 km, so the effects on the ground are not electric or magnetic fields, but rather a propagating electromagnetic wave. This wave will induce currents and voltages into conductors, and things connected to those conductors may experience high voltages or injection currents.  Third, a Faraday Cage should be thought of as a Faraday Shield (try to forget that faked photo of Tesla sitting amid arc discharges). This shield may be a perfectly conducting, homogeneous surface, or it may have holes in it. The holes (maximum dimension is more important than area) act as high-pass filters, so maximize shielding by minimizing the shield apertures and discontinuities.  Fourth, since the NEMP will arrive at the Faraday surface as a propagating EM wave with a free-space impedance of 377 Ohms, the major component of shielding will be the first-surface reflection caused by the massive impedance discontinuity of the Faraday surface. Thus, a copper sheet reflects better than conductive rubber, so maximize shield conductivity. Skin depth is still important, but almost any common conductive material capable of being fabricated and supporting itself will have so many skin depths of thickness that that absorption within the shield is a minor shielding factor. You can build the surface out of bronze screening or copper cloth, but beware of oxidation where each wire crosses another; often, steel hardware cloth (with conductive cross-overs) is a better long-term performer. If paranoid, build your shield out of continuous MIG-welded 1/4\u2033 steel.  Fifth, a Faraday shield is a theoretical joy, but in the real World, you are shielding some real device (from a small circuit module to an entire building). Your perfect shield must be made imperfect to allow entry of power, desired signals, air conditioning, fire suppression, people and vehicles. Each penetration of the Faraday surface has the potential to completely compromise all shielding, so every penetration must be designed with appropriate control techniques.  Lastly, if all you want is decent consumer grade shielding effectiveness to store some communication gear, you can get 80 to 100 dB of shielding (that\u2019s 10,000x to 100,000x) just by wrapping your gadget in a layer or two of aluminum broiler foil and folding the seams tightly. The military model for NEMP is a 50,000 Volt/meter E-field strength, so achieving even an 80 dB of shielding will yield only 5 V/m inside the shield, and maybe only 0.5 V/m with 100 dB SE. Most any consumer equipment should (no guarantees) survive that just fine. Electronic equipment with a CE marking has a bit more chance than non-CE equipment, as Europe requires a 3 V/m exposure test to earn the CE marking (the USA has no such requirement).  *taken from a highly rated quora answer", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 505.0, "score_ratio": 30000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "v2hx4l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "are the effects of faraday cages made of multiple materials aditional to each other? Language isn't my strong suit so let me explain my question. If I was to make a faraday cage to protect a peice of equipment but I was trying to do so cheaply and get the most EMP protection possible could I use a metal mesh, then an insulating layer, then a foil layer, then more insulation? And would the mesh add to the protection? Or is the amount of protection limited by the most effective layer and all additional layers effectively do nothing.   Bonus question: under what circumstances would I have to ground the faraday cage to properly EMP protect the equipment?", "c_root_id_A": "iatznfk", "c_root_id_B": "iasg3en", "created_at_utc_A": 1654116942, "created_at_utc_B": 1654093624, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "So cages stop em signals by causing the em wave to split into new propagation sources on either side of the wire that then interfere with each other garbling/canceling the signal/wave, but technically the energy of the wave can still pass through the cage and would have an effect within the first few inches on the other side of the cage. Personally I would use an outside sheet to reflect most of the pulse and a cage inside to cancel what makes it through if you want to preserve say corruptible data storage. (Edit: Other poster brought up the frequency range and that's a good point, you would likely want a few cages sized for the most energetic frequencies.) Have both on their own ground rod and then anything inside with it's own ground to the Earth as well with enough distance from the cage wall and it should be 110% fine. During an emp that wave induces voltage in conductive materials, the longer the circuit the more voltage is induced. It's similar to a bad solar flare. Things hooked up to the power grid tend to get fried. Having shortest route to ground in the circuit can save items too if you have no shielding set up, but the further away from where the circuit grounds out the greater the chance of damage to anything on that circuit. So no promises without shielding.  Also wanted to add that while difficult to calculate and actually pull off a person could design a steel structured building the has the same effects as a faraday cage by positioning the metal support beams in the proper configurations to cause signals bouncing through to cancel themselves out. It's why sometimes in certain areas of some buildings you can lose cellphone coverage in one corner of a room and have better signal strength in others without seeing mesh everywhere.", "human_ref_B": "I think EMP resistance is not what faraday cages are for. I may be entirely wrong, but I've seen them used to contain or otherwise stop plasma bolts from tesla coils; such as in the case where a guy wears a full chainmail suit and is almost entirely protected from the electricity because it conducts through the metal sooner than anything else like a person or anything outside of the cage", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23318.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c846wvn", "c_root_id_B": "c849xru", "created_at_utc_A": 1359248487, "created_at_utc_B": 1359260133, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 122, "human_ref_A": "Well, yeah.  It's complementary.  As arumbar points out, there's a lot of different repair mechanisms.  Damaged bits can be recreated from the other strand.  The big exception being double strand breaks, which can be very, very bad.  But in humans, there's another chromosome that can hopefully take over for these sorts of problems.  There's a sort of failsafe built into DNA that isn't based on the enzymatic repair mechanisms.  The introduction of a frameshift mutation, where one base is added or deleted, will typically result in an early stop codon somewhere in the code of that particular gene.  While this is not an error-correction mechanism, it will prevent that gene from being translated into what will usually be garbage protein sequences.  Hopefully the null mutation of that gene is not lethal or entirely debilitating for the person in question.  There is no CRC-like mechanism in DNA.  And besides, that would be pretty awful for life in general, since the more stringent error correction is, the less likely any evolution can take place.", "human_ref_B": "So, please allow me to elaborate a bit on DNA repair. Your cells have roughly 3 billion base paired nucleotides each (A nucleotide is what you generally think of as a DNA letter, i.e. A,T,G or C) . These are paired up into double helix strands. Every time your cell divides, it has to copy all of that data. However, enzymes aren't perfect. The enzymes that copy your genes make mistakes at a rate of about 1/100,000. With as much data as that is, it comes out to about 120,000 per cell division. We wouldn't make it very far without error correction. Additionally, exposure to chemicals, the sun, and even viruses can add more mistakes into your DNA.   There are a number of ways to repair mistakes, and first line of defense is with the copying enzymes. As they copy your DNA, they take one strand, and move along it as new \"loose\" nucleotides come in. If they match as a pair (A:T, or G:C) they get added. These enzymes also have a proofreading functionality that literally (and this is neat) detects the **shape** of the pair. If the bases are paired incorrectly, it spits out the nucleotide and tries again. If it DOES put the wrong one in, it has a second proofreading functionality that can literally cut them out. If THAT fails and a mismatch actually gets through, there's a third failsafe. There are a set of enzymes whose job it is to scan through newly synthesized DNA to look for errors.    Let's say for the sake of argument that a mistake sneaks through, these enzymes go zooming down your DNA looking for mismatches. When one is found, they go to work taking out the bad base and putting in the right one. Here's the question though, if you have two strands of DNA, how do you know which one is right and which one is wrong? And that's even sneakier. Your DNA as it is synthesized is missing a marker used for both epigenetics and, you guessed it, repair. You can think of methylation as a set of flags all down your DNA. The old strand has the flags, the new one is nekkid. When the repair enzymes find a mismatch, they'll keep the old base and replace the new one, which is the misincorporated base.     So, say you get too much sun, or too many chemicals in you, and you end up with two strands of DNA that's all matched up, but one base is messed up chemically. This introduces a bump, or \"lesion\" in the strand that gets detected by DNA maintenance enzymes. Now because these processes require a lot of enzymes, i'm going to just give a general overview.   If the lesion isn't bad, sometimes base excision repair will be enough. The maintenance enzymes literally cut out just a couple pairs around the mismatch, and replace it. No prob. How many get cut out for each repair, and how that gets decided, we still don't know. If for whatever reason, the lesion gets overlooked and your cell tries to copy itself, or if the lesion is something that links the two strands together physically, there's one last line of defense. Blind guessing.   Yep, that's right. If you have DNA damage so bad that it can't be repaired or cut out, the last thing your cell can do is wait for the copying process to start, and then try to \"skip\" the lesion. And yes, this will introduce a mutation a lot of the time, but it's better than having all DNA usage stop. The polymerase enzymes that do this are highly specialized specifically to have low fidelity. They don't care how many mistakes they make because it's their *job* to take a wild guess when everything else has failed. This is called translesion synthesis in case you were wondering.   Sources:  Pretty much everything here can be found in Molecular Biology of the Cell, a standard mol bio textbook. I can pull individual references if anyone wants them. The book is available publicly from the ncbi here http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26850/ If anyone wants a user friendly walkthrough on DNA replication and mutation  http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-replication-and-causes-of-mutation-409  tl:dr Yes, there are multiple ways your cells can detect and repair damage caused either naturally through cellular copying, or through exposure to external damaging agents like sun and chemicals.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11646.0, "score_ratio": 15.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c849xru", "c_root_id_B": "c846y13", "created_at_utc_A": 1359260133, "created_at_utc_B": 1359248609, "score_A": 122, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "So, please allow me to elaborate a bit on DNA repair. Your cells have roughly 3 billion base paired nucleotides each (A nucleotide is what you generally think of as a DNA letter, i.e. A,T,G or C) . These are paired up into double helix strands. Every time your cell divides, it has to copy all of that data. However, enzymes aren't perfect. The enzymes that copy your genes make mistakes at a rate of about 1/100,000. With as much data as that is, it comes out to about 120,000 per cell division. We wouldn't make it very far without error correction. Additionally, exposure to chemicals, the sun, and even viruses can add more mistakes into your DNA.   There are a number of ways to repair mistakes, and first line of defense is with the copying enzymes. As they copy your DNA, they take one strand, and move along it as new \"loose\" nucleotides come in. If they match as a pair (A:T, or G:C) they get added. These enzymes also have a proofreading functionality that literally (and this is neat) detects the **shape** of the pair. If the bases are paired incorrectly, it spits out the nucleotide and tries again. If it DOES put the wrong one in, it has a second proofreading functionality that can literally cut them out. If THAT fails and a mismatch actually gets through, there's a third failsafe. There are a set of enzymes whose job it is to scan through newly synthesized DNA to look for errors.    Let's say for the sake of argument that a mistake sneaks through, these enzymes go zooming down your DNA looking for mismatches. When one is found, they go to work taking out the bad base and putting in the right one. Here's the question though, if you have two strands of DNA, how do you know which one is right and which one is wrong? And that's even sneakier. Your DNA as it is synthesized is missing a marker used for both epigenetics and, you guessed it, repair. You can think of methylation as a set of flags all down your DNA. The old strand has the flags, the new one is nekkid. When the repair enzymes find a mismatch, they'll keep the old base and replace the new one, which is the misincorporated base.     So, say you get too much sun, or too many chemicals in you, and you end up with two strands of DNA that's all matched up, but one base is messed up chemically. This introduces a bump, or \"lesion\" in the strand that gets detected by DNA maintenance enzymes. Now because these processes require a lot of enzymes, i'm going to just give a general overview.   If the lesion isn't bad, sometimes base excision repair will be enough. The maintenance enzymes literally cut out just a couple pairs around the mismatch, and replace it. No prob. How many get cut out for each repair, and how that gets decided, we still don't know. If for whatever reason, the lesion gets overlooked and your cell tries to copy itself, or if the lesion is something that links the two strands together physically, there's one last line of defense. Blind guessing.   Yep, that's right. If you have DNA damage so bad that it can't be repaired or cut out, the last thing your cell can do is wait for the copying process to start, and then try to \"skip\" the lesion. And yes, this will introduce a mutation a lot of the time, but it's better than having all DNA usage stop. The polymerase enzymes that do this are highly specialized specifically to have low fidelity. They don't care how many mistakes they make because it's their *job* to take a wild guess when everything else has failed. This is called translesion synthesis in case you were wondering.   Sources:  Pretty much everything here can be found in Molecular Biology of the Cell, a standard mol bio textbook. I can pull individual references if anyone wants them. The book is available publicly from the ncbi here http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26850/ If anyone wants a user friendly walkthrough on DNA replication and mutation  http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-replication-and-causes-of-mutation-409  tl:dr Yes, there are multiple ways your cells can detect and repair damage caused either naturally through cellular copying, or through exposure to external damaging agents like sun and chemicals.", "human_ref_B": "I'm not an expert in either ECC/CRC or DNA mismatch repair, but all DNA is a double-helix (so 2x redundancy is inherent), and most cells are diploid, meaning that most cells have 4 copies of the same information. This redundancy is enough to resolve most errors without having to embed any special error-correcting information into the code itself (like a checksum).  Of course, it would actually be a disadvantage to evolve an *error-free* DNA code, because then the code would become fixed and evolution would stop.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11524.0, "score_ratio": 17.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c848n92", "c_root_id_B": "c849xru", "created_at_utc_A": 1359255087, "created_at_utc_B": 1359260133, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 122, "human_ref_A": "Reduntancy, and any invalid sequence will yield either nothing, or unviable or toxic protein combinations.", "human_ref_B": "So, please allow me to elaborate a bit on DNA repair. Your cells have roughly 3 billion base paired nucleotides each (A nucleotide is what you generally think of as a DNA letter, i.e. A,T,G or C) . These are paired up into double helix strands. Every time your cell divides, it has to copy all of that data. However, enzymes aren't perfect. The enzymes that copy your genes make mistakes at a rate of about 1/100,000. With as much data as that is, it comes out to about 120,000 per cell division. We wouldn't make it very far without error correction. Additionally, exposure to chemicals, the sun, and even viruses can add more mistakes into your DNA.   There are a number of ways to repair mistakes, and first line of defense is with the copying enzymes. As they copy your DNA, they take one strand, and move along it as new \"loose\" nucleotides come in. If they match as a pair (A:T, or G:C) they get added. These enzymes also have a proofreading functionality that literally (and this is neat) detects the **shape** of the pair. If the bases are paired incorrectly, it spits out the nucleotide and tries again. If it DOES put the wrong one in, it has a second proofreading functionality that can literally cut them out. If THAT fails and a mismatch actually gets through, there's a third failsafe. There are a set of enzymes whose job it is to scan through newly synthesized DNA to look for errors.    Let's say for the sake of argument that a mistake sneaks through, these enzymes go zooming down your DNA looking for mismatches. When one is found, they go to work taking out the bad base and putting in the right one. Here's the question though, if you have two strands of DNA, how do you know which one is right and which one is wrong? And that's even sneakier. Your DNA as it is synthesized is missing a marker used for both epigenetics and, you guessed it, repair. You can think of methylation as a set of flags all down your DNA. The old strand has the flags, the new one is nekkid. When the repair enzymes find a mismatch, they'll keep the old base and replace the new one, which is the misincorporated base.     So, say you get too much sun, or too many chemicals in you, and you end up with two strands of DNA that's all matched up, but one base is messed up chemically. This introduces a bump, or \"lesion\" in the strand that gets detected by DNA maintenance enzymes. Now because these processes require a lot of enzymes, i'm going to just give a general overview.   If the lesion isn't bad, sometimes base excision repair will be enough. The maintenance enzymes literally cut out just a couple pairs around the mismatch, and replace it. No prob. How many get cut out for each repair, and how that gets decided, we still don't know. If for whatever reason, the lesion gets overlooked and your cell tries to copy itself, or if the lesion is something that links the two strands together physically, there's one last line of defense. Blind guessing.   Yep, that's right. If you have DNA damage so bad that it can't be repaired or cut out, the last thing your cell can do is wait for the copying process to start, and then try to \"skip\" the lesion. And yes, this will introduce a mutation a lot of the time, but it's better than having all DNA usage stop. The polymerase enzymes that do this are highly specialized specifically to have low fidelity. They don't care how many mistakes they make because it's their *job* to take a wild guess when everything else has failed. This is called translesion synthesis in case you were wondering.   Sources:  Pretty much everything here can be found in Molecular Biology of the Cell, a standard mol bio textbook. I can pull individual references if anyone wants them. The book is available publicly from the ncbi here http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26850/ If anyone wants a user friendly walkthrough on DNA replication and mutation  http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dna-replication-and-causes-of-mutation-409  tl:dr Yes, there are multiple ways your cells can detect and repair damage caused either naturally through cellular copying, or through exposure to external damaging agents like sun and chemicals.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5046.0, "score_ratio": 122.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c84dbk1", "c_root_id_B": "c848n92", "created_at_utc_A": 1359276920, "created_at_utc_B": 1359255087, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There is a lot of redundancy in the DNA. People have 2 copies of their DNA (one from mum the other from dad) that code for all the useful genes. Each strand of DNA is a reverse complement of the other. The codons, stretch of 3 nucleotides, determine the amino acids, but a single base change often has no effect at the third position and in the other 2 positions, it usually causes a change to an amino acid of similar properties. On top of all this are several layers of enzymatic error correction and detection. Finally the cells are redundant, so if you have one cell screw up its DNA copies, there is programmed cell death which causes it to self destruct. When all this fails you may get cancer.", "human_ref_B": "Reduntancy, and any invalid sequence will yield either nothing, or unviable or toxic protein combinations.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21833.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c848n92", "c_root_id_B": "c84ehu3", "created_at_utc_A": 1359255087, "created_at_utc_B": 1359288188, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Reduntancy, and any invalid sequence will yield either nothing, or unviable or toxic protein combinations.", "human_ref_B": "**Yes many. but none of them is perfect**, because perfect maintenance is not cost efficient.  The best defense mechanism seems to be redundancy. There is an incredible ammount of redundancy in any DNA. Sexually reproducing life has almost everything at least twice per cell to begin with. Multicellular life has multiple copies of everything, generally some are specialized in just a few tasks.  For multicellular life the **main task is not producing the right thing, but producing the right ammount** of anything. If a few cells got it a little wrong others can compensate. The tricky part about DNA is **not what to encode, but how much to encode at what times at what places**. And these parameters do not have to be as accurate to work. It is just more efficient if their regulation is optimized.  The translation process itself (that translates base tripplets like \"-T-A-G-\" into one amino acid of a chain of amino acids to manipulate matter) itself is VERY error resistant in regards to the most common physical/chemical reading errors. The way it translates 64 possible (chemically encoded) intupts into 21 different outputs is sorted and has efficient redundancy to where it is chemically most simmilar. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_codon_table shiows that the second base makes the biggest difference (seperating main categories of Amiono acids) while the 3rd base barely ever makes much of a difference (resulting in the very same amino acid most times). And even if the amino acid chain is a little different, it might still work a bit just like the original, sometimes even better.  There are very common mutations that ocur more often than others, like an xxxAAxxx sequence accidentally beind read/copied as if its an xxxAxxx sequence, just because ultraviolet light has \"melted\" 2 As together temporarily wich can easily be missread as a single A resulting into complete random nonsense being read afterwards.  Most organisms have enzymes that fix such most common physical/chemical reading errors.  Some extreme single celled life even has the ability to reconstruct their genetic code if it has been cut into a few thousand pieces by strong radiation or extreme pressure changes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33101.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c84e2mp", "c_root_id_B": "c84ehu3", "created_at_utc_A": 1359283660, "created_at_utc_B": 1359288188, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Well, as always it is more complicated than one would think. TL;DR it depends on the situation.  But i will try to make it as clear as possible.  I don't really know CRC, but any cell has three ways of dealing with errors in genetic material.  The only way DNA can truly \"fix\" (replace erroneous nucleotide sequences with the correct ones) is mismatch repair.  However, this process only occurs during replication.  So, the cell cannot fix any damage that it incurs immediately; it can only guide future generations to the correct DNA. Ultimately, it is easier for a cell to start over than to fix damage in actionable DNA.  The three remaining ways a cell deals with DNA damage occur when the damage is too great for the cell to function.   One pathway that has become quite popular over the last decade or so is apoptosis.  This process occurs when the DNA is damaged to the point where it cannot satisfy normal cellular function. The cell detects this, and - to put it simply - commits suicide.  Another way the cell handles irreparable damage is cell cycle arrest. Basically, if the cell detects significant damage to the genetic material then it will not reproduce.  Finally, the DNA damage might be just right as to cause the cell to grow without the normal checks and balances of a healthy cell.  This is called proliferation and it is the underlying mechanism of cancer.  Interestingly enough, chemotherapy agents such as doxorubicin attempt to damage the DNA of cancerous cells enough to activate the cell's \"error correcting\" defense mechanisms.", "human_ref_B": "**Yes many. but none of them is perfect**, because perfect maintenance is not cost efficient.  The best defense mechanism seems to be redundancy. There is an incredible ammount of redundancy in any DNA. Sexually reproducing life has almost everything at least twice per cell to begin with. Multicellular life has multiple copies of everything, generally some are specialized in just a few tasks.  For multicellular life the **main task is not producing the right thing, but producing the right ammount** of anything. If a few cells got it a little wrong others can compensate. The tricky part about DNA is **not what to encode, but how much to encode at what times at what places**. And these parameters do not have to be as accurate to work. It is just more efficient if their regulation is optimized.  The translation process itself (that translates base tripplets like \"-T-A-G-\" into one amino acid of a chain of amino acids to manipulate matter) itself is VERY error resistant in regards to the most common physical/chemical reading errors. The way it translates 64 possible (chemically encoded) intupts into 21 different outputs is sorted and has efficient redundancy to where it is chemically most simmilar. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_codon_table shiows that the second base makes the biggest difference (seperating main categories of Amiono acids) while the 3rd base barely ever makes much of a difference (resulting in the very same amino acid most times). And even if the amino acid chain is a little different, it might still work a bit just like the original, sometimes even better.  There are very common mutations that ocur more often than others, like an xxxAAxxx sequence accidentally beind read/copied as if its an xxxAxxx sequence, just because ultraviolet light has \"melted\" 2 As together temporarily wich can easily be missread as a single A resulting into complete random nonsense being read afterwards.  Most organisms have enzymes that fix such most common physical/chemical reading errors.  Some extreme single celled life even has the ability to reconstruct their genetic code if it has been cut into a few thousand pieces by strong radiation or extreme pressure changes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4528.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c848n92", "c_root_id_B": "c84fip5", "created_at_utc_A": 1359255087, "created_at_utc_B": 1359297066, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Reduntancy, and any invalid sequence will yield either nothing, or unviable or toxic protein combinations.", "human_ref_B": "I think most biologists will tell you a physical solution such as repair or mismatch mechanisms. But I assume you are asking for a system solution in error correcting.   There are a couple of papers that tried to search for error correcting codes in the DNA. Here is a paper in PLOS One: http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0036644", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 41979.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c84e2mp", "c_root_id_B": "c84fip5", "created_at_utc_A": 1359283660, "created_at_utc_B": 1359297066, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Well, as always it is more complicated than one would think. TL;DR it depends on the situation.  But i will try to make it as clear as possible.  I don't really know CRC, but any cell has three ways of dealing with errors in genetic material.  The only way DNA can truly \"fix\" (replace erroneous nucleotide sequences with the correct ones) is mismatch repair.  However, this process only occurs during replication.  So, the cell cannot fix any damage that it incurs immediately; it can only guide future generations to the correct DNA. Ultimately, it is easier for a cell to start over than to fix damage in actionable DNA.  The three remaining ways a cell deals with DNA damage occur when the damage is too great for the cell to function.   One pathway that has become quite popular over the last decade or so is apoptosis.  This process occurs when the DNA is damaged to the point where it cannot satisfy normal cellular function. The cell detects this, and - to put it simply - commits suicide.  Another way the cell handles irreparable damage is cell cycle arrest. Basically, if the cell detects significant damage to the genetic material then it will not reproduce.  Finally, the DNA damage might be just right as to cause the cell to grow without the normal checks and balances of a healthy cell.  This is called proliferation and it is the underlying mechanism of cancer.  Interestingly enough, chemotherapy agents such as doxorubicin attempt to damage the DNA of cancerous cells enough to activate the cell's \"error correcting\" defense mechanisms.", "human_ref_B": "I think most biologists will tell you a physical solution such as repair or mismatch mechanisms. But I assume you are asking for a system solution in error correcting.   There are a couple of papers that tried to search for error correcting codes in the DNA. Here is a paper in PLOS One: http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0036644", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13406.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "17cda9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Does Human DNA contain any type of error-correcting code or employ something like CRC?  If so, what type of error-correcting is formed?", "c_root_id_A": "c84fip5", "c_root_id_B": "c84ewuy", "created_at_utc_A": 1359297066, "created_at_utc_B": 1359292344, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I think most biologists will tell you a physical solution such as repair or mismatch mechanisms. But I assume you are asking for a system solution in error correcting.   There are a couple of papers that tried to search for error correcting codes in the DNA. Here is a paper in PLOS One: http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0036644", "human_ref_B": "Yes, there are multiple codons that code for the same residue, and these codons are usually only 1 base pair different. So if a mutation were to switch a codon pair, more often than not, the resulting amino acid that is encoded would remain the same. And if does cause them to change amino acid, usually its a similair one ( hydrophilic to hydrophilic ).  GAA and GAG both encode glutamic acid. If a GAA codon mutated to GAG, the resulting protein would be unaffected.  And if it mutated to GAC, the very similar Aspartic acid would be encoded, which would likely minimally change protein shape.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codon", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4722.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i5mub", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Is it possible that there were organisms in our ancient history whose DNA replication processes were less prone to errors/mutations, but because of this efficiency the organism lacked the ability to adapt to changes and died out?", "c_root_id_A": "c213wlh", "c_root_id_B": "c21bk8b", "created_at_utc_A": 1308696644, "created_at_utc_B": 1308785015, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It sounds like you might be talking about evolvability.", "human_ref_B": "Actually, our predecessors were far more efficient at DNA repair and therefore had a lower mutation *per generation* -- the bacteria. However, far from having 'died out', they're by far the most dominant lifeform on the planet and are doing quite well. I feel queasy about evolvability as it's a fairly high order phenomenon, and therefore kinda weak as far as its explanatory powers go. It probably happens and maybe is dominant enough in a case or two, but that's the exception rather than the rule, as evolutionary phenomena can usually be explained in much more fundamental terms: mutation, selection, drift, etc. ('first order' explanations, if you will, since evolvability later builds upon them)  But I digress... so one way to look at it is to acknowledge that bacteria are far superior biological machines - they're insanely abundant, found pretty much anywhere, and will definitely outlast us, after animals (and eukaryotes) go extinct for whatever reason. As far as selection goes, animals and plants, or even eukaryotes, should never have happened -- we're cumbersome and inefficient.  However, gradually, the limits of selective pressure can be nudged away and its overall effect can be weakened. One way to do this is through a decrease in effective population size -- remember that there's always drift happening in the background, and the strength of drift increases rapidly as population declines. Bacteria have fucking massive populations, unicellular eukaryotes general have decent ones and large animals and plants just suck. This means we experience a stronger effect of drift relative to selection, keeping everything else constant.   Another major contributor to selective strength is mutation rate. It may seem somewhat counterintuitive, but given a constant population size, higher mutation rates lead to streamlining (ultimately more pleasing to selection) -- for example plant mitochondria have a 10x lower mutation rate than human mitochondria, and happen to contain a ton more junk in their genomes, even introns! Bacteria have very low mutation rates, but presumably they can get away with it by living in insanely large crowds -- one can summarise this in a total population mutation rate: (eff pop size)*(mutation rate). This value is often used instead of eff pop size or mutation rate alone since it's difficult to measure the latter two. Perhaps our higher mutation rates could help compensate some of the effect of the reduced populations, but it's not clear whether more is better past a certain point. But on the genomic level, mutation acts as a selective force weeding out excessive mutational targets like loooong introns, etc, since things with more complicated genome structure tend to also be more prone to deleterious mutations wiping them out. However, in terms of long-scale environmental adaptation, I doubt our elevated mutation rates compensate for the fact we have stupidly long generation times; bacteria can get *a lot* more mutatin' done in the time it takes an average mammal to breed.  But here is where we get *really* counterintuitive if you still believe in the superiority of complexity and large fluffy animals and the like. Overall, selective*mutational forces are weaker for us than for microbial life, and this probably contributed to the enabled explosion of complexity. So it's not that we're better in adapting to changes or anything, but rather that weaker forces of selection allow complexity to built up and us to gradually depend upon and utilise novel elements (both genomic and morphological) that would have otherwise never been allowed in the first place.  tl;dr Our ancestors did have lower mutation rates, but that was more than compensated for by large population sizes and short generation spans, the decrease of which actually *enabled* unnecessary complexity to accumulate and allowed cumbersome inefficient organisms like us to evolve in the first place.  Key source for further reading: Lynch 2007 *The Origins of Genome Architecture*", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 88371.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i5mub", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Is it possible that there were organisms in our ancient history whose DNA replication processes were less prone to errors/mutations, but because of this efficiency the organism lacked the ability to adapt to changes and died out?", "c_root_id_A": "c21bk8b", "c_root_id_B": "c21483s", "created_at_utc_A": 1308785015, "created_at_utc_B": 1308699808, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Actually, our predecessors were far more efficient at DNA repair and therefore had a lower mutation *per generation* -- the bacteria. However, far from having 'died out', they're by far the most dominant lifeform on the planet and are doing quite well. I feel queasy about evolvability as it's a fairly high order phenomenon, and therefore kinda weak as far as its explanatory powers go. It probably happens and maybe is dominant enough in a case or two, but that's the exception rather than the rule, as evolutionary phenomena can usually be explained in much more fundamental terms: mutation, selection, drift, etc. ('first order' explanations, if you will, since evolvability later builds upon them)  But I digress... so one way to look at it is to acknowledge that bacteria are far superior biological machines - they're insanely abundant, found pretty much anywhere, and will definitely outlast us, after animals (and eukaryotes) go extinct for whatever reason. As far as selection goes, animals and plants, or even eukaryotes, should never have happened -- we're cumbersome and inefficient.  However, gradually, the limits of selective pressure can be nudged away and its overall effect can be weakened. One way to do this is through a decrease in effective population size -- remember that there's always drift happening in the background, and the strength of drift increases rapidly as population declines. Bacteria have fucking massive populations, unicellular eukaryotes general have decent ones and large animals and plants just suck. This means we experience a stronger effect of drift relative to selection, keeping everything else constant.   Another major contributor to selective strength is mutation rate. It may seem somewhat counterintuitive, but given a constant population size, higher mutation rates lead to streamlining (ultimately more pleasing to selection) -- for example plant mitochondria have a 10x lower mutation rate than human mitochondria, and happen to contain a ton more junk in their genomes, even introns! Bacteria have very low mutation rates, but presumably they can get away with it by living in insanely large crowds -- one can summarise this in a total population mutation rate: (eff pop size)*(mutation rate). This value is often used instead of eff pop size or mutation rate alone since it's difficult to measure the latter two. Perhaps our higher mutation rates could help compensate some of the effect of the reduced populations, but it's not clear whether more is better past a certain point. But on the genomic level, mutation acts as a selective force weeding out excessive mutational targets like loooong introns, etc, since things with more complicated genome structure tend to also be more prone to deleterious mutations wiping them out. However, in terms of long-scale environmental adaptation, I doubt our elevated mutation rates compensate for the fact we have stupidly long generation times; bacteria can get *a lot* more mutatin' done in the time it takes an average mammal to breed.  But here is where we get *really* counterintuitive if you still believe in the superiority of complexity and large fluffy animals and the like. Overall, selective*mutational forces are weaker for us than for microbial life, and this probably contributed to the enabled explosion of complexity. So it's not that we're better in adapting to changes or anything, but rather that weaker forces of selection allow complexity to built up and us to gradually depend upon and utilise novel elements (both genomic and morphological) that would have otherwise never been allowed in the first place.  tl;dr Our ancestors did have lower mutation rates, but that was more than compensated for by large population sizes and short generation spans, the decrease of which actually *enabled* unnecessary complexity to accumulate and allowed cumbersome inefficient organisms like us to evolve in the first place.  Key source for further reading: Lynch 2007 *The Origins of Genome Architecture*", "human_ref_B": "It seems possible to me. How could you ever demonstrate it to have happened though? No descendants of those individuals exist today, so how could we study them.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 85207.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i5mub", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Is it possible that there were organisms in our ancient history whose DNA replication processes were less prone to errors/mutations, but because of this efficiency the organism lacked the ability to adapt to changes and died out?", "c_root_id_A": "c21bk8b", "c_root_id_B": "c214gfa", "created_at_utc_A": 1308785015, "created_at_utc_B": 1308702180, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Actually, our predecessors were far more efficient at DNA repair and therefore had a lower mutation *per generation* -- the bacteria. However, far from having 'died out', they're by far the most dominant lifeform on the planet and are doing quite well. I feel queasy about evolvability as it's a fairly high order phenomenon, and therefore kinda weak as far as its explanatory powers go. It probably happens and maybe is dominant enough in a case or two, but that's the exception rather than the rule, as evolutionary phenomena can usually be explained in much more fundamental terms: mutation, selection, drift, etc. ('first order' explanations, if you will, since evolvability later builds upon them)  But I digress... so one way to look at it is to acknowledge that bacteria are far superior biological machines - they're insanely abundant, found pretty much anywhere, and will definitely outlast us, after animals (and eukaryotes) go extinct for whatever reason. As far as selection goes, animals and plants, or even eukaryotes, should never have happened -- we're cumbersome and inefficient.  However, gradually, the limits of selective pressure can be nudged away and its overall effect can be weakened. One way to do this is through a decrease in effective population size -- remember that there's always drift happening in the background, and the strength of drift increases rapidly as population declines. Bacteria have fucking massive populations, unicellular eukaryotes general have decent ones and large animals and plants just suck. This means we experience a stronger effect of drift relative to selection, keeping everything else constant.   Another major contributor to selective strength is mutation rate. It may seem somewhat counterintuitive, but given a constant population size, higher mutation rates lead to streamlining (ultimately more pleasing to selection) -- for example plant mitochondria have a 10x lower mutation rate than human mitochondria, and happen to contain a ton more junk in their genomes, even introns! Bacteria have very low mutation rates, but presumably they can get away with it by living in insanely large crowds -- one can summarise this in a total population mutation rate: (eff pop size)*(mutation rate). This value is often used instead of eff pop size or mutation rate alone since it's difficult to measure the latter two. Perhaps our higher mutation rates could help compensate some of the effect of the reduced populations, but it's not clear whether more is better past a certain point. But on the genomic level, mutation acts as a selective force weeding out excessive mutational targets like loooong introns, etc, since things with more complicated genome structure tend to also be more prone to deleterious mutations wiping them out. However, in terms of long-scale environmental adaptation, I doubt our elevated mutation rates compensate for the fact we have stupidly long generation times; bacteria can get *a lot* more mutatin' done in the time it takes an average mammal to breed.  But here is where we get *really* counterintuitive if you still believe in the superiority of complexity and large fluffy animals and the like. Overall, selective*mutational forces are weaker for us than for microbial life, and this probably contributed to the enabled explosion of complexity. So it's not that we're better in adapting to changes or anything, but rather that weaker forces of selection allow complexity to built up and us to gradually depend upon and utilise novel elements (both genomic and morphological) that would have otherwise never been allowed in the first place.  tl;dr Our ancestors did have lower mutation rates, but that was more than compensated for by large population sizes and short generation spans, the decrease of which actually *enabled* unnecessary complexity to accumulate and allowed cumbersome inefficient organisms like us to evolve in the first place.  Key source for further reading: Lynch 2007 *The Origins of Genome Architecture*", "human_ref_B": "We, ourselves, have a ton of mechanisms that regulate the rate of mutation/degradation of DNA, from DNA's inherent chemical structure to biochemical caretakers of DNA (including during its replication process). In other words, if such an organism evolved, I don't know if it would be terribly different from what our cells currently have.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 82835.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwni7", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwb6y", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513898, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513214, "score_A": 762, "score_B": 212, "human_ref_A": "How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?", "human_ref_B": "How much of the Great Barrier Reef do you think can be saved?   And what should we be doing about it?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 684.0, "score_ratio": 3.5943396226, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwni7", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbq3", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513898, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513243, "score_A": 762, "score_B": 97, "human_ref_A": "How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best way to deal with plastic waste and microplastics? What do you think about the ocean cleanup project?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 655.0, "score_ratio": 7.8556701031, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwixp", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwni7", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513649, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513898, "score_A": 43, "score_B": 762, "human_ref_A": "What is one thing about the oceans that you think everybody should know, but that most people don't know?", "human_ref_B": "How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 249.0, "score_ratio": 17.7209302326, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwa4l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwni7", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513154, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513898, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 762, "human_ref_A": "Dr. Leinen, thank you for taking the time to answer questions here. Since you mention climate change, one of the topics I am particularly interested in is ocean acidification. Could you please talk a bit about how you monitor the effect of the increasing acidity of ocean waters on marine life? Have any detrimental effects been observed already?   And just to broach slightly more speculative terrain, has your organizations carried out any studies or projects to study the feasibility of reversing the acidification through geo-engineering?   Thank you!", "human_ref_B": "How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 744.0, "score_ratio": 20.5945945946, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwni7", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbjz", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513898, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513233, "score_A": 762, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?", "human_ref_B": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 665.0, "score_ratio": 69.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwni7", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513898, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 762, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 970.0, "score_ratio": 95.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwni7", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwj6s", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513898, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513662, "score_A": 762, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?", "human_ref_B": "What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 236.0, "score_ratio": 152.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwni7", "c_root_id_B": "d4hw9uv", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513898, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513138, "score_A": 762, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How can you, as AGU President, and the Board, in good conscience, continue the partnership with ExxonMobil despite a massive part of the membership being vehemently opposed to such a relationship given Exxon's role in suppressing and discrediting the climate science conducted by your own members?", "human_ref_B": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 760.0, "score_ratio": 254.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwa4l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwb6y", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513154, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513214, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 212, "human_ref_A": "Dr. Leinen, thank you for taking the time to answer questions here. Since you mention climate change, one of the topics I am particularly interested in is ocean acidification. Could you please talk a bit about how you monitor the effect of the increasing acidity of ocean waters on marine life? Have any detrimental effects been observed already?   And just to broach slightly more speculative terrain, has your organizations carried out any studies or projects to study the feasibility of reversing the acidification through geo-engineering?   Thank you!", "human_ref_B": "How much of the Great Barrier Reef do you think can be saved?   And what should we be doing about it?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 60.0, "score_ratio": 5.7297297297, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwb6y", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513214, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 212, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "How much of the Great Barrier Reef do you think can be saved?   And what should we be doing about it?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 286.0, "score_ratio": 26.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw9uv", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwb6y", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513138, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513214, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 212, "human_ref_A": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "human_ref_B": "How much of the Great Barrier Reef do you think can be saved?   And what should we be doing about it?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 76.0, "score_ratio": 70.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwbq3", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwa4l", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513243, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513154, "score_A": 97, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "What is the best way to deal with plastic waste and microplastics? What do you think about the ocean cleanup project?", "human_ref_B": "Dr. Leinen, thank you for taking the time to answer questions here. Since you mention climate change, one of the topics I am particularly interested in is ocean acidification. Could you please talk a bit about how you monitor the effect of the increasing acidity of ocean waters on marine life? Have any detrimental effects been observed already?   And just to broach slightly more speculative terrain, has your organizations carried out any studies or projects to study the feasibility of reversing the acidification through geo-engineering?   Thank you!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 89.0, "score_ratio": 2.6216216216, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwbjz", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbq3", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513233, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513243, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 97, "human_ref_A": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best way to deal with plastic waste and microplastics? What do you think about the ocean cleanup project?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10.0, "score_ratio": 8.8181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbq3", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513243, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 97, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "What is the best way to deal with plastic waste and microplastics? What do you think about the ocean cleanup project?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 315.0, "score_ratio": 12.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwbq3", "c_root_id_B": "d4hw9uv", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513243, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513138, "score_A": 97, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What is the best way to deal with plastic waste and microplastics? What do you think about the ocean cleanup project?", "human_ref_B": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 105.0, "score_ratio": 32.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwa4l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwixp", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513154, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513649, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "Dr. Leinen, thank you for taking the time to answer questions here. Since you mention climate change, one of the topics I am particularly interested in is ocean acidification. Could you please talk a bit about how you monitor the effect of the increasing acidity of ocean waters on marine life? Have any detrimental effects been observed already?   And just to broach slightly more speculative terrain, has your organizations carried out any studies or projects to study the feasibility of reversing the acidification through geo-engineering?   Thank you!", "human_ref_B": "What is one thing about the oceans that you think everybody should know, but that most people don't know?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 495.0, "score_ratio": 1.1621621622, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwbjz", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwixp", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513233, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513649, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "human_ref_B": "What is one thing about the oceans that you think everybody should know, but that most people don't know?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 416.0, "score_ratio": 3.9090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwixp", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513649, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "What is one thing about the oceans that you think everybody should know, but that most people don't know?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 721.0, "score_ratio": 5.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw9uv", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwixp", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513138, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513649, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "human_ref_B": "What is one thing about the oceans that you think everybody should know, but that most people don't know?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 511.0, "score_ratio": 14.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwa4l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hxjpb", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513154, "created_at_utc_B": 1466515566, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "Dr. Leinen, thank you for taking the time to answer questions here. Since you mention climate change, one of the topics I am particularly interested in is ocean acidification. Could you please talk a bit about how you monitor the effect of the increasing acidity of ocean waters on marine life? Have any detrimental effects been observed already?   And just to broach slightly more speculative terrain, has your organizations carried out any studies or projects to study the feasibility of reversing the acidification through geo-engineering?   Thank you!", "human_ref_B": "Over fishing. How big of a problem is it really?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2412.0, "score_ratio": 1.027027027, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hxjpb", "c_root_id_B": "d4hx4bj", "created_at_utc_A": 1466515566, "created_at_utc_B": 1466514799, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Over fishing. How big of a problem is it really?", "human_ref_B": "what can regular people like me do to help protect our oceans?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 767.0, "score_ratio": 1.7272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwbjz", "c_root_id_B": "d4hxjpb", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513233, "created_at_utc_B": 1466515566, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "human_ref_B": "Over fishing. How big of a problem is it really?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2333.0, "score_ratio": 3.4545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwpdu", "c_root_id_B": "d4hxjpb", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513999, "created_at_utc_B": 1466515566, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "What are your thoughts about the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster over the Pacific Ocean?", "human_ref_B": "Over fishing. How big of a problem is it really?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1567.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hxjpb", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466515566, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "Over fishing. How big of a problem is it really?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2638.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hxjpb", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwj6s", "created_at_utc_A": 1466515566, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513662, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Over fishing. How big of a problem is it really?", "human_ref_B": "What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1904.0, "score_ratio": 7.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw9uv", "c_root_id_B": "d4hxjpb", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513138, "created_at_utc_B": 1466515566, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 38, "human_ref_A": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "human_ref_B": "Over fishing. How big of a problem is it really?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2428.0, "score_ratio": 12.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwa4l", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513154, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "Dr. Leinen, thank you for taking the time to answer questions here. Since you mention climate change, one of the topics I am particularly interested in is ocean acidification. Could you please talk a bit about how you monitor the effect of the increasing acidity of ocean waters on marine life? Have any detrimental effects been observed already?   And just to broach slightly more speculative terrain, has your organizations carried out any studies or projects to study the feasibility of reversing the acidification through geo-engineering?   Thank you!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 226.0, "score_ratio": 4.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwa4l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hw9uv", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513154, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513138, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Dr. Leinen, thank you for taking the time to answer questions here. Since you mention climate change, one of the topics I am particularly interested in is ocean acidification. Could you please talk a bit about how you monitor the effect of the increasing acidity of ocean waters on marine life? Have any detrimental effects been observed already?   And just to broach slightly more speculative terrain, has your organizations carried out any studies or projects to study the feasibility of reversing the acidification through geo-engineering?   Thank you!", "human_ref_B": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16.0, "score_ratio": 12.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hx4bj", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbjz", "created_at_utc_A": 1466514799, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513233, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "what can regular people like me do to help protect our oceans?", "human_ref_B": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1566.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwpdu", "c_root_id_B": "d4hx4bj", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513999, "created_at_utc_B": 1466514799, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "What are your thoughts about the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster over the Pacific Ocean?", "human_ref_B": "what can regular people like me do to help protect our oceans?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 800.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hx4bj", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466514799, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "what can regular people like me do to help protect our oceans?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1871.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwj6s", "c_root_id_B": "d4hx4bj", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513662, "created_at_utc_B": 1466514799, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?", "human_ref_B": "what can regular people like me do to help protect our oceans?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1137.0, "score_ratio": 4.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hx4bj", "c_root_id_B": "d4hw9uv", "created_at_utc_A": 1466514799, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513138, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "what can regular people like me do to help protect our oceans?", "human_ref_B": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1661.0, "score_ratio": 7.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hzwxy", "c_root_id_B": "d4hz8eu", "created_at_utc_A": 1466519355, "created_at_utc_B": 1466518340, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Monitoring the ocean probably generates extremely large datasets.  I'm a data nerd, and I like to scour through open data sets to see if I can find trends / correlate with other disparate data sets. Are there any data sets you can make public so that the redditverse can help find trends or patterns within the data?  Others have done so within Amazon's Elastic Cloud Computing platform.", "human_ref_B": "Do you think that a vegan diet can help oceans or reduce the impact on global warming?  Edit 1: words", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1015.0, "score_ratio": 1.5384615385, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hzwxy", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbjz", "created_at_utc_A": 1466519355, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513233, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Monitoring the ocean probably generates extremely large datasets.  I'm a data nerd, and I like to scour through open data sets to see if I can find trends / correlate with other disparate data sets. Are there any data sets you can make public so that the redditverse can help find trends or patterns within the data?  Others have done so within Amazon's Elastic Cloud Computing platform.", "human_ref_B": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6122.0, "score_ratio": 1.8181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hzwxy", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwpdu", "created_at_utc_A": 1466519355, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513999, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Monitoring the ocean probably generates extremely large datasets.  I'm a data nerd, and I like to scour through open data sets to see if I can find trends / correlate with other disparate data sets. Are there any data sets you can make public so that the redditverse can help find trends or patterns within the data?  Others have done so within Amazon's Elastic Cloud Computing platform.", "human_ref_B": "What are your thoughts about the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster over the Pacific Ocean?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5356.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hzwxy", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466519355, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "Monitoring the ocean probably generates extremely large datasets.  I'm a data nerd, and I like to scour through open data sets to see if I can find trends / correlate with other disparate data sets. Are there any data sets you can make public so that the redditverse can help find trends or patterns within the data?  Others have done so within Amazon's Elastic Cloud Computing platform.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6427.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hzwxy", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwj6s", "created_at_utc_A": 1466519355, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513662, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Monitoring the ocean probably generates extremely large datasets.  I'm a data nerd, and I like to scour through open data sets to see if I can find trends / correlate with other disparate data sets. Are there any data sets you can make public so that the redditverse can help find trends or patterns within the data?  Others have done so within Amazon's Elastic Cloud Computing platform.", "human_ref_B": "What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5693.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hzwxy", "c_root_id_B": "d4hw9uv", "created_at_utc_A": 1466519355, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513138, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Monitoring the ocean probably generates extremely large datasets.  I'm a data nerd, and I like to scour through open data sets to see if I can find trends / correlate with other disparate data sets. Are there any data sets you can make public so that the redditverse can help find trends or patterns within the data?  Others have done so within Amazon's Elastic Cloud Computing platform.", "human_ref_B": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6217.0, "score_ratio": 6.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hz8eu", "c_root_id_B": "d4hzxgo", "created_at_utc_A": 1466518340, "created_at_utc_B": 1466519376, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Do you think that a vegan diet can help oceans or reduce the impact on global warming?  Edit 1: words", "human_ref_B": "Beyond the obvious climate change research, as a political science student, I'm deeply interested in your insights on how science operates within the framework of politics.   Often overlooked but crucial development in the spratly island is the China land reclamation that they claim is an ecoproject.  (See: http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/05/26/china-calls-south-china-sea-island-reclamation-a-green-project-spratly-islands/)   However, land reclaimation on such a massive scale must have devastating effects on the oceanic life. Such a massive effort also redefines territorial boundaries of oceanic waters and sovereignty.  There are multiple motivations to such a move by China and one can speculate that security is a paramount concern.   I am using this as just one specific examples and I hope more can be drawn.   What are your thoughts on the Spratly reclamation project?  To what extent then does scientific research have an impact on actually helping to mitigate environmental degradation?  What are some of the greatest challenges or obstacles faced by researchers in using scientific facts to influence and inform the populace or world leaders of the inconvenient truth so that right decisions can be made for the benefit of the people.   In your assessment, in a nutshell, is science limited by our political will?  I would like to thank you in advance for such an opportunity. Given your influential position and experience, your insights can really help shed light on the inner workings of science and scientific institutions.  Edit: Wording was off on the thanks part.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1036.0, "score_ratio": 1.4615384615, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hzxgo", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbjz", "created_at_utc_A": 1466519376, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513233, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Beyond the obvious climate change research, as a political science student, I'm deeply interested in your insights on how science operates within the framework of politics.   Often overlooked but crucial development in the spratly island is the China land reclamation that they claim is an ecoproject.  (See: http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/05/26/china-calls-south-china-sea-island-reclamation-a-green-project-spratly-islands/)   However, land reclaimation on such a massive scale must have devastating effects on the oceanic life. Such a massive effort also redefines territorial boundaries of oceanic waters and sovereignty.  There are multiple motivations to such a move by China and one can speculate that security is a paramount concern.   I am using this as just one specific examples and I hope more can be drawn.   What are your thoughts on the Spratly reclamation project?  To what extent then does scientific research have an impact on actually helping to mitigate environmental degradation?  What are some of the greatest challenges or obstacles faced by researchers in using scientific facts to influence and inform the populace or world leaders of the inconvenient truth so that right decisions can be made for the benefit of the people.   In your assessment, in a nutshell, is science limited by our political will?  I would like to thank you in advance for such an opportunity. Given your influential position and experience, your insights can really help shed light on the inner workings of science and scientific institutions.  Edit: Wording was off on the thanks part.", "human_ref_B": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6143.0, "score_ratio": 1.7272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwpdu", "c_root_id_B": "d4hzxgo", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513999, "created_at_utc_B": 1466519376, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "What are your thoughts about the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster over the Pacific Ocean?", "human_ref_B": "Beyond the obvious climate change research, as a political science student, I'm deeply interested in your insights on how science operates within the framework of politics.   Often overlooked but crucial development in the spratly island is the China land reclamation that they claim is an ecoproject.  (See: http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/05/26/china-calls-south-china-sea-island-reclamation-a-green-project-spratly-islands/)   However, land reclaimation on such a massive scale must have devastating effects on the oceanic life. Such a massive effort also redefines territorial boundaries of oceanic waters and sovereignty.  There are multiple motivations to such a move by China and one can speculate that security is a paramount concern.   I am using this as just one specific examples and I hope more can be drawn.   What are your thoughts on the Spratly reclamation project?  To what extent then does scientific research have an impact on actually helping to mitigate environmental degradation?  What are some of the greatest challenges or obstacles faced by researchers in using scientific facts to influence and inform the populace or world leaders of the inconvenient truth so that right decisions can be made for the benefit of the people.   In your assessment, in a nutshell, is science limited by our political will?  I would like to thank you in advance for such an opportunity. Given your influential position and experience, your insights can really help shed light on the inner workings of science and scientific institutions.  Edit: Wording was off on the thanks part.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5377.0, "score_ratio": 2.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hzxgo", "c_root_id_B": "d4hw66l", "created_at_utc_A": 1466519376, "created_at_utc_B": 1466512928, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Beyond the obvious climate change research, as a political science student, I'm deeply interested in your insights on how science operates within the framework of politics.   Often overlooked but crucial development in the spratly island is the China land reclamation that they claim is an ecoproject.  (See: http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/05/26/china-calls-south-china-sea-island-reclamation-a-green-project-spratly-islands/)   However, land reclaimation on such a massive scale must have devastating effects on the oceanic life. Such a massive effort also redefines territorial boundaries of oceanic waters and sovereignty.  There are multiple motivations to such a move by China and one can speculate that security is a paramount concern.   I am using this as just one specific examples and I hope more can be drawn.   What are your thoughts on the Spratly reclamation project?  To what extent then does scientific research have an impact on actually helping to mitigate environmental degradation?  What are some of the greatest challenges or obstacles faced by researchers in using scientific facts to influence and inform the populace or world leaders of the inconvenient truth so that right decisions can be made for the benefit of the people.   In your assessment, in a nutshell, is science limited by our political will?  I would like to thank you in advance for such an opportunity. Given your influential position and experience, your insights can really help shed light on the inner workings of science and scientific institutions.  Edit: Wording was off on the thanks part.", "human_ref_B": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6448.0, "score_ratio": 2.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hzxgo", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwj6s", "created_at_utc_A": 1466519376, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513662, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Beyond the obvious climate change research, as a political science student, I'm deeply interested in your insights on how science operates within the framework of politics.   Often overlooked but crucial development in the spratly island is the China land reclamation that they claim is an ecoproject.  (See: http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/05/26/china-calls-south-china-sea-island-reclamation-a-green-project-spratly-islands/)   However, land reclaimation on such a massive scale must have devastating effects on the oceanic life. Such a massive effort also redefines territorial boundaries of oceanic waters and sovereignty.  There are multiple motivations to such a move by China and one can speculate that security is a paramount concern.   I am using this as just one specific examples and I hope more can be drawn.   What are your thoughts on the Spratly reclamation project?  To what extent then does scientific research have an impact on actually helping to mitigate environmental degradation?  What are some of the greatest challenges or obstacles faced by researchers in using scientific facts to influence and inform the populace or world leaders of the inconvenient truth so that right decisions can be made for the benefit of the people.   In your assessment, in a nutshell, is science limited by our political will?  I would like to thank you in advance for such an opportunity. Given your influential position and experience, your insights can really help shed light on the inner workings of science and scientific institutions.  Edit: Wording was off on the thanks part.", "human_ref_B": "What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5714.0, "score_ratio": 3.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw9uv", "c_root_id_B": "d4hzxgo", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513138, "created_at_utc_B": 1466519376, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "human_ref_B": "Beyond the obvious climate change research, as a political science student, I'm deeply interested in your insights on how science operates within the framework of politics.   Often overlooked but crucial development in the spratly island is the China land reclamation that they claim is an ecoproject.  (See: http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/05/26/china-calls-south-china-sea-island-reclamation-a-green-project-spratly-islands/)   However, land reclaimation on such a massive scale must have devastating effects on the oceanic life. Such a massive effort also redefines territorial boundaries of oceanic waters and sovereignty.  There are multiple motivations to such a move by China and one can speculate that security is a paramount concern.   I am using this as just one specific examples and I hope more can be drawn.   What are your thoughts on the Spratly reclamation project?  To what extent then does scientific research have an impact on actually helping to mitigate environmental degradation?  What are some of the greatest challenges or obstacles faced by researchers in using scientific facts to influence and inform the populace or world leaders of the inconvenient truth so that right decisions can be made for the benefit of the people.   In your assessment, in a nutshell, is science limited by our political will?  I would like to thank you in advance for such an opportunity. Given your influential position and experience, your insights can really help shed light on the inner workings of science and scientific institutions.  Edit: Wording was off on the thanks part.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6238.0, "score_ratio": 6.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwbjz", "c_root_id_B": "d4hz8eu", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513233, "created_at_utc_B": 1466518340, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "human_ref_B": "Do you think that a vegan diet can help oceans or reduce the impact on global warming?  Edit 1: words", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5107.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hz8eu", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwpdu", "created_at_utc_A": 1466518340, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513999, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Do you think that a vegan diet can help oceans or reduce the impact on global warming?  Edit 1: words", "human_ref_B": "What are your thoughts about the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster over the Pacific Ocean?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4341.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hz8eu", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466518340, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "Do you think that a vegan diet can help oceans or reduce the impact on global warming?  Edit 1: words", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5412.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hz8eu", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwj6s", "created_at_utc_A": 1466518340, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513662, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Do you think that a vegan diet can help oceans or reduce the impact on global warming?  Edit 1: words", "human_ref_B": "What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4678.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hz8eu", "c_root_id_B": "d4hw9uv", "created_at_utc_A": 1466518340, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513138, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Do you think that a vegan diet can help oceans or reduce the impact on global warming?  Edit 1: words", "human_ref_B": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5202.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw66l", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbjz", "created_at_utc_A": 1466512928, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513233, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "What is changing most about the oceans as a result of climate change?", "human_ref_B": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 305.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw9uv", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwbjz", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513138, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513233, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "human_ref_B": "What is inevitable about the current future of the oceans, and what can be avoided with better environmental management?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 95.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwpdu", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwj6s", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513999, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513662, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "What are your thoughts about the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster over the Pacific Ocean?", "human_ref_B": "What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 337.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hw9uv", "c_root_id_B": "d4hwpdu", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513138, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513999, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "human_ref_B": "What are your thoughts about the consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster over the Pacific Ocean?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 861.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4p4cji", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hi Reddit, I\u2019m Margaret Leinen, here to talk about the world\u2019s oceans and how we observe them. Ask Me Anything! I\u2019m the president (http://about.agu.org/president/) of the American Geophysical Union, the world\u2019s leading organization of earth and space scientists, and I\u2019m also the director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography (https://scripps.ucsd.edu/) at UC San Diego (http://www.ucsd.edu/), which has a global focus on understanding and protecting the planet through ocean, earth, and atmospheric explorations.  The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and hold the key to many critical challenges facing science and society, from sustainably feeding human populations to addressing the impacts of climate change to protecting vulnerable marine species.  One of the cornerstone methods of keeping tabs on the oceans is through innovative tools and technologies to monitor them. At Scripps Oceanography we contribute to several ocean observation systems and networks that relay critical data about the seas and how they are changing. These include networks just off our populated coastlines (Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System, (http://www.sccoos.org/)) for applications as diverse as marine operations, coastal hazards, and ecosystems, to far out at sea where it's not easy to access information (Argo, (http://argo.ucsd.edu/)) to help us understand phenomena such as El Ni\u00f1os and ocean warming.  I look forward to answering your questions about ocean observations between 12 and 1 EST on Tuesday, 21 June! Ask Me Anything!", "c_root_id_A": "d4hwj6s", "c_root_id_B": "d4hw9uv", "created_at_utc_A": 1466513662, "created_at_utc_B": 1466513138, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What's your favorite ocean critter and why? What's a good example of one of these critters suffering from global warming?", "human_ref_B": "What role do you envision drones playing in the future of ocean monitoring/observation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 524.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "v05m3t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "Does a lens always cause such problems as spherical aberration, chromatic aberration, coma and astigmatism? Even experts on projects like James Webb Space Telescope cannot fix such problems with a lens?", "c_root_id_A": "iaf6ivp", "c_root_id_B": "iaf5fs7", "created_at_utc_A": 1653828515, "created_at_utc_B": 1653827852, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "It's a fundamental limit of optics. You can focus the light from one direction perfectly, but the same optical setup will never provide a perfect focus for other directions. A clever setup, generally done with three curved mirrors, can keep the deviations small enough over the range needed for the telescope.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, lenses and mirrors cause abberations in the image due to the refractive and reflective properties of the materials the passes through.  Engineers can, through design, minimize those aberrations such as reducing coma using multiple lenses align the light on the same plane and coatings to block frequencies.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 663.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "65tbjt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do some places show a long-term decline in sea level and others a rise? There's a sea level monitoring site in Alaska that shows a long-term decline in sea level.  I don't understand how this can happen? If there is a global sea level rise shouldn't everywhere be rising?   Genuinely curious. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "dgdfz42", "c_root_id_B": "dgdkm3i", "created_at_utc_A": 1492433857, "created_at_utc_B": 1492440723, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "There was al so a paper that described a balancing act in northern Atlantic between the MASS of the greenland ice sheet pulling water towards it, increasing sea level, and losing mass offsets the rise in sea levels due to the melted ice.", "human_ref_B": "A process called isostatic rebound causes land uplift resulting from the lack of ice that was once present which caused large depressions over an area. This uplift, or rebound, is greater then the rate of sea level rise. A classic example of this process can be observed in north eastern Europe, where historically the land was covered in ice kilometres in thickness, similar to present day Greenland. It is very important to note that sea level change is a very complex science with dozens of factors contributing to a net rise or fall for example, water temperature, air pressure, and water currents trends. All of which change on annual, decadal, centennial, and millennial scales. The max and min sea level difference globally is a much as 70m from what I remember, all due to local factors mentioned.   Source: Have a bachelors degree in physical geography", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6866.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dxka2s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "If we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide, where is the carbon coming from exactly?", "c_root_id_A": "f7wxyp5", "c_root_id_B": "f8aip4w", "created_at_utc_A": 1574041073, "created_at_utc_B": 1574398474, "score_A": -4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "We also inhale carbon dioxide when we breathe air. According to Wikipedia, since the industrial revolution, atmospheric\u00a0CO2\u00a0concentration has been at least 400 parts per million, worldwide.  \"By volume, dry\u00a0air\u00a0contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts\u00a0of\u00a0other\u00a0gases.\u00a0Air\u00a0also contains a variable amount\u00a0of\u00a0water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level.\"", "human_ref_B": "If u want a more detailed answer for fun if you're curious or if you're studying about respiration/the mitochondria:  CO2 is released because during respiration, glucose is broken down. In the cytoplasm, glucose is broken down (through a lengthy process which I'm lazy to type) to pyruvate.   In the mitochondria: During the Link pathway, decarboxylation occurs where pyruvate is broken down to acetyl coenzyme A. The carbon is released as CO2. Acetyl coenzyme A is used in the Krebs cycle, where there's the conversion of many carbon products. During the conversion, some lose carbon which is released as CO2 (e.g. 6C citrate is converted to 5C alpha-ketoglutarate so 1C is lost).   And fun fact, water is also produced during respiration. (O2 acts as the final electron and proton acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation to form H2O) That's why camels store fats (their humps don't store water). Their fats can be used in respiration to produce water!!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 357401.0, "score_ratio": -0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yuofps", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Are there any known cross-kingdom diseases? To be specific: Do we know of a bacteria, virus or a less-obvious category of infection that can affect both an animal and a fungus? I imagine plants are too far removed to have overlap but the same question remains.  It can be assumed the resulting disorders from the infection would be far different but the concept doesn't seem as rare as a google search would imply.", "c_root_id_A": "iwbcwr9", "c_root_id_B": "iwbklil", "created_at_utc_A": 1668424941, "created_at_utc_B": 1668430226, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "It hasn\u2019t been conclusively shown yet, but Pepper Mild Mottle Virus (PMMoV) lives in humans and may cause an immune response. Researchers are studying it now. It\u2019s presence is also a major indicator of human fecal contamination in groundwater because it survives for so long in our gut.  Some sources:  Humans Have Antibodies against a Plant Virus: Evidence from Tobacco Mosaic Virus  Pepper Mild Mottle Virus, a Plant Virus Associated with Specific Immune Responses, Fever, Abdominal Pains, and Pruritus in Humans", "human_ref_B": "The tobacco ringspot virus\u2014an RNA virus infecting many different kinds of plants\u2014has jumped from the plant kingdom to the animal kingdom, infecting the European honeybee. Various genera of rhabdoviruses are able to infect vertebrates, invertebrates, or plants, implying that both cross-kingdom and cross-phylum jumps have occurred within this virus family. Both groups are RNA viruses that\u2014in their plant-infecting forms\u2014use animals to spread from one plant to another...I imagine (but have no evidence) that this combination helped facilitate the jump between kingdoms.  There was also one documented case of plant-to-fungus virus transmission, where the cucumber ringspot virus was found to infect *Rhizoctonia solani*, a fungus that causes cucumber belly rot. The linked paper shows that the virus can actually  move back and forth from plant to fungus to plant, making it a single multi-Kingdom virus.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5285.0, "score_ratio": 1.9565217391, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "32c9gq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Why are anti-particles shown as going backwards in time in Feynman diagrams? Are they really going back in time, and if so would this explain the lack of antimatter, due to the anti particles essentially creating an identical universe, just going back in time, relative to us?", "c_root_id_A": "cqalxlm", "c_root_id_B": "cqa1oip", "created_at_utc_A": 1428908775, "created_at_utc_B": 1428866922, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It really should be stressed that feynman diagrams are not a description of what is physically happening at all. It is a way of representing a single term of an infinite expansion. It happens that in many cases the first term in overwhelmingly dominant, but NEVER a physical system does \"single virtual particle exchange.\" It is just a method of approximating what is really going on.", "human_ref_B": "In a Feynman diagram, time is always moving from left to right. The arrow on the line doesn't denote direction of movement or anything like that, it's purely to differentiate matter from antimatter. Regular matter particles are denoted by a right pointing arrow, while antimatter particles are denoted by a left pointing arrow. Regardless of the direction of the arrow though, the path of the particle through time moves from left to right. It can be a bit hard to get used to at first, you just have to get used to it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 41853.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4gbm6g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Read a really strange article that says we need bacteria (p. Syringae) to make rain and it was full of microbiologist quotes. Is this a commonly accepted theory? Heres the place I read it. Still can't believe I've never heard this before.  http://www.theverge.com/2016/4/22/11486644/ice-crystal-bacteria-process-study", "c_root_id_A": "d2gxzea", "c_root_id_B": "d2gc3z8", "created_at_utc_A": 1461613064, "created_at_utc_B": 1461574410, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I was also a bit surprised about it. I researched a bit (5 minutes) and this is what I found so far:  The Verge wrote a sensasionalist piece of crap, full of out-of-context quotes by a bunch of laser-physicists that don't know anything about atmospheric science, but I guess were happy with the attention.   However: nucleation centres are required for rain, and they found that ~20% of the atmospheric particles between 0.25 and 1 uM were actually viable bacteria in one of the primary sources they cite. Also P. syringae really makes it easy to form ice using its ice nucleation protein (look up snomax, they bought the stuff used in the study from a commercial company).  You could say that some airborne bacteria can be the start of nucleation for raindrops and there are a lot of them up there. But saying that we need this specific strain of bacteria to make it rain is a bit of a stretch.", "human_ref_B": "Didnt the article say it is not confirned do they cause rain or not? It was mostly talking about their actions in ice.  Anyway we know a rain drop is caused when water molecules gather around in the clouds. I have been taugth that each one needs a spec of dust that the molecules start gathering around in, water in perfectly clean air can not form rain drops. I suppose bacteria could work just as well as the starting centter.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 38654.0, "score_ratio": 6000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4gbm6g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Read a really strange article that says we need bacteria (p. Syringae) to make rain and it was full of microbiologist quotes. Is this a commonly accepted theory? Heres the place I read it. Still can't believe I've never heard this before.  http://www.theverge.com/2016/4/22/11486644/ice-crystal-bacteria-process-study", "c_root_id_A": "d2h9wrn", "c_root_id_B": "d2gc3z8", "created_at_utc_A": 1461630073, "created_at_utc_B": 1461574410, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "In the atrociously written summary article by TheVerge, the origin of this surprising claim is a quote from NOAA scientist Russell Schnell (not associated with the source paper), in which he states \"To make rain, your clouds have to form first an ice crystal.\"    -   This at first seemed very unlikely to me.   -   But I've now found a clue in the primary literature:  > The presence of ice particles in clouds is a major factor in the formation of precipitation, the radiative properties of clouds, and the chemical interactions within clouds. It is also clearly established that a substantial fraction of clouds in the troposphere is composed totally or partially of ice particles. A major part of global precipitation, whether it arrives at the Earth\u2019s surface as rain or as some form of ice, has gone through some ice process. The principal reasons for this are that clouds easily extend to the colder temperatures of the atmosphere, and in a situation where both liquid and solid cloud particles exist the latter are favoured to grow to precipitation sizes.   -   The above quote is from M\u00f6hler et al., 2007, a publication from the group of well-respected scientist Gabor Vali, who also happens to be Dr. Schnell's former Ph.D. advisor.  The article looks like a good read, but I have not had an opportunity to read it in detail.  Nonetheless, there *does* appear to be some merit to the ice-rain link claimed by Schnell.     -   P. syringae are know to catalyze nucleation of ice crystals, and thus there is a putative causative link between the bacteria, ice nuclei, and &mdash; yes &mdash; rain.", "human_ref_B": "Didnt the article say it is not confirned do they cause rain or not? It was mostly talking about their actions in ice.  Anyway we know a rain drop is caused when water molecules gather around in the clouds. I have been taugth that each one needs a spec of dust that the molecules start gathering around in, water in perfectly clean air can not form rain drops. I suppose bacteria could work just as well as the starting centter.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 55663.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3g6vcd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "I know the fate of the entire universe is debatable, but if a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way was left isolated to play out its future would every bit of matter end up within its central super-massive black hole?", "c_root_id_A": "ctw9dyl", "c_root_id_B": "ctvz4lz", "created_at_utc_A": 1439070284, "created_at_utc_B": 1439048826, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This is difficult to answer since we have no example for galaxies at the end of their lifecycle (if there even is one). According to the SAO Encyclopedia, our hypothetical isolated galaxy would experience normal star formation and \"death\" of those stars, but would remain unchanged aside from normal main sequence stuff. Then again, galaxy formation and composition is not totally understood. We have strong reason to assume that galaxies are surrounded by a huge halo of dark matter, but we know only very little about dark matter and how it stabilizes a galaxy. This lack of knowledge about a huge component of galaxy composition makes it even harder to predict the ultimate fate of an isolated galaxy. Also keep in mind that super massive black holes evaporate over time (even though this takes a _really_ long time).", "human_ref_B": "Nope. Given enough time, objects will either fall into the central black hole **or** being ejected into outer space, until only solitary objects are left. So the galaxy would be eaten only partially by its black hole.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21458.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "63z5pt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "If we were to find life on Europa, would it be likely that it would also be present on Ganymede and Callisto? It seems that these objects must swap material since we have already seen geysers. I feel like if any of them have life then probably they all do", "c_root_id_A": "dfyceif", "c_root_id_B": "dfyi0zo", "created_at_utc_A": 1491571615, "created_at_utc_B": 1491578187, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "The problem of their liquid water being shielded under ice has been raised as an obstacle to life spreading from one moon to another, which makes me wonder if anyone knows whether any of them were either liquid on the surface.  Much like how early Earth was covered in seas of molten rock from bombardment, were the icy moons covered in oceans, with atmospheres that have long since dissipated?", "human_ref_B": "This kind of resembles the panspermia theory but at a smaller scale. There have been experiments showing that some microbial life (extremophiles) can survive in space, though they stay inactive until brought back to a pressurized environment. So far the weak link in this theory is atmospheric entry: microorganisms would be burned by the heat of the shockwave if the are on the surface of a meteor. This weak link is irrelevant for the Jovian moons as they have no atmosphere, so it would be more plausible.  There is another environmental hazard, though. Jupiter has a very strong radiation belt around it as charged particles spin in its magnetic field. Life in the hypothetical subsurface ocean would be shielded pretty well. However, your scenario involves chunks of ice orbiting Jupiter for a while, falling on the surface of another moon and staying there until convection in ice can take it down to the depths. I'd like to have some numbers but it sounds like this can only happen over geological timescales.  It is true that some extremophiles are much better than humans at surviving ionizing radiation, notably deinococus radiodurans, but this doesn't mean they can take an arbitrarily high dose. With a sufficiently prolonged exposure, any living thing will eventually turn into a kind of \"organic soup\".", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6572.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lk2air", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Is coughing an evolutionary advantage? If so, why do we try to suppress it with cough syrup ? Coughing is the way our body tries to get rid of foreign bodies out of our lungs. I wonder why we should prevent our body to cough, even if it allows us to get rid of some virus. I understand that it slows down the spreading of the disease, however I don't understand, from an evolutionary point of view, why this feature was kept. If it is so disadvantageous, why would this trait survive ? If it's advantageous, why do we suppress it ?", "c_root_id_A": "gnimdkn", "c_root_id_B": "gnilxkk", "created_at_utc_A": 1613377814, "created_at_utc_B": 1613377409, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Evolution does not have a purpose.   Coughing was likely re-enforced in the past due to an advantage in some circumstances (but not all). Many traits have negative consequences that are re-enforced for unrelated reasons.  It is easy to see what a peacock carrying around a huge tail would get in the way for hunting or fleeing but at some point, it became a thing for peahens to want it so there it is.  Coughing is pretty essential when you breath in water and any other time you cough may be  just the reaction from that trait developing. Or not, we really are just guessing although we can often figure out an advantage to some trait in which case we assume that helped re-enforce it.", "human_ref_B": "Cough is a response mechanism of our body normally. But if it is due to disease for example bacterial infection(bordetella pertussis which can lead to whooping cough), need to suppress it. The excessive, continuous cough leads to increase in intraabdominal pressure which can leads to many consequences such as abdominal hernia or rupture vessels (e.g. berry\u2019s aneurysm) . I mean if cough is due to disease which disturb daily life activity, it\u2019s needed to suppress. For more info, should read medicine textbooks.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 405.0, "score_ratio": 11.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3c6n9j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Is there a correlation between thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity? Is there a linear correlation or just a constant correlation if such a correlation exist? If possible is it linked to the structure? The \"why\" is more important than the \"if\".", "c_root_id_A": "cssxvql", "c_root_id_B": "cssyvlu", "created_at_utc_A": 1436115513, "created_at_utc_B": 1436117595, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "for metals they are very correlating (silver and copper being the most conductive) because in metals both thermal and electric energy are transported by electrons. for non conducting materials this does not apply oof course (diamond conducts heat very fast while being a good insulator).", "human_ref_B": "I think there's an unfortunate overlap of terminology caused by the founders of electromagnetic theory (e.g. James Clerk Maxwell). People in Maxwell's day preferred \"mechanical\" explanations using gears, fluids, etc. So they tried to form the theory of electromagnetism in those terms. That's why we ended up borrowing a lot of terminology like electrical \"conductivity\" and magnetic \"permeability.\" Since then we've kind of stripped away the mechanical analogy to make things simpler, but we're left with the terminology.  To be honest, I don't know how factual that historical explanation is. I've just heard it before and it makes sense. Regardless, I personally tend to treat thermal and electrical conductivity as totally separate quantities, and any correlation (e.g. in metals) is an interesting surprise. Same goes for fluid/magnetic permeability.  I guess that probably doesn't directly answer your question (/u/AsAChemicalEngineer's answer is good), but it's interesting to think about why the terminology is the same even if there's no reason to always expect a relationship.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2082.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tvxnu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Where I live, everyone burns the cardboard trays that Tim Hortons puts their coffees in, and the smoke (not a large amount of smoke) drives away mosquitoes. Is this just because it's smoke, or is there some other factor in this particular type of cardboard? And are we all poisoning ourselves?", "c_root_id_A": "c4qg6nb", "c_root_id_B": "c4q86dt", "created_at_utc_A": 1337577558, "created_at_utc_B": 1337532413, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Mosquitos are attracted by the presence of carbon dioxide, a source of heat, and odor.  It is likely that burning just about anything would confuse mosquitos' homing capability.  Burning organics produce carbon dioxide, heat and lots of odors (not quite the same as human or animal, but maybe enough to confuse).  Filling the air with all that would undoubtedly reduce the ability of a mosquito to locate a victim.", "human_ref_B": "Not completely sure if this is right as I'm in no way scientifically trained but here's what I have heard. Mosquitos are attracted to carbon dioxide so when you burn any kind of fire, carbon dioxide is emitted, which attracts the mosquitos away from people, who emit less carbon dioxide. Anyone who knows more about this, please correct me.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 45145.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "py683y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is there any feasible way to produce images of exoplanets thousands of lightyears away? I was wondering if there is a way to produce high-quality images of exoplanets thousands of light-years away that is pretty high definition.   What would such a device look like? and would it even be possible? and What would the image quality of those distant worlds be?   I know that there are some theories on how to image exoplanets close to us like alpha centauri but I want to dream big. It's just a question that was really bugging me   P.S. Idk if this is supposed to be for astronomy or physics but I assume physics", "c_root_id_A": "hexn3tm", "c_root_id_B": "heuk4nv", "created_at_utc_A": 1633058594, "created_at_utc_B": 1633008919, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There are three approaches that can potentially show features on exoplanets:  * A giant interferometer between telescopes far apart. The other answer discussed this in detail. * Using the Sun as gravitational lens. It's not a high quality lens in terms of its optical properties, but it's over a million kilometers wide, so the possible resolution is amazing if you manage to get an image at all. The Sun's light deflection is very small, so this \"lens\" has a giant focal distance and the spacecraft needs to be very far away (~500 times the Earth/Sun distance) to do anything. And you are limited to pictures of a really narrow region of the sky, probably a single star system in practice. FOCAL) is a proposed spacecraft here. * Precisely measure the phase curve: How does the reflected light change as the planet rotates around its own axis, and as it orbits the star? The illuminated part we see changes as function of both.  By measuring the brightness (or even better the spectrum) many times it might be possible to reconstruct large-scale features like continents, if the planet has them. This could potentially be done within the next two telescope generations, although it won't be a high resolution image. It might give some rough idea of the continent layout. Here is a study for LUVOIR (large PDF), a proposed Hubble successor.", "human_ref_B": "You can use the sun as a gravitational lens but there are many technical challenges, and the biggest issue that makes the solution unappealing iirc is that you'd need to be quite far from the sun which makes it unrealistic to change target afterwards.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 49675.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alox2", "c_root_id_B": "c3aln2z", "created_at_utc_A": 1324661502, "created_at_utc_B": 1324661157, "score_A": 430, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "I think you mean sapience, or just intelligence, not sentience. Star Trek example: in The Next Generation season 2 episode 9), Data essentially went on trial to prove that he was sentient, and therefore deserving of some kind of rights, though there was no question he was sapient so it wasn't even brought up. On the other hand, there is no question that \"higher\" animals like cats are sentient, but that might be all they are: you're talking about how to help them achieve sapience. And you make it sound like whichever one you mean is binary (either you're sentient/sapient or you're not), when there is no scientific or philosophical reason to think they are anything but a spectrum of gradual degrees.  Anyway, my only contribution is a bit of googling. Here's someone asking the same question in *Nature* in 1887. But this Wikipedia article suggests the real problem is in agreeing on how to measure a nonhuman animal's intelligence - in order to selectively breed for a trait, you have to have an unambiguous way to compare it between two individuals. It is possible to breed for performance in specific tasks, which may certainly appear to require intelligence, e.g. the border collie.", "human_ref_B": "~~I'm going to speak on behalf of the many biology panelists who I'm afraid are probably on vacation right now and therefore can't answer your question. I'll delete my answer if any show up.~~  ~~Your question is currently unanswerable by science. We don't know what the evolutionary pressure is that gives rise to sentience, and therefore unless we do it by accident we have no way to test this hypothesis.~~", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 345.0, "score_ratio": 15.9259259259, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alox2", "c_root_id_B": "c3alngr", "created_at_utc_A": 1324661502, "created_at_utc_B": 1324661228, "score_A": 430, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I think you mean sapience, or just intelligence, not sentience. Star Trek example: in The Next Generation season 2 episode 9), Data essentially went on trial to prove that he was sentient, and therefore deserving of some kind of rights, though there was no question he was sapient so it wasn't even brought up. On the other hand, there is no question that \"higher\" animals like cats are sentient, but that might be all they are: you're talking about how to help them achieve sapience. And you make it sound like whichever one you mean is binary (either you're sentient/sapient or you're not), when there is no scientific or philosophical reason to think they are anything but a spectrum of gradual degrees.  Anyway, my only contribution is a bit of googling. Here's someone asking the same question in *Nature* in 1887. But this Wikipedia article suggests the real problem is in agreeing on how to measure a nonhuman animal's intelligence - in order to selectively breed for a trait, you have to have an unambiguous way to compare it between two individuals. It is possible to breed for performance in specific tasks, which may certainly appear to require intelligence, e.g. the border collie.", "human_ref_B": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 274.0, "score_ratio": 143.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alq75", "c_root_id_B": "c3aln2z", "created_at_utc_A": 1324661748, "created_at_utc_B": 1324661157, "score_A": 70, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "sentient: Having sense perception; conscious  according to this definition, dogs and cats are already sentient. i think you mean human intelligence, right?   well, breeding for docility was accomplished by finding the most docile foxes and breeding them together. then repeat for generation after generation. in this manner, they took a quality that existed and enhanced it through selective breeding. however, this would not work in the same way with intelligence. whereas docility was already a capability of the fox brain, human intelligence is not. surely you could selectively breed the smartest foxes, but this would not grant them human intelligence. it would just make them really good at fox stuff. there would need to be a change in the capacity of the fox brain in order to achieve this.   so, selective breeding is a no", "human_ref_B": "~~I'm going to speak on behalf of the many biology panelists who I'm afraid are probably on vacation right now and therefore can't answer your question. I'll delete my answer if any show up.~~  ~~Your question is currently unanswerable by science. We don't know what the evolutionary pressure is that gives rise to sentience, and therefore unless we do it by accident we have no way to test this hypothesis.~~", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 591.0, "score_ratio": 2.5925925926, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alngr", "c_root_id_B": "c3alq75", "created_at_utc_A": 1324661228, "created_at_utc_B": 1324661748, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 70, "human_ref_A": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "human_ref_B": "sentient: Having sense perception; conscious  according to this definition, dogs and cats are already sentient. i think you mean human intelligence, right?   well, breeding for docility was accomplished by finding the most docile foxes and breeding them together. then repeat for generation after generation. in this manner, they took a quality that existed and enhanced it through selective breeding. however, this would not work in the same way with intelligence. whereas docility was already a capability of the fox brain, human intelligence is not. surely you could selectively breed the smartest foxes, but this would not grant them human intelligence. it would just make them really good at fox stuff. there would need to be a change in the capacity of the fox brain in order to achieve this.   so, selective breeding is a no", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 520.0, "score_ratio": 23.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3amqsp", "c_root_id_B": "c3alx5o", "created_at_utc_A": 1324668064, "created_at_utc_B": 1324662996, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Rats have been previously bred to be better or worse performers in a maze task.  They are known as maze-bright or maze-dull rats.  My understanding is that after about 5 generations, however, their performance improvement plateaued.  So you could not keep breeding the smart ones together until you get the rats of NIMH.", "human_ref_B": "As someone who has bred animals for specific traits, you could breed for higher intelligence however it is difficult to recognize early on and is affected by many environmental factors in additional to genetic factors and that would massively increase the time required to perform and additionally sapience, true self-aware 'sentience', and the ability to 'reason' logically in conflict with instinctual reactions is harder to define and test for, but jumping ahead and assuming you achieve some degree of that, at what point does what you're doing become unethical since you're experimenting on sapient/sentient/reasoning beings?  Unrelated, but interesting none the less since it deals with some of the ethical and moral concerns that would likely arise... read David Brin's Sundiver/Uplift series for the sci-fi version.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplift_Universe", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5068.0, "score_ratio": 1.9230769231, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3amqsp", "c_root_id_B": "c3alwgb", "created_at_utc_A": 1324668064, "created_at_utc_B": 1324662871, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Rats have been previously bred to be better or worse performers in a maze task.  They are known as maze-bright or maze-dull rats.  My understanding is that after about 5 generations, however, their performance improvement plateaued.  So you could not keep breeding the smart ones together until you get the rats of NIMH.", "human_ref_B": "I would suggest small animals that are already intelligent or short lifed, such as Veined octopus(shown tool use), African grey parrot(Most elaborate non-primate communication), New Caledonian crow(Most advanced non-primate tool use), Kea(shows extreme curiosity), Tufted capuchin(shown tool use) or silver fox(shortest lived carnivora [7yrs])", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5193.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alngr", "c_root_id_B": "c3amqsp", "created_at_utc_A": 1324661228, "created_at_utc_B": 1324668064, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "human_ref_B": "Rats have been previously bred to be better or worse performers in a maze task.  They are known as maze-bright or maze-dull rats.  My understanding is that after about 5 generations, however, their performance improvement plateaued.  So you could not keep breeding the smart ones together until you get the rats of NIMH.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6836.0, "score_ratio": 8.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3am8vu", "c_root_id_B": "c3amqsp", "created_at_utc_A": 1324665008, "created_at_utc_B": 1324668064, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Epistaxis makes a good point regarding the difficulty of measuring a non-human animal's intelligence.  Additionally, from a purely evolutionary genetics perspective, there's only a certain amount of genetic variation present for any trait in a given population. Basically, there are likely to be many genes involved in determining an animal's intelligence, and each individual will have some \"smart variants\" and some \"dumb variants\" (it's likely to be more complicated than that, with context dependent gene-by-gene and gene-by-environment interactions, but it's close enough if we just imagine certain gene variants having these strictly defined identities). When we carry out artificial selection, we're just trying to put all of the \"smart variants\" together in one organism to create the smartest possible individual we can using the genes already present in the population.  It seems highly unlikely that any other population contains the genetic variation to create an individual as intelligent as a human being, simply by bringing the right group of alleles (variants) together. There's simply going to be an upper limit to how smart of a dog or cat you can make with the genes present in those populations, and that limit is going to be far short of a human level.  So, you could very quickly increase the intelligence up to some sort of asymptote, but getting past there would take a very very long time, because you'd then be waiting for new mutations to contribute more \"smart variants\" to the population.", "human_ref_B": "Rats have been previously bred to be better or worse performers in a maze task.  They are known as maze-bright or maze-dull rats.  My understanding is that after about 5 generations, however, their performance improvement plateaued.  So you could not keep breeding the smart ones together until you get the rats of NIMH.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3056.0, "score_ratio": 6.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alwgb", "c_root_id_B": "c3alx5o", "created_at_utc_A": 1324662871, "created_at_utc_B": 1324662996, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "I would suggest small animals that are already intelligent or short lifed, such as Veined octopus(shown tool use), African grey parrot(Most elaborate non-primate communication), New Caledonian crow(Most advanced non-primate tool use), Kea(shows extreme curiosity), Tufted capuchin(shown tool use) or silver fox(shortest lived carnivora [7yrs])", "human_ref_B": "As someone who has bred animals for specific traits, you could breed for higher intelligence however it is difficult to recognize early on and is affected by many environmental factors in additional to genetic factors and that would massively increase the time required to perform and additionally sapience, true self-aware 'sentience', and the ability to 'reason' logically in conflict with instinctual reactions is harder to define and test for, but jumping ahead and assuming you achieve some degree of that, at what point does what you're doing become unethical since you're experimenting on sapient/sentient/reasoning beings?  Unrelated, but interesting none the less since it deals with some of the ethical and moral concerns that would likely arise... read David Brin's Sundiver/Uplift series for the sci-fi version.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplift_Universe", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 125.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alx5o", "c_root_id_B": "c3alngr", "created_at_utc_A": 1324662996, "created_at_utc_B": 1324661228, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "As someone who has bred animals for specific traits, you could breed for higher intelligence however it is difficult to recognize early on and is affected by many environmental factors in additional to genetic factors and that would massively increase the time required to perform and additionally sapience, true self-aware 'sentience', and the ability to 'reason' logically in conflict with instinctual reactions is harder to define and test for, but jumping ahead and assuming you achieve some degree of that, at what point does what you're doing become unethical since you're experimenting on sapient/sentient/reasoning beings?  Unrelated, but interesting none the less since it deals with some of the ethical and moral concerns that would likely arise... read David Brin's Sundiver/Uplift series for the sci-fi version.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplift_Universe", "human_ref_B": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1768.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alwgb", "c_root_id_B": "c3alngr", "created_at_utc_A": 1324662871, "created_at_utc_B": 1324661228, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I would suggest small animals that are already intelligent or short lifed, such as Veined octopus(shown tool use), African grey parrot(Most elaborate non-primate communication), New Caledonian crow(Most advanced non-primate tool use), Kea(shows extreme curiosity), Tufted capuchin(shown tool use) or silver fox(shortest lived carnivora [7yrs])", "human_ref_B": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1643.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3am8vu", "c_root_id_B": "c3alngr", "created_at_utc_A": 1324665008, "created_at_utc_B": 1324661228, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Epistaxis makes a good point regarding the difficulty of measuring a non-human animal's intelligence.  Additionally, from a purely evolutionary genetics perspective, there's only a certain amount of genetic variation present for any trait in a given population. Basically, there are likely to be many genes involved in determining an animal's intelligence, and each individual will have some \"smart variants\" and some \"dumb variants\" (it's likely to be more complicated than that, with context dependent gene-by-gene and gene-by-environment interactions, but it's close enough if we just imagine certain gene variants having these strictly defined identities). When we carry out artificial selection, we're just trying to put all of the \"smart variants\" together in one organism to create the smartest possible individual we can using the genes already present in the population.  It seems highly unlikely that any other population contains the genetic variation to create an individual as intelligent as a human being, simply by bringing the right group of alleles (variants) together. There's simply going to be an upper limit to how smart of a dog or cat you can make with the genes present in those populations, and that limit is going to be far short of a human level.  So, you could very quickly increase the intelligence up to some sort of asymptote, but getting past there would take a very very long time, because you'd then be waiting for new mutations to contribute more \"smart variants\" to the population.", "human_ref_B": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3780.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alngr", "c_root_id_B": "c3ani6r", "created_at_utc_A": 1324661228, "created_at_utc_B": 1324672936, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "human_ref_B": "This concept is called Uplift and is a central theme to many Sci-Fi novels.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplift_(science_fiction)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11708.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3anqfd", "c_root_id_B": "c3alngr", "created_at_utc_A": 1324674495, "created_at_utc_B": 1324661228, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "\"Sentience is the ability to feel, perceive or be conscious, or to have subjective experiences.\" [Source] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentience)   By that definition, animals such as a cat are probably already sentient, although we cannot test for consciousness.", "human_ref_B": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13267.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3alngr", "c_root_id_B": "c3aomeu", "created_at_utc_A": 1324661228, "created_at_utc_B": 1324680911, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "You could select for intelligence, but there might be limits as to how complex the feline or canine brain could get without some form of mutation entering to increase complexity.  If we knew how, I don't see why we couldn't genetically engineer them to have more complex brains, however we then get into why would we want more intelligent animals.", "human_ref_B": "Breeding for sapience is a whole order of magnitude more difficult than breding for docility.  It's like breeding pigs to be half as large versus breeding pigs to fly.  You'd need whole new brain structures, probably changes in size.  Most of the genetic variation for this probably doesn't exist in cats and dogs, so you'd have to wait for random genetic shuffling to produce working genes to accomplish this...not a speedy process.  On the other hand, breeding for docility is simple...not only are many of the genes already present in the population, mutations to produce docility are more common...because all you have to have is a mutation to \"break\" some of the genes or activators for going from a puppy to an adult.  This is called neoteny and is present in most domestic animals.  It's always easier and faster to break a few genes than synthesize a fair number of complex genetic pathways.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19683.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3ani6r", "c_root_id_B": "c3am8vu", "created_at_utc_A": 1324672936, "created_at_utc_B": 1324665008, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "This concept is called Uplift and is a central theme to many Sci-Fi novels.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplift_(science_fiction)", "human_ref_B": "Epistaxis makes a good point regarding the difficulty of measuring a non-human animal's intelligence.  Additionally, from a purely evolutionary genetics perspective, there's only a certain amount of genetic variation present for any trait in a given population. Basically, there are likely to be many genes involved in determining an animal's intelligence, and each individual will have some \"smart variants\" and some \"dumb variants\" (it's likely to be more complicated than that, with context dependent gene-by-gene and gene-by-environment interactions, but it's close enough if we just imagine certain gene variants having these strictly defined identities). When we carry out artificial selection, we're just trying to put all of the \"smart variants\" together in one organism to create the smartest possible individual we can using the genes already present in the population.  It seems highly unlikely that any other population contains the genetic variation to create an individual as intelligent as a human being, simply by bringing the right group of alleles (variants) together. There's simply going to be an upper limit to how smart of a dog or cat you can make with the genes present in those populations, and that limit is going to be far short of a human level.  So, you could very quickly increase the intelligence up to some sort of asymptote, but getting past there would take a very very long time, because you'd then be waiting for new mutations to contribute more \"smart variants\" to the population.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7928.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3am8vu", "c_root_id_B": "c3anqfd", "created_at_utc_A": 1324665008, "created_at_utc_B": 1324674495, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Epistaxis makes a good point regarding the difficulty of measuring a non-human animal's intelligence.  Additionally, from a purely evolutionary genetics perspective, there's only a certain amount of genetic variation present for any trait in a given population. Basically, there are likely to be many genes involved in determining an animal's intelligence, and each individual will have some \"smart variants\" and some \"dumb variants\" (it's likely to be more complicated than that, with context dependent gene-by-gene and gene-by-environment interactions, but it's close enough if we just imagine certain gene variants having these strictly defined identities). When we carry out artificial selection, we're just trying to put all of the \"smart variants\" together in one organism to create the smartest possible individual we can using the genes already present in the population.  It seems highly unlikely that any other population contains the genetic variation to create an individual as intelligent as a human being, simply by bringing the right group of alleles (variants) together. There's simply going to be an upper limit to how smart of a dog or cat you can make with the genes present in those populations, and that limit is going to be far short of a human level.  So, you could very quickly increase the intelligence up to some sort of asymptote, but getting past there would take a very very long time, because you'd then be waiting for new mutations to contribute more \"smart variants\" to the population.", "human_ref_B": "\"Sentience is the ability to feel, perceive or be conscious, or to have subjective experiences.\" [Source] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentience)   By that definition, animals such as a cat are probably already sentient, although we cannot test for consciousness.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9487.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "no2fo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could we selectively breed cats (or dogs) into sentience, the same way the Siberian fox experiment bred for docility? Seeing as how domesticated animals have already been subject to thousands of years of artificial selection for the qualities we find desirable (friendliness/obedience in cats and dogs, docility in cows, etc...), could we not breed sentience into, say, a cat?  If it is possible to test for intelligence, couldn't we then select for intelligence and breed other mammals for larger, better brains?", "c_root_id_A": "c3am8vu", "c_root_id_B": "c3aomeu", "created_at_utc_A": 1324665008, "created_at_utc_B": 1324680911, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Epistaxis makes a good point regarding the difficulty of measuring a non-human animal's intelligence.  Additionally, from a purely evolutionary genetics perspective, there's only a certain amount of genetic variation present for any trait in a given population. Basically, there are likely to be many genes involved in determining an animal's intelligence, and each individual will have some \"smart variants\" and some \"dumb variants\" (it's likely to be more complicated than that, with context dependent gene-by-gene and gene-by-environment interactions, but it's close enough if we just imagine certain gene variants having these strictly defined identities). When we carry out artificial selection, we're just trying to put all of the \"smart variants\" together in one organism to create the smartest possible individual we can using the genes already present in the population.  It seems highly unlikely that any other population contains the genetic variation to create an individual as intelligent as a human being, simply by bringing the right group of alleles (variants) together. There's simply going to be an upper limit to how smart of a dog or cat you can make with the genes present in those populations, and that limit is going to be far short of a human level.  So, you could very quickly increase the intelligence up to some sort of asymptote, but getting past there would take a very very long time, because you'd then be waiting for new mutations to contribute more \"smart variants\" to the population.", "human_ref_B": "Breeding for sapience is a whole order of magnitude more difficult than breding for docility.  It's like breeding pigs to be half as large versus breeding pigs to fly.  You'd need whole new brain structures, probably changes in size.  Most of the genetic variation for this probably doesn't exist in cats and dogs, so you'd have to wait for random genetic shuffling to produce working genes to accomplish this...not a speedy process.  On the other hand, breeding for docility is simple...not only are many of the genes already present in the population, mutations to produce docility are more common...because all you have to have is a mutation to \"break\" some of the genes or activators for going from a puppy to an adult.  This is called neoteny and is present in most domestic animals.  It's always easier and faster to break a few genes than synthesize a fair number of complex genetic pathways.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15903.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2sqt8e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why are humans so much less likely to bear multiple children than certain other mammals? I feel like you almost never hear of certain mammals (dogs/cats/etc) only bearing one child, yet with humans it seems to be the total opposite. Why is this?", "c_root_id_A": "cns866h", "c_root_id_B": "cnsadfu", "created_at_utc_A": 1421530124, "created_at_utc_B": 1421534842, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "This is not exactly true. It's only in the last 150 years or so that the average number of children has been lowered. Previously due to higher infant mortality rates, it was normal for families to have 5 or 6 children. Now, with advances in medicine and a very large population, the average number of children per family has dropped to 1.7.  The same goes for animals. They usually can't afford to have only one child because the death rate is so high. They're better off having multiple, as that way they can afford to lose a few.", "human_ref_B": "Primarily, the reason for our small litter size is the same as the reason that our infants have a comparatively long period of dependence on the mother: our large brains.  The main attribute that separates us from other animals is the ratio of brain to body size, and our infants are delivered relatively underdeveloped, because if our brains as infants were any larger, our head diameter would be too big to get past the pelvic brim. Take for example hoofed animals, which frequently come out so neurologically developed that they can walk on the day they are born.  Human infants come out requiring a lengthy period of dependence on the mother as their brains develop. A large litter to care for would be untenable for survival.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4718.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2sqt8e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why are humans so much less likely to bear multiple children than certain other mammals? I feel like you almost never hear of certain mammals (dogs/cats/etc) only bearing one child, yet with humans it seems to be the total opposite. Why is this?", "c_root_id_A": "cnsadfu", "c_root_id_B": "cns3z6u", "created_at_utc_A": 1421534842, "created_at_utc_B": 1421521340, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Primarily, the reason for our small litter size is the same as the reason that our infants have a comparatively long period of dependence on the mother: our large brains.  The main attribute that separates us from other animals is the ratio of brain to body size, and our infants are delivered relatively underdeveloped, because if our brains as infants were any larger, our head diameter would be too big to get past the pelvic brim. Take for example hoofed animals, which frequently come out so neurologically developed that they can walk on the day they are born.  Human infants come out requiring a lengthy period of dependence on the mother as their brains develop. A large litter to care for would be untenable for survival.", "human_ref_B": "There is something called the one half rule, basically it states that the average litter size of a mammal is equal to half the number of mammaries of that animal and the  standard maximum litter size is equal to the total number of mammaries. (Of course humans can have more children than two, but it rarely happens without fertility drugs) Source", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13502.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2sqt8e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why are humans so much less likely to bear multiple children than certain other mammals? I feel like you almost never hear of certain mammals (dogs/cats/etc) only bearing one child, yet with humans it seems to be the total opposite. Why is this?", "c_root_id_A": "cns866h", "c_root_id_B": "cnsbm07", "created_at_utc_A": 1421530124, "created_at_utc_B": 1421537532, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "This is not exactly true. It's only in the last 150 years or so that the average number of children has been lowered. Previously due to higher infant mortality rates, it was normal for families to have 5 or 6 children. Now, with advances in medicine and a very large population, the average number of children per family has dropped to 1.7.  The same goes for animals. They usually can't afford to have only one child because the death rate is so high. They're better off having multiple, as that way they can afford to lose a few.", "human_ref_B": "The Importance of Excess Reproduction   \"A successful organism reproduces at a rate in excess of that necessary to merely replace the parents when they die For example, geese have a life span of about 10 years; on average, a single pair can raise a brood of about  eight young each year. If these two parent birds and all their offspring were to survive and reproduce at this rate for a 10-year period, there would be a total of 19,531,250 birds in the family.  However, the size of goose populations and most other populations remains relatively constant over time. Minor changes in number may occur but, if the environment remains constant, a population does not experience dramatic increases in size. A high death rate tends to offset the high reproductive rate and population size remains stable. But this is not a  \u201cstatic population.\u201d Although the total number of organisms in the species may remain constant, the individuals that make up the population change. It is this extravagant reproduction that provides the large surplus of genetically unique individuals that allows natural selection to take place. If there are many genetically unique individuals within a population, it is highly probable that some individuals will survive to reproduce even if the environment changes some what, although the gene frequency of the population may be changed to some degree. For this to occur, members of the population must be eliminated in a non-random manner. Even if they are not eliminated, some may have greater reproductive success than others. The individuals with the greatest reproductive success will have more of their genetic information present in the next generation than will those that die or do not reproduce very successfully. Those that are the most successful at reproducing are those that are, for the most part, better suited to the environment\" (Enger, 2012, p. 277).  References  Enger, E. (2012). Concepts in Biology (14th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7408.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2sqt8e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why are humans so much less likely to bear multiple children than certain other mammals? I feel like you almost never hear of certain mammals (dogs/cats/etc) only bearing one child, yet with humans it seems to be the total opposite. Why is this?", "c_root_id_A": "cns3z6u", "c_root_id_B": "cnsbm07", "created_at_utc_A": 1421521340, "created_at_utc_B": 1421537532, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "There is something called the one half rule, basically it states that the average litter size of a mammal is equal to half the number of mammaries of that animal and the  standard maximum litter size is equal to the total number of mammaries. (Of course humans can have more children than two, but it rarely happens without fertility drugs) Source", "human_ref_B": "The Importance of Excess Reproduction   \"A successful organism reproduces at a rate in excess of that necessary to merely replace the parents when they die For example, geese have a life span of about 10 years; on average, a single pair can raise a brood of about  eight young each year. If these two parent birds and all their offspring were to survive and reproduce at this rate for a 10-year period, there would be a total of 19,531,250 birds in the family.  However, the size of goose populations and most other populations remains relatively constant over time. Minor changes in number may occur but, if the environment remains constant, a population does not experience dramatic increases in size. A high death rate tends to offset the high reproductive rate and population size remains stable. But this is not a  \u201cstatic population.\u201d Although the total number of organisms in the species may remain constant, the individuals that make up the population change. It is this extravagant reproduction that provides the large surplus of genetically unique individuals that allows natural selection to take place. If there are many genetically unique individuals within a population, it is highly probable that some individuals will survive to reproduce even if the environment changes some what, although the gene frequency of the population may be changed to some degree. For this to occur, members of the population must be eliminated in a non-random manner. Even if they are not eliminated, some may have greater reproductive success than others. The individuals with the greatest reproductive success will have more of their genetic information present in the next generation than will those that die or do not reproduce very successfully. Those that are the most successful at reproducing are those that are, for the most part, better suited to the environment\" (Enger, 2012, p. 277).  References  Enger, E. (2012). Concepts in Biology (14th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16192.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2sqt8e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why are humans so much less likely to bear multiple children than certain other mammals? I feel like you almost never hear of certain mammals (dogs/cats/etc) only bearing one child, yet with humans it seems to be the total opposite. Why is this?", "c_root_id_A": "cns866h", "c_root_id_B": "cns3z6u", "created_at_utc_A": 1421530124, "created_at_utc_B": 1421521340, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This is not exactly true. It's only in the last 150 years or so that the average number of children has been lowered. Previously due to higher infant mortality rates, it was normal for families to have 5 or 6 children. Now, with advances in medicine and a very large population, the average number of children per family has dropped to 1.7.  The same goes for animals. They usually can't afford to have only one child because the death rate is so high. They're better off having multiple, as that way they can afford to lose a few.", "human_ref_B": "There is something called the one half rule, basically it states that the average litter size of a mammal is equal to half the number of mammaries of that animal and the  standard maximum litter size is equal to the total number of mammaries. (Of course humans can have more children than two, but it rarely happens without fertility drugs) Source", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8784.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u61giq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Do tiny-brained creatures feel emotions like humans do? For example, if I picked up and relocated an insect, would it feel danger while I relocated it? Or fear once placed in an unfamiliar place? Or loneliness without its colony?", "c_root_id_A": "i5b116l", "c_root_id_B": "i5a2nzb", "created_at_utc_A": 1650344770, "created_at_utc_B": 1650328509, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "There is no proven answer to this question. We infer animals' state of mind from actions reminiscent of our own, but have no way of verifying that reality. Elephants appear to mourn deaths. Crows and octopuses solve problems to obtain rewards. Fungi find the most efficient path through mazes without anything that resembles a brain. An ant's experience of life is certainly very different than ours, but we don't know what it does or doesn't feel. Is worth bearing in mind that the assumption that other life doesn't share emotions is beneficial for us. It's much easier to kill things if you think they don't care.", "human_ref_B": "Well, they can clearly feel fear and danger. That is evident from just watching the little critters scurry. See an ant on the counter? Bang your first on the counter near it and it will run away. That is them interpreting the slam as potential danger and exhibiting fear in the attempt to get away. Likely, these feelings do not carry the weight that human emotions do. Since we have larger and more complex brains we can understand and experience more complex things. Which I would say they probably do not feel lonely as that would be a more complex emotion.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16261.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u61giq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Do tiny-brained creatures feel emotions like humans do? For example, if I picked up and relocated an insect, would it feel danger while I relocated it? Or fear once placed in an unfamiliar place? Or loneliness without its colony?", "c_root_id_A": "i5a1b82", "c_root_id_B": "i5b116l", "created_at_utc_A": 1650327924, "created_at_utc_B": 1650344770, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "no.  To the best of our ability, we can't sense that insects have a sense of \"self\" like we do. So they don't emote because there's no internal target or subject for the emotion. And their brains just aren't big/complicated enough.", "human_ref_B": "There is no proven answer to this question. We infer animals' state of mind from actions reminiscent of our own, but have no way of verifying that reality. Elephants appear to mourn deaths. Crows and octopuses solve problems to obtain rewards. Fungi find the most efficient path through mazes without anything that resembles a brain. An ant's experience of life is certainly very different than ours, but we don't know what it does or doesn't feel. Is worth bearing in mind that the assumption that other life doesn't share emotions is beneficial for us. It's much easier to kill things if you think they don't care.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16846.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u61giq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Do tiny-brained creatures feel emotions like humans do? For example, if I picked up and relocated an insect, would it feel danger while I relocated it? Or fear once placed in an unfamiliar place? Or loneliness without its colony?", "c_root_id_A": "i5a1b82", "c_root_id_B": "i5a2nzb", "created_at_utc_A": 1650327924, "created_at_utc_B": 1650328509, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "no.  To the best of our ability, we can't sense that insects have a sense of \"self\" like we do. So they don't emote because there's no internal target or subject for the emotion. And their brains just aren't big/complicated enough.", "human_ref_B": "Well, they can clearly feel fear and danger. That is evident from just watching the little critters scurry. See an ant on the counter? Bang your first on the counter near it and it will run away. That is them interpreting the slam as potential danger and exhibiting fear in the attempt to get away. Likely, these feelings do not carry the weight that human emotions do. Since we have larger and more complex brains we can understand and experience more complex things. Which I would say they probably do not feel lonely as that would be a more complex emotion.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 585.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "my2s0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why do humans cry when they are sad or emotionally worked up? Do other animals cry for emotional reasons?", "c_root_id_A": "c34s616", "c_root_id_B": "c34tltv", "created_at_utc_A": 1322872090, "created_at_utc_B": 1322883482, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I'm not particularly knowledgeable on the subject, but from what I've read it seems to be a method of removing hormones from the body to help with stress. I haven't read anything that confirms that other animals produce tears as a response to emotional states, but I have seen sources specifically stating that this hasn't been witnessed and it currently seems safe to assume that other animals don't produce tears in this way.", "human_ref_B": "I was reading here about some very interesting theories surrounding this, including a reference to balancing hormones and chemicals to make the person feel relieved/balanced.  Might help explain the cathartic feeling after crying.  > Three types of tears are generated by the human eye. Basal tears protect the eye and keep it moist. Reflex tears flush out the eye when it becomes irritated. And emotional tears flow in response to sadness, distress, or physical pain.  > Studies have shown that emotional tears contain more manganese, an element that affects temperament, and more prolactin, a hormone that regulates milk production. Sobbing out manganese and prolactin is thought to relieve tension by balancing the body\u2019s stress levels and eliminating build ups of the chemicals, making the crier feel better.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11392.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8iibmd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "What is the largest species to ever have an exoskeleton in recorded history? Why is it a trait that seems specific to such small creatures? Just flicked an ant off my porch and thought how crazy of a flight that must be to land so safely. Got me thinking how big something can get with that trait.", "c_root_id_A": "dyt4wgq", "c_root_id_B": "dyt1ylm", "created_at_utc_A": 1526045583, "created_at_utc_B": 1526042176, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "An exoskeleton stops working from a mechanical perspective above a certain size, especially for land animals. The reason is the square-cube law: when you double a shape's surface area, you quadruple its volume. Surface area is relevant here because that's where the exoskeleton is - along the animal's surface. If you make an ant weight four times as much, there's only twice as much exoskeleton. Eventually, an exoskeleton can no longer support the weight.  That's also why the largest animals with exoskeletons live underwater. They don't have to support their full weight because they're buoyant. The largest living animal with an exoskeleton is the Japanese spider crab.", "human_ref_B": "It is believed that an ancient, huge shrimp, called the anamalocaridids were the largest creature to ever have an exoskeleton. They were around 2 meters long and their fossils are believed to be around 485 million years old.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3407.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uvmaxr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Is scar tissue more likely to sunburn/ more susceptible to sun damage?", "c_root_id_A": "i9msoyy", "c_root_id_B": "i9n5fnn", "created_at_utc_A": 1653269746, "created_at_utc_B": 1653276334, "score_A": 88, "score_B": 348, "human_ref_A": "Dr. of biomedical engineering here. I'll take a stab at this question.  Generally speaking, scar tissue is formed when fibroblasts, which are variant of your white blood cells, invade an area and start to deposit collagen. This is done to close up a wound and prevent further infection. Collagen is a globular protein that organizes into fibers. It is not made of cells, but rather a network of this protein that interweaves and seals up injuries. There would certainly be cells integrated in that collagen matrix, but the vast majority of that structure is acellular (no cells) protein. This is why scars have a different texture and physical properties compared to the rest of your skin.  Sunburns and sun damage occur when ultraviolet light from the Sun interacts with nucleotide bases (DNA/RNA). The ultraviolet light is energetic enough to cause a chemical rearrangement in those molecules, which is potentially damaging to the cell. If enough damage is accumulated over time, it's possible that that skin cell might mutate into cancer. Given that the majority of scar tissue is acellular, it is not susceptible to sunburns, because the collagen matrix does not have DNA to be damaged. As such, I would expect that scars would suffer less from sunburns overall.", "human_ref_B": "Burn surgeon here, and I can answer at least as far as burn scars are concerned\u2026 Generally speaking, scars have a multiple phases of formation. To overly simplify there\u2019s an early phase where the scar is forming and then a later phase where it is maturing and ultimately reaching its \u201cfinal form\u201d. This process can take up to a year before they\u2019re fully matured.   Burn scars, and scars in general, are most susceptible to sun damage in the first year. This usually results in permanent discoloration of the scar, usually a permanent darker pigmentation compared to the surrounding skin.  Long term, burn scars and healed skin grafts are often much more susceptible to sun damage and sunburn as well.   I know it\u2019s not *exactly* what you asked, but at least that\u2019s the piece of your question I can answer for you with some degree of expertise.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6588.0, "score_ratio": 3.9545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9ooe0", "c_root_id_B": "cy9g8rx", "created_at_utc_A": 1450927582, "created_at_utc_B": 1450911253, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Yes absolutely. This is an entire branch of optics called interferometry which deals with the wave interference of light. It is very often used in advanced and precision measurement techniques. LIGO uses interferometry to measure differences in distance smaller then 10^-21 meters.  Interference is a property of all waves so anything that can be described as a wave can exhibit interference.", "human_ref_B": "In fact, because of the high frequency of light waves it is a lot easier to controllably interfere lightwaves than as compared to sound waves. And this effect is the basis of almost all optical communications networks in use today - the modulators powering the optical links that made it possible for me to read your post rely entirely on controlled constructive and destructive interference of light, but switching tens of billions of times a second.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16329.0, "score_ratio": 1.8461538462, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9d7m8", "c_root_id_B": "cy9ooe0", "created_at_utc_A": 1450906110, "created_at_utc_B": 1450927582, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "This is what causes soap bubbles to be different colors, as some wavelengths are cancelled, depending on the thickness of the film in relation to the wavelength. I seem to remember something about radio waves doing the same thing, ie a radio station would have another transmitter closer to a shoreline, that would cancel out transmissions that would go offshore, while amplifying the signal onshore...but google is failing me and I could be making this last bit up entirely.", "human_ref_B": "Yes absolutely. This is an entire branch of optics called interferometry which deals with the wave interference of light. It is very often used in advanced and precision measurement techniques. LIGO uses interferometry to measure differences in distance smaller then 10^-21 meters.  Interference is a property of all waves so anything that can be described as a wave can exhibit interference.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21472.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9ooe0", "c_root_id_B": "cy9ff0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1450927582, "created_at_utc_B": 1450909826, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Yes absolutely. This is an entire branch of optics called interferometry which deals with the wave interference of light. It is very often used in advanced and precision measurement techniques. LIGO uses interferometry to measure differences in distance smaller then 10^-21 meters.  Interference is a property of all waves so anything that can be described as a wave can exhibit interference.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, it's mostly possible. Noise cancelling is caused by destructive interference of sound waves. Two sound waves cancel each other out if they have the same period with a 180\u00b0 phase difference. The same is true for light waves but light is a lot more precise so you're likely never going to have light cancelling sun glasses or anything.  A physicist called Thomas Young was the first person to show destructive interference of light with his double slit experiment. When monochrome light goes through a thin slit it spreads in a nice even way. If you have two slits beside each other it creates an interference pattern. You will see dark spots(destructive interference) and bright spots (constructive interference).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17756.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9msq5", "c_root_id_B": "cy9ooe0", "created_at_utc_A": 1450923635, "created_at_utc_B": 1450927582, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Yes, this type of destructive interference is exactly how some antireflection coatings work. My tablet won't copy URLs into text boxes so I can't directly link  but there's a decent wikipedia page on anti-reflection coatings that describes this phenomenon.", "human_ref_B": "Yes absolutely. This is an entire branch of optics called interferometry which deals with the wave interference of light. It is very often used in advanced and precision measurement techniques. LIGO uses interferometry to measure differences in distance smaller then 10^-21 meters.  Interference is a property of all waves so anything that can be described as a wave can exhibit interference.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3947.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9ooe0", "c_root_id_B": "cy9ndcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1450927582, "created_at_utc_B": 1450924812, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes absolutely. This is an entire branch of optics called interferometry which deals with the wave interference of light. It is very often used in advanced and precision measurement techniques. LIGO uses interferometry to measure differences in distance smaller then 10^-21 meters.  Interference is a property of all waves so anything that can be described as a wave can exhibit interference.", "human_ref_B": "Not just cancellation but beam steering:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phased_array  There's an optical equivalent, but it's harder to do.   If you're asking \"Can you use phase cancellation to make it go dark\" - then practically speaking, no. Most light is a complex combination of direct and multiply reflected sources at various frequencies, and the only place you'd get a measurement accurate enough to find the right combination for anti-phase cancellation is right in front of your eyeball - and even then it wouldn't be perfect, because there are no emitters with accurate enough spectral control across the entire visible range, or high-enough resolution.  They'd also have to be transparent to allow the original light through for cancellation to happen.   Nothing like this exists. If you want darkness, it's a lot easier to use eye shades.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2770.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9ooe0", "c_root_id_B": "cy9bptw", "created_at_utc_A": 1450927582, "created_at_utc_B": 1450903704, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Yes absolutely. This is an entire branch of optics called interferometry which deals with the wave interference of light. It is very often used in advanced and precision measurement techniques. LIGO uses interferometry to measure differences in distance smaller then 10^-21 meters.  Interference is a property of all waves so anything that can be described as a wave can exhibit interference.", "human_ref_B": "As for doing it like noise-cancelling headphones, I think the problem would be the speed of light vs. the speed of sound. The speed of the electronics needed to hear the sound, and play an inverted copy of the sound as it reaches your ear works because of the distances and speeds involved. I don't think that would work with light.   Possible or not, from a practical perspective, it's a lot easier to filter or cancel out light passively with analog physical objects, like filters or fully opaque objects. Sound is much harder to insulate against.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23878.0, "score_ratio": 24000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9fejh", "c_root_id_B": "cy9ooe0", "created_at_utc_A": 1450909805, "created_at_utc_B": 1450927582, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Something similar to this with light is a polarizing filter. It's a glass filter commonly used in photography and video. It can be rotated to cancel out polarized light waves, usually sung glare/reflections and sky light. When you stack two of them on top of each other, rotating them will cancel out practically all light, but will let most all light through when not rotated", "human_ref_B": "Yes absolutely. This is an entire branch of optics called interferometry which deals with the wave interference of light. It is very often used in advanced and precision measurement techniques. LIGO uses interferometry to measure differences in distance smaller then 10^-21 meters.  Interference is a property of all waves so anything that can be described as a wave can exhibit interference.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17777.0, "score_ratio": 24000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9jld6", "c_root_id_B": "cy9ooe0", "created_at_utc_A": 1450917381, "created_at_utc_B": 1450927582, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Yes, theoretically! I mean I guess:  In noise cancelling headphones, the difficulty is not really in estimating the power at each frequency, but the phase: try and cancel a simple sine wave, that you know the frequency of! you still have to know it's precise phase in order to cancel it!  Imagine you know the phase, but with some error: the error scales up with the frequency, meaning the fastest the oscillations, the more precise you need to be.  With light? it seems we're talking quite high frequencies/shot wavelengths... but please someone knowledgeable correct me, it sounds too cool!", "human_ref_B": "Yes absolutely. This is an entire branch of optics called interferometry which deals with the wave interference of light. It is very often used in advanced and precision measurement techniques. LIGO uses interferometry to measure differences in distance smaller then 10^-21 meters.  Interference is a property of all waves so anything that can be described as a wave can exhibit interference.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10201.0, "score_ratio": -24.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9d7m8", "c_root_id_B": "cy9g8rx", "created_at_utc_A": 1450906110, "created_at_utc_B": 1450911253, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "This is what causes soap bubbles to be different colors, as some wavelengths are cancelled, depending on the thickness of the film in relation to the wavelength. I seem to remember something about radio waves doing the same thing, ie a radio station would have another transmitter closer to a shoreline, that would cancel out transmissions that would go offshore, while amplifying the signal onshore...but google is failing me and I could be making this last bit up entirely.", "human_ref_B": "In fact, because of the high frequency of light waves it is a lot easier to controllably interfere lightwaves than as compared to sound waves. And this effect is the basis of almost all optical communications networks in use today - the modulators powering the optical links that made it possible for me to read your post rely entirely on controlled constructive and destructive interference of light, but switching tens of billions of times a second.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5143.0, "score_ratio": 1.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9ff0s", "c_root_id_B": "cy9g8rx", "created_at_utc_A": 1450909826, "created_at_utc_B": 1450911253, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Yes, it's mostly possible. Noise cancelling is caused by destructive interference of sound waves. Two sound waves cancel each other out if they have the same period with a 180\u00b0 phase difference. The same is true for light waves but light is a lot more precise so you're likely never going to have light cancelling sun glasses or anything.  A physicist called Thomas Young was the first person to show destructive interference of light with his double slit experiment. When monochrome light goes through a thin slit it spreads in a nice even way. If you have two slits beside each other it creates an interference pattern. You will see dark spots(destructive interference) and bright spots (constructive interference).", "human_ref_B": "In fact, because of the high frequency of light waves it is a lot easier to controllably interfere lightwaves than as compared to sound waves. And this effect is the basis of almost all optical communications networks in use today - the modulators powering the optical links that made it possible for me to read your post rely entirely on controlled constructive and destructive interference of light, but switching tens of billions of times a second.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1427.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9bptw", "c_root_id_B": "cy9g8rx", "created_at_utc_A": 1450903704, "created_at_utc_B": 1450911253, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "As for doing it like noise-cancelling headphones, I think the problem would be the speed of light vs. the speed of sound. The speed of the electronics needed to hear the sound, and play an inverted copy of the sound as it reaches your ear works because of the distances and speeds involved. I don't think that would work with light.   Possible or not, from a practical perspective, it's a lot easier to filter or cancel out light passively with analog physical objects, like filters or fully opaque objects. Sound is much harder to insulate against.", "human_ref_B": "In fact, because of the high frequency of light waves it is a lot easier to controllably interfere lightwaves than as compared to sound waves. And this effect is the basis of almost all optical communications networks in use today - the modulators powering the optical links that made it possible for me to read your post rely entirely on controlled constructive and destructive interference of light, but switching tens of billions of times a second.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7549.0, "score_ratio": 13000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9g8rx", "c_root_id_B": "cy9fejh", "created_at_utc_A": 1450911253, "created_at_utc_B": 1450909805, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "In fact, because of the high frequency of light waves it is a lot easier to controllably interfere lightwaves than as compared to sound waves. And this effect is the basis of almost all optical communications networks in use today - the modulators powering the optical links that made it possible for me to read your post rely entirely on controlled constructive and destructive interference of light, but switching tens of billions of times a second.", "human_ref_B": "Something similar to this with light is a polarizing filter. It's a glass filter commonly used in photography and video. It can be rotated to cancel out polarized light waves, usually sung glare/reflections and sky light. When you stack two of them on top of each other, rotating them will cancel out practically all light, but will let most all light through when not rotated", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1448.0, "score_ratio": 13000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9d7m8", "c_root_id_B": "cy9bptw", "created_at_utc_A": 1450906110, "created_at_utc_B": 1450903704, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "This is what causes soap bubbles to be different colors, as some wavelengths are cancelled, depending on the thickness of the film in relation to the wavelength. I seem to remember something about radio waves doing the same thing, ie a radio station would have another transmitter closer to a shoreline, that would cancel out transmissions that would go offshore, while amplifying the signal onshore...but google is failing me and I could be making this last bit up entirely.", "human_ref_B": "As for doing it like noise-cancelling headphones, I think the problem would be the speed of light vs. the speed of sound. The speed of the electronics needed to hear the sound, and play an inverted copy of the sound as it reaches your ear works because of the distances and speeds involved. I don't think that would work with light.   Possible or not, from a practical perspective, it's a lot easier to filter or cancel out light passively with analog physical objects, like filters or fully opaque objects. Sound is much harder to insulate against.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2406.0, "score_ratio": 9000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9bptw", "c_root_id_B": "cy9ff0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1450903704, "created_at_utc_B": 1450909826, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "As for doing it like noise-cancelling headphones, I think the problem would be the speed of light vs. the speed of sound. The speed of the electronics needed to hear the sound, and play an inverted copy of the sound as it reaches your ear works because of the distances and speeds involved. I don't think that would work with light.   Possible or not, from a practical perspective, it's a lot easier to filter or cancel out light passively with analog physical objects, like filters or fully opaque objects. Sound is much harder to insulate against.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, it's mostly possible. Noise cancelling is caused by destructive interference of sound waves. Two sound waves cancel each other out if they have the same period with a 180\u00b0 phase difference. The same is true for light waves but light is a lot more precise so you're likely never going to have light cancelling sun glasses or anything.  A physicist called Thomas Young was the first person to show destructive interference of light with his double slit experiment. When monochrome light goes through a thin slit it spreads in a nice even way. If you have two slits beside each other it creates an interference pattern. You will see dark spots(destructive interference) and bright spots (constructive interference).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6122.0, "score_ratio": 6000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9ff0s", "c_root_id_B": "cy9fejh", "created_at_utc_A": 1450909826, "created_at_utc_B": 1450909805, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Yes, it's mostly possible. Noise cancelling is caused by destructive interference of sound waves. Two sound waves cancel each other out if they have the same period with a 180\u00b0 phase difference. The same is true for light waves but light is a lot more precise so you're likely never going to have light cancelling sun glasses or anything.  A physicist called Thomas Young was the first person to show destructive interference of light with his double slit experiment. When monochrome light goes through a thin slit it spreads in a nice even way. If you have two slits beside each other it creates an interference pattern. You will see dark spots(destructive interference) and bright spots (constructive interference).", "human_ref_B": "Something similar to this with light is a polarizing filter. It's a glass filter commonly used in photography and video. It can be rotated to cancel out polarized light waves, usually sung glare/reflections and sky light. When you stack two of them on top of each other, rotating them will cancel out practically all light, but will let most all light through when not rotated", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21.0, "score_ratio": 6000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9bptw", "c_root_id_B": "cy9msq5", "created_at_utc_A": 1450903704, "created_at_utc_B": 1450923635, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As for doing it like noise-cancelling headphones, I think the problem would be the speed of light vs. the speed of sound. The speed of the electronics needed to hear the sound, and play an inverted copy of the sound as it reaches your ear works because of the distances and speeds involved. I don't think that would work with light.   Possible or not, from a practical perspective, it's a lot easier to filter or cancel out light passively with analog physical objects, like filters or fully opaque objects. Sound is much harder to insulate against.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, this type of destructive interference is exactly how some antireflection coatings work. My tablet won't copy URLs into text boxes so I can't directly link  but there's a decent wikipedia page on anti-reflection coatings that describes this phenomenon.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19931.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9msq5", "c_root_id_B": "cy9fejh", "created_at_utc_A": 1450923635, "created_at_utc_B": 1450909805, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Yes, this type of destructive interference is exactly how some antireflection coatings work. My tablet won't copy URLs into text boxes so I can't directly link  but there's a decent wikipedia page on anti-reflection coatings that describes this phenomenon.", "human_ref_B": "Something similar to this with light is a polarizing filter. It's a glass filter commonly used in photography and video. It can be rotated to cancel out polarized light waves, usually sung glare/reflections and sky light. When you stack two of them on top of each other, rotating them will cancel out practically all light, but will let most all light through when not rotated", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13830.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9msq5", "c_root_id_B": "cy9jld6", "created_at_utc_A": 1450923635, "created_at_utc_B": 1450917381, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Yes, this type of destructive interference is exactly how some antireflection coatings work. My tablet won't copy URLs into text boxes so I can't directly link  but there's a decent wikipedia page on anti-reflection coatings that describes this phenomenon.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, theoretically! I mean I guess:  In noise cancelling headphones, the difficulty is not really in estimating the power at each frequency, but the phase: try and cancel a simple sine wave, that you know the frequency of! you still have to know it's precise phase in order to cancel it!  Imagine you know the phase, but with some error: the error scales up with the frequency, meaning the fastest the oscillations, the more precise you need to be.  With light? it seems we're talking quite high frequencies/shot wavelengths... but please someone knowledgeable correct me, it sounds too cool!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6254.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9bptw", "c_root_id_B": "cy9ndcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1450903704, "created_at_utc_B": 1450924812, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As for doing it like noise-cancelling headphones, I think the problem would be the speed of light vs. the speed of sound. The speed of the electronics needed to hear the sound, and play an inverted copy of the sound as it reaches your ear works because of the distances and speeds involved. I don't think that would work with light.   Possible or not, from a practical perspective, it's a lot easier to filter or cancel out light passively with analog physical objects, like filters or fully opaque objects. Sound is much harder to insulate against.", "human_ref_B": "Not just cancellation but beam steering:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phased_array  There's an optical equivalent, but it's harder to do.   If you're asking \"Can you use phase cancellation to make it go dark\" - then practically speaking, no. Most light is a complex combination of direct and multiply reflected sources at various frequencies, and the only place you'd get a measurement accurate enough to find the right combination for anti-phase cancellation is right in front of your eyeball - and even then it wouldn't be perfect, because there are no emitters with accurate enough spectral control across the entire visible range, or high-enough resolution.  They'd also have to be transparent to allow the original light through for cancellation to happen.   Nothing like this exists. If you want darkness, it's a lot easier to use eye shades.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21108.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9ndcx", "c_root_id_B": "cy9fejh", "created_at_utc_A": 1450924812, "created_at_utc_B": 1450909805, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Not just cancellation but beam steering:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phased_array  There's an optical equivalent, but it's harder to do.   If you're asking \"Can you use phase cancellation to make it go dark\" - then practically speaking, no. Most light is a complex combination of direct and multiply reflected sources at various frequencies, and the only place you'd get a measurement accurate enough to find the right combination for anti-phase cancellation is right in front of your eyeball - and even then it wouldn't be perfect, because there are no emitters with accurate enough spectral control across the entire visible range, or high-enough resolution.  They'd also have to be transparent to allow the original light through for cancellation to happen.   Nothing like this exists. If you want darkness, it's a lot easier to use eye shades.", "human_ref_B": "Something similar to this with light is a polarizing filter. It's a glass filter commonly used in photography and video. It can be rotated to cancel out polarized light waves, usually sung glare/reflections and sky light. When you stack two of them on top of each other, rotating them will cancel out practically all light, but will let most all light through when not rotated", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15007.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3xzeyc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Since light is also a wave, can you use light to cancel out light as you can do with sound in noise-canceling headphones?", "c_root_id_A": "cy9ndcx", "c_root_id_B": "cy9jld6", "created_at_utc_A": 1450924812, "created_at_utc_B": 1450917381, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Not just cancellation but beam steering:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phased_array  There's an optical equivalent, but it's harder to do.   If you're asking \"Can you use phase cancellation to make it go dark\" - then practically speaking, no. Most light is a complex combination of direct and multiply reflected sources at various frequencies, and the only place you'd get a measurement accurate enough to find the right combination for anti-phase cancellation is right in front of your eyeball - and even then it wouldn't be perfect, because there are no emitters with accurate enough spectral control across the entire visible range, or high-enough resolution.  They'd also have to be transparent to allow the original light through for cancellation to happen.   Nothing like this exists. If you want darkness, it's a lot easier to use eye shades.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, theoretically! I mean I guess:  In noise cancelling headphones, the difficulty is not really in estimating the power at each frequency, but the phase: try and cancel a simple sine wave, that you know the frequency of! you still have to know it's precise phase in order to cancel it!  Imagine you know the phase, but with some error: the error scales up with the frequency, meaning the fastest the oscillations, the more precise you need to be.  With light? it seems we're talking quite high frequencies/shot wavelengths... but please someone knowledgeable correct me, it sounds too cool!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7431.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18lv1y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "[Physics] If space is a vacuum, and there is no matter in a vacuum, would someone really freeze to death in space? My physics teacher told us that you would freeze in space, but now that I am thinking about it after the fact it seems impossible because there is nothing to transfer heat to. Is there something going over my head or was he wrong?", "c_root_id_A": "c8fz6fc", "c_root_id_B": "c8fyi30", "created_at_utc_A": 1360977445, "created_at_utc_B": 1360974786, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You would not freeze to death, you would die from oxygen deprivation in a few minutes at best. If you were floating in space at the same distance from the sun as earth is, your dead body would eventually reach equilibrium at 255K (-18C, 0F) after quite a long time (probably many days). But if you were still alive in a protective bubble of some sort, your body heat would actually eventually cause you to die of heatstroke: astronauts must wear cooling systems for this reason.", "human_ref_B": "How does the Sun's heat get here through space?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2659.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18lv1y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "[Physics] If space is a vacuum, and there is no matter in a vacuum, would someone really freeze to death in space? My physics teacher told us that you would freeze in space, but now that I am thinking about it after the fact it seems impossible because there is nothing to transfer heat to. Is there something going over my head or was he wrong?", "c_root_id_A": "c8fyket", "c_root_id_B": "c8fz6fc", "created_at_utc_A": 1360975041, "created_at_utc_B": 1360977445, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "A lot of the physics behind this was covered here yesterday", "human_ref_B": "You would not freeze to death, you would die from oxygen deprivation in a few minutes at best. If you were floating in space at the same distance from the sun as earth is, your dead body would eventually reach equilibrium at 255K (-18C, 0F) after quite a long time (probably many days). But if you were still alive in a protective bubble of some sort, your body heat would actually eventually cause you to die of heatstroke: astronauts must wear cooling systems for this reason.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2404.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18lv1y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "[Physics] If space is a vacuum, and there is no matter in a vacuum, would someone really freeze to death in space? My physics teacher told us that you would freeze in space, but now that I am thinking about it after the fact it seems impossible because there is nothing to transfer heat to. Is there something going over my head or was he wrong?", "c_root_id_A": "c8fyi30", "c_root_id_B": "c8fyket", "created_at_utc_A": 1360974786, "created_at_utc_B": 1360975041, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How does the Sun's heat get here through space?", "human_ref_B": "A lot of the physics behind this was covered here yesterday", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 255.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nq1h6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Since radio waves are on the electromagnetic frequency just as visible light is, is it possible to produce light we can hear or sound we can see?", "c_root_id_A": "c3b2k8w", "c_root_id_B": "c3b1lon", "created_at_utc_A": 1324829523, "created_at_utc_B": 1324810796, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Not directly - your eyes don't respond to variations in air pressure, which is what sound is. Nor do your ears pick up electromagnetic fieldvariations (which is what light is). However, low-frequency EM fields can often induce mechanical vibration, which we hear as a low buzz - like the hum of a transformer. An interesting thing: microwave-band EM radiation can, in some circumstances, be \"heard\" - the mechanism for this is not fully understood: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_auditory_effect There's even a crowd weapon based on this effect: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEDUSA_(weapon) But this isn't really \"hearing\" an EM wave in the normal sense.", "human_ref_B": "I think he means light that can be picked up by radio like radio waves.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18727.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nq1h6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Since radio waves are on the electromagnetic frequency just as visible light is, is it possible to produce light we can hear or sound we can see?", "c_root_id_A": "c3b2yy0", "c_root_id_B": "c3b1lon", "created_at_utc_A": 1324834042, "created_at_utc_B": 1324810796, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "a related topic that you may be interested in is synesthesia - you can google what it is, but basically it's when our perceptions become mixed up, we see sound and hear numbers sort of thing... whereby one could mix up noise and vision and end up seeing sound.", "human_ref_B": "I think he means light that can be picked up by radio like radio waves.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23246.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nq1h6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Since radio waves are on the electromagnetic frequency just as visible light is, is it possible to produce light we can hear or sound we can see?", "c_root_id_A": "c3b1lon", "c_root_id_B": "c3bob2c", "created_at_utc_A": 1324810796, "created_at_utc_B": 1325032404, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I think he means light that can be picked up by radio like radio waves.", "human_ref_B": "When you listen to the stereo, you are not actually hearing the radio waves.  The radio waves only send information to your stereo, which then makes mechanical vibrations that we hear as sound.  Light is electromagnetic waves and sound is pressure waves.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 221608.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gscop", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is it possible for an airplane to just fall out of the sky? What types of things actually cause aircraft crashes? Greetings, askscience. I am a guy who has to fly a few times a year and it tweaks me out because I hate being trapped in a tube. Anyhow, I have always wondered, what are the actual odds of an airplane falling out of the sky? I've heard that an airplane is capable of safely gliding to a landing even if engines are out.  Anyway, I guess to sum up my question:  How awesome are airplanes? Do they ever just crash? Do I have anything to be worried about other than human error?", "c_root_id_A": "c1pzkje", "c_root_id_B": "c1pyebe", "created_at_utc_A": 1303110925, "created_at_utc_B": 1303094689, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Whenever we use the term \"stall\" it usually is not in reference to flying too slowly. Stall refers to when the airfoil pitches up too high and the flow over the top of the wing separates, or detaches from the surface. This makes you lose almost all of your lift.  While flying too slow at the proper angle of attack, the flow will still be attached so it's not really 'stalled'. You're simply producing less lift than the weight of your aircraft.  Interesting fact: For almost all airfoils, the majority of the lift is produced from the flow on the upper surface of the airfoil rather than the lower. This is one of the driving factors to put the engines beneath the wing.  EDIT: I didn't really address your question. 1. Commercial airplanes are incredibly well designed. When airplanes crash it is either human error or a super-freak occurrence.  2. If a commercial airline pilot reads this, he/she might correct me, but you can't really glide a commercial airline without engines. The good news is that commercial airlines are designed to be able to fly with one engine blown out. Engines are independent systems. If one goes, the others continue to work (assuming there isn't some catastrophic damage to the fuel feed system.) The chance of one engine failing is extremely small. The chance of two engines failing independently is zero (for all practical purposes)", "human_ref_B": "I'm getting my private pilot license right now, and the two things my instructor told me I should fear is a fire and a midair collision.. that's it. Basically the only other thing that will cause a crash is human error, which is the cause of most crashes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16236.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gscop", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is it possible for an airplane to just fall out of the sky? What types of things actually cause aircraft crashes? Greetings, askscience. I am a guy who has to fly a few times a year and it tweaks me out because I hate being trapped in a tube. Anyhow, I have always wondered, what are the actual odds of an airplane falling out of the sky? I've heard that an airplane is capable of safely gliding to a landing even if engines are out.  Anyway, I guess to sum up my question:  How awesome are airplanes? Do they ever just crash? Do I have anything to be worried about other than human error?", "c_root_id_A": "c1pzkje", "c_root_id_B": "c1pxork", "created_at_utc_A": 1303110925, "created_at_utc_B": 1303086079, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Whenever we use the term \"stall\" it usually is not in reference to flying too slowly. Stall refers to when the airfoil pitches up too high and the flow over the top of the wing separates, or detaches from the surface. This makes you lose almost all of your lift.  While flying too slow at the proper angle of attack, the flow will still be attached so it's not really 'stalled'. You're simply producing less lift than the weight of your aircraft.  Interesting fact: For almost all airfoils, the majority of the lift is produced from the flow on the upper surface of the airfoil rather than the lower. This is one of the driving factors to put the engines beneath the wing.  EDIT: I didn't really address your question. 1. Commercial airplanes are incredibly well designed. When airplanes crash it is either human error or a super-freak occurrence.  2. If a commercial airline pilot reads this, he/she might correct me, but you can't really glide a commercial airline without engines. The good news is that commercial airlines are designed to be able to fly with one engine blown out. Engines are independent systems. If one goes, the others continue to work (assuming there isn't some catastrophic damage to the fuel feed system.) The chance of one engine failing is extremely small. The chance of two engines failing independently is zero (for all practical purposes)", "human_ref_B": "Wikipedia has a lot of good info on this.  Basically, in per-journey terms, air travel is relatively dangerous. However, in terms of per-hour or per-distance, it's quite safe.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24846.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gscop", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is it possible for an airplane to just fall out of the sky? What types of things actually cause aircraft crashes? Greetings, askscience. I am a guy who has to fly a few times a year and it tweaks me out because I hate being trapped in a tube. Anyhow, I have always wondered, what are the actual odds of an airplane falling out of the sky? I've heard that an airplane is capable of safely gliding to a landing even if engines are out.  Anyway, I guess to sum up my question:  How awesome are airplanes? Do they ever just crash? Do I have anything to be worried about other than human error?", "c_root_id_A": "c1pxork", "c_root_id_B": "c1pyebe", "created_at_utc_A": 1303086079, "created_at_utc_B": 1303094689, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Wikipedia has a lot of good info on this.  Basically, in per-journey terms, air travel is relatively dangerous. However, in terms of per-hour or per-distance, it's quite safe.", "human_ref_B": "I'm getting my private pilot license right now, and the two things my instructor told me I should fear is a fire and a midair collision.. that's it. Basically the only other thing that will cause a crash is human error, which is the cause of most crashes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8610.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "34o68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Hypothetically, What would be the largest planet humans could live on before gravity became too great for the human body?", "c_root_id_A": "cqwxqpc", "c_root_id_B": "cqwxotd", "created_at_utc_A": 1430663166, "created_at_utc_B": 1430663026, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "The thing that would hinder humans to live on a planet is not the radius or volume of the planet but rather the ratio of radius and density of the planet. The strength of the Gravitational field at the surface of the planet is  g=\u03b3*M/r^2, M=4/3*pi*r^3*density  combining both formulas results in g=\u03b3*4/3*pi*r/density;   as you can see, as long as r/density stays the same (or possible a little bit higher) the planet would absolutly be able to get colonized", "human_ref_B": "Not answering ur question directly but larger mass planets you would be better off floating high up in the clouds or perhaps tethered to the ground and like a space elevated to a geostationary mass up in orbit but but somehow live up where the G's are a bit more suitable- cos then you can go to some pretty huge places", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 140.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "34o68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Hypothetically, What would be the largest planet humans could live on before gravity became too great for the human body?", "c_root_id_A": "cqwxotd", "c_root_id_B": "cqx5if3", "created_at_utc_A": 1430663026, "created_at_utc_B": 1430679626, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Not answering ur question directly but larger mass planets you would be better off floating high up in the clouds or perhaps tethered to the ground and like a space elevated to a geostationary mass up in orbit but but somehow live up where the G's are a bit more suitable- cos then you can go to some pretty huge places", "human_ref_B": "It depends on how you define live on. We could maybe carry on with daily life till 1.3g. Roller coasters and rock climbing won't be so popular for sure.  As gravity increases, we will move and exercise less. At 1.7g, I'm not sure most of us want to move much, let alone go for a jog.  At even high gravities, we can lie in bed all day and have amazon drones deliver us food and goodies. I'd imagine lifting your head and even sitting will be a chore at 3G, but we could still stay alive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16600.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "34o68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Hypothetically, What would be the largest planet humans could live on before gravity became too great for the human body?", "c_root_id_A": "cqwxotd", "c_root_id_B": "cqxakl4", "created_at_utc_A": 1430663026, "created_at_utc_B": 1430688974, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Not answering ur question directly but larger mass planets you would be better off floating high up in the clouds or perhaps tethered to the ground and like a space elevated to a geostationary mass up in orbit but but somehow live up where the G's are a bit more suitable- cos then you can go to some pretty huge places", "human_ref_B": "From http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930020462.pdf :  > +2 Gz  > Increase in weight; increased pressure on the buttocks, drooping of face and soft body tissues; movement against acceleration is difficult  > +3 to 4 Gz  > Difficult to raise arms and legs; impossible to rise; Dimming of vision after 3-4 sec; progressive tunneling of vision; arterial oxygen saturation falls to 93% ; unaided escape from aircraft impossible  Based on this source, I wouldn't land on a planet with more than 2g. This is purely from a blood pressure point of view, not excluding other effects (such as damage to the joints as others pointed out).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 25948.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y7ioz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "New study says eating too many egg yolks does contribute quite a bit to plaque buildup in arteries. Is this study legit or BS? This study says egg yolks are bad for heart, how conclusive is this? I eat a lot of eggs with the assumption dietary cholesterol is okay. Should I once again limit my egg consumption?   Here is a link to the study: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021915012005047  And a link to an article about the study: http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/08/study-eggs-are-nearly-as-bad-for-your-arteries-as-cigarettes/261091/", "c_root_id_A": "c5t22x6", "c_root_id_B": "c5t3nat", "created_at_utc_A": 1344965740, "created_at_utc_B": 1344970698, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Isn't dietary cholesterol not linked to blood cholesterol?", "human_ref_B": "My biostatistics class would have had a field day with this study.  The first thing to note is that both age and sex could easily confound this study.  Honestly, just from a quick look at the methodology and the results it looks like their analysis was all over the place.  A few things stick out -  The people with the highest \"egg yolk\" score also have a much older age at first visit.  In atherosclerosis, age is a huge factor for the development of atherosclerotic plaques.  In fact, the age difference between the lowest and highest egg group is 14 years - a huge difference.  The standard deviation of the plaques are huge.  They didn't perform an ANOVA to determine if there were significant differences between the groups, but they did a multiple-regression analysis.  They did control for sex, but not age - age is \"incorporated\" into yolk-years but I have strong misgivings about methodology since higher yolk years seems to mean older people eating similar amount of eggs.  This would confound the results as I'd say age is a larger predictor of plaque size.  For the multiple regression analysis, the R-squared value was 0.277.  Hardly a strong correlation.  I'd actually take a look more at the HDL/LDL levels between the groups, and BMI - and it looks like they are all similar.  LDL levels (and HDL/LDL ratio) have been strongly linked to adverse cardiovascular events - much more strongly than this egg yolk study.  Basically, given my brief but thorough studies in biostatistics/epidemiology, this paper looks pretty sensational for such small/loosely correlated and uncontrolled effects.  I mean, other confounding factors could easily be diet of \"higher yolk-year\" patients.  People who are only eating egg whites may also be consciously avoiding other unhealthy foods, etc.  **tl;dr** - I think the study is heavily confounded by age.  Correlation is weak.  No significant difference between groups (or at least none presented).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4958.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzptos", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Why does cold temperatures dry clothes? In a rainy day, if I leave wet clothes in a bedroom with a heater, they will dry.  And if I leave wet clothes in a bedroom with cold air conditioning it will dry.  Why?", "c_root_id_A": "hf2puwi", "c_root_id_B": "hf2yzl5", "created_at_utc_A": 1633162780, "created_at_utc_B": 1633170266, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 64, "human_ref_A": "Evaporation still happens in a colder room, just at a slower rate. The temperature of the water tells you the average kinetic energy of the molecules, but in reality it's a distribution of energies among the water molecules. The faster ones will still escape into the air.  Also AC dries out the air in a room, so that is also contributing to the clothes drying.", "human_ref_B": "Important part is the that liquid water will always just spontaneously evaporate with speed depending on a number of factors like: temperature, humidity of the air, and airflow over the surface.  An AC lowers the air temperature, slowing down evaporation, but also lowers humidity, speeding up evaporation. AC also creates a draft in the room, speeding up evaporation.  Once you get to freezing temperatures the water will solidify and no longer evaporate.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7486.0, "score_ratio": 2.9090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5o626u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How would an atmosphere twice as dense as that of Earth affect the transmission of sound? Would it be noisier? Quieter?", "c_root_id_A": "dch5grw", "c_root_id_B": "dcgvg1p", "created_at_utc_A": 1484524845, "created_at_utc_B": 1484512770, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The answer depends on if the atmospheric pressure is also doubled (and hence the temperature is the same), or we keep atmospheric pressure the same (and temperature is cut in half).   If the atmospheric pressure is also doubled, then the speed of sound remains the same. The rate of sound attenuation would decrease, so the atmosphere would be quite a bit noisier.  If the atmospheric pressure is kept the same, then the speed of sound would decrease by a factor of sqrt(2). The frequencies of emitted sounds would then decrease by a factor of sqrt(2) as well (become deeper). If the air viscosity hasn't also decreased by a factor of sqrt(2) (which it might), then the attenuation rate will increase and things will be quieter.   Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes'_law_of_sound_attenuation", "human_ref_B": "This is an excellent question. The answer would be that it would be quiter. Vibrations from your vocal cords, or a speaker, (or anything really) cause the atmosphere to compress which forms the sound waves that travel through the air. A thicker atmosphere would require more energy to compress and thus if the same vibrational energy were applied the sound waves created would have a smaller amplitude and heard at a lower volume.   Your level of intelligence may save you from extermination by the Dalek Empire!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12075.0, "score_ratio": 8.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5o626u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How would an atmosphere twice as dense as that of Earth affect the transmission of sound? Would it be noisier? Quieter?", "c_root_id_A": "dcgvg1p", "c_root_id_B": "dch5lxg", "created_at_utc_A": 1484512770, "created_at_utc_B": 1484525025, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "This is an excellent question. The answer would be that it would be quiter. Vibrations from your vocal cords, or a speaker, (or anything really) cause the atmosphere to compress which forms the sound waves that travel through the air. A thicker atmosphere would require more energy to compress and thus if the same vibrational energy were applied the sound waves created would have a smaller amplitude and heard at a lower volume.   Your level of intelligence may save you from extermination by the Dalek Empire!", "human_ref_B": "This can be discussed by looking at a value called the specific acoustic impedance. In plain terms it's a property of a medium that tells you how much the medium resists a response to an acoustic pressure on the system.   This is given by the equation   z = pc  With p being the density of the material and c being the speed of sound in that material. For an ideal gas the speed of sound goes  c = sqrt(bP/p)  with capital P being pressure, lowercase p being density, and b a unitless constant.   I'm going to be a bit naive about atmospheric pressure, since it's not my specialty. Let's assume we can just do this by the ideal gas law and wait for a smarter person to correct me. In terms of mass density it can be written:  P = pkT/m  Here m is the molecular mass of our atmosphere, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is temperature. In this case  z = p sqrt(bkT/m)  If we double p by doubling the number of molecules, z doubles. If we double it by increasing the mass of our molecules, z increases by sqrt(2). Either way the impedance increases, and sound is dampened.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12255.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iwsba", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Can the moon affect the earth enough to cause volcanoes to erupt? When the moon, sun, and earth form a straight line, the combined forces of gravity pull on oceans so much that the sea level rises, causing maximum tides.  The earth's mantel is encased in the earth's crust. I'm guessing that the magma in the mantel is a lot more viscous than water, but nonetheless it flows.   Volcanoes are hollow mountains where magma has the potential to come out of the crust and meet the atmostphere.  So, does the moon affect the magma inside volcanoes in a manner similiar to tides? During maximum tide, do the sun and the moon have enough influence on the earth to \"pull\" on the magma and causing it to flow out of volcanoes, making them \"erupt\"?", "c_root_id_A": "c2796tx", "c_root_id_B": "c2797gw", "created_at_utc_A": 1311343264, "created_at_utc_B": 1311343434, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Dude...imagine if all the planets were aligned. That would make for some awesome explosions and stuff.  --  In reality though, I don't think having those bodies aligned makes much a difference. The magma isnt pulled out of the earth, its pushed (or shot) out b/c of pressures and moving plates and such.", "human_ref_B": "Basically, no.  Technically, yeah, the Earth causes tides in the soil and rocks as well as in the water.   This has the effect of   (A)  Causing generalized heating of the Earth. (The Earth is slightly warmer due to tidal friction than it would be otherwise. Not by very much.)  (B) Presumably helping to trigger earthquakes - the tidal forces on stressed areas keep changing and can help to make them slip. This presumably sometimes also has the effect of \"cracking open\" passages for magma, etc.   But overall, the effect of the Moon/tides on volcanoes is very small.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 170.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iwsba", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Can the moon affect the earth enough to cause volcanoes to erupt? When the moon, sun, and earth form a straight line, the combined forces of gravity pull on oceans so much that the sea level rises, causing maximum tides.  The earth's mantel is encased in the earth's crust. I'm guessing that the magma in the mantel is a lot more viscous than water, but nonetheless it flows.   Volcanoes are hollow mountains where magma has the potential to come out of the crust and meet the atmostphere.  So, does the moon affect the magma inside volcanoes in a manner similiar to tides? During maximum tide, do the sun and the moon have enough influence on the earth to \"pull\" on the magma and causing it to flow out of volcanoes, making them \"erupt\"?", "c_root_id_A": "c27f3p8", "c_root_id_B": "c2796tx", "created_at_utc_A": 1311401705, "created_at_utc_B": 1311343264, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I can't understand how the sun would cause tides of any sort considering we are in free-fall around it. The perceived gravity that we would experience as a result of the sun should be nil.  When a person is on an orbiting satellite, they do not experience gravity pulling them towards the body they are orbiting, they are literally in free-fall.  But at the same time, the sun's effect on tides seems to be assumed knowledge and well documented, how is this so?", "human_ref_B": "Dude...imagine if all the planets were aligned. That would make for some awesome explosions and stuff.  --  In reality though, I don't think having those bodies aligned makes much a difference. The magma isnt pulled out of the earth, its pushed (or shot) out b/c of pressures and moving plates and such.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 58441.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lym6el", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why are the engineers at SpaceX designing the landing of Starship to be vertical instead of a plane-like landing like the space shuttle? It seems a lot harder to land a rocket vertically after re-entry rather than giving it a shallow decent angle and landing it line a plane/ the space shuttle would to some degree? Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "gpv5n8y", "c_root_id_B": "gptmj0k", "created_at_utc_A": 1615004594, "created_at_utc_B": 1614981897, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The main reason for SpaceX is that you want to use the same vehicle to land on Mars. And there is not enough atmosphere there to make it a good option.  And extra bonus: you can use the same vehicle for most of the bodies of the solar system (maybe not Venus).  Also, having wings require additional structure, which reduces your rocket performance. With the current design, they are minimizing the mass of the structure not directly providing support to the main function: hold propellant. Remember that a rocket is first and foremost a propellant tank to which you add some thrusters.", "human_ref_B": "You're asking about the heavy lifter versus the \"capsule.\"  SpaceX (and others) are looking at being able to reuse the **rockets** over and over and over.  Yes. They're also looking at Resuable Landing Vehicle (RLV) tech, but that's been done in the past. I'd refer you to the space shuttle program which was the original RLV. Different challenges on re-entry.  The big cost difference is being able to reuse the actual launch tech, and they're not aerodynamic at all. They literally cannot be if they're trying to achieve EV.   If you want to know more about orbital mechanics and escape velocity and such, let me know. There are a bunch of really great informational texts and articles and videos (many published by NASA) out there!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22697.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lym6el", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why are the engineers at SpaceX designing the landing of Starship to be vertical instead of a plane-like landing like the space shuttle? It seems a lot harder to land a rocket vertically after re-entry rather than giving it a shallow decent angle and landing it line a plane/ the space shuttle would to some degree? Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "gpvgslc", "c_root_id_B": "gptmj0k", "created_at_utc_A": 1615010097, "created_at_utc_B": 1614981897, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is: the mass of the wings would be much greater than the mass of the extra fuel needed to decelerate the ship for landing. This mass of extra fuel is also additionally offset by the lack of aerodynamic drag that the wings would inevitably cause during the vertical flight through the dense parts of the atmosphere.", "human_ref_B": "You're asking about the heavy lifter versus the \"capsule.\"  SpaceX (and others) are looking at being able to reuse the **rockets** over and over and over.  Yes. They're also looking at Resuable Landing Vehicle (RLV) tech, but that's been done in the past. I'd refer you to the space shuttle program which was the original RLV. Different challenges on re-entry.  The big cost difference is being able to reuse the actual launch tech, and they're not aerodynamic at all. They literally cannot be if they're trying to achieve EV.   If you want to know more about orbital mechanics and escape velocity and such, let me know. There are a bunch of really great informational texts and articles and videos (many published by NASA) out there!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28200.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lym6el", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why are the engineers at SpaceX designing the landing of Starship to be vertical instead of a plane-like landing like the space shuttle? It seems a lot harder to land a rocket vertically after re-entry rather than giving it a shallow decent angle and landing it line a plane/ the space shuttle would to some degree? Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "gpvgslc", "c_root_id_B": "gpvdxmt", "created_at_utc_A": 1615010097, "created_at_utc_B": 1615008534, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is: the mass of the wings would be much greater than the mass of the extra fuel needed to decelerate the ship for landing. This mass of extra fuel is also additionally offset by the lack of aerodynamic drag that the wings would inevitably cause during the vertical flight through the dense parts of the atmosphere.", "human_ref_B": "Most of the places Starship will go in theory are easier to land this way, why carry the big wing parts at all just for the return? More mass means shorter trip in space. Shuttle pretty much fell slowly. It was its own mess, where most problems were solved by making a new part. Point is it just barely flew in Earths atmosphere, atmosphere necessary to slow the shuttle down and land safely. The Starship uses similar aero braking, but controls more like a skydiver. The wings act like arms and legs, giving control and gradual speed reduction without much energy or fuel. The same applies to Mars, for example. The shuttle had no option to land on Mars because it would fall too quickly in the thin atmosphere, which obviously rules out most of our system. So the starship can operate like a regular flamey down pointy up rocket instead of some complex multi purpose vehicle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1563.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lym6el", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why are the engineers at SpaceX designing the landing of Starship to be vertical instead of a plane-like landing like the space shuttle? It seems a lot harder to land a rocket vertically after re-entry rather than giving it a shallow decent angle and landing it line a plane/ the space shuttle would to some degree? Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "gptmj0k", "c_root_id_B": "gpwa900", "created_at_utc_A": 1614981897, "created_at_utc_B": 1615019676, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "You're asking about the heavy lifter versus the \"capsule.\"  SpaceX (and others) are looking at being able to reuse the **rockets** over and over and over.  Yes. They're also looking at Resuable Landing Vehicle (RLV) tech, but that's been done in the past. I'd refer you to the space shuttle program which was the original RLV. Different challenges on re-entry.  The big cost difference is being able to reuse the actual launch tech, and they're not aerodynamic at all. They literally cannot be if they're trying to achieve EV.   If you want to know more about orbital mechanics and escape velocity and such, let me know. There are a bunch of really great informational texts and articles and videos (many published by NASA) out there!", "human_ref_B": "Good answers, but maybe a useful oversimplification: wings need atmosphere. Atmosphere isn't in abundance many places (Mars is under 1% of Earth's density\u2014it's a miracle of engineering to fly a tiny little drone there for a few seconds at a time), and it doesn't help you at *all* when you want the vehicle to leave whatever atmosphere there is. Wings don't do much and every gram of weight is precious. Hence more towards rockets than airplanes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37779.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lym6el", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why are the engineers at SpaceX designing the landing of Starship to be vertical instead of a plane-like landing like the space shuttle? It seems a lot harder to land a rocket vertically after re-entry rather than giving it a shallow decent angle and landing it line a plane/ the space shuttle would to some degree? Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "gpvdxmt", "c_root_id_B": "gpwa900", "created_at_utc_A": 1615008534, "created_at_utc_B": 1615019676, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Most of the places Starship will go in theory are easier to land this way, why carry the big wing parts at all just for the return? More mass means shorter trip in space. Shuttle pretty much fell slowly. It was its own mess, where most problems were solved by making a new part. Point is it just barely flew in Earths atmosphere, atmosphere necessary to slow the shuttle down and land safely. The Starship uses similar aero braking, but controls more like a skydiver. The wings act like arms and legs, giving control and gradual speed reduction without much energy or fuel. The same applies to Mars, for example. The shuttle had no option to land on Mars because it would fall too quickly in the thin atmosphere, which obviously rules out most of our system. So the starship can operate like a regular flamey down pointy up rocket instead of some complex multi purpose vehicle.", "human_ref_B": "Good answers, but maybe a useful oversimplification: wings need atmosphere. Atmosphere isn't in abundance many places (Mars is under 1% of Earth's density\u2014it's a miracle of engineering to fly a tiny little drone there for a few seconds at a time), and it doesn't help you at *all* when you want the vehicle to leave whatever atmosphere there is. Wings don't do much and every gram of weight is precious. Hence more towards rockets than airplanes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11142.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rm4m7t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why did the space shuttle have to do the 'roll maneuver?' After takeoff the space shuttle always performed a roll maneuver. Why couldn't it be oriented on the pad to avoid having to make such an adjustment?", "c_root_id_A": "hplwj02", "c_root_id_B": "hpnd1lz", "created_at_utc_A": 1640209439, "created_at_utc_B": 1640236400, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "This is one the interesting differences between American and soviet launch hardware.  American launchers, (like Saturn V and shuttle) would always launch, roll and then tilt over to point in the right direction. Launch complex 39 pads are both orientated to the cardinals.  Soviet hardware rotated the entire launch pad, as the roll adjustment capability of the R-7 family wasn\u2019t great. So the launcher would launch and then tilt over.  For me, if you need to have engines that can gimble, you might as well use them to do the roll manoeuvre, instead of having to put a lot of complex moveable hardware on the ground.  Edit: more information: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zYesWQNmU5Y", "human_ref_B": "Part of the reason was safety.   In case of a launch abort and RTLS (Return to Landing Site) maneuver, the shuttle had to be in a proper orientation - belly down to Earth.  On a RTLS call, the shuttle would basically dump the launch vehicle, pull up and away briefly, then turn to glide back to the runway near the launch pad ... hopefully.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26961.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cngomsn", "c_root_id_B": "cnguevh", "created_at_utc_A": 1420586793, "created_at_utc_B": 1420597153, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "I just want to add this since nobody else has mentioned it.  General Relativity says that the gravity from the sun 'encodes' the velocity of the Sun. Effectively, the gravity that the Earth feels from the Sun is due to where the Sun is right now, not ~8 minutes ago, because of this quirk.", "human_ref_B": "S. Carlip's paper *Aberration and the Speed of Gravity* is famous for addressing exactly this question with a lot of math.  >> ... or more generally by systematically approximating the solution of the two-body problem [17]. As in the case considered here, the gravitational interaction propagates at the speed of light, but velocity-dependent terms in the interaction nearly cancel the effect of aberration.   More interestingly ---- the math suggests that the OP's second question \"why do we not fall out of orbit\" is wrong.   We ***are falling out of orbit from that gravitation discrepancy***!!!  Quoting that Carlip paper again:   >> ....  It is worth noting that the cancellation between aberration and velocity-dependent terms in general relativity is not quite exact. If gravity could be described exactly as an instantaneous, central interaction, the mechanical energy and angular momentum of a system such as a binary pulsar would be exactly conserved, and orbits could not decay.    In general relativity, the gravitational radiation reaction appears as a slight mismatch between the effects of aberration and the extra noncentral terms in the equations of motion   ....  ***TL/DR:  Math shows that the direction of gravity also has a velocity-dependent component --- which almost-but-not-quite prevents us from falling out of orbit.***  *[Edit:  Wasn't this practically a FAQ here a few years ago.  It came up many times.  Back then it seems we had quite a few physicists well versed in the math of GR answering back then.   Is all that's left here a bunch of computer scientists guessing?]*", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10360.0, "score_ratio": 4.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cnguevh", "c_root_id_B": "cngu6u3", "created_at_utc_A": 1420597153, "created_at_utc_B": 1420596748, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "S. Carlip's paper *Aberration and the Speed of Gravity* is famous for addressing exactly this question with a lot of math.  >> ... or more generally by systematically approximating the solution of the two-body problem [17]. As in the case considered here, the gravitational interaction propagates at the speed of light, but velocity-dependent terms in the interaction nearly cancel the effect of aberration.   More interestingly ---- the math suggests that the OP's second question \"why do we not fall out of orbit\" is wrong.   We ***are falling out of orbit from that gravitation discrepancy***!!!  Quoting that Carlip paper again:   >> ....  It is worth noting that the cancellation between aberration and velocity-dependent terms in general relativity is not quite exact. If gravity could be described exactly as an instantaneous, central interaction, the mechanical energy and angular momentum of a system such as a binary pulsar would be exactly conserved, and orbits could not decay.    In general relativity, the gravitational radiation reaction appears as a slight mismatch between the effects of aberration and the extra noncentral terms in the equations of motion   ....  ***TL/DR:  Math shows that the direction of gravity also has a velocity-dependent component --- which almost-but-not-quite prevents us from falling out of orbit.***  *[Edit:  Wasn't this practically a FAQ here a few years ago.  It came up many times.  Back then it seems we had quite a few physicists well versed in the math of GR answering back then.   Is all that's left here a bunch of computer scientists guessing?]*", "human_ref_B": "The earth technically doesn't orbit the sun, the earth, the sun and the planets all orbit the solar system barycentre (centre of mass), which moves depending on the position of the planets.   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Solar_system_barycenter.svg/500px-Solar_system_barycenter.svg.png  From the point of view of the earth the barycentre \"is\" ~8 light minutes away, thus it takes ~8 minutes for the positional chances of the barycentre to affect the earth. However, it makes little sense to define a 'true' position. In the same way that the sun 'is' where it was 8 minutes ago from the point of view of the earth, from the point of view of the sun the earth 'is' also where it was 8 minutes ago in its reference frame. Now, what is the 'true' relative position of the earth and the sun? There is none, both reference frames are equally valid and there is no such thing as an absolute 'true' position.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 405.0, "score_ratio": 10.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cnguevh", "c_root_id_B": "cngi0gu", "created_at_utc_A": 1420597153, "created_at_utc_B": 1420576020, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "S. Carlip's paper *Aberration and the Speed of Gravity* is famous for addressing exactly this question with a lot of math.  >> ... or more generally by systematically approximating the solution of the two-body problem [17]. As in the case considered here, the gravitational interaction propagates at the speed of light, but velocity-dependent terms in the interaction nearly cancel the effect of aberration.   More interestingly ---- the math suggests that the OP's second question \"why do we not fall out of orbit\" is wrong.   We ***are falling out of orbit from that gravitation discrepancy***!!!  Quoting that Carlip paper again:   >> ....  It is worth noting that the cancellation between aberration and velocity-dependent terms in general relativity is not quite exact. If gravity could be described exactly as an instantaneous, central interaction, the mechanical energy and angular momentum of a system such as a binary pulsar would be exactly conserved, and orbits could not decay.    In general relativity, the gravitational radiation reaction appears as a slight mismatch between the effects of aberration and the extra noncentral terms in the equations of motion   ....  ***TL/DR:  Math shows that the direction of gravity also has a velocity-dependent component --- which almost-but-not-quite prevents us from falling out of orbit.***  *[Edit:  Wasn't this practically a FAQ here a few years ago.  It came up many times.  Back then it seems we had quite a few physicists well versed in the math of GR answering back then.   Is all that's left here a bunch of computer scientists guessing?]*", "human_ref_B": "I had a little trouble grasping this one too because of the \"rock on a string\" concept.  I find fields easier to visualize as large plates that BOTH earth and the sun sit upon. There is a constant connection and interaction to the same field.  Also, side note, earth has gravity/mass of its own and ever so slightly perturbs the sun's motion as well.  Kind of mind blowing but one more: YOU have an interaction with that field and - at least in theory - you also cause perturbations of that field... and ever other one in the Universe even though they amount to nill measurable effect.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21133.0, "score_ratio": 41.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cnglt34", "c_root_id_B": "cnguevh", "created_at_utc_A": 1420582030, "created_at_utc_B": 1420597153, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "What makes you think the Sun is moving?  We're talking about relativity. Nothing is moving in any absolute sense, things only have motion relative to other things.  There is a reference frame in which the Sun is stationary. In that frame, Earth is obviously rotating around the Sun's current location. A change of perspective (to make the galactic core stationary, for example) doesn't change that.", "human_ref_B": "S. Carlip's paper *Aberration and the Speed of Gravity* is famous for addressing exactly this question with a lot of math.  >> ... or more generally by systematically approximating the solution of the two-body problem [17]. As in the case considered here, the gravitational interaction propagates at the speed of light, but velocity-dependent terms in the interaction nearly cancel the effect of aberration.   More interestingly ---- the math suggests that the OP's second question \"why do we not fall out of orbit\" is wrong.   We ***are falling out of orbit from that gravitation discrepancy***!!!  Quoting that Carlip paper again:   >> ....  It is worth noting that the cancellation between aberration and velocity-dependent terms in general relativity is not quite exact. If gravity could be described exactly as an instantaneous, central interaction, the mechanical energy and angular momentum of a system such as a binary pulsar would be exactly conserved, and orbits could not decay.    In general relativity, the gravitational radiation reaction appears as a slight mismatch between the effects of aberration and the extra noncentral terms in the equations of motion   ....  ***TL/DR:  Math shows that the direction of gravity also has a velocity-dependent component --- which almost-but-not-quite prevents us from falling out of orbit.***  *[Edit:  Wasn't this practically a FAQ here a few years ago.  It came up many times.  Back then it seems we had quite a few physicists well versed in the math of GR answering back then.   Is all that's left here a bunch of computer scientists guessing?]*", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15123.0, "score_ratio": 20.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cngomsn", "c_root_id_B": "cngi0gu", "created_at_utc_A": 1420586793, "created_at_utc_B": 1420576020, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I just want to add this since nobody else has mentioned it.  General Relativity says that the gravity from the sun 'encodes' the velocity of the Sun. Effectively, the gravity that the Earth feels from the Sun is due to where the Sun is right now, not ~8 minutes ago, because of this quirk.", "human_ref_B": "I had a little trouble grasping this one too because of the \"rock on a string\" concept.  I find fields easier to visualize as large plates that BOTH earth and the sun sit upon. There is a constant connection and interaction to the same field.  Also, side note, earth has gravity/mass of its own and ever so slightly perturbs the sun's motion as well.  Kind of mind blowing but one more: YOU have an interaction with that field and - at least in theory - you also cause perturbations of that field... and ever other one in the Universe even though they amount to nill measurable effect.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10773.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cnglt34", "c_root_id_B": "cngomsn", "created_at_utc_A": 1420582030, "created_at_utc_B": 1420586793, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What makes you think the Sun is moving?  We're talking about relativity. Nothing is moving in any absolute sense, things only have motion relative to other things.  There is a reference frame in which the Sun is stationary. In that frame, Earth is obviously rotating around the Sun's current location. A change of perspective (to make the galactic core stationary, for example) doesn't change that.", "human_ref_B": "I just want to add this since nobody else has mentioned it.  General Relativity says that the gravity from the sun 'encodes' the velocity of the Sun. Effectively, the gravity that the Earth feels from the Sun is due to where the Sun is right now, not ~8 minutes ago, because of this quirk.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4763.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cngu6u3", "c_root_id_B": "cngi0gu", "created_at_utc_A": 1420596748, "created_at_utc_B": 1420576020, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The earth technically doesn't orbit the sun, the earth, the sun and the planets all orbit the solar system barycentre (centre of mass), which moves depending on the position of the planets.   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Solar_system_barycenter.svg/500px-Solar_system_barycenter.svg.png  From the point of view of the earth the barycentre \"is\" ~8 light minutes away, thus it takes ~8 minutes for the positional chances of the barycentre to affect the earth. However, it makes little sense to define a 'true' position. In the same way that the sun 'is' where it was 8 minutes ago from the point of view of the earth, from the point of view of the sun the earth 'is' also where it was 8 minutes ago in its reference frame. Now, what is the 'true' relative position of the earth and the sun? There is none, both reference frames are equally valid and there is no such thing as an absolute 'true' position.", "human_ref_B": "I had a little trouble grasping this one too because of the \"rock on a string\" concept.  I find fields easier to visualize as large plates that BOTH earth and the sun sit upon. There is a constant connection and interaction to the same field.  Also, side note, earth has gravity/mass of its own and ever so slightly perturbs the sun's motion as well.  Kind of mind blowing but one more: YOU have an interaction with that field and - at least in theory - you also cause perturbations of that field... and ever other one in the Universe even though they amount to nill measurable effect.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20728.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cngu6u3", "c_root_id_B": "cnglt34", "created_at_utc_A": 1420596748, "created_at_utc_B": 1420582030, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The earth technically doesn't orbit the sun, the earth, the sun and the planets all orbit the solar system barycentre (centre of mass), which moves depending on the position of the planets.   http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Solar_system_barycenter.svg/500px-Solar_system_barycenter.svg.png  From the point of view of the earth the barycentre \"is\" ~8 light minutes away, thus it takes ~8 minutes for the positional chances of the barycentre to affect the earth. However, it makes little sense to define a 'true' position. In the same way that the sun 'is' where it was 8 minutes ago from the point of view of the earth, from the point of view of the sun the earth 'is' also where it was 8 minutes ago in its reference frame. Now, what is the 'true' relative position of the earth and the sun? There is none, both reference frames are equally valid and there is no such thing as an absolute 'true' position.", "human_ref_B": "What makes you think the Sun is moving?  We're talking about relativity. Nothing is moving in any absolute sense, things only have motion relative to other things.  There is a reference frame in which the Sun is stationary. In that frame, Earth is obviously rotating around the Sun's current location. A change of perspective (to make the galactic core stationary, for example) doesn't change that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14718.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cngv5no", "c_root_id_B": "cngi0gu", "created_at_utc_A": 1420598474, "created_at_utc_B": 1420576020, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Most of the comments here seem to be saying that the planets orbit where the sun is \"now\", meaning 8 minutes after where the sun \"was\" when the light emitted hits earth.  I thought that the effects of gravity propagate at the speed of light, so we are seeing the sun as it was 8 minutes ago, and also orbiting around where the sun \"was\" 8 minutes ago.  Have I been wrong all this time?", "human_ref_B": "I had a little trouble grasping this one too because of the \"rock on a string\" concept.  I find fields easier to visualize as large plates that BOTH earth and the sun sit upon. There is a constant connection and interaction to the same field.  Also, side note, earth has gravity/mass of its own and ever so slightly perturbs the sun's motion as well.  Kind of mind blowing but one more: YOU have an interaction with that field and - at least in theory - you also cause perturbations of that field... and ever other one in the Universe even though they amount to nill measurable effect.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22454.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rjj3k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If gravity propagates at the speed of light, we orbit where the sun used to be, not where it is. Why do we not fall out of orbit from this gravitational discrepancy? If gravity propagates at the speed of light (or rather at the speed data propagates through space time), we are surely orbiting where the sun used to be, and not where it currently 'is' in space time. Why then do we not (or any planet in orbit) slowly exit orbit inexorably into (or away from) the star as the gravitational forces slowly weaken or strengthen dependent upon the discrepancy between our orbit and the 'true' location of the star?  Hopefully this quote will bring clarity (found in my search to find out if gravity DOES propagate at the speed of light):  \"If gravity did propagate at the speed of light, the Sun's gravity would pull us in the direction where we see the Sun, not the direction where the Sun is. Therefor, we would be pulled forward into a higher and higher orbit and eventually ejected from the solar system.\"  Obviously this person believes gravity simply doesn't propagate at the speed of light. But they raise a very interesting point, we ARE surely pulled in a different direction to the 'current' location of Sol.   I'm not sure if I'm being incredibly obtuse here. Is it perhaps because our orbit around Sol 'irons out' this discrepancy?", "c_root_id_A": "cngi0gu", "c_root_id_B": "cnglt34", "created_at_utc_A": 1420576020, "created_at_utc_B": 1420582030, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I had a little trouble grasping this one too because of the \"rock on a string\" concept.  I find fields easier to visualize as large plates that BOTH earth and the sun sit upon. There is a constant connection and interaction to the same field.  Also, side note, earth has gravity/mass of its own and ever so slightly perturbs the sun's motion as well.  Kind of mind blowing but one more: YOU have an interaction with that field and - at least in theory - you also cause perturbations of that field... and ever other one in the Universe even though they amount to nill measurable effect.", "human_ref_B": "What makes you think the Sun is moving?  We're talking about relativity. Nothing is moving in any absolute sense, things only have motion relative to other things.  There is a reference frame in which the Sun is stationary. In that frame, Earth is obviously rotating around the Sun's current location. A change of perspective (to make the galactic core stationary, for example) doesn't change that.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6010.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5jyuwk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What would happen if two black holes came into contact with each other?", "c_root_id_A": "dbkef5h", "c_root_id_B": "dbkcdc0", "created_at_utc_A": 1482543033, "created_at_utc_B": 1482539638, "score_A": 190, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "We've saw this happen before. They merge into one big black hole, and if they're large enough or moving fast enough, they can create gravitational waves. This was detected very recently, and proves a lot about Einsteins theory of relativity that we weren't quite sure about.", "human_ref_B": "You can hear what it sounds like here   It actually talked about in the most recent episode of 99% invisible the whole thing is worth listening to along with all the other episodes", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3395.0, "score_ratio": 3.0158730159, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7kwkxk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How did scientist come up with and prove carbon dating?", "c_root_id_A": "drhvrmz", "c_root_id_B": "dri69bo", "created_at_utc_A": 1513727328, "created_at_utc_B": 1513739911, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 1098, "human_ref_A": "There are no proofs in science. The idea is quite clear once you can do isotope analyses of matter. To calibrate it, scientists look at samples with known age. Trees with rings are great, things clearly linked to historical events are nice as well. But even without calibration: The assumption that the C14 concentration has been constant in all still living matter was constant would be sufficient for a reasonable approximation.", "human_ref_B": "Two chemists, Martin Kamen and Samuel Ruben, were looking into ways to essentially radio-tag carbon so they could track it performing various metabolic tasks in living animals.  This is a fairly common technique to this day - I've used radio-tagged steroids, for instance, injected into living things to see where they ended up, since radioactive things are relatively easy to detect in very small quantities.  Kamen and Ruben bombarded nitrogen with radiation and some of the atoms turned to radioactive forms of carbon.  C-11 turns out to be not so useful as it has a half-life (the period it takes half of the atoms to decay into other stuff) of about 20 minutes.  That's not long enough to study much of anything as it takes time to run experiments.  C-14 now, that's a solid 5500 years or so, which is also not great studying processes in living things as it decays too slowly (in lab-time).  Another chemist named Willard Libby realized that naturally produced C-14 in the atmosphere would only enter organisms while they were alive (all else equal, but that's another story).  That sounds promising because it would essentially put a 'clock' on any suitable living thing, as, after they die, they stop picking up new C-14 and just cook off steadily.  And a 5000 year half-life is pretty useful too, as lots of really interesting stuff happened with humans over the last 40-50,000 years (several half-lifes out).  Or so we thought, as before C-14, we didn't have a very good idea how old most things really were.  Sometimes we had written records and people had laboriously worked out things like tree-ring sequences, but every living thing has carbon in it so this could potentially work on virtually *anything*.  Libby was right, and won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960.  C-14 remains the gold standard for dating although debate continues about how far back it works, and how dates can end up looking 'too young' or 'too old' because of various things like contamination.   EDIT: hey, thanks for the gold!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12583.0, "score_ratio": 91.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7kwkxk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How did scientist come up with and prove carbon dating?", "c_root_id_A": "dric2qk", "c_root_id_B": "dri90xt", "created_at_utc_A": 1513748204, "created_at_utc_B": 1513743553, "score_A": 73, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "Essentially scientists proved cabon-14 dating works comparing carbon-14 age with wood of a known age (calendar age) from old buildings, furniture, and then wood dated by counting tree rings (the science of dendrochronology). This ancient wood, up to 12,000 years old, was largely collected from Irish bogs.   When carbon-14 dating was first developed in the 1940s, it simply used a large sensitive Geiger Counter that detected carbon-14 radiation from an organic sample; shielded in pre-1945 steel made before the first atom bombs were detonated (btw, a lot of the steel came from Scapa Flow near the Shetland Island, north of Scotland were a fleet of German WWI naval vessels were scuppered. Since no one lost their lives, the ships are not a war grave and were salvaged).   It was soon found that carbon-14 had a half life of 5,730 years, thus the level of radioactivity of old organic samples were relate to its age. The less radioactive, the older it was. We knew we were on the right track by dating wood of a known age (calendar age); the wood from an old building, furniture and later, older bog wood whose age was determined by dendrochronology.   The first instruments were not very precise, giving ages +/- a hundred years or worse, but they soon improved and the carbon-14 ages got gradually more precise, to 100 to 50 years or a little better in comparison to known dates.  Soon, however, improvements stalled and discrepancies were noted in comparison to dendrochronology. It was discovered that inaccuracies were largely caused by variations in the amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere over time, as well the carbon cycle / isotopic fractionation (plants have a preference for lighter non-radioactive carbon, giving a illusion of a slightly greater age).  The greatest step forward was the development of Atom Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), which counts single atoms of carbon-14 etc. It greatly increased precision and decreased the size of samples needed.  With increased precision, it became clear that Carbon-14 is not generated at a constant rate in the atmosphere, it's production varies according to solar activity and the Earth's geomagnetic field, this influences the abundance of cosmic rays in the upper atmosphere and the rate of carbon-14 production and abundance.  >The production of\u00a014C in the atmosphere varies through time due to changes in the Earth's geomagnetic field intensity and in its concentration, which is regulated by the carbon cycle. As a result of these two variables, a radiocarbon age is not equivalent to a calendar age. Four decades of joint research by the dendrochronology and radiocarbon communities have produced a radiocarbon calibration data set of remarkable precision and accuracy extending from the present to approximately 12,000 calendar years before present.  To overcome this problem it was necessary to use various proxies, not just dendrochronology, to accurately calibrate and adjust the raw carbon-14 dates.  Accordingly, tree rings and other proxies both proved the reliability of carbon-14 dating and increased its accuracy. By knowing the variations in initial carbon-14 content over time, we can produce far more accurate adjusted carbon-14 date. The tree rings give us an absolute tree ring calendar age going back 12,000 thousand years.  Several other proxies have been developed, they have been used to extend carbon-14 dating to 50,000 years ago e.g. isotopes of Uranium and Thorium in coral.  The rate of cabon-14 production in the past can also be determined by examining the abundance over time other isotopes such as beryllium-10 found in ice cores.  Reference:  Fairbanks, R.G., Mortlock, R.A., Chiu, T.C., Cao, L., Kaplan, A., Guilderson, T.P., Fairbanks, T.W., Bloom, A.L., Grootes, P.M. and Nadeau, M.J., 2005. Radiocarbon calibration curve spanning 0 to 50,000 years BP based on paired 230 Th/234 U/238 U and 14 C dates on pristine corals.\u00a0Quaternary Science Reviews,\u00a024(16), pp.1781-1796.  Edit: spelling", "human_ref_B": "It's never perfect because the environment changes over time, but one if the ways it is calibrated to be more accurate is with Dendrochronology, and it blew my mind when I first learned about it:  Basically, start by cutting down an old tree. Each ring represents a year, but every year has different weather and rainfall, trees survive fires, etc. So you end up with a distinctive pattern.  Next, find other long dead but adequately preserved trees. If you find the same distinctive sequence of rings, you can line them up and tell how old that preserved tree is. Then, you can line that tree's older parts up with even older samples and continue the process.  Using this method we have dendrochronology going back over 12,000 years which is then used to calibrate radiocarbon dating to a much higher precision.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4651.0, "score_ratio": 1.1587301587, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7kwkxk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How did scientist come up with and prove carbon dating?", "c_root_id_A": "dric2qk", "c_root_id_B": "dri97n2", "created_at_utc_A": 1513748204, "created_at_utc_B": 1513743816, "score_A": 73, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "Essentially scientists proved cabon-14 dating works comparing carbon-14 age with wood of a known age (calendar age) from old buildings, furniture, and then wood dated by counting tree rings (the science of dendrochronology). This ancient wood, up to 12,000 years old, was largely collected from Irish bogs.   When carbon-14 dating was first developed in the 1940s, it simply used a large sensitive Geiger Counter that detected carbon-14 radiation from an organic sample; shielded in pre-1945 steel made before the first atom bombs were detonated (btw, a lot of the steel came from Scapa Flow near the Shetland Island, north of Scotland were a fleet of German WWI naval vessels were scuppered. Since no one lost their lives, the ships are not a war grave and were salvaged).   It was soon found that carbon-14 had a half life of 5,730 years, thus the level of radioactivity of old organic samples were relate to its age. The less radioactive, the older it was. We knew we were on the right track by dating wood of a known age (calendar age); the wood from an old building, furniture and later, older bog wood whose age was determined by dendrochronology.   The first instruments were not very precise, giving ages +/- a hundred years or worse, but they soon improved and the carbon-14 ages got gradually more precise, to 100 to 50 years or a little better in comparison to known dates.  Soon, however, improvements stalled and discrepancies were noted in comparison to dendrochronology. It was discovered that inaccuracies were largely caused by variations in the amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere over time, as well the carbon cycle / isotopic fractionation (plants have a preference for lighter non-radioactive carbon, giving a illusion of a slightly greater age).  The greatest step forward was the development of Atom Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), which counts single atoms of carbon-14 etc. It greatly increased precision and decreased the size of samples needed.  With increased precision, it became clear that Carbon-14 is not generated at a constant rate in the atmosphere, it's production varies according to solar activity and the Earth's geomagnetic field, this influences the abundance of cosmic rays in the upper atmosphere and the rate of carbon-14 production and abundance.  >The production of\u00a014C in the atmosphere varies through time due to changes in the Earth's geomagnetic field intensity and in its concentration, which is regulated by the carbon cycle. As a result of these two variables, a radiocarbon age is not equivalent to a calendar age. Four decades of joint research by the dendrochronology and radiocarbon communities have produced a radiocarbon calibration data set of remarkable precision and accuracy extending from the present to approximately 12,000 calendar years before present.  To overcome this problem it was necessary to use various proxies, not just dendrochronology, to accurately calibrate and adjust the raw carbon-14 dates.  Accordingly, tree rings and other proxies both proved the reliability of carbon-14 dating and increased its accuracy. By knowing the variations in initial carbon-14 content over time, we can produce far more accurate adjusted carbon-14 date. The tree rings give us an absolute tree ring calendar age going back 12,000 thousand years.  Several other proxies have been developed, they have been used to extend carbon-14 dating to 50,000 years ago e.g. isotopes of Uranium and Thorium in coral.  The rate of cabon-14 production in the past can also be determined by examining the abundance over time other isotopes such as beryllium-10 found in ice cores.  Reference:  Fairbanks, R.G., Mortlock, R.A., Chiu, T.C., Cao, L., Kaplan, A., Guilderson, T.P., Fairbanks, T.W., Bloom, A.L., Grootes, P.M. and Nadeau, M.J., 2005. Radiocarbon calibration curve spanning 0 to 50,000 years BP based on paired 230 Th/234 U/238 U and 14 C dates on pristine corals.\u00a0Quaternary Science Reviews,\u00a024(16), pp.1781-1796.  Edit: spelling", "human_ref_B": "Just a little information I learned at The Field Museum today: When Carbon 14 dating was first being tested, they tried it out on an Ancient Egyptian boat that they knew had been used to transport a dead king (?). Because they knew the approximate year the king died, they were able to compare the results of the carbon dating to the age of the boat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4388.0, "score_ratio": 3.65, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7kwkxk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How did scientist come up with and prove carbon dating?", "c_root_id_A": "drhvrmz", "c_root_id_B": "dric2qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1513727328, "created_at_utc_B": 1513748204, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 73, "human_ref_A": "There are no proofs in science. The idea is quite clear once you can do isotope analyses of matter. To calibrate it, scientists look at samples with known age. Trees with rings are great, things clearly linked to historical events are nice as well. But even without calibration: The assumption that the C14 concentration has been constant in all still living matter was constant would be sufficient for a reasonable approximation.", "human_ref_B": "Essentially scientists proved cabon-14 dating works comparing carbon-14 age with wood of a known age (calendar age) from old buildings, furniture, and then wood dated by counting tree rings (the science of dendrochronology). This ancient wood, up to 12,000 years old, was largely collected from Irish bogs.   When carbon-14 dating was first developed in the 1940s, it simply used a large sensitive Geiger Counter that detected carbon-14 radiation from an organic sample; shielded in pre-1945 steel made before the first atom bombs were detonated (btw, a lot of the steel came from Scapa Flow near the Shetland Island, north of Scotland were a fleet of German WWI naval vessels were scuppered. Since no one lost their lives, the ships are not a war grave and were salvaged).   It was soon found that carbon-14 had a half life of 5,730 years, thus the level of radioactivity of old organic samples were relate to its age. The less radioactive, the older it was. We knew we were on the right track by dating wood of a known age (calendar age); the wood from an old building, furniture and later, older bog wood whose age was determined by dendrochronology.   The first instruments were not very precise, giving ages +/- a hundred years or worse, but they soon improved and the carbon-14 ages got gradually more precise, to 100 to 50 years or a little better in comparison to known dates.  Soon, however, improvements stalled and discrepancies were noted in comparison to dendrochronology. It was discovered that inaccuracies were largely caused by variations in the amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere over time, as well the carbon cycle / isotopic fractionation (plants have a preference for lighter non-radioactive carbon, giving a illusion of a slightly greater age).  The greatest step forward was the development of Atom Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), which counts single atoms of carbon-14 etc. It greatly increased precision and decreased the size of samples needed.  With increased precision, it became clear that Carbon-14 is not generated at a constant rate in the atmosphere, it's production varies according to solar activity and the Earth's geomagnetic field, this influences the abundance of cosmic rays in the upper atmosphere and the rate of carbon-14 production and abundance.  >The production of\u00a014C in the atmosphere varies through time due to changes in the Earth's geomagnetic field intensity and in its concentration, which is regulated by the carbon cycle. As a result of these two variables, a radiocarbon age is not equivalent to a calendar age. Four decades of joint research by the dendrochronology and radiocarbon communities have produced a radiocarbon calibration data set of remarkable precision and accuracy extending from the present to approximately 12,000 calendar years before present.  To overcome this problem it was necessary to use various proxies, not just dendrochronology, to accurately calibrate and adjust the raw carbon-14 dates.  Accordingly, tree rings and other proxies both proved the reliability of carbon-14 dating and increased its accuracy. By knowing the variations in initial carbon-14 content over time, we can produce far more accurate adjusted carbon-14 date. The tree rings give us an absolute tree ring calendar age going back 12,000 thousand years.  Several other proxies have been developed, they have been used to extend carbon-14 dating to 50,000 years ago e.g. isotopes of Uranium and Thorium in coral.  The rate of cabon-14 production in the past can also be determined by examining the abundance over time other isotopes such as beryllium-10 found in ice cores.  Reference:  Fairbanks, R.G., Mortlock, R.A., Chiu, T.C., Cao, L., Kaplan, A., Guilderson, T.P., Fairbanks, T.W., Bloom, A.L., Grootes, P.M. and Nadeau, M.J., 2005. Radiocarbon calibration curve spanning 0 to 50,000 years BP based on paired 230 Th/234 U/238 U and 14 C dates on pristine corals.\u00a0Quaternary Science Reviews,\u00a024(16), pp.1781-1796.  Edit: spelling", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20876.0, "score_ratio": 6.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7kwkxk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How did scientist come up with and prove carbon dating?", "c_root_id_A": "drhvrmz", "c_root_id_B": "dri90xt", "created_at_utc_A": 1513727328, "created_at_utc_B": 1513743553, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "There are no proofs in science. The idea is quite clear once you can do isotope analyses of matter. To calibrate it, scientists look at samples with known age. Trees with rings are great, things clearly linked to historical events are nice as well. But even without calibration: The assumption that the C14 concentration has been constant in all still living matter was constant would be sufficient for a reasonable approximation.", "human_ref_B": "It's never perfect because the environment changes over time, but one if the ways it is calibrated to be more accurate is with Dendrochronology, and it blew my mind when I first learned about it:  Basically, start by cutting down an old tree. Each ring represents a year, but every year has different weather and rainfall, trees survive fires, etc. So you end up with a distinctive pattern.  Next, find other long dead but adequately preserved trees. If you find the same distinctive sequence of rings, you can line them up and tell how old that preserved tree is. Then, you can line that tree's older parts up with even older samples and continue the process.  Using this method we have dendrochronology going back over 12,000 years which is then used to calibrate radiocarbon dating to a much higher precision.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16225.0, "score_ratio": 5.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7kwkxk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How did scientist come up with and prove carbon dating?", "c_root_id_A": "drhvrmz", "c_root_id_B": "dri97n2", "created_at_utc_A": 1513727328, "created_at_utc_B": 1513743816, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "There are no proofs in science. The idea is quite clear once you can do isotope analyses of matter. To calibrate it, scientists look at samples with known age. Trees with rings are great, things clearly linked to historical events are nice as well. But even without calibration: The assumption that the C14 concentration has been constant in all still living matter was constant would be sufficient for a reasonable approximation.", "human_ref_B": "Just a little information I learned at The Field Museum today: When Carbon 14 dating was first being tested, they tried it out on an Ancient Egyptian boat that they knew had been used to transport a dead king (?). Because they knew the approximate year the king died, they were able to compare the results of the carbon dating to the age of the boat.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16488.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7kwkxk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How did scientist come up with and prove carbon dating?", "c_root_id_A": "drinxpi", "c_root_id_B": "drhvrmz", "created_at_utc_A": 1513774805, "created_at_utc_B": 1513727328, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I went to a very small (graduating class of 17 students) private Christian high school that taught young earth creationism in all of our \"science\" courses. One of the fundamentals that is driven into every young earth creationist is that carbon dating is a sham. I actually remember my chemistry prof telling us that carbon dating was \"proved false\" when someone brought a seashell from the ocean that they'd just found and had it carbon dated showing it was thousands of years old. As if the individual finding it at the beach that day somehow meant that it had somehow miraculously been birthed from the belly of the ocean that very day. Insanity.   I'm better now, I swear.", "human_ref_B": "There are no proofs in science. The idea is quite clear once you can do isotope analyses of matter. To calibrate it, scientists look at samples with known age. Trees with rings are great, things clearly linked to historical events are nice as well. But even without calibration: The assumption that the C14 concentration has been constant in all still living matter was constant would be sufficient for a reasonable approximation.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 47477.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bco1t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "If the population of the USA keeps declining at the current rate (0.7% in 1 year) how long before we see changes in our society or economy? What else would be affected? Would a decline in the population help or hurt us?", "c_root_id_A": "c95p23s", "c_root_id_B": "c95rt6j", "created_at_utc_A": 1364734538, "created_at_utc_B": 1364747458, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Here is an article on population decline with just what you are looking for.", "human_ref_B": "Is it possible you're confusing a declining population *growth rate* (ie still getting bigger, but more slowly) with a declining population?  'cause as Tis and JPJ said, the US still has positive population growth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12920.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bco1t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "If the population of the USA keeps declining at the current rate (0.7% in 1 year) how long before we see changes in our society or economy? What else would be affected? Would a decline in the population help or hurt us?", "c_root_id_A": "c95q6zf", "c_root_id_B": "c95rt6j", "created_at_utc_A": 1364740960, "created_at_utc_B": 1364747458, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Can't link article atm, but look up the effect a shrinking population and limited immigration has had on Japan (it's generally a bad thing).", "human_ref_B": "Is it possible you're confusing a declining population *growth rate* (ie still getting bigger, but more slowly) with a declining population?  'cause as Tis and JPJ said, the US still has positive population growth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6498.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "78rzx7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If energy can neither be created nor be destroyed where does all the energy in the universe came from? If energy can neither be created nor be destroyed where does all the energy in the universe came from?", "c_root_id_A": "dowfb5f", "c_root_id_B": "dowm0o9", "created_at_utc_A": 1508987539, "created_at_utc_B": 1508997685, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "We don't know. Maybe it's always been here. Maybe it can be created via a process we cannot fathom. Maybe the immutability of the amount of mass-energy in the universe only came to be after some initial creation event. Maybe the answer is beyond our intellect's ability to understand.", "human_ref_B": "1) The energy of the universe could be zero, as already pointed out. 2) The law of conservation only states that energy is a constant, the actual value of that constant could be anything so even if the energy has a net positive or negative energy, that's not a problem at all. Even worse, energy is not a relativistic invariant, so the total amount of energy varies from one reference frame to another. 3) Conservation of energy may not be very well defined when you put big bang, GR and cosmology into the subject.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10146.0, "score_ratio": 2.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "78rzx7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If energy can neither be created nor be destroyed where does all the energy in the universe came from? If energy can neither be created nor be destroyed where does all the energy in the universe came from?", "c_root_id_A": "dowm0o9", "c_root_id_B": "dowg4ct", "created_at_utc_A": 1508997685, "created_at_utc_B": 1508988590, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "1) The energy of the universe could be zero, as already pointed out. 2) The law of conservation only states that energy is a constant, the actual value of that constant could be anything so even if the energy has a net positive or negative energy, that's not a problem at all. Even worse, energy is not a relativistic invariant, so the total amount of energy varies from one reference frame to another. 3) Conservation of energy may not be very well defined when you put big bang, GR and cosmology into the subject.", "human_ref_B": "Most will probably say rewinding the clock to the big bang only works so far and then the laws of physics as understood start to break down and beyond that point, we have no idea.    One interesting theory is that the net energy of the universe is close to zero or possibly exactly zero.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-energy_universe  Stephen Hawking seems to ascribe to this possibility based on a couple of his books I've read.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9095.0, "score_ratio": 3.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "psnho", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "My child's pediatrician told me autism is caused by the mother's relationship with the child. Is there any evidence for this? My child is fine and doesn't have autism but when he was getting a vaccination, I asked the doctor if he had many patients who don't get their children vaccinated because they think it causes autism.  He went on a long rant about that but then said he can detect autism signs in infants and that he believes it is caused by mothers who don't know how to respond to their babies' emotional cues.  He also said that when he sees this happening he can intervene and help the mother stop autism from blossoming in their child.  He went on to say that he keeps these opinions to himself mostly because the autism community would start a witch hunt against him.  Is he out of his mind or is there some merit to this?", "c_root_id_A": "c3rwzzq", "c_root_id_B": "c3rwrco", "created_at_utc_A": 1329420056, "created_at_utc_B": 1329418881, "score_A": 137, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "His opinion is a very old theory, and one largely discredited by the psychiatric community.  Autism has a strong neurobiological and heritable (genomic) component, so \"blaming the mother/parents\" is neither supported by evidence nor particularly conducive to getting quality treatment.", "human_ref_B": "This is just his personal opinion or belief. There is no actual evidence. That doesn't necessarily mean he's right or wrong, though. I just don't agree with him. There is evidence that autism has a large heritable component, as twin studies indicate that it is rare for one twin to have autism and not the other. Furthermore, in the first few months of life, children with autism have elevated serotonin levels across a variety of socioeconomic and cultural boundaries. This doesn't necessarily rule out his idea, but it gives a whole lot less merit to it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1175.0, "score_ratio": 8.5625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kkjqu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If everyone stayed in their house for a week, would we wipe out the common cold? I've been sick, recently, so I've had a lot of time to ponder this, and it seems to make sense unless there's something I don't know about disease propagation, which is likely.    If everyone stays separated for a while and whoever has a cold just lets it run its course, the virus has no where else to go to and just dies off.  And this leads to some other interesting questions, too:  1) What other diseases might be wiped out? 2) What if we waited longer, like a month? 3) I know we get some diseases jumping over to us from animals, so what if we kept all people *and animals* separated from each other for a week (Sci-Fi, at this point, I know.)", "c_root_id_A": "c2kzuhy", "c_root_id_B": "c2kztr7", "created_at_utc_A": 1316447513, "created_at_utc_B": 1316447357, "score_A": 209, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Not my field, but what I can recall from Microbiology: With the beginning of an infection (viral or bacterial), symptoms are not evident even though the infectious agent might be present and/or replicating. While the symptoms might be gone at the end of an illness, the virus within the organism might still be present in low quantities which might not elicit symptoms. Therefore, a week would most likely not suffice.   Also, organisms do not need to be the only carrier of an infectious agent, we can also have probes that could carry the bacteria/virus from person to person. The organism/virus could also survive outside of it's host for sometime.   Someone more educated in this field could be of greater help, but increasing the time frame greatly and essentially sterilizing **everything** in the world might give hope, but not in my opinion (although once again, not my field of expertise).  EDIT: Also, you would have to eradicate any vector that is possible of carrying the disease i.e. killing all mosquitos to eradicate malaria.", "human_ref_B": ">I know we get some diseases jumping over to us from animals, so what if we kept all people and animals separated from each other for a week (Sci-Fi, at this point, I know.)  Several varieties of the flu can jump from animals to humans and back.  Even if we could keep humans and animals separated for that amount of time, the *animals* probably would still be free and transmitting it through their population, and would then transmit it back into the human population at earliest convenience.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 156.0, "score_ratio": 9.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kkjqu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If everyone stayed in their house for a week, would we wipe out the common cold? I've been sick, recently, so I've had a lot of time to ponder this, and it seems to make sense unless there's something I don't know about disease propagation, which is likely.    If everyone stays separated for a while and whoever has a cold just lets it run its course, the virus has no where else to go to and just dies off.  And this leads to some other interesting questions, too:  1) What other diseases might be wiped out? 2) What if we waited longer, like a month? 3) I know we get some diseases jumping over to us from animals, so what if we kept all people *and animals* separated from each other for a week (Sci-Fi, at this point, I know.)", "c_root_id_A": "c2l1gxe", "c_root_id_B": "c2l1lxg", "created_at_utc_A": 1316459215, "created_at_utc_B": 1316460183, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Some misconceptions:  Incubation tends to be 2-10 days as another poster pointed out, yes. However you're also producing and shedding the majority of your infectious virus at this point. So, people are correct in saying that 2 weeks would probably be enough, but...  The common cold is actually mostly rhinovirus, some other picornavirus, some coronaviruses, adeno etc... While it's true that many of these DO require a host and don't last very long sitting on a surface, that is NOT the case for many picornaviruses. In particular, anything which regularly is transmitted via a fecal oral route is resistant to the environment almost by definition. If left unattended on a dry surface, yes they may only last days, but with any moisture (garbage, coffee cup, a big pile of shit) they can last months or longer. I don't think anybody ever really tested just how long things can live past that point because of the logistics of the experiment, and I have looked around in the literature before.  Someone else covered zoonoses, more relevant to the OP question than influenza (not the same as a cold), there is a decent amount of evidence for recombination with simian and human enteroviruses, as well as human and swine. So, if you stayed home you would need to require all other mammals to go through quarantine as well. Then when everyone was out of quarantine, you would have to convince the pigs not to wallow in shit for a while.  Then there is the slight problem of latency, not all immune responses are sterilizing all of the time. You'll pick up viral transcripts randomly at low abundance in several infected tissue types. This has led to some debate about what actual causes certain diseases like MS or cardiomyopathy. Since it only takes something like 10-100 pfu of a virus to productively infect something and during a flareup you can create something like 10^8pfu/day, well the math means it won't take long to spread.   So, the short answer is, the only way to find out is by trying, but I am very doubtful this could succeed without first sterilizing the planet.   Good question OP", "human_ref_B": "I'm really shocked no one has bought up the idea of lytic and lysogenic viruses.  Some viruses are capable of inserting themselves into your DNA and laying dormant for YEARS.  Think herpes.    My knowledge of all the ins and outs of human pathogenic viruses is limited, but surely this would play a part in what we could and couldn't knock out with an extended quarantine.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 968.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6bfdvp", "c_root_id_B": "c6bdsmk", "created_at_utc_A": 1348242949, "created_at_utc_B": 1348236288, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I'm interested to know whether there would be any problems from the lack of a certain volume of food going through the gut?  (Edited to make more sense)", "human_ref_B": "It would need to be a big pill, one that you break up over the day for meals. But even a balanced diet may not be enough if it is something we have each and every day. Only recently has civilisation invented the *balanced diet*. For most of history and prehistory humans and hominids have faced an irregular food supply due to weather, seasons and the failure of the hunt. Evolution has shaped our metabolisms with that in mind. It seems now that fasting may be an important component of the balanced diet, enabling our bodies to enter a repair mode that scavenges nutrients from the walls of arteries and so on, preventing dangerous build up.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6661.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6bdsmk", "c_root_id_B": "c6bh1kr", "created_at_utc_A": 1348236288, "created_at_utc_B": 1348249322, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "It would need to be a big pill, one that you break up over the day for meals. But even a balanced diet may not be enough if it is something we have each and every day. Only recently has civilisation invented the *balanced diet*. For most of history and prehistory humans and hominids have faced an irregular food supply due to weather, seasons and the failure of the hunt. Evolution has shaped our metabolisms with that in mind. It seems now that fasting may be an important component of the balanced diet, enabling our bodies to enter a repair mode that scavenges nutrients from the walls of arteries and so on, preventing dangerous build up.", "human_ref_B": "Food contains minerals and nutrients with no established DRI. For example, the Food and Nutrition Board says: \"studies suggest beneficial roles for arsenic, boron, nickel, silicon, and vanadium in human health.\" (source)  For other nutrients, like salt, the DRI is disputed.  It would be risky to consume only what we currently know to be essential.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13034.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6bh8ls", "c_root_id_B": "c6bh5n0", "created_at_utc_A": 1348250057, "created_at_utc_B": 1348249746, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "If we knew all the nutrients we need (which currently, we don't) AND we were able to isolate those nutrients and put them into pill form, then yes, you could take a pill and get all your micro nutrients. Your macro nutrients, fat, carbs and protein would not be smaller by putting them into a pill, so you might as well just eat those in normal food form.", "human_ref_B": "Many of the recommended daily intake numbers are based on the absolute MINIMUM required to prevent horrific disease.  As such, the numbers for things like Vitamin D, Vitamin C, calcium, etc. are lower than would actually be \"healthy\".  You might not get rickets, but you might have increased cancer incidence because of low-but-not-deadly vitamin D levels.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 311.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6bjrr0", "c_root_id_B": "c6bh5n0", "created_at_utc_A": 1348259144, "created_at_utc_B": 1348249746, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Actually there is another factor in that what you put in your body isn't always what your body actually ends up using. Even if somehow you knew what our bodies need you, making a pill that could contain all of it and be able to put it in a form the body can absorb all of it would be a feat in its own.  Some compounds need to be absorbed slowly because your body can't always use it fast enough. otherwise it is just removed from your system.  The other major problem is that compunds interacting with each other can prevent your body from using it.   An example is iron and ascorbic acid since they tend to form a complex which hampers absorbtion.  So mixing large numbers of compounds can cause problems.", "human_ref_B": "Many of the recommended daily intake numbers are based on the absolute MINIMUM required to prevent horrific disease.  As such, the numbers for things like Vitamin D, Vitamin C, calcium, etc. are lower than would actually be \"healthy\".  You might not get rickets, but you might have increased cancer incidence because of low-but-not-deadly vitamin D levels.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9398.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6bjxme", "c_root_id_B": "c6bku5r", "created_at_utc_A": 1348259722, "created_at_utc_B": 1348263128, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "NUTRITION is best assimilated in whole food format. Synthetic and isolated forms of supplements  do not have the cofactors (that exist in whole foods) necessary for optimal functionality and absorbtion. The body is then forced to cannibalize its own cofactors to use the supplements and can actually cause a deficiency.", "human_ref_B": "No, it would not. The RDI is based on all the nutrients we currently know about or bother to create and RDI for, there is still so much about or bodies and digestive system that we don't fully understand. You also have to take into account that different people absorb different amount of nutrients from the same amount of food due to genetics, what bacterial flora they have in their gut etc. This is honestly why RDI shouldn't be taken as exact, we are all different and need different amounts of the same nutrients.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3406.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6bku5r", "c_root_id_B": "c6bh5n0", "created_at_utc_A": 1348263128, "created_at_utc_B": 1348249746, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "No, it would not. The RDI is based on all the nutrients we currently know about or bother to create and RDI for, there is still so much about or bodies and digestive system that we don't fully understand. You also have to take into account that different people absorb different amount of nutrients from the same amount of food due to genetics, what bacterial flora they have in their gut etc. This is honestly why RDI shouldn't be taken as exact, we are all different and need different amounts of the same nutrients.", "human_ref_B": "Many of the recommended daily intake numbers are based on the absolute MINIMUM required to prevent horrific disease.  As such, the numbers for things like Vitamin D, Vitamin C, calcium, etc. are lower than would actually be \"healthy\".  You might not get rickets, but you might have increased cancer incidence because of low-but-not-deadly vitamin D levels.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13382.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6boozy", "c_root_id_B": "c6bjxme", "created_at_utc_A": 1348281642, "created_at_utc_B": 1348259722, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I remember reading study of heavily obese man went on a one year fast. He was monitored and given needed vitamins and water. He lost ~300lbs and doctors said he had no unusual health problems from a sudden weight loss.", "human_ref_B": "NUTRITION is best assimilated in whole food format. Synthetic and isolated forms of supplements  do not have the cofactors (that exist in whole foods) necessary for optimal functionality and absorbtion. The body is then forced to cannibalize its own cofactors to use the supplements and can actually cause a deficiency.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21920.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6bh5n0", "c_root_id_B": "c6boozy", "created_at_utc_A": 1348249746, "created_at_utc_B": 1348281642, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Many of the recommended daily intake numbers are based on the absolute MINIMUM required to prevent horrific disease.  As such, the numbers for things like Vitamin D, Vitamin C, calcium, etc. are lower than would actually be \"healthy\".  You might not get rickets, but you might have increased cancer incidence because of low-but-not-deadly vitamin D levels.", "human_ref_B": "I remember reading study of heavily obese man went on a one year fast. He was monitored and given needed vitamins and water. He lost ~300lbs and doctors said he had no unusual health problems from a sudden weight loss.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31896.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "108uc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Does it matter where our nutrition comes from? If a pill was formulated with 100% RDI of everything we need nutritionally, would taking one of these a day be equivalent to eating healthily?", "c_root_id_A": "c6bjxme", "c_root_id_B": "c6bh5n0", "created_at_utc_A": 1348259722, "created_at_utc_B": 1348249746, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "NUTRITION is best assimilated in whole food format. Synthetic and isolated forms of supplements  do not have the cofactors (that exist in whole foods) necessary for optimal functionality and absorbtion. The body is then forced to cannibalize its own cofactors to use the supplements and can actually cause a deficiency.", "human_ref_B": "Many of the recommended daily intake numbers are based on the absolute MINIMUM required to prevent horrific disease.  As such, the numbers for things like Vitamin D, Vitamin C, calcium, etc. are lower than would actually be \"healthy\".  You might not get rickets, but you might have increased cancer incidence because of low-but-not-deadly vitamin D levels.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9976.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l18sd", "c_root_id_B": "c1l1riu", "created_at_utc_A": 1300313755, "created_at_utc_B": 1300321111, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Total layman here, but the IAEA's site seems to have some level-headed updates.", "human_ref_B": "Reuters, NYT, LA Times, BBC are all as reputable as they always have been.  Get on google news, do your own vetting, check for multiple sources when you see bold headlines. Don't watch TV news, you won't learn anything of value. If you feel like the media is failing you, then I fear you may be failing yourself. There are definitely enough resources on the internet for you to deduce a least a pretty clear picture of what is going on.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7356.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l1avn", "c_root_id_B": "c1l1riu", "created_at_utc_A": 1300314443, "created_at_utc_B": 1300321111, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I find that the news over at BBC is pretty good. You can follow this link to the whole overview as there are many updates to the situation. The Q&A sections they have are great too - like when they said that the radiation exposure per hour around the time of the first explosion were actually around the same levels if you had a chest x-ray.", "human_ref_B": "Reuters, NYT, LA Times, BBC are all as reputable as they always have been.  Get on google news, do your own vetting, check for multiple sources when you see bold headlines. Don't watch TV news, you won't learn anything of value. If you feel like the media is failing you, then I fear you may be failing yourself. There are definitely enough resources on the internet for you to deduce a least a pretty clear picture of what is going on.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6668.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l1q2g", "c_root_id_B": "c1l18sd", "created_at_utc_A": 1300320457, "created_at_utc_B": 1300313755, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "World Nuclear News.   eg,  http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/RS_Cold_shutdowns_at_Fukushima_Daini_1403112.html", "human_ref_B": "Total layman here, but the IAEA's site seems to have some level-headed updates.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6702.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l1q2g", "c_root_id_B": "c1l1avn", "created_at_utc_A": 1300320457, "created_at_utc_B": 1300314443, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "World Nuclear News.   eg,  http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/RS_Cold_shutdowns_at_Fukushima_Daini_1403112.html", "human_ref_B": "I find that the news over at BBC is pretty good. You can follow this link to the whole overview as there are many updates to the situation. The Q&A sections they have are great too - like when they said that the radiation exposure per hour around the time of the first explosion were actually around the same levels if you had a chest x-ray.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6014.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l27zf", "c_root_id_B": "c1l1avn", "created_at_utc_A": 1300327231, "created_at_utc_B": 1300314443, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I am liking the news from these sites:  * Nuclear Energy Institute  * ANS Nuclear Cafe  * MIT Nuclear Science and Engineering has updates and articles written about aspects of nuclear energy that the average person hasn't been exposed to. They are well written and are able to be understood without any science background.   The old standbys like Nature are good too.", "human_ref_B": "I find that the news over at BBC is pretty good. You can follow this link to the whole overview as there are many updates to the situation. The Q&A sections they have are great too - like when they said that the radiation exposure per hour around the time of the first explosion were actually around the same levels if you had a chest x-ray.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12788.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l27zf", "c_root_id_B": "c1l22if", "created_at_utc_A": 1300327231, "created_at_utc_B": 1300325299, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I am liking the news from these sites:  * Nuclear Energy Institute  * ANS Nuclear Cafe  * MIT Nuclear Science and Engineering has updates and articles written about aspects of nuclear energy that the average person hasn't been exposed to. They are well written and are able to be understood without any science background.   The old standbys like Nature are good too.", "human_ref_B": "This is the english feed from NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), It's pretty good.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1932.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l1avn", "c_root_id_B": "c1l2a95", "created_at_utc_A": 1300314443, "created_at_utc_B": 1300327996, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I find that the news over at BBC is pretty good. You can follow this link to the whole overview as there are many updates to the situation. The Q&A sections they have are great too - like when they said that the radiation exposure per hour around the time of the first explosion were actually around the same levels if you had a chest x-ray.", "human_ref_B": "layman] I've been browsing the NukeWorker.com forum page on it - lots of analysis from people who actually do this stuff for a living:  [Japan's Nukes Following Earthquake  It's far from official press itself, but they do well at gathering together informative articles.  Mostly current/ex-Navy nukes commenting.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13553.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l2a95", "c_root_id_B": "c1l22if", "created_at_utc_A": 1300327996, "created_at_utc_B": 1300325299, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "layman] I've been browsing the NukeWorker.com forum page on it - lots of analysis from people who actually do this stuff for a living:  [Japan's Nukes Following Earthquake  It's far from official press itself, but they do well at gathering together informative articles.  Mostly current/ex-Navy nukes commenting.", "human_ref_B": "This is the english feed from NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), It's pretty good.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2697.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l2zp4", "c_root_id_B": "c1l22if", "created_at_utc_A": 1300336859, "created_at_utc_B": 1300325299, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I follow DemocracyNow regularly, they always have great interviews with relevant professionals in the field. But it's always a good idea to cross check, Al Jazeera & BBC are good for that.", "human_ref_B": "This is the english feed from NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), It's pretty good.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11560.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g5gb8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "I can't seem to trust any of the mainstream news outlets when it comes to Japans nuclear crisis. Does anyone know the best source for informed updates?", "c_root_id_A": "c1l22if", "c_root_id_B": "c1l3sv2", "created_at_utc_A": 1300325299, "created_at_utc_B": 1300366142, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This is the english feed from NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), It's pretty good.", "human_ref_B": "Can we get an update from someone about what should be going on atomically within the reactors?  When things first started going wrong we had a load of people post their opinion and links to blogs on the subject, all of which seemed to have a consensus and which I was quite happy to listen to.  It's a good few days later and people still seem to be very worried while I was under the impression that things should have stopped reacting and be cool by now.  I've said as such to my flatmates when we had a discussion last night, and that as long as the containment vessel don't breach everything should be fine.  Media really seems to be playing up the radiation risks which I didn't think were that significant, and are providing no explanation as to what is actually happening.  EDIT: My bad, these links are quite informative, gracias.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 40843.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qbtk5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "\"The magnetic component of the heart] is approximately 5000 times stronger than the brain's magnetic field and can be detected several feet away from the body with sensitive magnetometers.\" Can someone please either debunk this or explain how it is possible and what are the implications? [Here is the original text where I read this. I've also seen this statement in many different videos promoting meditation.   However, I can't find ANY scientific paper with evidence. Any help on this will be greatly appreciated.", "c_root_id_A": "c3wj19c", "c_root_id_B": "c3wf2sv", "created_at_utc_A": 1330586542, "created_at_utc_B": 1330564246, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Have a look into Sharks (and I think Platypus). With respect to sharks, you're looking for the \"Ampullae of Lorenzini\". The reason I mention this, is that sharks hunt their food by detecting sudden electrical discharges from their prey i.e. sudden muscle fire. I think it's entirely likely (but don't have proof with respect to the heart and 5000 times etc)  Here is the wiki article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampullae_of_Lorenzini", "human_ref_B": "I hate reading replies that don't answer the question, and yet here I am...  When I was a child I was given a metal detector for xmas.  It was far from professional, but it worked.  I noticed that it would sound off if pressed hard against someones chest.  Don't ask me how I discovered this.  My theory at the time was that there must be something inside a persons chest, around the heart/lungs, that at least mimicked ferromagnetic material.    Never discovered the reason behind it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22296.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qbtk5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "\"The magnetic component of the heart] is approximately 5000 times stronger than the brain's magnetic field and can be detected several feet away from the body with sensitive magnetometers.\" Can someone please either debunk this or explain how it is possible and what are the implications? [Here is the original text where I read this. I've also seen this statement in many different videos promoting meditation.   However, I can't find ANY scientific paper with evidence. Any help on this will be greatly appreciated.", "c_root_id_A": "c3wfcgw", "c_root_id_B": "c3wj19c", "created_at_utc_A": 1330565674, "created_at_utc_B": 1330586542, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "FMRIs measure brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow. I'd question the number 5000, but hearts pump blood, which has iron in it. Not exactly magical.", "human_ref_B": "Have a look into Sharks (and I think Platypus). With respect to sharks, you're looking for the \"Ampullae of Lorenzini\". The reason I mention this, is that sharks hunt their food by detecting sudden electrical discharges from their prey i.e. sudden muscle fire. I think it's entirely likely (but don't have proof with respect to the heart and 5000 times etc)  Here is the wiki article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampullae_of_Lorenzini", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20868.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2cfkyy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "I've always had electricity and magnetism explained to me as very closely linked forces. Are magnetism and electricity separable forces? That is to say, can you create one without the other? I know you can generate electricity chemically as well as a host of other ways without magnets, but can you create electricity without creating some amount of magnetism? Conversely, can you create a magnetic field without generating some amount of electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "cjf0jyb", "c_root_id_B": "cjezswk", "created_at_utc_A": 1407002051, "created_at_utc_B": 1407000285, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There are two different aspects to this question depending on what observer is answering.  For any given observer, it is possible for them to both create an electric field without a magnetic field (any static distribution of charge will do it) and a magnetic field without an electric field (permanent magnets, for example). However, if either field changes in time, then that will generate the other one.  On the other hand, it is a consequence of special relativity that electric fields and magnetic fields mix with each other when you change from the point of view, or reference frame, of one observer to another. Given a magnetic field, there will always be many reference frames, moving at constant speed relative to the first, that observe there to be an electric field, and vice-versa.  Your question, though, suggests that you may be using the word \"electricity\" to mean \"electric current,\" which is a net movement of electric charge. Ampere's law says that a nonzero electrical current always creates a magnetic field.", "human_ref_B": "> Can you create electricity without creating some sort of magnetism?  Not in any really useful way, no. A moving electric charge in a wire (a current) creates a magnetic field around the wire.  You can create magnetic fields without generating electricity. Those fields just need to remain stationary, and only interact with other magnetic objects which are also not moving. If you move a permanent magnet in the presence of a wire or conductive object, the magnet will induce an electric potential (and thus, electric forces) in that object.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1766.0, "score_ratio": 5.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2cfkyy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "I've always had electricity and magnetism explained to me as very closely linked forces. Are magnetism and electricity separable forces? That is to say, can you create one without the other? I know you can generate electricity chemically as well as a host of other ways without magnets, but can you create electricity without creating some amount of magnetism? Conversely, can you create a magnetic field without generating some amount of electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "cjf0bkp", "c_root_id_B": "cjf0jyb", "created_at_utc_A": 1407001511, "created_at_utc_B": 1407002051, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Every time an electric field changes, there is a magnetic field created, and vice versa.", "human_ref_B": "There are two different aspects to this question depending on what observer is answering.  For any given observer, it is possible for them to both create an electric field without a magnetic field (any static distribution of charge will do it) and a magnetic field without an electric field (permanent magnets, for example). However, if either field changes in time, then that will generate the other one.  On the other hand, it is a consequence of special relativity that electric fields and magnetic fields mix with each other when you change from the point of view, or reference frame, of one observer to another. Given a magnetic field, there will always be many reference frames, moving at constant speed relative to the first, that observe there to be an electric field, and vice-versa.  Your question, though, suggests that you may be using the word \"electricity\" to mean \"electric current,\" which is a net movement of electric charge. Ampere's law says that a nonzero electrical current always creates a magnetic field.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 540.0, "score_ratio": 5.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtq35", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is terraforming actually feasible, and if so, where is our best chance and how would it be achieved?", "c_root_id_A": "c5pjmdn", "c_root_id_B": "c5phbvg", "created_at_utc_A": 1344360358, "created_at_utc_B": 1344351620, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "I'm no expert but I did a research project on terraforming Mars a while back.  Mars is our best chance at successful terraforming.  We have strong indications that there was once flowing water on Mars, indicative of a much warmer climate, which implies a thicker atmosphere.  It would be much easier to make things how they once were than start from scratch on a place like Titan or Europa.  This is also related to Mars' proximity to the sun.  If Mars was once more Earthlike, the obvious question is what went wrong?  The simplest answer is that Mars is a lot smaller.  It's gravitational field is not as strong and could not hold on to its atmosphere as effectively.  Solar wind is constantly tearing at our own atmosphere, and eventually will strip it but this happened much more quickly on Mars.  Additionally Mars does not have plate tectonics, which means much less atmospheric recycling in the form of volcanoes.  On Earth we have volcanoes constantly spewing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, while Mars did have active volcanoes there just weren't enough to keep refreshing what solar wind stripped away.  There are large CO2 deposits at the Martian poles, locked in the regolith.  In fact much of the atmosphere is still trapped in the soil, which means we don't have to fly the material there.  Instead we just have to warm it up.  There are a couple different proposals, some involving giant space mirrors locked in a tidal orbit, others involve painting the poles black to they absorb more heat.  Whatever method we go with, the goal is to start a runaway greenhouse effect which will thicken the atmosphere and warm the planet.  Hopefully we'll find abundant water ice on Mars as well.  This atmosphere would not be hospitable to humans but many organisms could thrive there.  Earth was not always as human friendly as it was today, micro organisms are what terraformed our planet and gave us our oxygenic atmosphere, we can do the same on Mars.  Shipping over algae and bacteria then letting them do the leg work.  We could speed up this process with clever engineering, both mechanical and genetic, but it's a big planet and would take many lifetimes even with paradigm shifting technological advances.  (It might seem at this point that the atmospheric stripping which made the Mars we see today would happen again.  This is true, but if we were able to thicken the atmosphere enough to support life, it would take something on the order of 10 million years to strip it again.)  If we want to be able to walk around the surface without airtight suits then we're looking at something on the order of 10,000 years.  If we're looking to support life then it's much less, as little as 100 years.  Sidenote:  While the Earth's magnetosphere does shield us from many cosmic rays, our thick atmosphere does most of the shielding.  Mars's lack of (or much weaker) magnetosphere is not as big of an obstacle as it would seem, if we can thicken the atmosphere.  Here are some of the resources I used in my research project:  http://www.marssociety.org/home/press/news/howwewillterraformmars Jason Shankel summarizes some of the important aspects of terraforming mars, taken from a book by Martyn Fogg.  Mars is an ideal candidate for terraforming as it already has most of the important elements for life, such as abundant CO2 and water deposits frozen near the surface and in polar deposits.  Two of the biggest challenges are starting a runaway greenhouse effect to warm the planet, and making the air breathable.  Most of these challenges can be overcome with relative ease yet others, like a near total lack of nitrogen, pose a significant obstacle to successful terraforming.  http://reason.com/archives/2011/11/08/does-mars-have-rights Ronald Bailey addresses some of the concerns involved in terraforming mars.  Biological contamination has been a concern of space agencies almost since their inception.  Both forward contamination, spreading life to other planetary bodies, and back contamination, bringing alien life home, pose risks and concerns.  There are ethical considerations to terraforming as well, some of which stem from conservationist sentiment while others claim the sin of hubris.  http://esseacourses.strategies.org/EcosynthesisMcKay2008ReviewAAAS.pdf Christopher McKay argues that the terraforming of Mars is a significant possibility but raises many ethical considerations.  We humans must ask ourselves whether or not it should be done.  There are several arguments for terraforming, utilitarian and intrinsic worth are in favor, while preservationist arguments are against.  These considerations affect how we explore Mars now and, as it will likely be one of our first destinations beyond the moon, will define how we explore space from then onwards.  http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/paper1.htm Martyn Fogg provides an overview of various technologies aimed at terraforming Mars for permanent human settlement.  The atmosphere must be significantly thickened and warmed, much of the material necessary already exists on the Martian surface.  One method of melting the poles would involve a pair of stationary mirrors above the planet.  While many of the technologies already exist, there are many unforeseen problems that can only be explored by living on Mars.  http://www.nss.org/settlement/mars/zubrin-colonize.html Robert Zubrin describes some of the economic and societal incentives for Mars colonization.  Mars is likely a resource rich world, much like the Earth was before humans began scavenging for every possible valuable material.  Despite the costs of transportation, both to and from Mars, there is a significant economic potential.  Interplanetary commerce could be a powerful gain for human civilization.  A potentially greater gain would be societal, Mars could be compared to the America\u2019s of the 18th century.  A place of innovation and exploration which could drive a permanent change for all of human existence.  http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703730804576317493923993056.html\\ Robert Zubrin gives a quick description of how humans could fly to Mars in less than 10 years relatively cheaply.  A private company, SpaceX has developed a rocket more powerful and cost effective than the recently retired shuttle program.  Using this superior launch system and a series of three launches, a crew of two astronauts could fly to Mars, explore the planet with a vehicle, and fly home.  This plan would utilize various efficiency increasing systems like water recycling to decrease the mass of various vehicles.  While there is a risk involved, that risk is inherent to space travel and should not be an obstacle to a Mars mission.  http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/03/should-we-send-humans-to-mars/ Neil daBomb Tyson", "human_ref_B": "Feasible, yes. Within our current technological capabilities, no.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8738.0, "score_ratio": 4.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtq35", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is terraforming actually feasible, and if so, where is our best chance and how would it be achieved?", "c_root_id_A": "c5pil8e", "c_root_id_B": "c5pjmdn", "created_at_utc_A": 1344356611, "created_at_utc_B": 1344360358, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "On some grounds, yes, we can start terraforming now if we follow a process called Parraterraforming.  Basically, make a dome, fill it with air, and bam!  Instant city.  While not the classical geoengineering approach, it certainly has a wider range of applications, from asteroids to Mars.  In general, the Moon, Venus, and Mars are all looked at as likely candidates, though Mars will probably end up being the best option since it has a less hostile atmosphere than Venus does.  Source", "human_ref_B": "I'm no expert but I did a research project on terraforming Mars a while back.  Mars is our best chance at successful terraforming.  We have strong indications that there was once flowing water on Mars, indicative of a much warmer climate, which implies a thicker atmosphere.  It would be much easier to make things how they once were than start from scratch on a place like Titan or Europa.  This is also related to Mars' proximity to the sun.  If Mars was once more Earthlike, the obvious question is what went wrong?  The simplest answer is that Mars is a lot smaller.  It's gravitational field is not as strong and could not hold on to its atmosphere as effectively.  Solar wind is constantly tearing at our own atmosphere, and eventually will strip it but this happened much more quickly on Mars.  Additionally Mars does not have plate tectonics, which means much less atmospheric recycling in the form of volcanoes.  On Earth we have volcanoes constantly spewing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, while Mars did have active volcanoes there just weren't enough to keep refreshing what solar wind stripped away.  There are large CO2 deposits at the Martian poles, locked in the regolith.  In fact much of the atmosphere is still trapped in the soil, which means we don't have to fly the material there.  Instead we just have to warm it up.  There are a couple different proposals, some involving giant space mirrors locked in a tidal orbit, others involve painting the poles black to they absorb more heat.  Whatever method we go with, the goal is to start a runaway greenhouse effect which will thicken the atmosphere and warm the planet.  Hopefully we'll find abundant water ice on Mars as well.  This atmosphere would not be hospitable to humans but many organisms could thrive there.  Earth was not always as human friendly as it was today, micro organisms are what terraformed our planet and gave us our oxygenic atmosphere, we can do the same on Mars.  Shipping over algae and bacteria then letting them do the leg work.  We could speed up this process with clever engineering, both mechanical and genetic, but it's a big planet and would take many lifetimes even with paradigm shifting technological advances.  (It might seem at this point that the atmospheric stripping which made the Mars we see today would happen again.  This is true, but if we were able to thicken the atmosphere enough to support life, it would take something on the order of 10 million years to strip it again.)  If we want to be able to walk around the surface without airtight suits then we're looking at something on the order of 10,000 years.  If we're looking to support life then it's much less, as little as 100 years.  Sidenote:  While the Earth's magnetosphere does shield us from many cosmic rays, our thick atmosphere does most of the shielding.  Mars's lack of (or much weaker) magnetosphere is not as big of an obstacle as it would seem, if we can thicken the atmosphere.  Here are some of the resources I used in my research project:  http://www.marssociety.org/home/press/news/howwewillterraformmars Jason Shankel summarizes some of the important aspects of terraforming mars, taken from a book by Martyn Fogg.  Mars is an ideal candidate for terraforming as it already has most of the important elements for life, such as abundant CO2 and water deposits frozen near the surface and in polar deposits.  Two of the biggest challenges are starting a runaway greenhouse effect to warm the planet, and making the air breathable.  Most of these challenges can be overcome with relative ease yet others, like a near total lack of nitrogen, pose a significant obstacle to successful terraforming.  http://reason.com/archives/2011/11/08/does-mars-have-rights Ronald Bailey addresses some of the concerns involved in terraforming mars.  Biological contamination has been a concern of space agencies almost since their inception.  Both forward contamination, spreading life to other planetary bodies, and back contamination, bringing alien life home, pose risks and concerns.  There are ethical considerations to terraforming as well, some of which stem from conservationist sentiment while others claim the sin of hubris.  http://esseacourses.strategies.org/EcosynthesisMcKay2008ReviewAAAS.pdf Christopher McKay argues that the terraforming of Mars is a significant possibility but raises many ethical considerations.  We humans must ask ourselves whether or not it should be done.  There are several arguments for terraforming, utilitarian and intrinsic worth are in favor, while preservationist arguments are against.  These considerations affect how we explore Mars now and, as it will likely be one of our first destinations beyond the moon, will define how we explore space from then onwards.  http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/paper1.htm Martyn Fogg provides an overview of various technologies aimed at terraforming Mars for permanent human settlement.  The atmosphere must be significantly thickened and warmed, much of the material necessary already exists on the Martian surface.  One method of melting the poles would involve a pair of stationary mirrors above the planet.  While many of the technologies already exist, there are many unforeseen problems that can only be explored by living on Mars.  http://www.nss.org/settlement/mars/zubrin-colonize.html Robert Zubrin describes some of the economic and societal incentives for Mars colonization.  Mars is likely a resource rich world, much like the Earth was before humans began scavenging for every possible valuable material.  Despite the costs of transportation, both to and from Mars, there is a significant economic potential.  Interplanetary commerce could be a powerful gain for human civilization.  A potentially greater gain would be societal, Mars could be compared to the America\u2019s of the 18th century.  A place of innovation and exploration which could drive a permanent change for all of human existence.  http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703730804576317493923993056.html\\ Robert Zubrin gives a quick description of how humans could fly to Mars in less than 10 years relatively cheaply.  A private company, SpaceX has developed a rocket more powerful and cost effective than the recently retired shuttle program.  Using this superior launch system and a series of three launches, a crew of two astronauts could fly to Mars, explore the planet with a vehicle, and fly home.  This plan would utilize various efficiency increasing systems like water recycling to decrease the mass of various vehicles.  While there is a risk involved, that risk is inherent to space travel and should not be an obstacle to a Mars mission.  http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/03/should-we-send-humans-to-mars/ Neil daBomb Tyson", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3747.0, "score_ratio": 4.9333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtq35", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is terraforming actually feasible, and if so, where is our best chance and how would it be achieved?", "c_root_id_A": "c5pjmdn", "c_root_id_B": "c5pirde", "created_at_utc_A": 1344360358, "created_at_utc_B": 1344357248, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I'm no expert but I did a research project on terraforming Mars a while back.  Mars is our best chance at successful terraforming.  We have strong indications that there was once flowing water on Mars, indicative of a much warmer climate, which implies a thicker atmosphere.  It would be much easier to make things how they once were than start from scratch on a place like Titan or Europa.  This is also related to Mars' proximity to the sun.  If Mars was once more Earthlike, the obvious question is what went wrong?  The simplest answer is that Mars is a lot smaller.  It's gravitational field is not as strong and could not hold on to its atmosphere as effectively.  Solar wind is constantly tearing at our own atmosphere, and eventually will strip it but this happened much more quickly on Mars.  Additionally Mars does not have plate tectonics, which means much less atmospheric recycling in the form of volcanoes.  On Earth we have volcanoes constantly spewing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, while Mars did have active volcanoes there just weren't enough to keep refreshing what solar wind stripped away.  There are large CO2 deposits at the Martian poles, locked in the regolith.  In fact much of the atmosphere is still trapped in the soil, which means we don't have to fly the material there.  Instead we just have to warm it up.  There are a couple different proposals, some involving giant space mirrors locked in a tidal orbit, others involve painting the poles black to they absorb more heat.  Whatever method we go with, the goal is to start a runaway greenhouse effect which will thicken the atmosphere and warm the planet.  Hopefully we'll find abundant water ice on Mars as well.  This atmosphere would not be hospitable to humans but many organisms could thrive there.  Earth was not always as human friendly as it was today, micro organisms are what terraformed our planet and gave us our oxygenic atmosphere, we can do the same on Mars.  Shipping over algae and bacteria then letting them do the leg work.  We could speed up this process with clever engineering, both mechanical and genetic, but it's a big planet and would take many lifetimes even with paradigm shifting technological advances.  (It might seem at this point that the atmospheric stripping which made the Mars we see today would happen again.  This is true, but if we were able to thicken the atmosphere enough to support life, it would take something on the order of 10 million years to strip it again.)  If we want to be able to walk around the surface without airtight suits then we're looking at something on the order of 10,000 years.  If we're looking to support life then it's much less, as little as 100 years.  Sidenote:  While the Earth's magnetosphere does shield us from many cosmic rays, our thick atmosphere does most of the shielding.  Mars's lack of (or much weaker) magnetosphere is not as big of an obstacle as it would seem, if we can thicken the atmosphere.  Here are some of the resources I used in my research project:  http://www.marssociety.org/home/press/news/howwewillterraformmars Jason Shankel summarizes some of the important aspects of terraforming mars, taken from a book by Martyn Fogg.  Mars is an ideal candidate for terraforming as it already has most of the important elements for life, such as abundant CO2 and water deposits frozen near the surface and in polar deposits.  Two of the biggest challenges are starting a runaway greenhouse effect to warm the planet, and making the air breathable.  Most of these challenges can be overcome with relative ease yet others, like a near total lack of nitrogen, pose a significant obstacle to successful terraforming.  http://reason.com/archives/2011/11/08/does-mars-have-rights Ronald Bailey addresses some of the concerns involved in terraforming mars.  Biological contamination has been a concern of space agencies almost since their inception.  Both forward contamination, spreading life to other planetary bodies, and back contamination, bringing alien life home, pose risks and concerns.  There are ethical considerations to terraforming as well, some of which stem from conservationist sentiment while others claim the sin of hubris.  http://esseacourses.strategies.org/EcosynthesisMcKay2008ReviewAAAS.pdf Christopher McKay argues that the terraforming of Mars is a significant possibility but raises many ethical considerations.  We humans must ask ourselves whether or not it should be done.  There are several arguments for terraforming, utilitarian and intrinsic worth are in favor, while preservationist arguments are against.  These considerations affect how we explore Mars now and, as it will likely be one of our first destinations beyond the moon, will define how we explore space from then onwards.  http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/paper1.htm Martyn Fogg provides an overview of various technologies aimed at terraforming Mars for permanent human settlement.  The atmosphere must be significantly thickened and warmed, much of the material necessary already exists on the Martian surface.  One method of melting the poles would involve a pair of stationary mirrors above the planet.  While many of the technologies already exist, there are many unforeseen problems that can only be explored by living on Mars.  http://www.nss.org/settlement/mars/zubrin-colonize.html Robert Zubrin describes some of the economic and societal incentives for Mars colonization.  Mars is likely a resource rich world, much like the Earth was before humans began scavenging for every possible valuable material.  Despite the costs of transportation, both to and from Mars, there is a significant economic potential.  Interplanetary commerce could be a powerful gain for human civilization.  A potentially greater gain would be societal, Mars could be compared to the America\u2019s of the 18th century.  A place of innovation and exploration which could drive a permanent change for all of human existence.  http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703730804576317493923993056.html\\ Robert Zubrin gives a quick description of how humans could fly to Mars in less than 10 years relatively cheaply.  A private company, SpaceX has developed a rocket more powerful and cost effective than the recently retired shuttle program.  Using this superior launch system and a series of three launches, a crew of two astronauts could fly to Mars, explore the planet with a vehicle, and fly home.  This plan would utilize various efficiency increasing systems like water recycling to decrease the mass of various vehicles.  While there is a risk involved, that risk is inherent to space travel and should not be an obstacle to a Mars mission.  http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/03/should-we-send-humans-to-mars/ Neil daBomb Tyson", "human_ref_B": "In the example of Mars the lack of a magnetosphere makes maintaining an earth-like atmosphere and large amounts of planetary water long term difficult. Also the lack of protection from radiation would be unhealthy for surface life. A technical solution to this problem would need to be addressed before we could completely terraform Mars.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3110.0, "score_ratio": 6.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtq35", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is terraforming actually feasible, and if so, where is our best chance and how would it be achieved?", "c_root_id_A": "c5pj3n9", "c_root_id_B": "c5pjmdn", "created_at_utc_A": 1344358532, "created_at_utc_B": 1344360358, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "Venus could be terraformed using a variety of physical and biological methods.  It's also closer to Earth's size than Mars.", "human_ref_B": "I'm no expert but I did a research project on terraforming Mars a while back.  Mars is our best chance at successful terraforming.  We have strong indications that there was once flowing water on Mars, indicative of a much warmer climate, which implies a thicker atmosphere.  It would be much easier to make things how they once were than start from scratch on a place like Titan or Europa.  This is also related to Mars' proximity to the sun.  If Mars was once more Earthlike, the obvious question is what went wrong?  The simplest answer is that Mars is a lot smaller.  It's gravitational field is not as strong and could not hold on to its atmosphere as effectively.  Solar wind is constantly tearing at our own atmosphere, and eventually will strip it but this happened much more quickly on Mars.  Additionally Mars does not have plate tectonics, which means much less atmospheric recycling in the form of volcanoes.  On Earth we have volcanoes constantly spewing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, while Mars did have active volcanoes there just weren't enough to keep refreshing what solar wind stripped away.  There are large CO2 deposits at the Martian poles, locked in the regolith.  In fact much of the atmosphere is still trapped in the soil, which means we don't have to fly the material there.  Instead we just have to warm it up.  There are a couple different proposals, some involving giant space mirrors locked in a tidal orbit, others involve painting the poles black to they absorb more heat.  Whatever method we go with, the goal is to start a runaway greenhouse effect which will thicken the atmosphere and warm the planet.  Hopefully we'll find abundant water ice on Mars as well.  This atmosphere would not be hospitable to humans but many organisms could thrive there.  Earth was not always as human friendly as it was today, micro organisms are what terraformed our planet and gave us our oxygenic atmosphere, we can do the same on Mars.  Shipping over algae and bacteria then letting them do the leg work.  We could speed up this process with clever engineering, both mechanical and genetic, but it's a big planet and would take many lifetimes even with paradigm shifting technological advances.  (It might seem at this point that the atmospheric stripping which made the Mars we see today would happen again.  This is true, but if we were able to thicken the atmosphere enough to support life, it would take something on the order of 10 million years to strip it again.)  If we want to be able to walk around the surface without airtight suits then we're looking at something on the order of 10,000 years.  If we're looking to support life then it's much less, as little as 100 years.  Sidenote:  While the Earth's magnetosphere does shield us from many cosmic rays, our thick atmosphere does most of the shielding.  Mars's lack of (or much weaker) magnetosphere is not as big of an obstacle as it would seem, if we can thicken the atmosphere.  Here are some of the resources I used in my research project:  http://www.marssociety.org/home/press/news/howwewillterraformmars Jason Shankel summarizes some of the important aspects of terraforming mars, taken from a book by Martyn Fogg.  Mars is an ideal candidate for terraforming as it already has most of the important elements for life, such as abundant CO2 and water deposits frozen near the surface and in polar deposits.  Two of the biggest challenges are starting a runaway greenhouse effect to warm the planet, and making the air breathable.  Most of these challenges can be overcome with relative ease yet others, like a near total lack of nitrogen, pose a significant obstacle to successful terraforming.  http://reason.com/archives/2011/11/08/does-mars-have-rights Ronald Bailey addresses some of the concerns involved in terraforming mars.  Biological contamination has been a concern of space agencies almost since their inception.  Both forward contamination, spreading life to other planetary bodies, and back contamination, bringing alien life home, pose risks and concerns.  There are ethical considerations to terraforming as well, some of which stem from conservationist sentiment while others claim the sin of hubris.  http://esseacourses.strategies.org/EcosynthesisMcKay2008ReviewAAAS.pdf Christopher McKay argues that the terraforming of Mars is a significant possibility but raises many ethical considerations.  We humans must ask ourselves whether or not it should be done.  There are several arguments for terraforming, utilitarian and intrinsic worth are in favor, while preservationist arguments are against.  These considerations affect how we explore Mars now and, as it will likely be one of our first destinations beyond the moon, will define how we explore space from then onwards.  http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/paper1.htm Martyn Fogg provides an overview of various technologies aimed at terraforming Mars for permanent human settlement.  The atmosphere must be significantly thickened and warmed, much of the material necessary already exists on the Martian surface.  One method of melting the poles would involve a pair of stationary mirrors above the planet.  While many of the technologies already exist, there are many unforeseen problems that can only be explored by living on Mars.  http://www.nss.org/settlement/mars/zubrin-colonize.html Robert Zubrin describes some of the economic and societal incentives for Mars colonization.  Mars is likely a resource rich world, much like the Earth was before humans began scavenging for every possible valuable material.  Despite the costs of transportation, both to and from Mars, there is a significant economic potential.  Interplanetary commerce could be a powerful gain for human civilization.  A potentially greater gain would be societal, Mars could be compared to the America\u2019s of the 18th century.  A place of innovation and exploration which could drive a permanent change for all of human existence.  http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703730804576317493923993056.html\\ Robert Zubrin gives a quick description of how humans could fly to Mars in less than 10 years relatively cheaply.  A private company, SpaceX has developed a rocket more powerful and cost effective than the recently retired shuttle program.  Using this superior launch system and a series of three launches, a crew of two astronauts could fly to Mars, explore the planet with a vehicle, and fly home.  This plan would utilize various efficiency increasing systems like water recycling to decrease the mass of various vehicles.  While there is a risk involved, that risk is inherent to space travel and should not be an obstacle to a Mars mission.  http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/03/should-we-send-humans-to-mars/ Neil daBomb Tyson", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1826.0, "score_ratio": 12.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtq35", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is terraforming actually feasible, and if so, where is our best chance and how would it be achieved?", "c_root_id_A": "c5pj3c1", "c_root_id_B": "c5pjmdn", "created_at_utc_A": 1344358499, "created_at_utc_B": 1344360358, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 74, "human_ref_A": "The easiest planet to terraform would be Mars if people had a good presence on Mars they could pump potent green house gases for 100-150 years into the Martian atmosphere. This would be slowly lost over thousands/millions of years but if a intelligent presence is kept it could be easily put back into the atmosphere. This would mean Mars would have a nice earth like temperature. However, the atmosphere would still not be breathable and would require a air tank be carried when walking outside. Eventually small plant life would be introduced and slowly build oxygen level and larger ecosystems could be introduced. This would take thousands of years longer then it took to build the atmosphere. This is all possible now, but a very primitive way of going about it and by the time it's finished there would likely be better technology and techniques to go about terraforming.", "human_ref_B": "I'm no expert but I did a research project on terraforming Mars a while back.  Mars is our best chance at successful terraforming.  We have strong indications that there was once flowing water on Mars, indicative of a much warmer climate, which implies a thicker atmosphere.  It would be much easier to make things how they once were than start from scratch on a place like Titan or Europa.  This is also related to Mars' proximity to the sun.  If Mars was once more Earthlike, the obvious question is what went wrong?  The simplest answer is that Mars is a lot smaller.  It's gravitational field is not as strong and could not hold on to its atmosphere as effectively.  Solar wind is constantly tearing at our own atmosphere, and eventually will strip it but this happened much more quickly on Mars.  Additionally Mars does not have plate tectonics, which means much less atmospheric recycling in the form of volcanoes.  On Earth we have volcanoes constantly spewing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, while Mars did have active volcanoes there just weren't enough to keep refreshing what solar wind stripped away.  There are large CO2 deposits at the Martian poles, locked in the regolith.  In fact much of the atmosphere is still trapped in the soil, which means we don't have to fly the material there.  Instead we just have to warm it up.  There are a couple different proposals, some involving giant space mirrors locked in a tidal orbit, others involve painting the poles black to they absorb more heat.  Whatever method we go with, the goal is to start a runaway greenhouse effect which will thicken the atmosphere and warm the planet.  Hopefully we'll find abundant water ice on Mars as well.  This atmosphere would not be hospitable to humans but many organisms could thrive there.  Earth was not always as human friendly as it was today, micro organisms are what terraformed our planet and gave us our oxygenic atmosphere, we can do the same on Mars.  Shipping over algae and bacteria then letting them do the leg work.  We could speed up this process with clever engineering, both mechanical and genetic, but it's a big planet and would take many lifetimes even with paradigm shifting technological advances.  (It might seem at this point that the atmospheric stripping which made the Mars we see today would happen again.  This is true, but if we were able to thicken the atmosphere enough to support life, it would take something on the order of 10 million years to strip it again.)  If we want to be able to walk around the surface without airtight suits then we're looking at something on the order of 10,000 years.  If we're looking to support life then it's much less, as little as 100 years.  Sidenote:  While the Earth's magnetosphere does shield us from many cosmic rays, our thick atmosphere does most of the shielding.  Mars's lack of (or much weaker) magnetosphere is not as big of an obstacle as it would seem, if we can thicken the atmosphere.  Here are some of the resources I used in my research project:  http://www.marssociety.org/home/press/news/howwewillterraformmars Jason Shankel summarizes some of the important aspects of terraforming mars, taken from a book by Martyn Fogg.  Mars is an ideal candidate for terraforming as it already has most of the important elements for life, such as abundant CO2 and water deposits frozen near the surface and in polar deposits.  Two of the biggest challenges are starting a runaway greenhouse effect to warm the planet, and making the air breathable.  Most of these challenges can be overcome with relative ease yet others, like a near total lack of nitrogen, pose a significant obstacle to successful terraforming.  http://reason.com/archives/2011/11/08/does-mars-have-rights Ronald Bailey addresses some of the concerns involved in terraforming mars.  Biological contamination has been a concern of space agencies almost since their inception.  Both forward contamination, spreading life to other planetary bodies, and back contamination, bringing alien life home, pose risks and concerns.  There are ethical considerations to terraforming as well, some of which stem from conservationist sentiment while others claim the sin of hubris.  http://esseacourses.strategies.org/EcosynthesisMcKay2008ReviewAAAS.pdf Christopher McKay argues that the terraforming of Mars is a significant possibility but raises many ethical considerations.  We humans must ask ourselves whether or not it should be done.  There are several arguments for terraforming, utilitarian and intrinsic worth are in favor, while preservationist arguments are against.  These considerations affect how we explore Mars now and, as it will likely be one of our first destinations beyond the moon, will define how we explore space from then onwards.  http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/paper1.htm Martyn Fogg provides an overview of various technologies aimed at terraforming Mars for permanent human settlement.  The atmosphere must be significantly thickened and warmed, much of the material necessary already exists on the Martian surface.  One method of melting the poles would involve a pair of stationary mirrors above the planet.  While many of the technologies already exist, there are many unforeseen problems that can only be explored by living on Mars.  http://www.nss.org/settlement/mars/zubrin-colonize.html Robert Zubrin describes some of the economic and societal incentives for Mars colonization.  Mars is likely a resource rich world, much like the Earth was before humans began scavenging for every possible valuable material.  Despite the costs of transportation, both to and from Mars, there is a significant economic potential.  Interplanetary commerce could be a powerful gain for human civilization.  A potentially greater gain would be societal, Mars could be compared to the America\u2019s of the 18th century.  A place of innovation and exploration which could drive a permanent change for all of human existence.  http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703730804576317493923993056.html\\ Robert Zubrin gives a quick description of how humans could fly to Mars in less than 10 years relatively cheaply.  A private company, SpaceX has developed a rocket more powerful and cost effective than the recently retired shuttle program.  Using this superior launch system and a series of three launches, a crew of two astronauts could fly to Mars, explore the planet with a vehicle, and fly home.  This plan would utilize various efficiency increasing systems like water recycling to decrease the mass of various vehicles.  While there is a risk involved, that risk is inherent to space travel and should not be an obstacle to a Mars mission.  http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/03/should-we-send-humans-to-mars/ Neil daBomb Tyson", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1859.0, "score_ratio": 24.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtq35", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is terraforming actually feasible, and if so, where is our best chance and how would it be achieved?", "c_root_id_A": "c5pjmdn", "c_root_id_B": "c5pj47l", "created_at_utc_A": 1344360358, "created_at_utc_B": 1344358588, "score_A": 74, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I'm no expert but I did a research project on terraforming Mars a while back.  Mars is our best chance at successful terraforming.  We have strong indications that there was once flowing water on Mars, indicative of a much warmer climate, which implies a thicker atmosphere.  It would be much easier to make things how they once were than start from scratch on a place like Titan or Europa.  This is also related to Mars' proximity to the sun.  If Mars was once more Earthlike, the obvious question is what went wrong?  The simplest answer is that Mars is a lot smaller.  It's gravitational field is not as strong and could not hold on to its atmosphere as effectively.  Solar wind is constantly tearing at our own atmosphere, and eventually will strip it but this happened much more quickly on Mars.  Additionally Mars does not have plate tectonics, which means much less atmospheric recycling in the form of volcanoes.  On Earth we have volcanoes constantly spewing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, while Mars did have active volcanoes there just weren't enough to keep refreshing what solar wind stripped away.  There are large CO2 deposits at the Martian poles, locked in the regolith.  In fact much of the atmosphere is still trapped in the soil, which means we don't have to fly the material there.  Instead we just have to warm it up.  There are a couple different proposals, some involving giant space mirrors locked in a tidal orbit, others involve painting the poles black to they absorb more heat.  Whatever method we go with, the goal is to start a runaway greenhouse effect which will thicken the atmosphere and warm the planet.  Hopefully we'll find abundant water ice on Mars as well.  This atmosphere would not be hospitable to humans but many organisms could thrive there.  Earth was not always as human friendly as it was today, micro organisms are what terraformed our planet and gave us our oxygenic atmosphere, we can do the same on Mars.  Shipping over algae and bacteria then letting them do the leg work.  We could speed up this process with clever engineering, both mechanical and genetic, but it's a big planet and would take many lifetimes even with paradigm shifting technological advances.  (It might seem at this point that the atmospheric stripping which made the Mars we see today would happen again.  This is true, but if we were able to thicken the atmosphere enough to support life, it would take something on the order of 10 million years to strip it again.)  If we want to be able to walk around the surface without airtight suits then we're looking at something on the order of 10,000 years.  If we're looking to support life then it's much less, as little as 100 years.  Sidenote:  While the Earth's magnetosphere does shield us from many cosmic rays, our thick atmosphere does most of the shielding.  Mars's lack of (or much weaker) magnetosphere is not as big of an obstacle as it would seem, if we can thicken the atmosphere.  Here are some of the resources I used in my research project:  http://www.marssociety.org/home/press/news/howwewillterraformmars Jason Shankel summarizes some of the important aspects of terraforming mars, taken from a book by Martyn Fogg.  Mars is an ideal candidate for terraforming as it already has most of the important elements for life, such as abundant CO2 and water deposits frozen near the surface and in polar deposits.  Two of the biggest challenges are starting a runaway greenhouse effect to warm the planet, and making the air breathable.  Most of these challenges can be overcome with relative ease yet others, like a near total lack of nitrogen, pose a significant obstacle to successful terraforming.  http://reason.com/archives/2011/11/08/does-mars-have-rights Ronald Bailey addresses some of the concerns involved in terraforming mars.  Biological contamination has been a concern of space agencies almost since their inception.  Both forward contamination, spreading life to other planetary bodies, and back contamination, bringing alien life home, pose risks and concerns.  There are ethical considerations to terraforming as well, some of which stem from conservationist sentiment while others claim the sin of hubris.  http://esseacourses.strategies.org/EcosynthesisMcKay2008ReviewAAAS.pdf Christopher McKay argues that the terraforming of Mars is a significant possibility but raises many ethical considerations.  We humans must ask ourselves whether or not it should be done.  There are several arguments for terraforming, utilitarian and intrinsic worth are in favor, while preservationist arguments are against.  These considerations affect how we explore Mars now and, as it will likely be one of our first destinations beyond the moon, will define how we explore space from then onwards.  http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/paper1.htm Martyn Fogg provides an overview of various technologies aimed at terraforming Mars for permanent human settlement.  The atmosphere must be significantly thickened and warmed, much of the material necessary already exists on the Martian surface.  One method of melting the poles would involve a pair of stationary mirrors above the planet.  While many of the technologies already exist, there are many unforeseen problems that can only be explored by living on Mars.  http://www.nss.org/settlement/mars/zubrin-colonize.html Robert Zubrin describes some of the economic and societal incentives for Mars colonization.  Mars is likely a resource rich world, much like the Earth was before humans began scavenging for every possible valuable material.  Despite the costs of transportation, both to and from Mars, there is a significant economic potential.  Interplanetary commerce could be a powerful gain for human civilization.  A potentially greater gain would be societal, Mars could be compared to the America\u2019s of the 18th century.  A place of innovation and exploration which could drive a permanent change for all of human existence.  http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703730804576317493923993056.html\\ Robert Zubrin gives a quick description of how humans could fly to Mars in less than 10 years relatively cheaply.  A private company, SpaceX has developed a rocket more powerful and cost effective than the recently retired shuttle program.  Using this superior launch system and a series of three launches, a crew of two astronauts could fly to Mars, explore the planet with a vehicle, and fly home.  This plan would utilize various efficiency increasing systems like water recycling to decrease the mass of various vehicles.  While there is a risk involved, that risk is inherent to space travel and should not be an obstacle to a Mars mission.  http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/03/should-we-send-humans-to-mars/ Neil daBomb Tyson", "human_ref_B": "Kind of a tangent to the topic, but terraformed or otherwise, do humans have the capacity to live on most other planets?  I've always understood it as not only being a problem of climate, atmosphere, etc, but also an issue variance in gravity, length of days and light cycles, etc.  While we may have the capacity to eventually put plants and other such things on a planet, I'd imagine it more or less impossible to somehow simulate gravity to the point where we wouldn't have major changes to muscles and bone density.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1770.0, "score_ratio": 18.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtq35", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is terraforming actually feasible, and if so, where is our best chance and how would it be achieved?", "c_root_id_A": "c5pj3c1", "c_root_id_B": "c5pj3n9", "created_at_utc_A": 1344358499, "created_at_utc_B": 1344358532, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The easiest planet to terraform would be Mars if people had a good presence on Mars they could pump potent green house gases for 100-150 years into the Martian atmosphere. This would be slowly lost over thousands/millions of years but if a intelligent presence is kept it could be easily put back into the atmosphere. This would mean Mars would have a nice earth like temperature. However, the atmosphere would still not be breathable and would require a air tank be carried when walking outside. Eventually small plant life would be introduced and slowly build oxygen level and larger ecosystems could be introduced. This would take thousands of years longer then it took to build the atmosphere. This is all possible now, but a very primitive way of going about it and by the time it's finished there would likely be better technology and techniques to go about terraforming.", "human_ref_B": "Venus could be terraformed using a variety of physical and biological methods.  It's also closer to Earth's size than Mars.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xtq35", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is terraforming actually feasible, and if so, where is our best chance and how would it be achieved?", "c_root_id_A": "c5pj3c1", "c_root_id_B": "c5pj47l", "created_at_utc_A": 1344358499, "created_at_utc_B": 1344358588, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The easiest planet to terraform would be Mars if people had a good presence on Mars they could pump potent green house gases for 100-150 years into the Martian atmosphere. This would be slowly lost over thousands/millions of years but if a intelligent presence is kept it could be easily put back into the atmosphere. This would mean Mars would have a nice earth like temperature. However, the atmosphere would still not be breathable and would require a air tank be carried when walking outside. Eventually small plant life would be introduced and slowly build oxygen level and larger ecosystems could be introduced. This would take thousands of years longer then it took to build the atmosphere. This is all possible now, but a very primitive way of going about it and by the time it's finished there would likely be better technology and techniques to go about terraforming.", "human_ref_B": "Kind of a tangent to the topic, but terraformed or otherwise, do humans have the capacity to live on most other planets?  I've always understood it as not only being a problem of climate, atmosphere, etc, but also an issue variance in gravity, length of days and light cycles, etc.  While we may have the capacity to eventually put plants and other such things on a planet, I'd imagine it more or less impossible to somehow simulate gravity to the point where we wouldn't have major changes to muscles and bone density.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 89.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jdpbo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is sea salt used in fries, potato chips, etc as a healthier option when there isn't any difference between sea salt and table salt?", "c_root_id_A": "c2b8xki", "c_root_id_B": "c2b8vlg", "created_at_utc_A": 1312913438, "created_at_utc_B": 1312913078, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Who says that sea salt is healthier than regular salt? Is sea salt really commonly used in fries? And is salt unhealthy all? These are the kind of questions that need to be answered first.", "human_ref_B": "Because people think it's healthier.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 360.0, "score_ratio": 16000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jdpbo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is sea salt used in fries, potato chips, etc as a healthier option when there isn't any difference between sea salt and table salt?", "c_root_id_A": "c2b9lsj", "c_root_id_B": "c2b92zs", "created_at_utc_A": 1312917787, "created_at_utc_B": 1312914412, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The uses for different types of salt in food are more a question for the culinary arts than the sciences. The major difference lies in texture/density, which in turn affect solubility as well as flavor concentration.   **Sea salts**, especially \"fleur de sel\" (flower of salt) varieties, are very light in density, and have a soft crunchy texture. These salts are awesome for finishing meats since their lower density allows you to coat the surface in crunchy saltiness without going overboard like you would with regular table salt. They are also collected differently from mined salts - these salts are usually collected by evaporation of sea water kept in large outdoor pools. Fleur de sel is superior to (lighter than) other salts of this variety because it is collected by hand from the light foamy salt that rises to the surface of said pools.  **Rock salts** are huge, solid crystals. They take a long time to dissolve, and are especially sharp and solid, making an ideal abrasive for cleaning (cast iron, water pipes, etc.). They can also be used to make brines; and, if the grain is small enough, can be used in spice mixes for barbecue.  **Specialty Mineral Salts** These salts often come from mines and can bring other subtle flavors due to the presence of other minerals. Redmond Sea Salt is one of my favorites, it tastes awesome along with pure butter on top of fresh golden corn.  EDIT: As to your specific question on chips and fries, it is more often than not a marketing gimmick, i.e. \"this here salt is better for you - it, like, comes from the SEA, man!\"", "human_ref_B": "It's not healthier, if anything it's a little bit worse. Table salt has iodine added to it to prevent iodine deficiency. Your thyroid produces a critical iodine-containing hormone called thyroxine. When thyroxine is low, your body starts sending signals to your thyroid to get to work making more. If there's no iodine to make more, it just gets bigger and bigger, until you have a giant growth on your neck.  That being said, there is a difference between sea salt and table salt. For one, sea salt has more irregular crystal shape. This can mean larger crystals (dense, dissolve slowly) or thin flakes (less dense, dissolves quickly), which ends up having a pretty big difference in the end. For two, sea salt often has all sorts of impurities in it which can provide a variety of different flavors. You can usually see these impurities just by looking at it - standard salt is white, sea salt can be a whole range of colors.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3375.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jdpbo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is sea salt used in fries, potato chips, etc as a healthier option when there isn't any difference between sea salt and table salt?", "c_root_id_A": "c2b9lsj", "c_root_id_B": "c2b8vlg", "created_at_utc_A": 1312917787, "created_at_utc_B": 1312913078, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The uses for different types of salt in food are more a question for the culinary arts than the sciences. The major difference lies in texture/density, which in turn affect solubility as well as flavor concentration.   **Sea salts**, especially \"fleur de sel\" (flower of salt) varieties, are very light in density, and have a soft crunchy texture. These salts are awesome for finishing meats since their lower density allows you to coat the surface in crunchy saltiness without going overboard like you would with regular table salt. They are also collected differently from mined salts - these salts are usually collected by evaporation of sea water kept in large outdoor pools. Fleur de sel is superior to (lighter than) other salts of this variety because it is collected by hand from the light foamy salt that rises to the surface of said pools.  **Rock salts** are huge, solid crystals. They take a long time to dissolve, and are especially sharp and solid, making an ideal abrasive for cleaning (cast iron, water pipes, etc.). They can also be used to make brines; and, if the grain is small enough, can be used in spice mixes for barbecue.  **Specialty Mineral Salts** These salts often come from mines and can bring other subtle flavors due to the presence of other minerals. Redmond Sea Salt is one of my favorites, it tastes awesome along with pure butter on top of fresh golden corn.  EDIT: As to your specific question on chips and fries, it is more often than not a marketing gimmick, i.e. \"this here salt is better for you - it, like, comes from the SEA, man!\"", "human_ref_B": "Because people think it's healthier.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4709.0, "score_ratio": 15000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jdpbo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is sea salt used in fries, potato chips, etc as a healthier option when there isn't any difference between sea salt and table salt?", "c_root_id_A": "c2b92zs", "c_root_id_B": "c2b8vlg", "created_at_utc_A": 1312914412, "created_at_utc_B": 1312913078, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "It's not healthier, if anything it's a little bit worse. Table salt has iodine added to it to prevent iodine deficiency. Your thyroid produces a critical iodine-containing hormone called thyroxine. When thyroxine is low, your body starts sending signals to your thyroid to get to work making more. If there's no iodine to make more, it just gets bigger and bigger, until you have a giant growth on your neck.  That being said, there is a difference between sea salt and table salt. For one, sea salt has more irregular crystal shape. This can mean larger crystals (dense, dissolve slowly) or thin flakes (less dense, dissolves quickly), which ends up having a pretty big difference in the end. For two, sea salt often has all sorts of impurities in it which can provide a variety of different flavors. You can usually see these impurities just by looking at it - standard salt is white, sea salt can be a whole range of colors.", "human_ref_B": "Because people think it's healthier.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1334.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jdpbo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is sea salt used in fries, potato chips, etc as a healthier option when there isn't any difference between sea salt and table salt?", "c_root_id_A": "c2bbetl", "c_root_id_B": "c2b8vlg", "created_at_utc_A": 1312931021, "created_at_utc_B": 1312913078, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "As noted, there are differences in taste and texture between sea salt and table salt, but in applications like fries and potato chips it's just marketing.  While the 'healthier' angle may be at play, there's probably a number of things happening differently in consumers' minds when they read \"with sea salt\" as opposed to \"salted\" -- eg it sounds a bit more haute, natural, tastier, whatever.", "human_ref_B": "Because people think it's healthier.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17943.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ar2y1l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How do severe allergic reactions work? How and why can someone die from eating something that is innocuous to most others?", "c_root_id_A": "egkw8t6", "c_root_id_B": "egl76vr", "created_at_utc_A": 1550291669, "created_at_utc_B": 1550306966, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "The body's immune system has a reaction similar to a computer's antivirus having a false positive, and tries to get rid of it, even for things that are completely harmless. Think of different people having different brands of antivirus. Deadly reactions are like the computer going full ham safemode shred file. The body thinks it's being destroyed by an insane threat and can end up overreacting over nothing, causing the person to die. Sorry if it didn't explain much but that's the best way I can explain it.", "human_ref_B": "Allergies basically are an overreaction of the immune system.   The first step in allergies is sensitization. When you first come into contact with an allergen (meaning a substance that can cause an allergic reaction), you will not experience a reaction, because your body simply doesn\u2019t know that substace yet. However, certain immune cells, called dendritic cells, will pick up that allergen and take it to the lymph nodes, where they show it to T-Helper cells. This is the body\u2019s normal reaction to an unknown substance and nothing pathological.   Our T-Helper cells can now become Th1 cells or Th2 cells, depending on which signaling molecules are around. Th1 cells mediate an immune response that is more focused on the cellular part of the immune system (e.g. by recruiting macrophages), while Th2 cells mediate one that is more focused on the humoral components (soluble components of the immune systems, such as antibodies). In our case, our T-Helper cells will mostly become Th2 cells. Th2 cells now tell B-Cells to become plasmacells and produce antibodies against that allergen, to be exact, Class E antibodies (= IgE).   Short digression here: Antibodies are small Y-shaped molecules. The upper part of the Y can bind to pathogens. This usually prevents pathogens from crossing certain barriers and thus neutralizes them. The lower part of the Y can bind to receptors on immune cells. Some antibodies (especially IgM und IgG) bind to macrophages, which in turn causes the macrophage to \u201ceat\u201d whatever is bound to the upper part of the Ys; and some antibodies, the IgE antibodies we just produced, bind to so-called mast cells.  So our IgE antibodies are now being produced by plasmacells and released into the blood. From there they can enter into the tissue and bind, as described above, to mast-cells. Our mast-cells are now sensitized.  When we again come into contact with the allergen, the IgEs on the mast-cell recognize and bind that allergen. Now, our mast-cells contain a lot of substances, such as histamine, which they all release when the allergen binds to IgE. The scale of thr reaction depends on how many of the mast-cells are activated. Since you wanted to know about severe reactions, let\u2019s say a lot of mast-cells are activated and their substances spread through the entire bloodsystem.   These substances have two important effects: they dilate the blood vessels and they make them more permeable, so bigger molecules can leave the bloodstream. Now imagine a waterhose: If you have one with a small radius, water will come out at high pressure, while one with a bigger radius will produce significantly less pressure. This is what happens in your body when a lot of your bloodvessels dilate: the blood pressure drops. Also, we now lose water from our blood through osmosis, because it follows the bigger molecules, which can now leave the bloodstream due to the increased permeability. So your body very quickly becomes unable to supply your organs with enough blood (and therefore oxygen). This would be called an anaphylactic shock. (In less severe allergic reactions the same happens on a local level, which is why affected areas become red and swollen). The released substances can also cause your airways to constrict, making it harder to breathe.  So why are some people affected by this and others are not? There is actually still research being done on this, and it seems like alot of different factors play a part. For one, genetics seem to be important, e.g. certain small mutations in the signaling molecules and receptors. Also, people that are not allergic tend to produce more Th1 cells instead of Th2s, and their Th2s cause B-cells to produce antibodies of the other classes. There currently is the hypothesis that reduced exposure to bacteria (not just pathogenic ones but all types) as a child prevents the immune system from becoming accustomed to foreign substances, and thus making it more \u201creactive\u201d later on in life.   Small note here: The above mentioned mechanism applies to Typ I allergic reactions. However, there are other types of allergic reactions caused by different mechanisms. Also, IgE antibodies aren\u2019t all bad, but they are normally produced to fight parasites.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15297.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6gpy5h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why can't I remember a smell or taste the same way I can an image or a sound? For sounds and images, I'm able to replicate those sense data in my head. But for tastes, smells, and touches, I can only remember descriptions of that sensation. For example, my favorite food is ramen and I'm unable to simply produce the taste of ramen in my head - I can only remember that it is savory and salty. Though it seems that I am able to compare tastes and smells (I know one ramen tastes differently from the next, even if they may both be salty and savory). Does this mean I can subconsciously replicate those sense data? Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "disjp8g", "c_root_id_B": "disc03u", "created_at_utc_A": 1497270350, "created_at_utc_B": 1497250707, "score_A": 2682, "score_B": 132, "human_ref_A": "Perfumer here. With training any person would be able to replicate smells inside their heads as well as any visual or auditory input. The main problem is cultural. Our western society does not value the sense of smell as highly as other senses: children are not taught to notice odors, our olfactory \"vocabulary\" is really limited, we are not used to rely on our sense of smell on a day-to-day basis etc. The Jahai people in the Malayan peninsula is the best example I can remember of a culture that highly praises the sense of smell, having even specific vocabulary to describe odors: an article on Cognitive magazine about that edit: formatting. edit 2: removing link to non-scientific article. edit 3: changed \"remembering\" to \"replicating inside the head\".", "human_ref_B": "Psychology undergrad here: The big problem with your chemical senses (especially with smell) is that you can't properly assign a specific perception of an aroma to a certain stimulus. You know very well which porperties a stimulus for your eyes must have for you to perceive it as \"blue\" or \"red\", but what properties does a molecule have to have for you to perceive it as \"cherry\" or even more difficult, which specific molecules do produce the aroma of \"coffee\"? Turns out that this is a very complex question, as many chemically very similar molecules are perceived as drastically different smells or vice versa. Taking this difficulty into account, a complex cognitive representation of the aroma stimulus in your memory seems very challenging. However, your smell is the only sense that doesn't connect with the Thalamus before reaching its corresponding cortex area and limbic structures like the Amygdala or the Hippocampus, therefore the emotional memory of an aroma is much more directly accessible, thus more intensive, and in some way that's compensating for a complex cognitive representation as your sight or hearing can offer.   Edit: Linda Buck and Richard Axel won the 2004 Nobelprize in Physiology or Medicine for their pioneering research on olfaction, you might want to take a look into this, as it uncovers the complexity of olfactory encoding:  http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/illpres/index.html  The idea of a certain cell assembly representing an aroma, thus creating an \"olfactory map\", is further explored in this article: http://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(00)00021-0?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867400000210%3Fshowall%3Dtrue  All of this shows that neuronal representation of aromas is very complex and enigmatic, much more so than stimulus representation in the visual or auditory system.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19643.0, "score_ratio": 20.3181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6gpy5h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why can't I remember a smell or taste the same way I can an image or a sound? For sounds and images, I'm able to replicate those sense data in my head. But for tastes, smells, and touches, I can only remember descriptions of that sensation. For example, my favorite food is ramen and I'm unable to simply produce the taste of ramen in my head - I can only remember that it is savory and salty. Though it seems that I am able to compare tastes and smells (I know one ramen tastes differently from the next, even if they may both be salty and savory). Does this mean I can subconsciously replicate those sense data? Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "disjp8g", "c_root_id_B": "disjnh8", "created_at_utc_A": 1497270350, "created_at_utc_B": 1497270261, "score_A": 2682, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Perfumer here. With training any person would be able to replicate smells inside their heads as well as any visual or auditory input. The main problem is cultural. Our western society does not value the sense of smell as highly as other senses: children are not taught to notice odors, our olfactory \"vocabulary\" is really limited, we are not used to rely on our sense of smell on a day-to-day basis etc. The Jahai people in the Malayan peninsula is the best example I can remember of a culture that highly praises the sense of smell, having even specific vocabulary to describe odors: an article on Cognitive magazine about that edit: formatting. edit 2: removing link to non-scientific article. edit 3: changed \"remembering\" to \"replicating inside the head\".", "human_ref_B": "This thread contains lots of answers with personal anecdotes and speculation; these will be removed. Please add peer-reviewed sources to your answer. Note that magazine articles (printed or online) are typically *not* peer-reviewed and thus are not a suitable source (for more info, see here).  If the answer boils down to \"we don't know (yet)\", or the question's premises/assumptions are not met, you may also provide:   * research questions that encompass OP's question and are also unanswered, * research questions that are tangentially related * or more generally, publications that illustrate the difficulty of answering OP's question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 89.0, "score_ratio": 2682.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6gpy5h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why can't I remember a smell or taste the same way I can an image or a sound? For sounds and images, I'm able to replicate those sense data in my head. But for tastes, smells, and touches, I can only remember descriptions of that sensation. For example, my favorite food is ramen and I'm unable to simply produce the taste of ramen in my head - I can only remember that it is savory and salty. Though it seems that I am able to compare tastes and smells (I know one ramen tastes differently from the next, even if they may both be salty and savory). Does this mean I can subconsciously replicate those sense data? Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "dislqey", "c_root_id_B": "disjnh8", "created_at_utc_A": 1497273650, "created_at_utc_B": 1497270261, "score_A": 114, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Cognitive scientist here. Keep in mind that the pathways involved in memory recall are very different depending on the type of information intended. Visual information is easily recalled and recognized due to it being objectively useful to remember (navigation, object recognition, food seeking, mating, etc), however certain sensory information is rarely required to be recalled in such a way so the pathways are much weaker/nonexistent. You are able to recognize a smell very easily, especially with other cues (if you smell something and see the name, you will easily state that the name is correct or not). Likewise, you can detect if that smell is beneficial or harmful very easily. However there is not much use in, and thus you don't get a lot of practice in, remembering the smell or taste itself. Humans do not use smell for object recognition (we prefer to rely on vision information for this, unlike other animals such as dogs) nor for communication (we rely on audiovisual information, unlike ants) and so these pathways, while able to exist (see blind case studies) do not get as much use and so recalling a smell or taste can be very difficult for us (without practice).", "human_ref_B": "This thread contains lots of answers with personal anecdotes and speculation; these will be removed. Please add peer-reviewed sources to your answer. Note that magazine articles (printed or online) are typically *not* peer-reviewed and thus are not a suitable source (for more info, see here).  If the answer boils down to \"we don't know (yet)\", or the question's premises/assumptions are not met, you may also provide:   * research questions that encompass OP's question and are also unanswered, * research questions that are tangentially related * or more generally, publications that illustrate the difficulty of answering OP's question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3389.0, "score_ratio": 114.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mfl0do", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If temperature is the cumulative speed of molecules in a material, what exactly produces the infra-red light we commonly associate as heat?", "c_root_id_A": "gsobncs", "c_root_id_B": "gso3zq0", "created_at_utc_A": 1617016258, "created_at_utc_B": 1617009147, "score_A": 143, "score_B": 96, "human_ref_A": "In classical thermodynamics, temperature can be associated with the distribution of velocities of particles (not only molecules) - the wider the distribution, the higher the speed of particles on average, and the higher the temperature.  At the microscopic level, particles can lose some energy related to this motion and radiate it away. This can be the energy level of electron orbitals, rotations and vibrations of molecules, lattice vibrations in a material, etc. The spectrum of light produced by thermal radiation depends only on temperature. You can calculate it, and it just so happens that it peaks close to the infrared for everyday temperatures. For temperatures close to those near the surface of the Sun (\\~6000K), it peaks at visible light.", "human_ref_B": "Everything produces a spectrum of light, but the exact wavelength distribution depends on how hot it is, and on the details of the chemical composition. The temperature sets the broad shape of the spectrum, which looks like this. This \"thermal emission\" gives light in a lot of wavelengths, but for each temperature there is a broad peak of wavelengths, and long tails of less emission.  As things get hotter, they emit at shorter and shorter wavelengths (higher and higher frequencies). So, as you increase the temperature of an object, it will start to visibly glow red, then orange, then yellow, then white, then blue. (The peak is broad enough that you don't get a green glow - you get a mix of colours that add up to white-ish). The basic law is that if you double the temperature (in Kelvin or Rankine I guess]), you double the frequency.  Additionally, the whole spectrum gets brighter as you increase the temperature. A yellow-hot element emits more red light than a red-hot element, but on top of that it also emits so much yellow that you can't see the red very well. This is a dramatic effect: an object that's twice as hot will produce 16x as much emission.  However, things at room temperature are too cold to emit in visible light. Instead, they emit light just below visible frequencies - in the infrared instead. But, as things get hotter, they emit higher frequency infrared light, as well as more intense infrared light at lower frequencies. So, at typical Earth temperatures, everything is emitting infrared, and warmer things are emitting more infrared, and it works as \"heat vision\".  This is all for \"ideal blackbodies\" though. In reality, things are not perfect at thermal emission. You get a more complex spectrum, because molecules have complex interactions and prefer to emit or absorb light of specific frequencies. You can see this in the Sun's spectrum, [which is all chopped up. At room temperature, these complications dominate the emission, which is why most objects have visible colour based on their chemical and physical properties other than temperature. But in the infrared, they do have an effect too, so you're not *only* looking at temperature in the infrared.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7111.0, "score_ratio": 1.4895833333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mfl0do", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If temperature is the cumulative speed of molecules in a material, what exactly produces the infra-red light we commonly associate as heat?", "c_root_id_A": "gspmorq", "c_root_id_B": "gsoyk2p", "created_at_utc_A": 1617040678, "created_at_utc_B": 1617029631, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The easiest way to think about it is that you have a material made up of charged particles, and those particles always interact with the electromagnetic field. The nature of the interaction is not too important, but some of the other answers already gave some examples -- any time a particle accelerates, it produces light, any time you have a collision (say, of a phonon with a lattice defect) you can emit light, and so on.  The exact nature of the most important interactions will depend on the material. For example, we think of phonons in crystal lattices, not in liquids, but both radiate. The central point is that the stuff the material is made of is charged, and so interacts with the electromagnetic field. You can think of that as the material being _in contact with_ the electromagnetic field in the same sense as in simple problems where a block of ice is in contact with some liquid water: the tendency will be for the two objects to try to achieve thermal equilibrium, which will result in a heat flow from the hot body to the cold \"body\". That heat flow is what we see (at everyday temperatures) as infrared radiation.", "human_ref_B": "other excellent replies aside, you're asking about two different things. molecular motion as temperature is different from thermal radiation as temperature. the atmosphere at a certain temperature imparts heat directly to your skin, for example, as molecules hit your skin and transfer momentum, infrared not required (convection). the net result is that your skin is approximately the same temperature as the air. radiant heat, as infrared, imparts heat to your skin as radiation that transfers momentum by absorption (radiative transfer), like if you're sitting in front of a fire, it warms you without touching the flame. if you're then asking how one causes the other, blackbody radiation is the answer, but heat transfer is usually a complex mix of convection and radiative transfer.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11047.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jdra5m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If Noah's Ark were real, and the entire world were reduced to three reproductive couples, how many years could humanity last until the gene mixing made us unviable as species?", "c_root_id_A": "g9bcm4s", "c_root_id_B": "g9akn6f", "created_at_utc_A": 1603108473, "created_at_utc_B": 1603080504, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "One breeding pair can save a species if and only if you're lucky and deleterious recessive alleles are not present. And they don't end up doing of communicable disease or something due to extremely low genetic diversity.  Larger population helps but ultimately what has to happen at very low populations, whether 2 or 20 or 200, is inbreeding depression needs to be cancelled out by natural selection. Namely, anything that seriously hurts selective fitness that's somewhat rare and recessive needs to do enough damage that it's bred out of the population before the population goes extinct. There are many animal and probably even some small isolated human groups where this has occurred.  The next problem is that with so little population, genetic drift could wipe out most of the existing, already limited genetic diversity for no survival-important reason. This means that in  the post-bottleneck populations, you will have a less diverse genepool which gives everything the sameweaknesses. That's fine if they are in some controlled lab environment where you just make sure they never are exposed to those weaknesses, but in the real world it's quite common that a population bottleneck occurred, causing inbreeding depression, causing a second bottleneck or steepening of the first, removing the dangerous recessives, which allows the population to increase again. Then conditions change and the population goes into yet another bottleneck as they all die to exactly the same thing. So for example a particularly dangerous one is disease because once the population begins booming again it increases the odds of getting a disease, and once the disease strikes it affects every individual organism in the same way. Roll  those dice enough and the population rolls a natural 1.    So you have:   1. Contracting population.   2. Inbreeding depression further contracts population in a vicious cycle.   3. Possible extinction if population can't pull out of the nosedive, or selective elimination of deleterious recessive alleles.   4. Genetic drift causes some alleles to be lost permanently from the population, reducing genetic diversity.   5. The now selectively fit but not diverse population booms to fill it's old niche again.   6. Extremely harsh population crashes occur due to diseases as a result of lack of genetic diversity, kicking the cycle back to stage 5 or driving it extinct.   7. Eventually the population either goes completely extinct or slowly gets new genetic diversity either from outbreeding or mutation. Bottlenecks stop.", "human_ref_B": "Biology student here (about to get a bachelor's).   The extent of viability really relies on one major factor - do they have any recessive disease genes.  Inbreeding brings those out very quickly - the royal family still had to worry to some extent about hemophilia because of generations of inbreeding.   Mutations do occur, but not at a rate that would guarantee us survival.  It only happens in less than 1% of viable offspring (if I remember genetics correctly).  It's not a rate that we can count on to provide us with a significant genetic diversity.   We've saved species from the brink before - california condors come to mind, they were down to about 100 breeding pairs).  And you can see the genetic bottleneck in their genome.    Realistically in a few short generations many genes would become locked in due to lack of diversity. And we dont have any close species to crossbreed with to help us reestablish diversity.   Ultimately, I don't think 3 breeding pairs would be enough to save the species.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27969.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jdra5m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If Noah's Ark were real, and the entire world were reduced to three reproductive couples, how many years could humanity last until the gene mixing made us unviable as species?", "c_root_id_A": "g9bcm4s", "c_root_id_B": "g9afln5", "created_at_utc_A": 1603108473, "created_at_utc_B": 1603077169, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "One breeding pair can save a species if and only if you're lucky and deleterious recessive alleles are not present. And they don't end up doing of communicable disease or something due to extremely low genetic diversity.  Larger population helps but ultimately what has to happen at very low populations, whether 2 or 20 or 200, is inbreeding depression needs to be cancelled out by natural selection. Namely, anything that seriously hurts selective fitness that's somewhat rare and recessive needs to do enough damage that it's bred out of the population before the population goes extinct. There are many animal and probably even some small isolated human groups where this has occurred.  The next problem is that with so little population, genetic drift could wipe out most of the existing, already limited genetic diversity for no survival-important reason. This means that in  the post-bottleneck populations, you will have a less diverse genepool which gives everything the sameweaknesses. That's fine if they are in some controlled lab environment where you just make sure they never are exposed to those weaknesses, but in the real world it's quite common that a population bottleneck occurred, causing inbreeding depression, causing a second bottleneck or steepening of the first, removing the dangerous recessives, which allows the population to increase again. Then conditions change and the population goes into yet another bottleneck as they all die to exactly the same thing. So for example a particularly dangerous one is disease because once the population begins booming again it increases the odds of getting a disease, and once the disease strikes it affects every individual organism in the same way. Roll  those dice enough and the population rolls a natural 1.    So you have:   1. Contracting population.   2. Inbreeding depression further contracts population in a vicious cycle.   3. Possible extinction if population can't pull out of the nosedive, or selective elimination of deleterious recessive alleles.   4. Genetic drift causes some alleles to be lost permanently from the population, reducing genetic diversity.   5. The now selectively fit but not diverse population booms to fill it's old niche again.   6. Extremely harsh population crashes occur due to diseases as a result of lack of genetic diversity, kicking the cycle back to stage 5 or driving it extinct.   7. Eventually the population either goes completely extinct or slowly gets new genetic diversity either from outbreeding or mutation. Bottlenecks stop.", "human_ref_B": "Hmmm... If we assuming the following, \"unviable\"will not happen  1. Random mutations happen normally  2. The 3 couples have no relation  3. All of them and all of their multiple descendents pass on their genetic material. The population pool always increases.  4. The visibly \"defective\" offsprings do not pass on their genetic materials  5. No disease that will wipe out the population that is genetically extremely similar  The Egyptian dynasty that Cleopatra belonged to is actually of Greek lineage. Ptolemy, who was one of Alexander the Great's generals took over Egypt after Alexander died. And in order to preserve the purity of the bloodline of the dynasty, siblings intermarried. whenever there is intermarriage between close relatives, many of the recessive genetic traits actually surface. If those genotypes were weeded out it could in theory create a gene pool without anymore recessive genotype that have detrimental characteristic...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31304.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jdra5m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If Noah's Ark were real, and the entire world were reduced to three reproductive couples, how many years could humanity last until the gene mixing made us unviable as species?", "c_root_id_A": "g9afln5", "c_root_id_B": "g9akn6f", "created_at_utc_A": 1603077169, "created_at_utc_B": 1603080504, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Hmmm... If we assuming the following, \"unviable\"will not happen  1. Random mutations happen normally  2. The 3 couples have no relation  3. All of them and all of their multiple descendents pass on their genetic material. The population pool always increases.  4. The visibly \"defective\" offsprings do not pass on their genetic materials  5. No disease that will wipe out the population that is genetically extremely similar  The Egyptian dynasty that Cleopatra belonged to is actually of Greek lineage. Ptolemy, who was one of Alexander the Great's generals took over Egypt after Alexander died. And in order to preserve the purity of the bloodline of the dynasty, siblings intermarried. whenever there is intermarriage between close relatives, many of the recessive genetic traits actually surface. If those genotypes were weeded out it could in theory create a gene pool without anymore recessive genotype that have detrimental characteristic...", "human_ref_B": "Biology student here (about to get a bachelor's).   The extent of viability really relies on one major factor - do they have any recessive disease genes.  Inbreeding brings those out very quickly - the royal family still had to worry to some extent about hemophilia because of generations of inbreeding.   Mutations do occur, but not at a rate that would guarantee us survival.  It only happens in less than 1% of viable offspring (if I remember genetics correctly).  It's not a rate that we can count on to provide us with a significant genetic diversity.   We've saved species from the brink before - california condors come to mind, they were down to about 100 breeding pairs).  And you can see the genetic bottleneck in their genome.    Realistically in a few short generations many genes would become locked in due to lack of diversity. And we dont have any close species to crossbreed with to help us reestablish diversity.   Ultimately, I don't think 3 breeding pairs would be enough to save the species.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3335.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14yfmm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How are photons in light bent by stars if they don't interact with the higgs field? They must not interact with the higgs field, by my assumption, because they have no mass... but Einstein proved that  light is affected by gravity, so how does that interaction work?", "c_root_id_A": "c7hlfmi", "c_root_id_B": "c7hkuji", "created_at_utc_A": 1355694120, "created_at_utc_B": 1355692053, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The Higgs mechanism describes how some particles get mass. General relativity describes how objects gravitate once they have energy or mass. These are separate topics and they shouldn't be confused with one another.", "human_ref_B": "Think of gravity more as a curvature of space than an actual force.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2067.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14yfmm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How are photons in light bent by stars if they don't interact with the higgs field? They must not interact with the higgs field, by my assumption, because they have no mass... but Einstein proved that  light is affected by gravity, so how does that interaction work?", "c_root_id_A": "c7hlfmi", "c_root_id_B": "c7hkuuq", "created_at_utc_A": 1355694120, "created_at_utc_B": 1355692084, "score_A": 5, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "The Higgs mechanism describes how some particles get mass. General relativity describes how objects gravitate once they have energy or mass. These are separate topics and they shouldn't be confused with one another.", "human_ref_B": "What you're asking, if I'm not mistaken, is why light is bent by stars, but at a quantum level it doesn't seem to make sense. Well, the first thing we need to clear up is that the effects of quantum physics are minute, and cancel each other out when you get to the larger scales of matter. Appearing and disappearing neutrinos, gluons, quarks, and hadrons don't really affect the concrete structure of a building so much, and the same is true of light and and higgs bosons.   Second, Einstein also pointed out that energy and matter are functionally related, which is how he came up with the concept of space-time. As the gravity in an area increases, the space physically warps: Think of it like putting plastic wrap over a bowl, and then putting an orange in the middle. The film bends around the orange in much the same way that the Sun bends the space around it so that the planets follow in its orbit.   Now, let's have a thought experiment - Say we shine a beam of light that follows a straight path along the plastic film, from one end to the other. If the film is flat, the light will take time to arrive at the other side of the bowl. If the light has to cross the indentation caused by the orange, it will take longer to get to the other side because it is physically crossing a larger distance at the same speed.   What's happening isn't occurring to the light, but to the space around it.  I hope that helps!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2036.0, "score_ratio": -5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14yfmm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How are photons in light bent by stars if they don't interact with the higgs field? They must not interact with the higgs field, by my assumption, because they have no mass... but Einstein proved that  light is affected by gravity, so how does that interaction work?", "c_root_id_A": "c7hq5fl", "c_root_id_B": "c7hkuuq", "created_at_utc_A": 1355711040, "created_at_utc_B": 1355692084, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Photons aren't bent by gravity, photons follow straight paths in space-time.  Space-time however, is curved by gravity.", "human_ref_B": "What you're asking, if I'm not mistaken, is why light is bent by stars, but at a quantum level it doesn't seem to make sense. Well, the first thing we need to clear up is that the effects of quantum physics are minute, and cancel each other out when you get to the larger scales of matter. Appearing and disappearing neutrinos, gluons, quarks, and hadrons don't really affect the concrete structure of a building so much, and the same is true of light and and higgs bosons.   Second, Einstein also pointed out that energy and matter are functionally related, which is how he came up with the concept of space-time. As the gravity in an area increases, the space physically warps: Think of it like putting plastic wrap over a bowl, and then putting an orange in the middle. The film bends around the orange in much the same way that the Sun bends the space around it so that the planets follow in its orbit.   Now, let's have a thought experiment - Say we shine a beam of light that follows a straight path along the plastic film, from one end to the other. If the film is flat, the light will take time to arrive at the other side of the bowl. If the light has to cross the indentation caused by the orange, it will take longer to get to the other side because it is physically crossing a larger distance at the same speed.   What's happening isn't occurring to the light, but to the space around it.  I hope that helps!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18956.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "185kyw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "In the double slit experiment of electrons are we to take literally that the very act of observing an electron going one slit affects whether the electron behaves as a particle or a probability wave? Are we literally changing the properties of matter merely by observing? I feel like I am unaware of some element of the double-slit experiment. The fact that electrons can behave as probabilities and enter both slits (when unobserved) at the same time is strange enough. But in every explanation of this experiment, it seems that the act of observing or measuring, and where you are observing and measuring the experiment affects the results. How can this be? Are there any current theories to explain?", "c_root_id_A": "c8bwzxs", "c_root_id_B": "c8bu2s8", "created_at_utc_A": 1360372607, "created_at_utc_B": 1360362810, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This is a very deep issue. There are several theorems in quantum physics, backed up by experiments, which *very* sharply constrain (i.e. prevent) any possible interpretation that ultimately makes an electron something like a \"classical particle\". I say this up front to dispel first of all the idea of interpreting QM *only* as an observer effect. Despite the apparently large number of distinct 'interpretations' this is by far the most important split: whether or not they try to evade the basic conclusion that classical physical quantities are gone, except as appropriate limits of their quantum counterparts.  Frankly the ones that do try to avoid this aren't worth taking very seriously. They include the \"nonlocal realistic\" models, including the Bohm interpretation, and various \"dynamical collapse\" theories. They all have one huge problem: They require signals to travel outside the lightcone, in violation of special relativity. The interpretations that embrace the basic assumption that classical quantities simply don't exist don't have this problem: They still predict the *seemingly* non-local phenomena we see in EPR type experiments, but they do so in a totally local way. (If you're familiar with EPR and Bell's theorem, this comes down to the fact that any comparison of measurement results by distant experimenters is actually a measurement process. In other words, the distant measurement result doesn't actually exist until you communicate to find out what it is.)  On the other hand, there is the traditional 'Copenhagen' interpretation, its slight update to the Consistent Histories, and finally Everett's Many Worlds. These all basically embrace the fact that QM isn't like classical mechanics.  If you like here are some broad discussions of the status of various interpretations:  The interpretation of quantum mechanics: where do we stand?  Do we really understand quantum mechanics?  The Quantum Measurement Problem: State of Play  Feel free to ask me anything. To be honest its impossible to have a good grasp on this question without spending some time wrestling with the theorems I mentioned, and a very disappointingly small number of physicists actually have.", "human_ref_B": "There's one explanation that I like, it's commonly known as the Many Worlds interpretation but Relative State is probably a better name. Since the electron behaves as if it went through both slits, the easiest explanation is that this is really what's happening. The electron goes both ways, and since both paths end up at the detector with no difference between the two outcomes, they end up in the same \"world\" and interfere. The key is that your observation is not different from any other interaction. When a quantum system (like a measurement device) interacts with the electron to detect which slit it went through, there are two paths, and two different measurement results (the measurement device is designed to become dependent on which path the electron took). Now you have a device that sees the electron going through the left slit, and another separate device that sees the electron going into the right slit (just as there were two separate paths for the electron to get to the screen). And then when you look at the result on the measurement device, you also split into two separate sub-systems that see different results. Since there's one of you for each result, the appearance of randomness in quantum measurements is much easier to explain. The results of the measurement spread out into the environment in an entropic and irreversible way, and the electron looks like it \"collapsed\" into one state because from then on, it's entangled with the environment and anything in the environment will have to be lined up with one of the states.   The best part? The measurement problem disappears entirely, measurement is explained only in terms of entanglement and decoherence that are already part of the theory, and no separate technique is required to understand it. All particles always act like waves. The not so good parts? We don't know how to verify the probability law we use to find out which \"world\" we end up in (we know what it is, we just can't prove why.). Also the idea of constantly splitting universes is unsettling for many people. I would say that if large molecules being in two states at once didn't upset you, then even bigger collections of particles being in two states at once shouldn't be a problem.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9797.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "185kyw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "In the double slit experiment of electrons are we to take literally that the very act of observing an electron going one slit affects whether the electron behaves as a particle or a probability wave? Are we literally changing the properties of matter merely by observing? I feel like I am unaware of some element of the double-slit experiment. The fact that electrons can behave as probabilities and enter both slits (when unobserved) at the same time is strange enough. But in every explanation of this experiment, it seems that the act of observing or measuring, and where you are observing and measuring the experiment affects the results. How can this be? Are there any current theories to explain?", "c_root_id_A": "c8bwzxs", "c_root_id_B": "c8bunyu", "created_at_utc_A": 1360372607, "created_at_utc_B": 1360364748, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "This is a very deep issue. There are several theorems in quantum physics, backed up by experiments, which *very* sharply constrain (i.e. prevent) any possible interpretation that ultimately makes an electron something like a \"classical particle\". I say this up front to dispel first of all the idea of interpreting QM *only* as an observer effect. Despite the apparently large number of distinct 'interpretations' this is by far the most important split: whether or not they try to evade the basic conclusion that classical physical quantities are gone, except as appropriate limits of their quantum counterparts.  Frankly the ones that do try to avoid this aren't worth taking very seriously. They include the \"nonlocal realistic\" models, including the Bohm interpretation, and various \"dynamical collapse\" theories. They all have one huge problem: They require signals to travel outside the lightcone, in violation of special relativity. The interpretations that embrace the basic assumption that classical quantities simply don't exist don't have this problem: They still predict the *seemingly* non-local phenomena we see in EPR type experiments, but they do so in a totally local way. (If you're familiar with EPR and Bell's theorem, this comes down to the fact that any comparison of measurement results by distant experimenters is actually a measurement process. In other words, the distant measurement result doesn't actually exist until you communicate to find out what it is.)  On the other hand, there is the traditional 'Copenhagen' interpretation, its slight update to the Consistent Histories, and finally Everett's Many Worlds. These all basically embrace the fact that QM isn't like classical mechanics.  If you like here are some broad discussions of the status of various interpretations:  The interpretation of quantum mechanics: where do we stand?  Do we really understand quantum mechanics?  The Quantum Measurement Problem: State of Play  Feel free to ask me anything. To be honest its impossible to have a good grasp on this question without spending some time wrestling with the theorems I mentioned, and a very disappointingly small number of physicists actually have.", "human_ref_B": "No that is not the conclusion to take at all. The conclusion is that electrons have wavelike properties.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7859.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "185kyw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "In the double slit experiment of electrons are we to take literally that the very act of observing an electron going one slit affects whether the electron behaves as a particle or a probability wave? Are we literally changing the properties of matter merely by observing? I feel like I am unaware of some element of the double-slit experiment. The fact that electrons can behave as probabilities and enter both slits (when unobserved) at the same time is strange enough. But in every explanation of this experiment, it seems that the act of observing or measuring, and where you are observing and measuring the experiment affects the results. How can this be? Are there any current theories to explain?", "c_root_id_A": "c8bwzxs", "c_root_id_B": "c8bv8jq", "created_at_utc_A": 1360372607, "created_at_utc_B": 1360366675, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "This is a very deep issue. There are several theorems in quantum physics, backed up by experiments, which *very* sharply constrain (i.e. prevent) any possible interpretation that ultimately makes an electron something like a \"classical particle\". I say this up front to dispel first of all the idea of interpreting QM *only* as an observer effect. Despite the apparently large number of distinct 'interpretations' this is by far the most important split: whether or not they try to evade the basic conclusion that classical physical quantities are gone, except as appropriate limits of their quantum counterparts.  Frankly the ones that do try to avoid this aren't worth taking very seriously. They include the \"nonlocal realistic\" models, including the Bohm interpretation, and various \"dynamical collapse\" theories. They all have one huge problem: They require signals to travel outside the lightcone, in violation of special relativity. The interpretations that embrace the basic assumption that classical quantities simply don't exist don't have this problem: They still predict the *seemingly* non-local phenomena we see in EPR type experiments, but they do so in a totally local way. (If you're familiar with EPR and Bell's theorem, this comes down to the fact that any comparison of measurement results by distant experimenters is actually a measurement process. In other words, the distant measurement result doesn't actually exist until you communicate to find out what it is.)  On the other hand, there is the traditional 'Copenhagen' interpretation, its slight update to the Consistent Histories, and finally Everett's Many Worlds. These all basically embrace the fact that QM isn't like classical mechanics.  If you like here are some broad discussions of the status of various interpretations:  The interpretation of quantum mechanics: where do we stand?  Do we really understand quantum mechanics?  The Quantum Measurement Problem: State of Play  Feel free to ask me anything. To be honest its impossible to have a good grasp on this question without spending some time wrestling with the theorems I mentioned, and a very disappointingly small number of physicists actually have.", "human_ref_B": "TL; DR The issue is what is actually meant by the term \"observation\".   Really what is meant in this situation is MEASUREMENT. Measurement is active, observation is passive. For example, monitoring for something with an infrared beam versus just watching with your eyes. The infrared beam has to interact with whatever you are monitoring for in order to know its there. Your eyes just take in whatever photons are bouncing around.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5932.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "185kyw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "In the double slit experiment of electrons are we to take literally that the very act of observing an electron going one slit affects whether the electron behaves as a particle or a probability wave? Are we literally changing the properties of matter merely by observing? I feel like I am unaware of some element of the double-slit experiment. The fact that electrons can behave as probabilities and enter both slits (when unobserved) at the same time is strange enough. But in every explanation of this experiment, it seems that the act of observing or measuring, and where you are observing and measuring the experiment affects the results. How can this be? Are there any current theories to explain?", "c_root_id_A": "c8bunyu", "c_root_id_B": "c8c2qxv", "created_at_utc_A": 1360364748, "created_at_utc_B": 1360397798, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "No that is not the conclusion to take at all. The conclusion is that electrons have wavelike properties.", "human_ref_B": "If you want to put in a few hours to understand it, this series of articles will do the trick http://lesswrong.com/lw/r6/an_intuitive_explanation_of_quantum_mechanics/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33050.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "185kyw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "In the double slit experiment of electrons are we to take literally that the very act of observing an electron going one slit affects whether the electron behaves as a particle or a probability wave? Are we literally changing the properties of matter merely by observing? I feel like I am unaware of some element of the double-slit experiment. The fact that electrons can behave as probabilities and enter both slits (when unobserved) at the same time is strange enough. But in every explanation of this experiment, it seems that the act of observing or measuring, and where you are observing and measuring the experiment affects the results. How can this be? Are there any current theories to explain?", "c_root_id_A": "c8c2qxv", "c_root_id_B": "c8bv8jq", "created_at_utc_A": 1360397798, "created_at_utc_B": 1360366675, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "If you want to put in a few hours to understand it, this series of articles will do the trick http://lesswrong.com/lw/r6/an_intuitive_explanation_of_quantum_mechanics/", "human_ref_B": "TL; DR The issue is what is actually meant by the term \"observation\".   Really what is meant in this situation is MEASUREMENT. Measurement is active, observation is passive. For example, monitoring for something with an infrared beam versus just watching with your eyes. The infrared beam has to interact with whatever you are monitoring for in order to know its there. Your eyes just take in whatever photons are bouncing around.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31123.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1u5dgf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "To my knowledge, the length at which a column of titanium will break if supported only at the top is 29.4km. Does the radius of the column have any effect on this? What about whether or not the column is solid (i.e., whether it's actually a tube)?", "c_root_id_A": "ceewkrz", "c_root_id_B": "ceeyu63", "created_at_utc_A": 1388605131, "created_at_utc_B": 1388610901, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Short answer: yes.  The width adds weight as well as strength.  This occurs proportionally regardless of how wide you make it. So while making it wider makes the column stronger, the additional weight will still result in you reaching your breaking point at 29.4km.", "human_ref_B": "The relevant measure is stress=S, in units of force per area. Say the rod breaks at stress S*.  The weight of the rod is W=g * density * length * area, and so S=W/area. So we see S* > g * density * length in order for the rod to not break. That is, for a given material, the only variable that determines whether a given material will break is the length.  This is a \"first order\" approximation, meaning it is ballpark correct. But tricky things can happen if the material has a more complex stress/strain relationship or the column shape is odd. But as a good estimate, the column break only depends on the length and not the radius or the shape.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5770.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "k31qe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why is there an orbital \"Goldilocks zone\"? Couldn't life use geothermal energy? I may be incorrect in my assumptions, but the idea of a Goldilocks zone is that life-bearing planets should be within a relatively narrow orbital band around a star. This implies that planets too close are too hot for life, and planets too far are too cold. But with life that uses geothermal energy, isn't a planet being far away a non-issue? Why do we focus on planets in this narrow zone?", "c_root_id_A": "c2h50ur", "c_root_id_B": "c2h52hg", "created_at_utc_A": 1315013161, "created_at_utc_B": 1315013623, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Disclaimer: I am a layman.  While it is certainly possible that life can develop outside of the habitable zone, it seems unlikely. With our understanding, we believe that life requires liquid water to exist. While liquid water may exist in isolation outside of the habitable zone, unless extraneous circumstances occur (see: Europa, although the verdict is still out, I think), large oceans of liquid water exists only inside the habitable zone. Otherwise these small pools of water may only exist for a short time or be too chemically inhospitable if they occur outside the habitable zone.  I've got no sources to link to, this is pretty much a summary of a discussion from one of my astronomy classes.", "human_ref_B": "Short easy answer? If it is too close, it might turn into something like Venus or it could burn off what it needs for life. Sure, there COULD be life in something like that, but if there is, we have no clue how it works. Then on the flip side, if it's too far? It will cool off and not have an atmosphere. Mars HAS one, it's just VERY thin. When the inside of a planet cools, it loses its magnetosphere. This, in turn, will cause the atmosphere to slowly, but surely get stripped off. There is, however, places like moons that have atmosphere AND get some heat from the gas giant that they orbit. Europa) for example has a large sheet of ice which may have water under it. There then could be life in the vents there. It gets its heat from Jupiter and the other moons. This help any?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 462.0, "score_ratio": 12.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "k31qe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why is there an orbital \"Goldilocks zone\"? Couldn't life use geothermal energy? I may be incorrect in my assumptions, but the idea of a Goldilocks zone is that life-bearing planets should be within a relatively narrow orbital band around a star. This implies that planets too close are too hot for life, and planets too far are too cold. But with life that uses geothermal energy, isn't a planet being far away a non-issue? Why do we focus on planets in this narrow zone?", "c_root_id_A": "c2h50ur", "c_root_id_B": "c2h5b0q", "created_at_utc_A": 1315013161, "created_at_utc_B": 1315016058, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Disclaimer: I am a layman.  While it is certainly possible that life can develop outside of the habitable zone, it seems unlikely. With our understanding, we believe that life requires liquid water to exist. While liquid water may exist in isolation outside of the habitable zone, unless extraneous circumstances occur (see: Europa, although the verdict is still out, I think), large oceans of liquid water exists only inside the habitable zone. Otherwise these small pools of water may only exist for a short time or be too chemically inhospitable if they occur outside the habitable zone.  I've got no sources to link to, this is pretty much a summary of a discussion from one of my astronomy classes.", "human_ref_B": "The Goldilocks Zone is only based on what we know about the possible habitats for life. One of the specific points made about the habitable zone is that it is entirely flexible, based on changes in evidence. If we were to find biological life on one of the moons of Saturn or Jupiter, then the habitable zone of Sun-like stars would be increased significantly.  Obviously, that wouldn't mean that it's as clear and cut as simply saying that a planet x distance from a star of y size will be able to support life. When geothermal heating is thrown into the equation you get a lot of new variables that make it far more difficult to draw up a basic theory or equation for where life can or will exist.  Essentially, to answer your question, scientists cannot change the size of the habitable zone until there is evidence to support that change.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2897.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "k31qe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why is there an orbital \"Goldilocks zone\"? Couldn't life use geothermal energy? I may be incorrect in my assumptions, but the idea of a Goldilocks zone is that life-bearing planets should be within a relatively narrow orbital band around a star. This implies that planets too close are too hot for life, and planets too far are too cold. But with life that uses geothermal energy, isn't a planet being far away a non-issue? Why do we focus on planets in this narrow zone?", "c_root_id_A": "c2h5jhe", "c_root_id_B": "c2h50ur", "created_at_utc_A": 1315018501, "created_at_utc_B": 1315013161, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Sure it can, but it won't diversify as much. Living from geothermal energy is a pretty big habitat reducer and it highly conditions the organisms, keeping them in intense struggle against environment and competitors (smaller habitats), from diversifying (natural selection and random mutations experimenting designs) and/or spreading.", "human_ref_B": "Disclaimer: I am a layman.  While it is certainly possible that life can develop outside of the habitable zone, it seems unlikely. With our understanding, we believe that life requires liquid water to exist. While liquid water may exist in isolation outside of the habitable zone, unless extraneous circumstances occur (see: Europa, although the verdict is still out, I think), large oceans of liquid water exists only inside the habitable zone. Otherwise these small pools of water may only exist for a short time or be too chemically inhospitable if they occur outside the habitable zone.  I've got no sources to link to, this is pretty much a summary of a discussion from one of my astronomy classes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5340.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "k31qe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why is there an orbital \"Goldilocks zone\"? Couldn't life use geothermal energy? I may be incorrect in my assumptions, but the idea of a Goldilocks zone is that life-bearing planets should be within a relatively narrow orbital band around a star. This implies that planets too close are too hot for life, and planets too far are too cold. But with life that uses geothermal energy, isn't a planet being far away a non-issue? Why do we focus on planets in this narrow zone?", "c_root_id_A": "c2h5dtr", "c_root_id_B": "c2h5jhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1315016864, "created_at_utc_B": 1315018501, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It has a lot to do with all the places we have discovered life (Earth) and all the places we haven't seen life (anywhere else).  Until we discover life kicking it on somewhere other than earth, this logic will persist.", "human_ref_B": "Sure it can, but it won't diversify as much. Living from geothermal energy is a pretty big habitat reducer and it highly conditions the organisms, keeping them in intense struggle against environment and competitors (smaller habitats), from diversifying (natural selection and random mutations experimenting designs) and/or spreading.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1637.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2osd7f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "[Statistics] I have two boxes - there's a ball in one of them (50/50 chance) - if I search 50% of one box and don't find the ball, has the odds that it's in the other box gone up, or is it still 50/50 since the search is incomplete? Came across this when discussing the search for MH370 and wasn't sure.", "c_root_id_A": "cmqnx2h", "c_root_id_B": "cmqj38x", "created_at_utc_A": 1418205724, "created_at_utc_B": 1418188509, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The answers that have been given so far regarding Bayes' rule are all valid, but it's fun to think about what the assumptions you make when you say \"50% of one box\" might be. Crucially, let's consider what happens if (1) the ball has non-trivial volume and (2) if the searched area has a complicated perimeter.  For the sake of argument, imagine that Box 1 has a chess board pattern its base, and the ball is a baseball. Let's further specify that we discover the baseball if *any part of it* overhangs a square that we search. Because the radius of the baseball is rather large (i.e. larger than one square on the grid), we will need to search less than half the squares to reach a 50% likelihood of having discovered the baseball. Furthermore, it makes a difference which squares we search: Since the box has walls, we can discover the ball 100% of the time, even if we omit the 28 \"edge squares\" from our search area; this turns a 64-square search into a 36 square search. If the ball is not in the box, we can *rule out* its presence by exploring only those 36 inner squares.  So, we can rule out the edge squares. Can we do better? Well, given the size of the ball, we can also ignore all the black squares and only search the white squares in that inner region. That reduces the search zone from 36 squares to 18 squares. In other words: We can get to 100% certainty about the box searching only 28% (18/64) of the squares. This strategy works because the discovery of the ball depends in part on the *perimeter* of the search zone, rather than depending only on its area. The longer the perimeter, the greater the chance of touching the ball. This logic can be pushed to quite absurd extremes. By subdividing the chessboard into smaller squares, you can reduce the search area to very nearly 0% of the box so long as the points you search create a grid that the baseball can't pass through.  Of course, if the ball has a radius of zero and is merely a point, then the perimeter makes no difference because we won't know we've found the point until we're right on top of it. But in practice, nothing we would reasonably search for has zero volume.  In the case of MH370, the problem becomes even more interesting: Unlike the baseball (which is solid - we know if when we bump into it), the odds of discovering the wreckage is a function of how close you are to it: Rather than being a ball, it's more like a cloud. Since the cloud has a radius, the shape of the search region matters; but, since it's diffuse, we can't get the sort of 100% certainty we can get with the baseball. Now, discovering the odds starts to get pretty tricky, because some squares are *more likely* to turn up evidence of the object, but you still need to check all of them to entirely rule out the presence of the object. Choosing the most effective search strategy is now quite complicated.  Notice that all of this has become a mess without having challenged the assumption that the odds of every position are as good as any other. If the odds associated with location of the object in the box is not *uniform*, then the most-fruitful-search is even more complicated to optimize, because the answer depends on our prior beliefs about which locations are more likely.  So, to summarize: Depending on the size and solidity of the ball in question, the odds of the ball being in the other box *will* go up due to Bayes' rule, but the amount by which it goes up depends on a *lot* of assumptions.", "human_ref_B": "Like the Monty Hall problem the correct qualitative answer is obvious if we exaggerate the numbers. Say you have 100 boxes, only 1 of those boxes has a ball in it. Now if you search 99 of the boxes without finding the ball, what is the probability that it's in the 100^th box?   Obviously the answer is 1, showing that yes, searching and finding a negative will increase the odds that it's in the remaining options.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17215.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3sausb", "c_root_id_B": "c3sb9mp", "created_at_utc_A": 1329512149, "created_at_utc_B": 1329514322, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Perhaps as an addendum:  does the fact that a lot of the food we eat (especially meat & vegetables) has high water content... for lack of a better term... \"interact\" with the boiling water?", "human_ref_B": "Boiling water assumes a water temperature of 100 degrees Celsius; this is the temperature where liquid water turns into vapor (at 1 atmosphere) -- this is the point at which the vapor pressure of the water is equal to the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.  All energy input is driven into the dissipation of water vapor, so it's very stable.  The major issue with using the boiling point of water is that it's pressure sensitive.  The boiling point of water at sea-level is 100 degrees but the boiling point of water at altitude is significantly lower (the boiling point of water on Mt. Everest is 69 degrees Celsius).  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_water.svg  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point  In terms of cooking; water is exceptionally good at conducting heat, so the goal of cooking is to raise the internal temperature of whatever it is you are eating to a certain level for a certain amount of time to kill off pathogens.  Cooking at boiling means you are putting as much energy as possible into the food to raise its temperature to a point where it kills bacteria in a minimum of time.  This is why pressure cookers are so fast at cooking; they raise the boiling point of water by increasing pressure, thus ensuring the food's internal temperature is raised much more quickly.    Check out Sous-vide cooking to see the opposite; cooking at low temperatures for very long times (it introduces risk of bacterial growth, so these low temperatures must be highly monitored and consistent).  A further aside; with starches, there is a temperature at which starch gelatinizes and becomes soft / digestible.  We cook pasta with boiling water as the starch needs to be between 65 and 85 degrees C to undergo gelatinization.   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch_gelatinization", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2173.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3sb9mp", "c_root_id_B": "c3saq2y", "created_at_utc_A": 1329514322, "created_at_utc_B": 1329511464, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Boiling water assumes a water temperature of 100 degrees Celsius; this is the temperature where liquid water turns into vapor (at 1 atmosphere) -- this is the point at which the vapor pressure of the water is equal to the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.  All energy input is driven into the dissipation of water vapor, so it's very stable.  The major issue with using the boiling point of water is that it's pressure sensitive.  The boiling point of water at sea-level is 100 degrees but the boiling point of water at altitude is significantly lower (the boiling point of water on Mt. Everest is 69 degrees Celsius).  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_water.svg  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point  In terms of cooking; water is exceptionally good at conducting heat, so the goal of cooking is to raise the internal temperature of whatever it is you are eating to a certain level for a certain amount of time to kill off pathogens.  Cooking at boiling means you are putting as much energy as possible into the food to raise its temperature to a point where it kills bacteria in a minimum of time.  This is why pressure cookers are so fast at cooking; they raise the boiling point of water by increasing pressure, thus ensuring the food's internal temperature is raised much more quickly.    Check out Sous-vide cooking to see the opposite; cooking at low temperatures for very long times (it introduces risk of bacterial growth, so these low temperatures must be highly monitored and consistent).  A further aside; with starches, there is a temperature at which starch gelatinizes and becomes soft / digestible.  We cook pasta with boiling water as the starch needs to be between 65 and 85 degrees C to undergo gelatinization.   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch_gelatinization", "human_ref_B": "I wouldn't say that it is \"hard\" to measure the temperature of water, you can use a cheap thermometer. That being said, boiling water for cooking is used so often because it is almost an ideal temperature to cook at. The USDA recommends most meats be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit. At around 212 degrees, boiling water will achieve this internal temperature in a reasonable amount of time. However it should be noted that a slow cooker will achieve an acceptable temperature in a longer time frame be using sub-boiling temperatures, likewise a pressure cooker will cook much faster because it can maintain liquid water at a higher temperature. Also, there are various degrees of \"boiling\" when it comes to cooking, each corresponding to a different temperature range.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2858.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3scmuh", "c_root_id_B": "c3sausb", "created_at_utc_A": 1329522114, "created_at_utc_B": 1329512149, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "All good comments, just let me add that boiling is as hot as you can get water without adding pressure. (pressure cooker) So the recipe might be interpreted as saying  - get your water as hot as you can make it at 1 atm, then cook the ______ in it.", "human_ref_B": "Perhaps as an addendum:  does the fact that a lot of the food we eat (especially meat & vegetables) has high water content... for lack of a better term... \"interact\" with the boiling water?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9965.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3scmuh", "c_root_id_B": "c3saq2y", "created_at_utc_A": 1329522114, "created_at_utc_B": 1329511464, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "All good comments, just let me add that boiling is as hot as you can get water without adding pressure. (pressure cooker) So the recipe might be interpreted as saying  - get your water as hot as you can make it at 1 atm, then cook the ______ in it.", "human_ref_B": "I wouldn't say that it is \"hard\" to measure the temperature of water, you can use a cheap thermometer. That being said, boiling water for cooking is used so often because it is almost an ideal temperature to cook at. The USDA recommends most meats be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit. At around 212 degrees, boiling water will achieve this internal temperature in a reasonable amount of time. However it should be noted that a slow cooker will achieve an acceptable temperature in a longer time frame be using sub-boiling temperatures, likewise a pressure cooker will cook much faster because it can maintain liquid water at a higher temperature. Also, there are various degrees of \"boiling\" when it comes to cooking, each corresponding to a different temperature range.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10650.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3sf5q5", "c_root_id_B": "c3sausb", "created_at_utc_A": 1329539762, "created_at_utc_B": 1329512149, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There is little difference between cooking at 98C and a rolling boil at 100C, but this does not hold well when cooking viscous masses of liquid. When making heavy stews, it is easy to have popping and boiling temperatures at the base of the pot and cooler temperatures near the top. You can scorch the bottom of your cookware doing this.   In any case, I find it is helpful to reach an aggressive rolling boil when starting a light broth before dumping in cold pieces of meat or vegetables because the coil starts out at a hot temperature with surplus heat capacity before things cool down when you dump the moderator rods into your stovetop reactor. I find that adding cold food to a broth which is lightly simmering will dunk down to a cooler temperature before the coil starts things up again. With a rolling boil in inviscid fluids, you can be assured that the entire mass is stirred and there will be no temperature gradients.   I think most cooks like boiling conditions because it's the highest temperature that can be reached at 1atm with water. If you want to cook stuff faster, you need a pressure cooker so at 1atm, boiling is the reference point for best possible speed in cooking.   Incidentally, because you usually have all sorts of soluble contaminants (salt, starches etc). If I remember right, salt will increase the boiling point of water so just for a little more Mr. Scotty bring up the power, I start off a soup broth with some half the expected amount of salt (adding more to taste later on) just so I can get the water that little bit hotter before dumping other things in.", "human_ref_B": "Perhaps as an addendum:  does the fact that a lot of the food we eat (especially meat & vegetables) has high water content... for lack of a better term... \"interact\" with the boiling water?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27613.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3scwc6", "c_root_id_B": "c3sf5q5", "created_at_utc_A": 1329523784, "created_at_utc_B": 1329539762, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Heat is random movement on the molecular level. So what happenes when water boils is that the bindings between the water molecules no longer is strong enough to hold the water molecules together, so the water at the surface \"bounces off\" from the rest of the water, and become water steam / vapour.  This always happens at the same temperature if the pressure and the composition of the water (% of salts, etc) remains the same.", "human_ref_B": "There is little difference between cooking at 98C and a rolling boil at 100C, but this does not hold well when cooking viscous masses of liquid. When making heavy stews, it is easy to have popping and boiling temperatures at the base of the pot and cooler temperatures near the top. You can scorch the bottom of your cookware doing this.   In any case, I find it is helpful to reach an aggressive rolling boil when starting a light broth before dumping in cold pieces of meat or vegetables because the coil starts out at a hot temperature with surplus heat capacity before things cool down when you dump the moderator rods into your stovetop reactor. I find that adding cold food to a broth which is lightly simmering will dunk down to a cooler temperature before the coil starts things up again. With a rolling boil in inviscid fluids, you can be assured that the entire mass is stirred and there will be no temperature gradients.   I think most cooks like boiling conditions because it's the highest temperature that can be reached at 1atm with water. If you want to cook stuff faster, you need a pressure cooker so at 1atm, boiling is the reference point for best possible speed in cooking.   Incidentally, because you usually have all sorts of soluble contaminants (salt, starches etc). If I remember right, salt will increase the boiling point of water so just for a little more Mr. Scotty bring up the power, I start off a soup broth with some half the expected amount of salt (adding more to taste later on) just so I can get the water that little bit hotter before dumping other things in.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15978.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3saq2y", "c_root_id_B": "c3sf5q5", "created_at_utc_A": 1329511464, "created_at_utc_B": 1329539762, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I wouldn't say that it is \"hard\" to measure the temperature of water, you can use a cheap thermometer. That being said, boiling water for cooking is used so often because it is almost an ideal temperature to cook at. The USDA recommends most meats be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit. At around 212 degrees, boiling water will achieve this internal temperature in a reasonable amount of time. However it should be noted that a slow cooker will achieve an acceptable temperature in a longer time frame be using sub-boiling temperatures, likewise a pressure cooker will cook much faster because it can maintain liquid water at a higher temperature. Also, there are various degrees of \"boiling\" when it comes to cooking, each corresponding to a different temperature range.", "human_ref_B": "There is little difference between cooking at 98C and a rolling boil at 100C, but this does not hold well when cooking viscous masses of liquid. When making heavy stews, it is easy to have popping and boiling temperatures at the base of the pot and cooler temperatures near the top. You can scorch the bottom of your cookware doing this.   In any case, I find it is helpful to reach an aggressive rolling boil when starting a light broth before dumping in cold pieces of meat or vegetables because the coil starts out at a hot temperature with surplus heat capacity before things cool down when you dump the moderator rods into your stovetop reactor. I find that adding cold food to a broth which is lightly simmering will dunk down to a cooler temperature before the coil starts things up again. With a rolling boil in inviscid fluids, you can be assured that the entire mass is stirred and there will be no temperature gradients.   I think most cooks like boiling conditions because it's the highest temperature that can be reached at 1atm with water. If you want to cook stuff faster, you need a pressure cooker so at 1atm, boiling is the reference point for best possible speed in cooking.   Incidentally, because you usually have all sorts of soluble contaminants (salt, starches etc). If I remember right, salt will increase the boiling point of water so just for a little more Mr. Scotty bring up the power, I start off a soup broth with some half the expected amount of salt (adding more to taste later on) just so I can get the water that little bit hotter before dumping other things in.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28298.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3saq2y", "c_root_id_B": "c3sausb", "created_at_utc_A": 1329511464, "created_at_utc_B": 1329512149, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I wouldn't say that it is \"hard\" to measure the temperature of water, you can use a cheap thermometer. That being said, boiling water for cooking is used so often because it is almost an ideal temperature to cook at. The USDA recommends most meats be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit. At around 212 degrees, boiling water will achieve this internal temperature in a reasonable amount of time. However it should be noted that a slow cooker will achieve an acceptable temperature in a longer time frame be using sub-boiling temperatures, likewise a pressure cooker will cook much faster because it can maintain liquid water at a higher temperature. Also, there are various degrees of \"boiling\" when it comes to cooking, each corresponding to a different temperature range.", "human_ref_B": "Perhaps as an addendum:  does the fact that a lot of the food we eat (especially meat & vegetables) has high water content... for lack of a better term... \"interact\" with the boiling water?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 685.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3saq2y", "c_root_id_B": "c3scwc6", "created_at_utc_A": 1329511464, "created_at_utc_B": 1329523784, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I wouldn't say that it is \"hard\" to measure the temperature of water, you can use a cheap thermometer. That being said, boiling water for cooking is used so often because it is almost an ideal temperature to cook at. The USDA recommends most meats be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit. At around 212 degrees, boiling water will achieve this internal temperature in a reasonable amount of time. However it should be noted that a slow cooker will achieve an acceptable temperature in a longer time frame be using sub-boiling temperatures, likewise a pressure cooker will cook much faster because it can maintain liquid water at a higher temperature. Also, there are various degrees of \"boiling\" when it comes to cooking, each corresponding to a different temperature range.", "human_ref_B": "Heat is random movement on the molecular level. So what happenes when water boils is that the bindings between the water molecules no longer is strong enough to hold the water molecules together, so the water at the surface \"bounces off\" from the rest of the water, and become water steam / vapour.  This always happens at the same temperature if the pressure and the composition of the water (% of salts, etc) remains the same.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12320.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3saq2y", "c_root_id_B": "c3sfnh8", "created_at_utc_A": 1329511464, "created_at_utc_B": 1329543622, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I wouldn't say that it is \"hard\" to measure the temperature of water, you can use a cheap thermometer. That being said, boiling water for cooking is used so often because it is almost an ideal temperature to cook at. The USDA recommends most meats be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit. At around 212 degrees, boiling water will achieve this internal temperature in a reasonable amount of time. However it should be noted that a slow cooker will achieve an acceptable temperature in a longer time frame be using sub-boiling temperatures, likewise a pressure cooker will cook much faster because it can maintain liquid water at a higher temperature. Also, there are various degrees of \"boiling\" when it comes to cooking, each corresponding to a different temperature range.", "human_ref_B": "Great question! Quite a funny one when you think about it.   A good majority of foods that need reconstituting generally need the rapid movement of boiling water, examples include, pasta and rice or even corned beef (silverside). Come to think of it, veggies need constant movement to maintain even cookery too.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32158.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pubdr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "In cooking, is the term \"boiling\" used because it's a nice visual baseline to know the approximate temperature of the water? Or is there something fundamentally important happening at water's boiling point? When cooking, you're often told to bring something to a boil, then cook for X minutes, etc..  My question is this: is the term \"boiling\" used in the instructions because it's a nice visual baseline for cooks to know the rough temperature of the water? Is there something special that's happening at the boiling point that improves cooking? Or is it just hard to know the temperature of the water, and therefore waiting for it to boil is a nice way of knowing when the water/soup/whatever is at a specific temperature?  If it were incredibly easy to know water temperature while cooking, would we see recipes with more specific temperatures (ie, \"bring water to 200\u00baF and cook for 10 minutes,\") or is bringing the water to 212\u00baF (100\u00baC) somehow chemically important?", "c_root_id_A": "c3sfr45", "c_root_id_B": "c3saq2y", "created_at_utc_A": 1329544437, "created_at_utc_B": 1329511464, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "There's one thing worth pointing out about all the other poster's talk about vapor pressure: If you try it out, you'll notice that boiling water at sea level only reaches exactly 100C when it is in a covered pot.  Uncovered, the temperature tends to be a few degrees lower. The reason is that the steam above the pot is turbulent and pulls in air, causing more evaporation and cooling.", "human_ref_B": "I wouldn't say that it is \"hard\" to measure the temperature of water, you can use a cheap thermometer. That being said, boiling water for cooking is used so often because it is almost an ideal temperature to cook at. The USDA recommends most meats be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 degrees Fahrenheit. At around 212 degrees, boiling water will achieve this internal temperature in a reasonable amount of time. However it should be noted that a slow cooker will achieve an acceptable temperature in a longer time frame be using sub-boiling temperatures, likewise a pressure cooker will cook much faster because it can maintain liquid water at a higher temperature. Also, there are various degrees of \"boiling\" when it comes to cooking, each corresponding to a different temperature range.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32973.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2vive3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Caffeine in my body has a half-life. Does that mean that some caffeine will be present for an extremely long time? I.e if I consume 400mg of caffeine and it has a half-life of 5 hours in my body, will 0.39mg of caffeine still be there after 50 hours? If not, how can I calculate how long it will be present?", "c_root_id_A": "coi39xl", "c_root_id_B": "coi5ozh", "created_at_utc_A": 1423661527, "created_at_utc_B": 1423667186, "score_A": 416, "score_B": 612, "human_ref_A": "Not really because the biochemical explanation is a bit more complex. The concept of half-life is based on modeling the elimination with an ordinary differential equation: dN/dt = -kN, i.e. the rate of elimination is directly related to the amount present. This is solved by rearranging into -kdt = dN/N, integrating to -k(t-t0) = ln(N-N0), and rearranging to N/N0 =  exp(-k(t-t0)). Caffeine does follow first order kinetics (this equation, see here), but in a manner, only apparently. EDIT: for the decay constant k, k and the half-life (t\u00bd) are related by k = ln(2)/t\u00bd. (And N/N0, not N-N0)  Now, this has one rather simple assumption. It models the system like it's just a dilution: drinking water dilutes it, and it is removed in urine. But, for caffeine, urinary elimination is only a small part of its elimination (2%). Instead, it is catabolized, and there are three different breakdown products with different effects. Paraxanthine is the major metabolite, and it will be further demethylated and oxidized before being eliminated in urine (see the diagram).", "human_ref_B": "A lot of the comment here are talking about the first order pharmokinetic model. This is a good approximation for the majority of the process occurring in your body. However it doesn't accurately describe what happens once you reach what is known as the boundary conditions for this system, that is to say, it doesn't describe what happens once the concentration gets very low. A closer model will describe the system showing the half life model while the concentration is high and then a different model, likely a flat rate(zero order) model, when the concentration drops below a certain threshhold.  TLDR; your body will eliminate at a half life rate until the concentration gets really low and then it will eliminate almost all of the rest at a different rate once a different mechanism takes over.  Source: chemical engineer with too many courses in biomed", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5659.0, "score_ratio": 1.4711538462, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2vive3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Caffeine in my body has a half-life. Does that mean that some caffeine will be present for an extremely long time? I.e if I consume 400mg of caffeine and it has a half-life of 5 hours in my body, will 0.39mg of caffeine still be there after 50 hours? If not, how can I calculate how long it will be present?", "c_root_id_A": "coi4tyc", "c_root_id_B": "coi5ozh", "created_at_utc_A": 1423665388, "created_at_utc_B": 1423667186, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 612, "human_ref_A": "Caffeine has \"first order pharmacokinetics\" so your summary is basically sound. /u/RRautamaa has posted the mathematics for this.  The thing that I would be interested in is the ramification of having caffeine in your system. If we say the half life of caffeine is about six hours in an \"average\" person, the effects that can be felt or measured from this caffeine dose will probably last up to twelve hours. This can vary according to many other factors, like previous caffeine intake.  For someone who is drug tested for caffeine (eg. an athlete), they would be interested in the time it would take for the caffeine to fall below the limits of the drug test. If someone was in that situation, they could use your reasoning to anticipate whether they would pass the test. They could also try and obtain the same type of kit the drug testers use and pretest themselves.  Once a substance is metabolised and/or excreted to a less-than-active dose, the question if how much is left in your system can often be academic only. Someone fresh out of pharmacology class could work out for us the time at which one molecule of caffeine could be considered to probably remain in an \"average\" adult male after a certain dose. I could do it later if you like when I'm at a computer.", "human_ref_B": "A lot of the comment here are talking about the first order pharmokinetic model. This is a good approximation for the majority of the process occurring in your body. However it doesn't accurately describe what happens once you reach what is known as the boundary conditions for this system, that is to say, it doesn't describe what happens once the concentration gets very low. A closer model will describe the system showing the half life model while the concentration is high and then a different model, likely a flat rate(zero order) model, when the concentration drops below a certain threshhold.  TLDR; your body will eliminate at a half life rate until the concentration gets really low and then it will eliminate almost all of the rest at a different rate once a different mechanism takes over.  Source: chemical engineer with too many courses in biomed", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1798.0, "score_ratio": 47.0769230769, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2vive3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Caffeine in my body has a half-life. Does that mean that some caffeine will be present for an extremely long time? I.e if I consume 400mg of caffeine and it has a half-life of 5 hours in my body, will 0.39mg of caffeine still be there after 50 hours? If not, how can I calculate how long it will be present?", "c_root_id_A": "coi4tyc", "c_root_id_B": "coidf4b", "created_at_utc_A": 1423665388, "created_at_utc_B": 1423680361, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Caffeine has \"first order pharmacokinetics\" so your summary is basically sound. /u/RRautamaa has posted the mathematics for this.  The thing that I would be interested in is the ramification of having caffeine in your system. If we say the half life of caffeine is about six hours in an \"average\" person, the effects that can be felt or measured from this caffeine dose will probably last up to twelve hours. This can vary according to many other factors, like previous caffeine intake.  For someone who is drug tested for caffeine (eg. an athlete), they would be interested in the time it would take for the caffeine to fall below the limits of the drug test. If someone was in that situation, they could use your reasoning to anticipate whether they would pass the test. They could also try and obtain the same type of kit the drug testers use and pretest themselves.  Once a substance is metabolised and/or excreted to a less-than-active dose, the question if how much is left in your system can often be academic only. Someone fresh out of pharmacology class could work out for us the time at which one molecule of caffeine could be considered to probably remain in an \"average\" adult male after a certain dose. I could do it later if you like when I'm at a computer.", "human_ref_B": "Sort of. The 0.39mg after 50 hours may be a fairly accurate figure.  However, keep in mind that caffeine, like any other chemical, comes in discrete molecules. You can't keep on dividing it in half forever. 400mg of caffeine contains about 1.24\\*10^21 individual molecules. After 350 hours (about two weeks), there will only be about one molecule of it left in your body. After another 10 hours, there will only be a 25% chance that that one molecule even survived. So *probably* all the caffeine will eventually be gone, even if it takes a few weeks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14973.0, "score_ratio": 1.1538461538, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7i5bc8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "A bullet is shot and is travelling at 2,500 FPS. As the bullet travels, is the space directly behind it (let\u2019s say an inch) filled with air? Or does the bullet push it aside and there is \u2018nothing\u2019 behind it?", "c_root_id_A": "dqwi9nr", "c_root_id_B": "dqwh6zp", "created_at_utc_A": 1512659040, "created_at_utc_B": 1512657809, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The nose of the supersonic bullet creates a shock wave pushing the air out of the way, but the tail of the bullet creates an \"expansion wave\" -- basically the opposite  of a shock wave -- that allows the air to flow in behind the bullet again.  The pressure behind the bullet will be low, but not zero.  Here's a photo of a bullet in flight at about the speed you're talking about.  The expansion wave I mentioned isn't very obvious, but you can see that there's turbulent air right behind the bullet.", "human_ref_B": "Here is a similar question asked by someone on stack exchange. The answer given was about 3x higher velocity but still in an idealized sense. In reality you can\u2019t create a full vacuum but the air pressure behind a bullet would be significantly lowered.   The bullet pushes the air out of the way but as soon as the bullet passes the air will cram back in. In order to create a pure vacuum you would need to fire a bullet that travels significantly faster than the average speed of the molecules in the air.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1231.0, "score_ratio": 7.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1zu15d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why does drinking electrolytes help keep a person hydrated but drinking salt water dehydrates them?", "c_root_id_A": "cfxel1j", "c_root_id_B": "cfx93mo", "created_at_utc_A": 1394269525, "created_at_utc_B": 1394248992, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Salt is a type of electrolyte.  You lose a small amount of salt through sweat/urine/etc., so you need to consume a small amount of salt to replace the salt you lost.  When you drink water with a small amount of salt (i.e. electrolytes) it replaces both the water you've lost and the salt you've lost.  HOWEVER, if you drink water with *too* much salt in it then your body has to get rid of all that extra salt you consumed.  It does this mainly through your urine.  Due to physics reasons, water usually follows to the area that has more stuff dissolved in it.  So when you pee out all of that extra salt dissolved in your urine, the high amount of dissolved salt also pulls lots of water out with it.", "human_ref_B": "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11193601   TL;DR: In order to maximize water absorption, a solution that is dilute in nature with sodium and glucose should be given. It takes advantage of co-transporters which increase water absorption over the amount that pure water can give. Essentially, things like gatorade and oral dehydration therapy ARE salt water, just very dilute salt water.   In contrast, sea water is highly hypertonic, as others have explained.   To give you an idea of the magnitude difference, serum osmolarity ranges from 270-300 mOsm in a normal human. We give 0.9% NaCl solution (noraml saline). Salt water is 3.5% salt concentration (not all NaCl of course). That is 1000 mOsm.   https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sea+water+osmolarity+versus+human+blood+osmolarity", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20533.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11beqy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "I know that many features of human bodies can be traced back to our evolutionary and hunter/gatherer roots...I'm just wondering, what was the purpose of fingernails and toenails? why did we develop these physical features? The title explains it pretty well. I'm just wondering why, evolutionarily, humans developed fingernails and toenails. What is their purpose?", "c_root_id_A": "c6kz2r0", "c_root_id_B": "c6kyqhf", "created_at_utc_A": 1349975568, "created_at_utc_B": 1349974391, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A lot of our traits and behaviours are not uniquely human, rather they are the result of our phylogenetic heritage - e.g. who are ancestors were partly determines why we look and act the way we do.   Here are a list of traits that characterize primates. Now, non-primates also have some of these traits but the more of these traits a species has the more likely they are a primate.  We also have traits that date back to our earliest mammal ancestor - these traits tells us we are not only primates but also mammals. Traits like milk producing glands, fur and live birth.   Other traits we can trace back even farther, our four limbs and the configuration of our bones date back to the earliest tetrapods.  Collectively these traits are known as 'ancestral traits' meaning that if you have that particular trait so did you ancestor. Compare that to a 'derived' trait which is a trait that is unique to a single species or perhaps a small group of species. For instance, a unique human trait would be *language* in that our language is more complicated then the language of animals. Animals also possess language, but not in the same way we do. One could also argue that our large brain to body size ratio is distinctive. But if that were the only trait we were looking at then we might accidentally lump ourselves with other large-brained animals like dolphins.   So traits help us determine who our ancestors are, by looking at the unique combination of ancestral and derived traits, along with DNA sequencing we usually can get a pretty good idea of where species belong in the 'tree of life'.   Sometimes the traits we have are just because our ancestors had them and in evolution the age old adage 'if it ain't broke don't fix it' usually applies. However, **fingernails and toenails do serve a purpose**: they protect the tip of the finger/toe, they allow for better dexterity by allowing us to pickup fine objects, they allow us to groom better, it also enhances our sense of touch (by 'they' I mean primates, not humans). So the function of fingernails remained adaptive so our species, the human, did not change. Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)#Function  You may also be interested to read up on homology and analogous traits.", "human_ref_B": "Other primates and mammals have fingernails and toenails. It's obviously not something humans developed?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1177.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "whfcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Today I learned that early Homo sapiens interbred with the  Neanderthals up north.  Does this mean that people  whose ancestors stayed in Africa are more \"purely\"  human? Today in my science class, we were talking about the early origins of humans.  My teacher told us that Homo sapiens and Neanderthals were in different locations, but that there was some overlap.  He said it was likely that they interbred.    If this is true, do some of us have some Neanderthal in our ancestry?  Are the people whose ancestors stayed deeper in Africa more \"purely\" human?", "c_root_id_A": "c5ddkj4", "c_root_id_B": "c5dg2vq", "created_at_utc_A": 1342162866, "created_at_utc_B": 1342184811, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "From what I understand, all non-Africans contain neanderthal ancestry.", "human_ref_B": "Neanderthals can also be considered as humans. If they were still around today and interbreeding was possible, they would be probably be considered a subspecies, or perhaps a race. This viewpoint isn't widely accepted yet but there may be some kind of racist factor which contributes to the idea that they were inferior to us. There is evidence that they had developed tool use, art, trade and some kind of culture before they died out. Their decline may have been due to being more pacifist than homo sapiens, rather than being subhuman.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21945.0, "score_ratio": 1.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "whfcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Today I learned that early Homo sapiens interbred with the  Neanderthals up north.  Does this mean that people  whose ancestors stayed in Africa are more \"purely\"  human? Today in my science class, we were talking about the early origins of humans.  My teacher told us that Homo sapiens and Neanderthals were in different locations, but that there was some overlap.  He said it was likely that they interbred.    If this is true, do some of us have some Neanderthal in our ancestry?  Are the people whose ancestors stayed deeper in Africa more \"purely\" human?", "c_root_id_A": "c5dg2vq", "c_root_id_B": "c5dfc6h", "created_at_utc_A": 1342184811, "created_at_utc_B": 1342178983, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Neanderthals can also be considered as humans. If they were still around today and interbreeding was possible, they would be probably be considered a subspecies, or perhaps a race. This viewpoint isn't widely accepted yet but there may be some kind of racist factor which contributes to the idea that they were inferior to us. There is evidence that they had developed tool use, art, trade and some kind of culture before they died out. Their decline may have been due to being more pacifist than homo sapiens, rather than being subhuman.", "human_ref_B": "Some bullets I just fetched that I remember reading from a BBC article:   * Neanderthals \u2014 Homo neanderthalensis \u2014 and modern humans \u2014 Homo sapiens \u2014 lived alongside each other for thousands of years, and it seems they interbred   * Although Neanderthals disappeared about 30,000 years ago, traces of their DNA \u2014 between 1% and 4% \u2014 are found in all modern humans outside Africa, according to 23andMe  If you're interested in what % neanderthal you are (if at all), you can use 23andme to find out for a few hundred dollars, as well as plenty of other interesting genetic stuff!  Article you may find interesting is here: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17527318", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5828.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "whfcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Today I learned that early Homo sapiens interbred with the  Neanderthals up north.  Does this mean that people  whose ancestors stayed in Africa are more \"purely\"  human? Today in my science class, we were talking about the early origins of humans.  My teacher told us that Homo sapiens and Neanderthals were in different locations, but that there was some overlap.  He said it was likely that they interbred.    If this is true, do some of us have some Neanderthal in our ancestry?  Are the people whose ancestors stayed deeper in Africa more \"purely\" human?", "c_root_id_A": "c5dt3jc", "c_root_id_B": "c5dm9bc", "created_at_utc_A": 1342239397, "created_at_utc_B": 1342208977, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "I'm curious, could I ask what ethnicity you are ?", "human_ref_B": "Yep. The difference between niggas and othas.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30420.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ijaqgu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Has there been an observation of the difference in problem-solving skills in a person who has been not been given guidance but still solves a problem, and a person who has been given guidance? If so, how were the observations?", "c_root_id_A": "g3d8uap", "c_root_id_B": "g3dchei", "created_at_utc_A": 1598804050, "created_at_utc_B": 1598805698, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Not that I seen any documentation on the topic, but this kinda goes for all aspects of design making / problem solving.  Being someone  trained or aware to identify what's given and whats to be solved will have an easier time vs someone who isn't aware whT they need to do.", "human_ref_B": "[TL/DR] Yes, a company called Kenner-Tiago did this in the 1960s and teaches it now.  As somebody who solves problems (I.e., troubleshooting) for a living, IMO it\u2019s rare to find someone who is really good at troubleshooting without being trained in some manner. A little guidance or training helps immensely. There are courses such as Kepner-Trego that have studied the best troubleshooters, dissected and formalized their methodology and teach it to other.  https://www.kepner-tregoe.com/  This course is great for single-domain problems, where some single fault is causes the problem. Problems that involve more than one simultaneous faults are 10x harder to solve.  If there are multiple faults, one or more which is intermittent, then I work on it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1648.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ijaqgu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Has there been an observation of the difference in problem-solving skills in a person who has been not been given guidance but still solves a problem, and a person who has been given guidance? If so, how were the observations?", "c_root_id_A": "g3dfwm3", "c_root_id_B": "g3d8uap", "created_at_utc_A": 1598807304, "created_at_utc_B": 1598804050, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm imagining this is a topic of research in EdPsych, given the role of instructions (more formal guidance, IMO, right?) on problem solving. Found these articles:  Gagn\u00e9, R. M., & Smith, E. C., Jr. (1962). A study of the effects of verbalization on problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63(1), 12\u201318. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048703.  This study found that: >in high school boys, the results appear to indicate that requiring subjects to verbalize during practice has the effect of making them think of new reasons for their moves, and thus facilitates both the discovery of general principles and their employment in solving successive problems  Nancy W. Denney, Tracey Lyons Tozier, Carol A. Schlotthauer, The Effect of Instructions on Age Differences in Practical Problem Solving, Journal of Gerontology, Volume 47, Issue 3, May 1992, Pages P142\u2013P145, https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/47.3.P142. This study found that: >Half of the subjects were given standard instructions and half were given instructions that encouraged them to perform as well as they possibly could. With the standard instructions, the young adults performed less well than either the middle-aged or the elderly adults. With the more explicit instructions, however, the young adults performed as well as the middle-aged adults and better than the elderly adults. The results of this study indicate that there may be a tendency on the part of young adults to give less than their optimal performance unless explicitly instructed to do their best.  Di Mascio, R., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2018). The effect of wording and placement of task instructions on problem\u2010solving creativity. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 52(4), 335-353.. This study found that: >(a) brainstorming and \u201cbe creative\u201d instructions impact some dimensions of idea creativity, relative to standard instructions; (b) combining the two instructions increased the number of ideas only slightly compared with the \u201cbe creative\u201d instruction; (c) the effect of the combined instruction varied across classrooms; and (d) the placement of instructions before or after a written problem description influenced novelty slightly. These results suggest that participant\u2010constructed meaning of instruction may differ from the researcher\u2010ascribed meaning and that enhancing the salience of the creativity requirement in instructions does not enhance novelty. The results also lead to propositions that creativity instructions induce a promotion focus during problem\u2010solving and that creativity climate may moderate the impact of instructions.  Duncan, C. P. (1963). Effect of instructions and information on problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(4), 321\u2013327. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040017. This one found: >In solving problems which involved turning switches to produce certain patterns among lights, male Ss who were strongly instructed to minimize overt responses (switch turns) and to think, made fewer overt responses and took, usually, longer time to solve than uninstructed Ss. These effects of instructions occurred with each of 3 different amounts of information (levels of difficulty) about a problem, and on an initial as well as on a transfer problem. Mild instructions to minimize overt responses, given to other groups, had no effect. Uninstructed female Ss solved problems as well as uninstructed male Ss, but performance of female Ss was not significantly affected by any of the instructions.  In sum, yes giving guidance/instructions effects problem solving in a variety of areas including time to solve, method of solving (e.g. trial & error vs. brainstorming/preplanning solutions), and novelty of solutions.  Google scholar had a ton more recent stuff, but these were the \"most relevant\" hits that it returned when I searched for: problem solving +\"effect of instructions\"", "human_ref_B": "Not that I seen any documentation on the topic, but this kinda goes for all aspects of design making / problem solving.  Being someone  trained or aware to identify what's given and whats to be solved will have an easier time vs someone who isn't aware whT they need to do.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3254.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "a1ae9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "In regards to the recent missionary who died trying to contact a remote tribe on Sentinel Island, much has been made about how he could have decimated the tribe with modern disease. Assuming administration was possible - would simple antibiotics mitigate this risk? If not, would modern medicine?", "c_root_id_A": "eaobv68", "c_root_id_B": "eaobyjj", "created_at_utc_A": 1543446226, "created_at_utc_B": 1543446292, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "If we tried to give them modern medicine, they will still be exposed to the diseases in the process. Even if we could go there with some sort of way to protect them, the Sentinelese people would almost certainly anyone who got near enough to administer any medicine. Also, there\u2019s the legal problem. The Indian government has explicitly stated that all travel to the island is strictly prohibited. Also, even if a team could get there legally, get close enough without exposing them, and administer any medicine before being slaughtered by the tribe, using antibiotics when they\u2019re not needed is a bad idea, because it would quite literally be the end of *modern medicine* as we know it.", "human_ref_B": "Viruses seem to be the most common pathogens to effect isolated people.  When Europeans came to Americas common diseases wiped out millions.  https://www.google.com/amp/s/amp.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/16/mexico-500-years-later-scientists-discover-what-killed-the-aztecs", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 66.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dhqc7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "What is the source of fundamental electric charge in leptons and quarks? *sips coffee", "c_root_id_A": "c9qfkn7", "c_root_id_B": "c9qesy9", "created_at_utc_A": 1367431596, "created_at_utc_B": 1367429648, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The laws of physics are invariant (unchanged) under a transformation called U(1) gauge invariance.  To get this invariance, individual fields have to transform in well-defined ways under this transformation.  The way a field transforms tells you its electric charge.  We don't know why we have fields with the particular transformation properties they have.", "human_ref_B": "As far as physics is concerned, charge is an inherent property of fundamental particles.  It doesn't make sense to ask about a \"source\".", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1948.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hzz968q", "c_root_id_B": "i01rrch", "created_at_utc_A": 1646838287, "created_at_utc_B": 1646874687, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Are there any emerging technologies for large scale energy storage other than batteries? I know there are a few powerplants that pump water uphill if there is an excess of energy coming off the facility and then let that water drive a turbine when there is a lack of energy. Are there any other clever ways of storing energy from power plants other than huge batteries?", "human_ref_B": "I have two questions, somewhat related to each other:  1) Why don't we see more blue in nature? Specifically, blue flowers, blue fruits and blue vegetables? I'm aware there's blueberries, gentian flowers and blue corn. But why are they rare rather than the norm?  2) What kind of chemical composition, atmosphere, etc. would be needed for beings with blue blood to exist? Is there something unique to Earth that means most animals have red blood?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 36400.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hzzbm6k", "c_root_id_B": "i01rrch", "created_at_utc_A": 1646839318, "created_at_utc_B": 1646874687, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Is there a list of currently approved/agreed on scientific knowledge? Axioms, theories and maybe pretty-much-proven hypotheses?    Science is changing all the time and many researchers are debating about it constantly, is there a definitive list of statements currently considered true? Or how does it work?   I guess it's easier with mathematics, but physics/chemistry/biology/etc makes this trickier.", "human_ref_B": "I have two questions, somewhat related to each other:  1) Why don't we see more blue in nature? Specifically, blue flowers, blue fruits and blue vegetables? I'm aware there's blueberries, gentian flowers and blue corn. But why are they rare rather than the norm?  2) What kind of chemical composition, atmosphere, etc. would be needed for beings with blue blood to exist? Is there something unique to Earth that means most animals have red blood?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 35369.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i01rrch", "c_root_id_B": "i007m4g", "created_at_utc_A": 1646874687, "created_at_utc_B": 1646851906, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I have two questions, somewhat related to each other:  1) Why don't we see more blue in nature? Specifically, blue flowers, blue fruits and blue vegetables? I'm aware there's blueberries, gentian flowers and blue corn. But why are they rare rather than the norm?  2) What kind of chemical composition, atmosphere, etc. would be needed for beings with blue blood to exist? Is there something unique to Earth that means most animals have red blood?", "human_ref_B": "Will making the big long vacuum tubes needed by the hyperloop system be easy or hard? Most optimistic/pro cost estimates I see see to think it\u2019d be a small multiple of existing rail infrastructure and pessimistic/anti seem to think it\u2019d be orders of magnitude harder and more expensive.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22781.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i01e4oh", "c_root_id_B": "i01rrch", "created_at_utc_A": 1646868565, "created_at_utc_B": 1646874687, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Mathematically speaking, should I use the Steinhart-Hart equation for an NTC-thermistor or can I just use Mathlab's polyfit function?     Steinhart-Hart looks like:    1/T = A ln(R) + B ln(R)\\^2 + C ln(R)\\^3    Vs a poly-fit curve generated through empirical data in the form of  Y = M1x + M2 x\\^2 + M3 x\\^3 (where M1,M2,M3 are the polyfit coefficients).", "human_ref_B": "I have two questions, somewhat related to each other:  1) Why don't we see more blue in nature? Specifically, blue flowers, blue fruits and blue vegetables? I'm aware there's blueberries, gentian flowers and blue corn. But why are they rare rather than the norm?  2) What kind of chemical composition, atmosphere, etc. would be needed for beings with blue blood to exist? Is there something unique to Earth that means most animals have red blood?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6122.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hzzi4p9", "c_root_id_B": "i01rrch", "created_at_utc_A": 1646841940, "created_at_utc_B": 1646874687, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "How do white blood cells know what to attack? They don't really have a mind or thinking components, do they?", "human_ref_B": "I have two questions, somewhat related to each other:  1) Why don't we see more blue in nature? Specifically, blue flowers, blue fruits and blue vegetables? I'm aware there's blueberries, gentian flowers and blue corn. But why are they rare rather than the norm?  2) What kind of chemical composition, atmosphere, etc. would be needed for beings with blue blood to exist? Is there something unique to Earth that means most animals have red blood?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32747.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hzzkceh", "c_root_id_B": "i01rrch", "created_at_utc_A": 1646842819, "created_at_utc_B": 1646874687, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Is there such thing as \"matter\" that has negative mass?  That cannot go below the speed of light?", "human_ref_B": "I have two questions, somewhat related to each other:  1) Why don't we see more blue in nature? Specifically, blue flowers, blue fruits and blue vegetables? I'm aware there's blueberries, gentian flowers and blue corn. But why are they rare rather than the norm?  2) What kind of chemical composition, atmosphere, etc. would be needed for beings with blue blood to exist? Is there something unique to Earth that means most animals have red blood?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31868.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hzzsqd3", "c_root_id_B": "i01rrch", "created_at_utc_A": 1646846044, "created_at_utc_B": 1646874687, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "How do quantum computers work? Do they even work? I thought \"quantum\" was theoretical, there are actual engineered computer components that work as both on and off? What are qubits, and how do they physically work?", "human_ref_B": "I have two questions, somewhat related to each other:  1) Why don't we see more blue in nature? Specifically, blue flowers, blue fruits and blue vegetables? I'm aware there's blueberries, gentian flowers and blue corn. But why are they rare rather than the norm?  2) What kind of chemical composition, atmosphere, etc. would be needed for beings with blue blood to exist? Is there something unique to Earth that means most animals have red blood?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28643.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i01rrch", "c_root_id_B": "i00qclx", "created_at_utc_A": 1646874687, "created_at_utc_B": 1646859191, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I have two questions, somewhat related to each other:  1) Why don't we see more blue in nature? Specifically, blue flowers, blue fruits and blue vegetables? I'm aware there's blueberries, gentian flowers and blue corn. But why are they rare rather than the norm?  2) What kind of chemical composition, atmosphere, etc. would be needed for beings with blue blood to exist? Is there something unique to Earth that means most animals have red blood?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been designing a fan for a project so does more blades equal more air intake?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15496.0, "score_ratio": 10000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hzzi4p9", "c_root_id_B": "i007m4g", "created_at_utc_A": 1646841940, "created_at_utc_B": 1646851906, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How do white blood cells know what to attack? They don't really have a mind or thinking components, do they?", "human_ref_B": "Will making the big long vacuum tubes needed by the hyperloop system be easy or hard? Most optimistic/pro cost estimates I see see to think it\u2019d be a small multiple of existing rail infrastructure and pessimistic/anti seem to think it\u2019d be orders of magnitude harder and more expensive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9966.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i007m4g", "c_root_id_B": "hzzkceh", "created_at_utc_A": 1646851906, "created_at_utc_B": 1646842819, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Will making the big long vacuum tubes needed by the hyperloop system be easy or hard? Most optimistic/pro cost estimates I see see to think it\u2019d be a small multiple of existing rail infrastructure and pessimistic/anti seem to think it\u2019d be orders of magnitude harder and more expensive.", "human_ref_B": "Is there such thing as \"matter\" that has negative mass?  That cannot go below the speed of light?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9087.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i007m4g", "c_root_id_B": "hzzsqd3", "created_at_utc_A": 1646851906, "created_at_utc_B": 1646846044, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Will making the big long vacuum tubes needed by the hyperloop system be easy or hard? Most optimistic/pro cost estimates I see see to think it\u2019d be a small multiple of existing rail infrastructure and pessimistic/anti seem to think it\u2019d be orders of magnitude harder and more expensive.", "human_ref_B": "How do quantum computers work? Do they even work? I thought \"quantum\" was theoretical, there are actual engineered computer components that work as both on and off? What are qubits, and how do they physically work?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5862.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hzzi4p9", "c_root_id_B": "i01e4oh", "created_at_utc_A": 1646841940, "created_at_utc_B": 1646868565, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How do white blood cells know what to attack? They don't really have a mind or thinking components, do they?", "human_ref_B": "Mathematically speaking, should I use the Steinhart-Hart equation for an NTC-thermistor or can I just use Mathlab's polyfit function?     Steinhart-Hart looks like:    1/T = A ln(R) + B ln(R)\\^2 + C ln(R)\\^3    Vs a poly-fit curve generated through empirical data in the form of  Y = M1x + M2 x\\^2 + M3 x\\^3 (where M1,M2,M3 are the polyfit coefficients).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26625.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i01e4oh", "c_root_id_B": "hzzkceh", "created_at_utc_A": 1646868565, "created_at_utc_B": 1646842819, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Mathematically speaking, should I use the Steinhart-Hart equation for an NTC-thermistor or can I just use Mathlab's polyfit function?     Steinhart-Hart looks like:    1/T = A ln(R) + B ln(R)\\^2 + C ln(R)\\^3    Vs a poly-fit curve generated through empirical data in the form of  Y = M1x + M2 x\\^2 + M3 x\\^3 (where M1,M2,M3 are the polyfit coefficients).", "human_ref_B": "Is there such thing as \"matter\" that has negative mass?  That cannot go below the speed of light?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25746.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i01e4oh", "c_root_id_B": "hzzsqd3", "created_at_utc_A": 1646868565, "created_at_utc_B": 1646846044, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Mathematically speaking, should I use the Steinhart-Hart equation for an NTC-thermistor or can I just use Mathlab's polyfit function?     Steinhart-Hart looks like:    1/T = A ln(R) + B ln(R)\\^2 + C ln(R)\\^3    Vs a poly-fit curve generated through empirical data in the form of  Y = M1x + M2 x\\^2 + M3 x\\^3 (where M1,M2,M3 are the polyfit coefficients).", "human_ref_B": "How do quantum computers work? Do they even work? I thought \"quantum\" was theoretical, there are actual engineered computer components that work as both on and off? What are qubits, and how do they physically work?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22521.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i00qclx", "c_root_id_B": "i01e4oh", "created_at_utc_A": 1646859191, "created_at_utc_B": 1646868565, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve been designing a fan for a project so does more blades equal more air intake?", "human_ref_B": "Mathematically speaking, should I use the Steinhart-Hart equation for an NTC-thermistor or can I just use Mathlab's polyfit function?     Steinhart-Hart looks like:    1/T = A ln(R) + B ln(R)\\^2 + C ln(R)\\^3    Vs a poly-fit curve generated through empirical data in the form of  Y = M1x + M2 x\\^2 + M3 x\\^3 (where M1,M2,M3 are the polyfit coefficients).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9374.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i0265nd", "c_root_id_B": "i00qclx", "created_at_utc_A": 1646881220, "created_at_utc_B": 1646859191, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I'm currently studying Java. How will I know that I'm good enough at coding to get a job, and what would be the best way to go about it?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been designing a fan for a project so does more blades equal more air intake?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22029.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i0318kz", "c_root_id_B": "i00qclx", "created_at_utc_A": 1646900131, "created_at_utc_B": 1646859191, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The Endurance was discovered at a depth of\u00a09,869 feet\u00a0in the Weddell Sea. Would it be possible to raise it from the seabed? In such cold waters it's remarkably well preserved.", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been designing a fan for a project so does more blades equal more air intake?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 40940.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i031mrb", "c_root_id_B": "i00qclx", "created_at_utc_A": 1646900447, "created_at_utc_B": 1646859191, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I have a different kind of question after a conversation with my son in college.  How meaningful is a college gpa value when you graduate as a math major with stats emphasis? Say someone gets a 2.6 vs a 3.2.  Are there better computing or other skills that would mitigate the difference?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been designing a fan for a project so does more blades equal more air intake?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 41256.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i00qclx", "c_root_id_B": "i03bxag", "created_at_utc_A": 1646859191, "created_at_utc_B": 1646909064, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve been designing a fan for a project so does more blades equal more air intake?", "human_ref_B": "If everything is relative, then when I jump, won't it be equally valid to say that the earth is the one moving 'away' from me at 10m/s, and hence now has that much more kinetic energy?  How does the law of conservation of energy works in these scenarios?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 49873.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i03chwg", "c_root_id_B": "i00qclx", "created_at_utc_A": 1646909530, "created_at_utc_B": 1646859191, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "How is research in interstitial fusion going on? How would such a mechanism even work?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been designing a fan for a project so does more blades equal more air intake?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 50339.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i00qclx", "c_root_id_B": "i03cud5", "created_at_utc_A": 1646859191, "created_at_utc_B": 1646909816, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve been designing a fan for a project so does more blades equal more air intake?", "human_ref_B": "Why do we need qubits for harnessing quantum entanglement effects when even visible light can exhibit things like interference?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 50625.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i02mr0w", "c_root_id_B": "i0318kz", "created_at_utc_A": 1646889895, "created_at_utc_B": 1646900131, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Like how do you set up an equation like 3X +1 =?? and then get in the 4, 2, 1 loop? Crazy!", "human_ref_B": "The Endurance was discovered at a depth of\u00a09,869 feet\u00a0in the Weddell Sea. Would it be possible to raise it from the seabed? In such cold waters it's remarkably well preserved.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10236.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i031mrb", "c_root_id_B": "i02mr0w", "created_at_utc_A": 1646900447, "created_at_utc_B": 1646889895, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I have a different kind of question after a conversation with my son in college.  How meaningful is a college gpa value when you graduate as a math major with stats emphasis? Say someone gets a 2.6 vs a 3.2.  Are there better computing or other skills that would mitigate the difference?", "human_ref_B": "Like how do you set up an equation like 3X +1 =?? and then get in the 4, 2, 1 loop? Crazy!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10552.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i02mr0w", "c_root_id_B": "i03bxag", "created_at_utc_A": 1646889895, "created_at_utc_B": 1646909064, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Like how do you set up an equation like 3X +1 =?? and then get in the 4, 2, 1 loop? Crazy!", "human_ref_B": "If everything is relative, then when I jump, won't it be equally valid to say that the earth is the one moving 'away' from me at 10m/s, and hence now has that much more kinetic energy?  How does the law of conservation of energy works in these scenarios?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19169.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i03chwg", "c_root_id_B": "i02mr0w", "created_at_utc_A": 1646909530, "created_at_utc_B": 1646889895, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "How is research in interstitial fusion going on? How would such a mechanism even work?", "human_ref_B": "Like how do you set up an equation like 3X +1 =?? and then get in the 4, 2, 1 loop? Crazy!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19635.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ta9mvx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "i03cud5", "c_root_id_B": "i02mr0w", "created_at_utc_A": 1646909816, "created_at_utc_B": 1646889895, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Why do we need qubits for harnessing quantum entanglement effects when even visible light can exhibit things like interference?", "human_ref_B": "Like how do you set up an equation like 3X +1 =?? and then get in the 4, 2, 1 loop? Crazy!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19921.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f856fif", "c_root_id_B": "f85656z", "created_at_utc_A": 1574268620, "created_at_utc_B": 1574268444, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "What kind of profession can a good computer scientist or competitive programmer have, except for a regular programmer?  Edit: Although this question got some very interesting answers, when I asked it originally I was looking more for professions more involved with the mathematical aspect of computer science a.k.a algorithms for optimising certain things and so on.", "human_ref_B": "How do routers know where to take certain http requests? Moreover, if I wanted something.random to map to a port on my local computer, how would I go about doing that?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 176.0, "score_ratio": 2.7857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f859wgi", "c_root_id_B": "f85avii", "created_at_utc_A": 1574270755, "created_at_utc_B": 1574271350, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Did Google actually prove quantum supremacy?", "human_ref_B": "How do icy comets and so forth form in space? Isn't it near zero Kelvin out there, and chemistry slows to a near complete stop at those temps? how the heck to complex molecules form way out there, and then somehow stick together to kilometer size asteroids?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 595.0, "score_ratio": 1.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f866whl", "c_root_id_B": "f85t02v", "created_at_utc_A": 1574291189, "created_at_utc_B": 1574282473, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "From what I understand (which is limited), AI programs are only capable of what humans program them to do. So how is it possible for AI's to do things that the human who created it never expected?", "human_ref_B": "Quantum computing seems to be moving along well (Google's recent announcement, e.g.). Is there a Plan B for if/when public key encryption based on factoring large numbers is rendered useless? Quantum networks seem unworkably impractical for the public internet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8716.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f85gq96", "c_root_id_B": "f866whl", "created_at_utc_A": 1574274885, "created_at_utc_B": 1574291189, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Why does the asteroid belt keep smashing its bodies into smaller pieces, while the planets decided to coalesce in to giant spheiroids instead? supposedly Jupiter's gravity keeps disrupting any real formation in that region, but that's difficult for me to imagine, given that other planets formed just fine, even with the occasional tugging of passing planets... mysterious....", "human_ref_B": "From what I understand (which is limited), AI programs are only capable of what humans program them to do. So how is it possible for AI's to do things that the human who created it never expected?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16304.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f85t02v", "c_root_id_B": "f86fuhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1574282473, "created_at_utc_B": 1574297131, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Quantum computing seems to be moving along well (Google's recent announcement, e.g.). Is there a Plan B for if/when public key encryption based on factoring large numbers is rendered useless? Quantum networks seem unworkably impractical for the public internet.", "human_ref_B": "What kind of jobs can a material engineer get? I enjoy the concept of creating the best possible material, but what do you actually do at a job?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14658.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f85gq96", "c_root_id_B": "f86fuhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1574274885, "created_at_utc_B": 1574297131, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Why does the asteroid belt keep smashing its bodies into smaller pieces, while the planets decided to coalesce in to giant spheiroids instead? supposedly Jupiter's gravity keeps disrupting any real formation in that region, but that's difficult for me to imagine, given that other planets formed just fine, even with the occasional tugging of passing planets... mysterious....", "human_ref_B": "What kind of jobs can a material engineer get? I enjoy the concept of creating the best possible material, but what do you actually do at a job?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22246.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f8698uc", "c_root_id_B": "f86fuhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1574292835, "created_at_utc_B": 1574297131, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "If we add the Dirac Delta function to itself, does the integral become 2?", "human_ref_B": "What kind of jobs can a material engineer get? I enjoy the concept of creating the best possible material, but what do you actually do at a job?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4296.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86ec9u", "c_root_id_B": "f86fuhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1574296057, "created_at_utc_B": 1574297131, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Will the helical engine designed by a nasa engineer actually work? Does it break any laws of physics?", "human_ref_B": "What kind of jobs can a material engineer get? I enjoy the concept of creating the best possible material, but what do you actually do at a job?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1074.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86fuhe", "c_root_id_B": "f86cuqy", "created_at_utc_A": 1574297131, "created_at_utc_B": 1574295145, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What kind of jobs can a material engineer get? I enjoy the concept of creating the best possible material, but what do you actually do at a job?", "human_ref_B": "Is there a physical difference between a mutli-core, single-thread CPU and a multi-core, multi-thread CPU? If not, what determines the threadedness of the CPU cores?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1986.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86f4pz", "c_root_id_B": "f86fuhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1574296600, "created_at_utc_B": 1574297131, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "You know how those glasses that let people see color work? I have a colorblind friend who wants to get one, will it work for him? How about dogs, cars, birds?", "human_ref_B": "What kind of jobs can a material engineer get? I enjoy the concept of creating the best possible material, but what do you actually do at a job?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 531.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f85t02v", "c_root_id_B": "f85gq96", "created_at_utc_A": 1574282473, "created_at_utc_B": 1574274885, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Quantum computing seems to be moving along well (Google's recent announcement, e.g.). Is there a Plan B for if/when public key encryption based on factoring large numbers is rendered useless? Quantum networks seem unworkably impractical for the public internet.", "human_ref_B": "Why does the asteroid belt keep smashing its bodies into smaller pieces, while the planets decided to coalesce in to giant spheiroids instead? supposedly Jupiter's gravity keeps disrupting any real formation in that region, but that's difficult for me to imagine, given that other planets formed just fine, even with the occasional tugging of passing planets... mysterious....", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7588.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86ec9u", "c_root_id_B": "f85gq96", "created_at_utc_A": 1574296057, "created_at_utc_B": 1574274885, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Will the helical engine designed by a nasa engineer actually work? Does it break any laws of physics?", "human_ref_B": "Why does the asteroid belt keep smashing its bodies into smaller pieces, while the planets decided to coalesce in to giant spheiroids instead? supposedly Jupiter's gravity keeps disrupting any real formation in that region, but that's difficult for me to imagine, given that other planets formed just fine, even with the occasional tugging of passing planets... mysterious....", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21172.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86mbid", "c_root_id_B": "f86cuqy", "created_at_utc_A": 1574301700, "created_at_utc_B": 1574295145, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I was really entralled by functional mathematics (I believe it is also called the calculus of variations) when I was a senior in undergraduate, especially when I started seeing similarities between what I was doing in my functional mathematics course and the Lagranian mechanics/Quantum Mechanics I learned as physics student. I was particularly interested in its usage for image analysis, but since I graduated I only ever used it for my mathematical modeling course and never got to see its higher level applications. Now I am back in graduate school (getting an M.S in Materials Engineering)  Questions are:  1) Where else in engineering/physics would I see functional mathematics?  2) Any recommendations for where to learn this topic as a self study (books/videos/etc.)  3) How is functional mathematics currently used in computer science outside of computer imaging? (I imagine it may be useful for machine learning)", "human_ref_B": "Is there a physical difference between a mutli-core, single-thread CPU and a multi-core, multi-thread CPU? If not, what determines the threadedness of the CPU cores?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6555.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86mbid", "c_root_id_B": "f86f4pz", "created_at_utc_A": 1574301700, "created_at_utc_B": 1574296600, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I was really entralled by functional mathematics (I believe it is also called the calculus of variations) when I was a senior in undergraduate, especially when I started seeing similarities between what I was doing in my functional mathematics course and the Lagranian mechanics/Quantum Mechanics I learned as physics student. I was particularly interested in its usage for image analysis, but since I graduated I only ever used it for my mathematical modeling course and never got to see its higher level applications. Now I am back in graduate school (getting an M.S in Materials Engineering)  Questions are:  1) Where else in engineering/physics would I see functional mathematics?  2) Any recommendations for where to learn this topic as a self study (books/videos/etc.)  3) How is functional mathematics currently used in computer science outside of computer imaging? (I imagine it may be useful for machine learning)", "human_ref_B": "You know how those glasses that let people see color work? I have a colorblind friend who wants to get one, will it work for him? How about dogs, cars, birds?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5100.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86ec9u", "c_root_id_B": "f8698uc", "created_at_utc_A": 1574296057, "created_at_utc_B": 1574292835, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Will the helical engine designed by a nasa engineer actually work? Does it break any laws of physics?", "human_ref_B": "If we add the Dirac Delta function to itself, does the integral become 2?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3222.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86ec9u", "c_root_id_B": "f86cuqy", "created_at_utc_A": 1574296057, "created_at_utc_B": 1574295145, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Will the helical engine designed by a nasa engineer actually work? Does it break any laws of physics?", "human_ref_B": "Is there a physical difference between a mutli-core, single-thread CPU and a multi-core, multi-thread CPU? If not, what determines the threadedness of the CPU cores?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 912.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86cuqy", "c_root_id_B": "f86f4pz", "created_at_utc_A": 1574295145, "created_at_utc_B": 1574296600, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is there a physical difference between a mutli-core, single-thread CPU and a multi-core, multi-thread CPU? If not, what determines the threadedness of the CPU cores?", "human_ref_B": "You know how those glasses that let people see color work? I have a colorblind friend who wants to get one, will it work for him? How about dogs, cars, birds?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1455.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86cuqy", "c_root_id_B": "f86fv55", "created_at_utc_A": 1574295145, "created_at_utc_B": 1574297145, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is there a physical difference between a mutli-core, single-thread CPU and a multi-core, multi-thread CPU? If not, what determines the threadedness of the CPU cores?", "human_ref_B": "junior mechanical engineering student.  currently using a ti-83 calc, is it worth it to buy a more expensive fancy calculator?  edit: i was kinda looking for an excuse to buy a fancy calculator, but i see that it will probably be a waste of money.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2000.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f870mks", "c_root_id_B": "f86cuqy", "created_at_utc_A": 1574312041, "created_at_utc_B": 1574295145, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I just want to know the industry use of learning \u201cassembly language\u201d as I don\u2019t see it being used much yet my university teaches it to us and projects are based on coding in it  I am studying computer engineering", "human_ref_B": "Is there a physical difference between a mutli-core, single-thread CPU and a multi-core, multi-thread CPU? If not, what determines the threadedness of the CPU cores?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16896.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dz3as6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.  The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.  Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "f86f4pz", "c_root_id_B": "f86fv55", "created_at_utc_A": 1574296600, "created_at_utc_B": 1574297145, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "You know how those glasses that let people see color work? I have a colorblind friend who wants to get one, will it work for him? How about dogs, cars, birds?", "human_ref_B": "junior mechanical engineering student.  currently using a ti-83 calc, is it worth it to buy a more expensive fancy calculator?  edit: i was kinda looking for an excuse to buy a fancy calculator, but i see that it will probably be a waste of money.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 545.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oaxx10", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h3kcjj1", "c_root_id_B": "h3l30o2", "created_at_utc_A": 1625063943, "created_at_utc_B": 1625075345, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Could the idea of using things like treadmills to power computers or servers actually be feasible on a large scale (for example, for big companies)?", "human_ref_B": "How does wind velocity work? It should vary with height from ground, is there a norm where it is measured? I have some understanding of Navier Stokes equation, so velocity should be zero at the ground and increase upwards, but does it decrease again at some point? I tried simulating \"wind with 2 m/s\" at some point, but it didn't make sense, the velocity profile kept depending on how big I made the simulation domain. I can fix it at 2m above grpund or something, but then it keeps increasing further up. So what do wind speed values mean, e.g. from a weather report? How does it relate to the physics of weather? For context, I'm a physicist but I don't get how wind works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11402.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oaxx10", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h3kr8pq", "c_root_id_B": "h3l30o2", "created_at_utc_A": 1625070190, "created_at_utc_B": 1625075345, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is there any real feasability to using quantum computing in the bit mining field with tangible results?   Like, could you use the probabilities given by quantum computing to narrow down the possible number of block chain keys that would correct? I don't know alot about bit mining, or quantum computing, or regular mining but I know that it used to be that when a new block came up that needed to be added to the chain it would have a key associated to it. Miners would use their cpu and gpu to try and crack that code, whoever did got paid a certain amount of money.  The code was a 256 bit random alpha-numeric code that was near impossible to crack. That's, to my knowledge, why crypto currency is so secure, along with some other features.   Anyway, can quantum computing be used to find that key faster that randomly plugging in code and seeing what works?", "human_ref_B": "How does wind velocity work? It should vary with height from ground, is there a norm where it is measured? I have some understanding of Navier Stokes equation, so velocity should be zero at the ground and increase upwards, but does it decrease again at some point? I tried simulating \"wind with 2 m/s\" at some point, but it didn't make sense, the velocity profile kept depending on how big I made the simulation domain. I can fix it at 2m above grpund or something, but then it keeps increasing further up. So what do wind speed values mean, e.g. from a weather report? How does it relate to the physics of weather? For context, I'm a physicist but I don't get how wind works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5155.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oaxx10", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h3l30o2", "c_root_id_B": "h3khna7", "created_at_utc_A": 1625075345, "created_at_utc_B": 1625066163, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "How does wind velocity work? It should vary with height from ground, is there a norm where it is measured? I have some understanding of Navier Stokes equation, so velocity should be zero at the ground and increase upwards, but does it decrease again at some point? I tried simulating \"wind with 2 m/s\" at some point, but it didn't make sense, the velocity profile kept depending on how big I made the simulation domain. I can fix it at 2m above grpund or something, but then it keeps increasing further up. So what do wind speed values mean, e.g. from a weather report? How does it relate to the physics of weather? For context, I'm a physicist but I don't get how wind works.", "human_ref_B": "Are there examples of the Fibonacci sequence in space?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9182.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oaxx10", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h3khr8m", "c_root_id_B": "h3l30o2", "created_at_utc_A": 1625066211, "created_at_utc_B": 1625075345, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Can a Bitcoin mining set up heat your house in the winter?", "human_ref_B": "How does wind velocity work? It should vary with height from ground, is there a norm where it is measured? I have some understanding of Navier Stokes equation, so velocity should be zero at the ground and increase upwards, but does it decrease again at some point? I tried simulating \"wind with 2 m/s\" at some point, but it didn't make sense, the velocity profile kept depending on how big I made the simulation domain. I can fix it at 2m above grpund or something, but then it keeps increasing further up. So what do wind speed values mean, e.g. from a weather report? How does it relate to the physics of weather? For context, I'm a physicist but I don't get how wind works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9134.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oaxx10", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h3khyna", "c_root_id_B": "h3l30o2", "created_at_utc_A": 1625066299, "created_at_utc_B": 1625075345, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What is the best way to visualize infinity?", "human_ref_B": "How does wind velocity work? It should vary with height from ground, is there a norm where it is measured? I have some understanding of Navier Stokes equation, so velocity should be zero at the ground and increase upwards, but does it decrease again at some point? I tried simulating \"wind with 2 m/s\" at some point, but it didn't make sense, the velocity profile kept depending on how big I made the simulation domain. I can fix it at 2m above grpund or something, but then it keeps increasing further up. So what do wind speed values mean, e.g. from a weather report? How does it relate to the physics of weather? For context, I'm a physicist but I don't get how wind works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9046.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oaxx10", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h3kr8pq", "c_root_id_B": "h3khna7", "created_at_utc_A": 1625070190, "created_at_utc_B": 1625066163, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Is there any real feasability to using quantum computing in the bit mining field with tangible results?   Like, could you use the probabilities given by quantum computing to narrow down the possible number of block chain keys that would correct? I don't know alot about bit mining, or quantum computing, or regular mining but I know that it used to be that when a new block came up that needed to be added to the chain it would have a key associated to it. Miners would use their cpu and gpu to try and crack that code, whoever did got paid a certain amount of money.  The code was a 256 bit random alpha-numeric code that was near impossible to crack. That's, to my knowledge, why crypto currency is so secure, along with some other features.   Anyway, can quantum computing be used to find that key faster that randomly plugging in code and seeing what works?", "human_ref_B": "Are there examples of the Fibonacci sequence in space?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4027.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oaxx10", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h3khr8m", "c_root_id_B": "h3kr8pq", "created_at_utc_A": 1625066211, "created_at_utc_B": 1625070190, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Can a Bitcoin mining set up heat your house in the winter?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any real feasability to using quantum computing in the bit mining field with tangible results?   Like, could you use the probabilities given by quantum computing to narrow down the possible number of block chain keys that would correct? I don't know alot about bit mining, or quantum computing, or regular mining but I know that it used to be that when a new block came up that needed to be added to the chain it would have a key associated to it. Miners would use their cpu and gpu to try and crack that code, whoever did got paid a certain amount of money.  The code was a 256 bit random alpha-numeric code that was near impossible to crack. That's, to my knowledge, why crypto currency is so secure, along with some other features.   Anyway, can quantum computing be used to find that key faster that randomly plugging in code and seeing what works?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3979.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oaxx10", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h3khyna", "c_root_id_B": "h3kr8pq", "created_at_utc_A": 1625066299, "created_at_utc_B": 1625070190, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What is the best way to visualize infinity?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any real feasability to using quantum computing in the bit mining field with tangible results?   Like, could you use the probabilities given by quantum computing to narrow down the possible number of block chain keys that would correct? I don't know alot about bit mining, or quantum computing, or regular mining but I know that it used to be that when a new block came up that needed to be added to the chain it would have a key associated to it. Miners would use their cpu and gpu to try and crack that code, whoever did got paid a certain amount of money.  The code was a 256 bit random alpha-numeric code that was near impossible to crack. That's, to my knowledge, why crypto currency is so secure, along with some other features.   Anyway, can quantum computing be used to find that key faster that randomly plugging in code and seeing what works?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3891.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t1zzs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Do people with Dissociative identity disorder (split personalities) show signs of different levels of intelligence(IQ tests etc.), based on the personality the are showing at the time. Does this show anything about how intelligence develops in humans.", "c_root_id_A": "c4ixj9j", "c_root_id_B": "c4iytjo", "created_at_utc_A": 1335913734, "created_at_utc_B": 1335919807, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "To my knowledge a study like this has not been done because it's too difficult... and people can cycle through different personalities even through a single administration of tests. Pop psychology claims that people with DID are unusually intelligent, but research indicates otherwise, most likely because they're not good at taking tests due to the cycling and other factors.  http://www.towson.edu/topddstudy/AssessmentDID2006Brandetal.pdf", "human_ref_B": "I'll add on to my good friend penguin and point out that the validity of DID as an actual thing (as opposed to something faked or induced by well-meaning therapists) is still highly debated in our field.  edit: scroll down to read penguinofevil's actual answer to the question", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6073.0, "score_ratio": 5.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ybvcr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "How does a flu vaccine lessen symptoms when you catch a flu variant that isn\u2019t one of the variants in that seasons vaccination?", "c_root_id_A": "duiovza", "c_root_id_B": "dufyegp", "created_at_utc_A": 1519088065, "created_at_utc_B": 1518967537, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I'm not sure if this was mentioned already but, when exposed to an antigen, antibodies will proliferate at a high rate. Thus, small mutations often occur. As a result, you may produced antibodies that are also capable of recognizing slightly different antigens than the one present upon initial exposure. For instance, if you are exposed to an antigen 'A', your immune system will produce 'anti-A' antibodies as intended, but may also produce 'anti-A1' antibodies due to a point mutation. Because of this, your immune system will be able to recognize both antigens A and A1 in future exposures. This process is called somatic hypermutation, and is one of a few ways that your immune system is able to diversify your antibodies.", "human_ref_B": "Although the vaccines are prepared to include the most likely circulating strain, majority of vaccines still contain proteins of influenza viruses that are very conserved, this means they look the same in both the more mutated and less mutated viruses. Mainly the surface protein HA and NA will undergo the most mutation, while internal proteins M1, NP undergo less mutation. Vaccines focus to incorporate the HA surface protein but along with it they still incorporate all the other proteins for your immune system to get acquainted to. So even though you may not be protected from a certain new influenza you are still getting that core protection against those parts of the virus that are less likely to mutate. Hope that makes sense!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 120528.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1uwu6m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "When astronomers look at a galaxy that is many lightyears across and not facing us as a flat disc, do they take into account the future position of the stars most diatant when attempting to make a visual recreation of the structure as it was when the closest light reached their instruments?", "c_root_id_A": "cemnvra", "c_root_id_B": "cempxme", "created_at_utc_A": 1389408977, "created_at_utc_B": 1389414765, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "A typical galaxy might span a few tens of thousands of light years. While this might seem like a big distance, it's tiny compared to the scale of the Universe. Most galaxies are millions, even tens or hundreds of millions, of light years away from us. A few tens of thousands of light years is insignificant in comparison.", "human_ref_B": "I originally misread your question, so my first response was wrong.   The Sun orbits our galaxy about every 240 million years. It takes light about 100 *thousand* years to get across the galaxy. So the farthest stars have barely moved in comparison to the galaxy when the light makes it to the closet edge to us.  I don't think it actually matters how close or how far away we are from the galaxy - I think adamsolomon might have misread it too (it's kinda hard to understand what you're asking). The tiny amount that the far stars will shift relative to closer stars should be the same no matter the distance. The only difference is in the *size* of the image we get - the larger the image, the more you can tell that stars shift (just think of it with pixels. The stars will move across more pixels if we blow the image up.) But the actual amount of distortion overall will be the same.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5788.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "54gl3q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why can't we use capacitor as batteries? Instead of chemical batteries?", "c_root_id_A": "d8247kw", "c_root_id_B": "d823wl9", "created_at_utc_A": 1474855106, "created_at_utc_B": 1474854640, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A useful capacitor battery would be too big.  The amount of energy a capacitor can hold depends on it's surface area.  This is why most capacitors are round, they're a big long strip with a connection on each end that is then rolled up to make it compact.  Think of it like a roll of toilet paper.  All the paper has a large surface area but it's rolled up to make it compact.  With current tech to make a laptop battery out of capacitor would require the capacitor to be about as big as your laptop.  But there is good news, carbon nano tubes.  Like I said it's all about surface area.  So there are capacitor designs that incorporate carbon nano tubes to increase surface area.  Think of it like carpet vs hardwood floor.  In a 10x10 room you have 100 square feet of surface area when it's covered in hardwood.  But if you put in that carpet it has much more surface area, it has the original 100 square feet plus the surface area of every single fiber in the carpet.  The carbon nanotubes act like the little carpet threads and drastically increase the surface area, which allows the capacitor to be smaller.  The one problem is how to mass produce carbon nanotubes.", "human_ref_B": "In answer to your question :  -Yes : its possible to design and build 'Super Capacitors' which will have kilo- and even mega-Farad capacities, and then can be discharged and recharged at will.  -Not Yet: From the perspective of thermal and electrical engineering, such capacitors will need to be designed, tested, and engineered to cope with electric field isolation, cooling, insulation, and construction techniques to keep them both light, strong, and safe for use. That said, the engineering obstacles to them are not that great, they simply require work and funding to make them viable.  -No : At the moment, the biggest capacitors on the market today are about 1 farad.  It is conceivable that, with the development of Megafarad capacitors, and their engineering to be stable, cooled (during the discharge phase of power delivery, and during the charging cycle), and safe, that they can then be used as a viable alternative to the NiMH and LiMH batteries in use in electric vehicles, and consumer electronics.  If there is anywhere in the world most likely to be doing this research, its probably Tesla Motors in the USA.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 466.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lkd406", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Why is it that the AstraZeneca vaccine has a reduced efficacy on the B1351 Corona strand? As far as I know both types of vaccines, mRNA and vector, accomplish the exact same response from the human body, producing the spike protein present on the SARS-cov-2 virus. Therefore I find it strange, that the mRNA vaccines show higher efficacy than the Vector vaccine by AstraZeneca.", "c_root_id_A": "gnk514i", "c_root_id_B": "gnjuqax", "created_at_utc_A": 1613414016, "created_at_utc_B": 1613409124, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "We don\u2019t yet know for certain why the AZ vaccine\u2019s efficacy has been testing lower than others.  Other adenovirus vectored vaccines, like Sputnik-V and Johnson+Johnson, have shown somewhat better results, so the issue is more complex than just mRNA vs vector.  One strong possibility is that Oxford/AstraZeneca didn\u2019t include a modification to stabilize the spike protein that most other vaccine developers did, known as 2P:  https://cen.acs.org/pharmaceuticals/vaccines/tiny-tweak-behind-COVID-19/98/i38  But without further research, it\u2019s all speculation.  For all we know right now, the differences could come down to study design.  Or it could be a more fundamental issue with the adenovirus vectoring approach (for example, if the vaccine developers chose a vector virus that resembles one a particular population has already experienced, the body could attack and fight off the vector before it has a chance to deliver its payload.)", "human_ref_B": "mRNA vaccines induce a greater abundance of antibody production, and are likely also superior at inducing T-cell mediated cellular immunity. Escape from antibody-based immunity is not an all-or-nothing event, and typically involves reduced effectiveness of antibodies wherein they still bind to and neutralize viral particles but with less effectiveness. It is also doesn't necessarily imply any escape from cellular immunity. Higher antibody titres means that although the antibodies are less effective, on average more people will remain above the threshold necessary to prevent replication or disease with a vaccine that induces higher antibody titres. Furthermore T-cell mediated immunity will likely reduce the incidence of symptomatic disease (and possibly infection in general) somewhat independently of this.  As an aside, even if heterologous adenovirus prime-boost regimes approach mRNA vaccines in efficacy, they likely can't be reused for new vaccines in the future as immunity to the vector will remain.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4892.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bsugp1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.62, "history": "Why do we treat pyrexia with paracetamol when it is part of the body's systemic response to infection?", "c_root_id_A": "eorcjlv", "c_root_id_B": "eosjxi7", "created_at_utc_A": 1558804401, "created_at_utc_B": 1558824366, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "It is disputed whether fever is an undesired byproduct of the body's response, or if it is an \"intended\" part of that response used to fight infections. What is undisputed is that high fever can cause brain injury/seizure, and that therefore it generally needs to be treated in its own right separate from the treatment of the underlying condition. Not all doctors recommend using antipyretics for moderate fever, but only for fever when it that becomes potentially dangerous, at which point whatever biological value fever has is moot compared to its potential dangers and the far more effective treatments available to treat the underlying condition, such as antibiotics. These considerations depend on evaluation of the patient, whether infant or elderly, and likely cause of the fever, and exactly where to draw the line in terms of the body temperature at which antipyretics should be recommended is disputed. Generally paracetamol is quite safe at standard doses and does not cause deaths by \"turning off\" the body's ability to fight infection.", "human_ref_B": "**To add some color to this:**  Pyrexia is the heat component of what is colloquially referred to as \"fever.\" That \"fever\" also includes aches, pains, systemic inflammation, and just generally feeling *lousy*.  These collectively are referred to as \"flu-like symptoms\" because it is so common to feel this and have a fever when a non-specific flu-like illness is contracted. Rhinoviruses, Coronaviruses, respiratory syncitial viruses (RSV), and others are likely responsible for these infections. And of course, influenza is the most well-known pathogen responsible for these symptoms.  But what you're actually feeling when this happens, the actual physical pyrexia and aches and pains and fatigue, that is all caused by a molecule called interferon (IFN). IFN was actually tried as a treatment against cancer/viral infections in the 80s, but people universally HATED IT, because it makes you feel so crappy. It is pretty effective, though, at getting your immune system up and running against cancer cells, invading viruses, regulating the immune response in things like multiple sclerosis, etc., and so is used today in some cases. (Sources: 1 2 3 4)  IFN is the #1 anti-viral protein, and the production, secretion, and circulation of it is very tightly bound up to viruses entering a cell. So much so that this is the main thing viruses target to try and survive. There are all these relationships where viral proteins are trying to shut down IFN and inventing workarounds to avoid IFN being activated. Meanwhile, our bodies are doing the same thing at the protein level, inventing ways to get around viral blocks, tit for tat, in an ever-lasting arms race. (Further reading: 1 2 3 4 5)  This is because IFN is so good at shutting down viral infection. When it gets activated, the cell stops making proteins, dividing, and moving around. The IFN-producing cell also releases tons of signals to other cells to say \"HEY LOOK, I'M INFECTED!!!\"   As a kind of side-note, the fact that interferon is so heavily conserved in evolution all the way back to jawed vertebrate fish is a good reason to think it's pretty important. And that fevers themselves are pretty important. But the longevity of the pathway also means viruses and bacteria have had a long time to develop adaptations to deal with fever. And so hence the complexity I'll detail in a second. (Further reading: 1 2 3 4)  The reason this is relevant to the discussion is that paracetamol is thought to act directly at the hypothalamus, preventing prostaglandins (proteins responsible for triggering pyrexia) from doing their job. As a result, the brain doesn't trigger all of the systemic valves and knobs that cause more peripheral vasoconstriction and shivering and so on, generating more heat in the core of the body. (Sources: 1 2 3 4 5)  And so, in acting on the hypothalamus, paracetamol may be preventing a fever, but the rest of the IFN-response is still happening. It's not as though the body just throws up its hands and says \"oh I guess we're done now!\" as soon as tylenol enters the equation. IFN is still acting systemically and viruses are still being targeted by the innate and adaptive immune systems.  The conventional wisdom is that fever helps fight infection because it's more difficult for viruses and bacteria to live in a hotter environment. This is indeed true for some viruses (polio, influenza, rinderpest) but not all. Some viruses (especially those that replicate more easily in the central tissues or in immune cells like Epstein-barr) are more resistant to fever and may even adapt to it. This is probably because the immune system adapted fever and the IFN response as the first line against some viral infections, and now produces it regardless of the invading virus. This overall IFN response is very useful, and fever is just one component of it. (Sources: 1 2 3)  Because of that difference between different viruses and their ability to survive fever, whether or not paracetamol should be used in a given patient has everything to do with what their illness is. In some cases (notably influenza in the ICU), using paracetamol to treat pyrexia is actually dangerous. It increases mortality by up to 5% in some cases! (sources: 1 2 3 )  But on the other hand, there are quite a few pathogens that are shown to do worse in HYPOthermic conditions as compared to HYPERthermic ones! We would probably recover from their illnesses better if our body's response was to cool DOWN instead of warm UP! This is true for certain bacteria, neuroinvasive viruses, and especially in septic cases. (sources: 1 2 3)  It's a complex conundrum. We know fever and pyrexia can also make ceratain immune cells work better, and do their job better. But clinicians don't always want the immune system to be in tip-top shape.   Quite a few viral illnesses, for example, are only bad because of the immune-response to them. Hantaviruses come to mind. These viruses aren't actually known to cause cellular damage or do much on their own, but they cause such a violent and horrible immune response (often called cytokine storm, from the little blood-circulating molecules responsible) that patients infected with these viruses die in overwhelming numbers (up to 60% of the time in some cases -- don't worry hantavirus infections in humans are super super super rare).   And in sepsis and neurological viral infections, it is the actual the fever itself that can cause brain cell death and hence person-death! So of course hypothermia and a coma are sometimes more preferable while the body fights these infections.  In the vast majority of cases, it doesn't really matter. In non-life-threatening viral infections, where the illness will resolve on its own whether you take paracetamol or not, it's up to the patient... Taking a fever-reducer may mean the overall illness lasts a lil bit longer, but that you feel better for that slightly longer period of time. So it's a value judgment in that case. Most people, given that choice, I think would pick taking the drug and being \"sick\" for a little longer, but \"less sick\" overall.    And also any increase in time-to-recovery is probably negligible at that! All that other stuff IFN is doing is still working, and all your immune system is still active, regardless of the pyrexia. So the choice is pretty easy.   **So TL;DR:** in cases when lowering fever might help the patient recover faster (less discomfort, ability to sleep, heat-adapted viral species, sepsis, and so on), it makes sense to treat with paracetamol. In cases where the fever is actually the problem and could be hurting the patient's brain or causing a systemic over-inflammation, then treating the fever is exactly what we should be doing. In the vast majority of cases, it doesn't really matter. But in the most severe non-systemic viral infections with fevers below 104 degrees F, you're probably right and treating the fever is counter-productive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19965.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hm2ua", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "What is the likelihood  of the Yellowstone volcano to blow in the next 100-200 years I do understand that wile it is a geologically active area, but another discussion got me thinking about the topic, and I don't want to hijack that.", "c_root_id_A": "c1wgzl9", "c_root_id_B": "c1whib2", "created_at_utc_A": 1306565740, "created_at_utc_B": 1306580824, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "I saw a show on TV where they talked about some recent studies which tried imaging the magma chamber beneath Yellowstone. The best predictor of when the volcano might explode is a large and rapidly growing magma chamber.  According to the show, the magma chamber was not as large as they would expect if the volcano was about to blow anytime soon. Nor was its size increasing at a rapid rate.  Consequently, the view was that there is no danger of it exploding anytime soon. By \"anytime soon\", my impression was the next 10-50 years, or the lifetimes of the scientists they interviewed.  Now a scale of 500 years is a different story. While the magma chamber would still have to expand in order for it to blow, who knows what can happen in 500 years. I think the science to predict that far ahead just doesn't exist at this point. One thing seems certain, though -- that if we keep monitoring it, then we will be able to detect the danger signals well ahead of the actual explosion.", "human_ref_B": "I figured I should come by with my shiny tag and say something.  To confirm, it is extremely unlikely that Yellowstone will have a super eruption in the next 100-200 years. The volcano does not show the precursors of future eruption, i.e. seismic unrest, smaller eruptions, diking events etc. that are indicative of a future eruption. That said, it is possible for a volcano to have a \"blue sky\" eruption, that is an eruption that occurs without warning. This is possible at Yellowstone, but very unlikely that the blue sky eruption would be a super-eruption. (not all eruptions at yellowstone are super-eruptions, most are not)  I seriously recommend reading this USGS article. It is easy to read, without compromising scientific integrity.  On the scale of 2-5 thousand years things become a bit dicier. It is possible for a chamber of yellowstone's size to accumulate enough magma within that window to erupt. In a pretty sweet paper, Charlier et al, 2004 (sorry guys you'll need a subscription for this one) argued that magma recharge in the Taupo volcano in NZ may have taken only 2,500 years to recharge for a super eruption (530 km^3 !!!!!!)!!!!!!! This is astonishingly fast magma production, and serves as an upper limit to how fast yellowstone can get back on its feet!  In addition, I should add that by far the most likely destructive scenario at Yellowstone is a *phreatic* or steam eruption. These eruptions are small steam explosions that happen much more frequently at geysers and fumaroles. When I visited Yellowstone a few years back, I noticed that the boardwalk I was on around one of the hot springs was built on the rim of a crater surrounding the blast zone from a phreatic explosion, it was awesome.  Please let me know if I wasn't clear.  Td;lr Not very likely, I'd stake the lives of everyone in central USA on it...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15084.0, "score_ratio": 3.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hm2ua", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "What is the likelihood  of the Yellowstone volcano to blow in the next 100-200 years I do understand that wile it is a geologically active area, but another discussion got me thinking about the topic, and I don't want to hijack that.", "c_root_id_A": "c1wh2j1", "c_root_id_B": "c1whib2", "created_at_utc_A": 1306567342, "created_at_utc_B": 1306580824, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "Longtime reader reporting in: I'm an undergrad geologist from New Zealand, we have a similar supervolcano (called Taupo) here.  It's hard to predict these eruptions, as brock_h says, because they're relatively rare - and at Yellowstone, all the 'normal' signs of imminent eruption are happening all the time. We can make educated guesses, though. hopefully, we'd get warning of at least a month - water temperatures all over the hotspot area would spike, possibly even boiling away, and the ground would heave and tilt, as the molten mass rose underneath.  Ideally the melt would rise slowly, and we'd have time to evacuate everyone, but as said; no one can be sure. The last 'super' eruption from any of these hotspots was from Taupo, 1800 years ago, and no one was around to observe it.  The scenario Yellowstone observers really worry about, however, is the possibility of superheated Steam explosions - the sudden release of steam pressure, triggered by magma meeting water underground. These hydrothermal eruptions can easily blast large craters, with very little warning. they're not common, though.", "human_ref_B": "I figured I should come by with my shiny tag and say something.  To confirm, it is extremely unlikely that Yellowstone will have a super eruption in the next 100-200 years. The volcano does not show the precursors of future eruption, i.e. seismic unrest, smaller eruptions, diking events etc. that are indicative of a future eruption. That said, it is possible for a volcano to have a \"blue sky\" eruption, that is an eruption that occurs without warning. This is possible at Yellowstone, but very unlikely that the blue sky eruption would be a super-eruption. (not all eruptions at yellowstone are super-eruptions, most are not)  I seriously recommend reading this USGS article. It is easy to read, without compromising scientific integrity.  On the scale of 2-5 thousand years things become a bit dicier. It is possible for a chamber of yellowstone's size to accumulate enough magma within that window to erupt. In a pretty sweet paper, Charlier et al, 2004 (sorry guys you'll need a subscription for this one) argued that magma recharge in the Taupo volcano in NZ may have taken only 2,500 years to recharge for a super eruption (530 km^3 !!!!!!)!!!!!!! This is astonishingly fast magma production, and serves as an upper limit to how fast yellowstone can get back on its feet!  In addition, I should add that by far the most likely destructive scenario at Yellowstone is a *phreatic* or steam eruption. These eruptions are small steam explosions that happen much more frequently at geysers and fumaroles. When I visited Yellowstone a few years back, I noticed that the boardwalk I was on around one of the hot springs was built on the rim of a crater surrounding the blast zone from a phreatic explosion, it was awesome.  Please let me know if I wasn't clear.  Td;lr Not very likely, I'd stake the lives of everyone in central USA on it...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13482.0, "score_ratio": 4.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2tvnzv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "I grew up hearing that one should never eat the first snow. Is there any truth to that statement? What's the science behind it? A girl in a class of mine was talking about eating snow ice cream. I understand that snow develops around a dust particle and could very well be filled with toxins, but could the second or third snow really be any cleaner than the first snow? Could the first snow act as an air cleaner?", "c_root_id_A": "co30usb", "c_root_id_B": "co3xlqv", "created_at_utc_A": 1422408528, "created_at_utc_B": 1422480710, "score_A": -11, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Eating snow is often discouraged in general. Those parents that discourage snow eating are most likely to have their kids try to eat snow when snow falls when they are all excited about it. Some stay vigilant but it takes more vigilance to keep steering the kids away from it if they keep attempting it and reduced snow intake migth be an acceptable parenting outcome.  So the issue of snow eating is most topical at first snow. If everybody gets reminded at this time about the \"conduct with snow\" and not any other time they migth start to think it largely applies only then or that in practise you get yelled a lot less if it happens any other time, making the rule \"less real\" at other occasions.", "human_ref_B": "It's no different really to drinking rain water, which if it is carefully collected is reasonably potable. Somewhere there is a study about super antibiotic properties of puddle water...   What constitutes the first snow anyway? Would sleet count? What about hail? Does it have to last a certain amount of time, or fall to a certain depth?   Many things filter or collect air particulates, including crops, house plants, clothes, mucus membranes, and the inside of your mouth.   Or, to put it in the words of grandma (an official old wife, fond of her tales): \"you have to eat a certain amount of dirt before you die\".   It's no more dangerous than being alive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 72182.0, "score_ratio": -0.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hbf7o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "The Full Moon - Is there any credibility or research into behavioural or emotional changes as a result of it?  I understand that there are a certain number of effects on the Earth itself that result from the distance of the moon from Earth (gravitational effects, etc.). But is there any credibility to the claims of behavioural and emotional changes resulting from the full moon?", "c_root_id_A": "c1u2y2c", "c_root_id_B": "c1u2s3c", "created_at_utc_A": 1305410012, "created_at_utc_B": 1305407746, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Many hospitals plan around full moons. My aunt's hospital can show you data showing they get more people on full moons than normal nights, and more unusual cases. It's anecdotal evidence, to be sure, but she says she talks to nurses from all over the countries whose hospitals do the same thing.   Edit: I'm not saying the moon directly causes this, it could be (and honestly I suspect is) a placebo effect that makes people THINK the moon affects them. I'm just pointing out that you can find in plenty of fields important differences during full moons, for whatever reason that might be.  Edit: Wikipedia touches on it a little bit, noting a few examples and explanations of the effect: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect#Scientific_research_on_theory Again, I'm not saying some sort of magical or otherworldly, or even particularly \"special\" thing happens, one of the studies took in to account the clarity of the sky and found that the brightness of the moon was probably the major player in the differences noted.", "human_ref_B": "I think, historically at least, there have been more crimes/happenings at night during a full moon simply because one can see in the darkness so easily with one.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2266.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hbf7o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "The Full Moon - Is there any credibility or research into behavioural or emotional changes as a result of it?  I understand that there are a certain number of effects on the Earth itself that result from the distance of the moon from Earth (gravitational effects, etc.). But is there any credibility to the claims of behavioural and emotional changes resulting from the full moon?", "c_root_id_A": "c1u2s3c", "c_root_id_B": "c1u3qpo", "created_at_utc_A": 1305407746, "created_at_utc_B": 1305421191, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I think, historically at least, there have been more crimes/happenings at night during a full moon simply because one can see in the darkness so easily with one.", "human_ref_B": "Surely there are behavioural and emotional changes due to the full moon in the same way that there are behavioural and emotional changes due to all sorts of other placebos.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13445.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hbf7o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "The Full Moon - Is there any credibility or research into behavioural or emotional changes as a result of it?  I understand that there are a certain number of effects on the Earth itself that result from the distance of the moon from Earth (gravitational effects, etc.). But is there any credibility to the claims of behavioural and emotional changes resulting from the full moon?", "c_root_id_A": "c1u3qpo", "c_root_id_B": "c1u2z2d", "created_at_utc_A": 1305421191, "created_at_utc_B": 1305410409, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Surely there are behavioural and emotional changes due to the full moon in the same way that there are behavioural and emotional changes due to all sorts of other placebos.", "human_ref_B": "Do you mean humans only or other animals?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10782.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x6cv9y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Is there a significant difference of oxygen concentration in the air, during the daytime and night ? Since plants produce 02 in day and c02 in night , there's surely a difference but i want to know how much ? Does it affect human ?  Does it affect the performance of an athlete for example ? Like is he more endurant when he runs during day than night", "c_root_id_A": "in9qex7", "c_root_id_B": "inbtqvd", "created_at_utc_A": 1662434891, "created_at_utc_B": 1662480037, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Above a boreal forest in Sweden, the daily variation can reach 250 parts per million molecules of 02.  From summer to winter worldwide, it varies by 100 ppm. https://www.oxygenlevels.org/ note we can see fossil fuel effects on the graph.  For a rainforest, I am guessing it can reach 500 ppm, that's like a less than 1% variation. Humans can survive very rarified oxygen, even half amounts, they just breathe 2x faster.  if you search \"O2 per meg\" thats how scientists call the amount ppm for ambient oxygen.", "human_ref_B": "Don't plants respirate all the time but during the day they additionaly photosynthesis?  Also because of gases diffusion in open space area without high pollution I think it's not as significiant. IMO your performance during the daytime jogging would be same as night session if the amount of oxygen in the air during day/night is the only condition.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 45146.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "175fea", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why do humans have different blood types? What makes one blood type different from another? Why did we evolve to have different blood types, and why isn't our blood type determined by our parents genes (or is it?)?", "c_root_id_A": "c82d6w0", "c_root_id_B": "c82je5e", "created_at_utc_A": 1358980248, "created_at_utc_B": 1358998920, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I'm not sure why we evolved to have different types. But can answer the other two.  So yes it is determined by our parents genes, it is genetic, it's also a good way to find out if you're adopted or not, although it's not very detailed and you can't always make conclusions from the results. (You can't say if someone is your parent, only if they are not your parents).  Blood groups are defined by genetics, but the phenotype (what actually happens) is that blood cells present special antigens on their cell srface which are recognised by your bodies immune system. ABO is the typical system (there are a lot more), O means there are no antigens, A is the A antigen and B is the B antigen. AB is both A and B.", "human_ref_B": "You're probably referring to the ABO system as well as the Rh system, but for a fun fact, there are many 'minor' blood type differences on top of those.    Blood antigen variation is thought to be a response to pathogens like viruses spreading from person to person and carrying some component of membrane protein with them, such that individuals who created an antibody response to foreign ABO markers had more success fighting off infections.  wiki explanation here, journal article here  Blood type is absolutely determined by parental genotype, and is one of the classic inheritance patterns taught using Punnett squares.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18672.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwbpp7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Did birds evolve from a single species of bird-like dinosaur or several? I know that birds evolved from dinosaurs and that there were many dinosaurs that had bird-like traits, but did modern birds evolve from a single surviving species after the extinction event or are there several bird branches stemming from multiple dinosaur species?  Or in other words, was modern birds' *most recent* common ancestor a bird or a dinosaur?", "c_root_id_A": "f7jvvxf", "c_root_id_B": "f7ju52z", "created_at_utc_A": 1573787839, "created_at_utc_B": 1573786532, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Vertebrate biologist here.  All living bird lineages are descended from more ancient birds of the neoornithine lineage with Avialae (see link below).  Other lineages of early birds, such as the enantiornthines went extinct. Another way to answer your question:  although there may have been several lineages experimenting with flight within the maniraptorian dinosaurs, all living birds are descended from a lineage that was already a bird with many modern characteristics, including a fused pygostyle tail and loss of teeth.  Feathers were around well before the origin of flight.  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avialae", "human_ref_B": "Modern birds or Aves are the newest branch on the avian dinosaur lineage. If I am understanding your question correctly. Birds probably radiated from several species that survived the K-Pg extinction event. At least the way I understand the phylogenetic tree.  Modern birds are descendants of avian dinosaurs, however there were several transitional species between Dinosaurs and Birds. The most famous being Archaeopteryx which has both dinosaur and bird traits. However there are many other transitional species between the two. Here is a pretty comprehensive explanation of the transition from Dinosaurs to Birds. Also a good paper on the evolution of birds. https://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G104/10424arch.htm  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982215009458", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1307.0, "score_ratio": 4.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwbpp7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Did birds evolve from a single species of bird-like dinosaur or several? I know that birds evolved from dinosaurs and that there were many dinosaurs that had bird-like traits, but did modern birds evolve from a single surviving species after the extinction event or are there several bird branches stemming from multiple dinosaur species?  Or in other words, was modern birds' *most recent* common ancestor a bird or a dinosaur?", "c_root_id_A": "f7jsh95", "c_root_id_B": "f7jvvxf", "created_at_utc_A": 1573785341, "created_at_utc_B": 1573787839, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Botanic here, but as the post is 10h old I can try to answer.  Firstly, birds are dinosaurs, they didn't \"evolve from them\" they still are, so yeah, they share a common ancestor with dinosaurs and afaik all birds came from a single lineage on the dinosaur's tree", "human_ref_B": "Vertebrate biologist here.  All living bird lineages are descended from more ancient birds of the neoornithine lineage with Avialae (see link below).  Other lineages of early birds, such as the enantiornthines went extinct. Another way to answer your question:  although there may have been several lineages experimenting with flight within the maniraptorian dinosaurs, all living birds are descended from a lineage that was already a bird with many modern characteristics, including a fused pygostyle tail and loss of teeth.  Feathers were around well before the origin of flight.  https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avialae", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2498.0, "score_ratio": 8.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwbpp7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Did birds evolve from a single species of bird-like dinosaur or several? I know that birds evolved from dinosaurs and that there were many dinosaurs that had bird-like traits, but did modern birds evolve from a single surviving species after the extinction event or are there several bird branches stemming from multiple dinosaur species?  Or in other words, was modern birds' *most recent* common ancestor a bird or a dinosaur?", "c_root_id_A": "f7k1tpz", "c_root_id_B": "f7ju52z", "created_at_utc_A": 1573792346, "created_at_utc_B": 1573786532, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "\"Bird\" and \"avian dinosaur\" mean the same thing -- there's no clean and easy distinction between \"bird-like dinosaur\" and \"bird\", because birds ARE dinosaurs! A very derived kind of dinosaur, with feathers.  It sounds like another way to phrase what you're asking is: \"Are all modern birds (aka avian dinosaurs), descended from a single species of NON-avian dinosaur, or did multiple non-avian lineages independently develop all the features found in what we call birds?\"  The answer is: probably not. The most recent common ancestor of modern birds definitely also hit all the wickets to be a 'bird'. It had some peers who ALSO counted as birds but those guys' lineages didn't survive to the present. It also had plenty of almost-a-bird peers whose descendants ALSO didn't survive.", "human_ref_B": "Modern birds or Aves are the newest branch on the avian dinosaur lineage. If I am understanding your question correctly. Birds probably radiated from several species that survived the K-Pg extinction event. At least the way I understand the phylogenetic tree.  Modern birds are descendants of avian dinosaurs, however there were several transitional species between Dinosaurs and Birds. The most famous being Archaeopteryx which has both dinosaur and bird traits. However there are many other transitional species between the two. Here is a pretty comprehensive explanation of the transition from Dinosaurs to Birds. Also a good paper on the evolution of birds. https://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G104/10424arch.htm  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982215009458", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5814.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwbpp7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Did birds evolve from a single species of bird-like dinosaur or several? I know that birds evolved from dinosaurs and that there were many dinosaurs that had bird-like traits, but did modern birds evolve from a single surviving species after the extinction event or are there several bird branches stemming from multiple dinosaur species?  Or in other words, was modern birds' *most recent* common ancestor a bird or a dinosaur?", "c_root_id_A": "f7jsh95", "c_root_id_B": "f7k1tpz", "created_at_utc_A": 1573785341, "created_at_utc_B": 1573792346, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Botanic here, but as the post is 10h old I can try to answer.  Firstly, birds are dinosaurs, they didn't \"evolve from them\" they still are, so yeah, they share a common ancestor with dinosaurs and afaik all birds came from a single lineage on the dinosaur's tree", "human_ref_B": "\"Bird\" and \"avian dinosaur\" mean the same thing -- there's no clean and easy distinction between \"bird-like dinosaur\" and \"bird\", because birds ARE dinosaurs! A very derived kind of dinosaur, with feathers.  It sounds like another way to phrase what you're asking is: \"Are all modern birds (aka avian dinosaurs), descended from a single species of NON-avian dinosaur, or did multiple non-avian lineages independently develop all the features found in what we call birds?\"  The answer is: probably not. The most recent common ancestor of modern birds definitely also hit all the wickets to be a 'bird'. It had some peers who ALSO counted as birds but those guys' lineages didn't survive to the present. It also had plenty of almost-a-bird peers whose descendants ALSO didn't survive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7005.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwbpp7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Did birds evolve from a single species of bird-like dinosaur or several? I know that birds evolved from dinosaurs and that there were many dinosaurs that had bird-like traits, but did modern birds evolve from a single surviving species after the extinction event or are there several bird branches stemming from multiple dinosaur species?  Or in other words, was modern birds' *most recent* common ancestor a bird or a dinosaur?", "c_root_id_A": "f7jsh95", "c_root_id_B": "f7ju52z", "created_at_utc_A": 1573785341, "created_at_utc_B": 1573786532, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Botanic here, but as the post is 10h old I can try to answer.  Firstly, birds are dinosaurs, they didn't \"evolve from them\" they still are, so yeah, they share a common ancestor with dinosaurs and afaik all birds came from a single lineage on the dinosaur's tree", "human_ref_B": "Modern birds or Aves are the newest branch on the avian dinosaur lineage. If I am understanding your question correctly. Birds probably radiated from several species that survived the K-Pg extinction event. At least the way I understand the phylogenetic tree.  Modern birds are descendants of avian dinosaurs, however there were several transitional species between Dinosaurs and Birds. The most famous being Archaeopteryx which has both dinosaur and bird traits. However there are many other transitional species between the two. Here is a pretty comprehensive explanation of the transition from Dinosaurs to Birds. Also a good paper on the evolution of birds. https://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G104/10424arch.htm  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982215009458", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1191.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pmh75u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How do researchers estimate that 90 percent of indigenous people in the Americas perished by introduced diseases? I have read estimates like these and they are quite shocking. I wonder how they came up with this estimate. Also do we know of mass burial sites? do the oral traditions of different peoples have stories thaa at tell of the staggering loss of life? It\u2019s just hard to get my head around.", "c_root_id_A": "hcvdrsh", "c_root_id_B": "hcmzz3b", "created_at_utc_A": 1631654542, "created_at_utc_B": 1631496553, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -12, "human_ref_A": "Russell Thornton details most of the methods used by researchers in his book,American Indian Holocaust and Survival.   For estimating how many died, it helps to know how many were here before the introduction of Eastern Hemisphere diseases. For this pre-contact population data, you can start with firsthand accounts, like European explorers' estimates when making first contact. These can be estimates of an entire region, or estimates of individual villages, etc. There will also be records of deaths in battle, church converts, etc. Archaeological excavations can tell you plenty about sizes and patterns of settlements that can be extrapolated to larger areas. There are also ways, all imprecise, of estimating the carrying capacity of the land (given the technologies and social organization of the native people groups).  The last data point available is actual mortality rates of diseases themselves. If we know the general mortality rate of smallpox, and have census information of smallpox *survivors,* we can estimate how many people may have been present before smallpox moved through.  None of these is going to be 100% accurate on its own, and virtually no researcher would claim otherwise. However, these various estimations can be used to check one another. If the archaeological evidence suggests one population, but the ecology of the region suggests a carrying capacity 10 times smaller, that's a good reason to suspect that one (or both) of these two estimates is quite a bit off. However if multiple lines of evidence point to similar population estimates, a researcher might feel more comfortable with their estimates. Estimates can also be checked against historical evidence (for example, if we estimated that one group was very large, but we know historically that they were repeatedly defeated and/or subjugated by a neighboring group estimated to have been much smaller, there is perhaps cause to re-check both size estimates against other data.)  All these different lines of investigation lead to population estimates that then must be projected across larger geographic areas, to arrive at our modern estimates. Even today, the evidence that informs these numbers is woefully inadequate, and our estimates are \"informed guesses\" more than anything else. There was a trend in the 30's and 40's to estimate the pre-1492 population of the Americas quite low, sometimes lower than 10 million in the entire Western Hemisphere...driven partly by data but also partly out of a fear of making the vast numbers of dead Americans seem any worse than we absolutely had to. Current research puts the numbers quite a bit higher than historians were comfortable with in the '30s, but whether we're talking about 40 million or 100 million will still be vigorously disputed by modern historians.", "human_ref_B": "I redd this story about Labrador a few years ago. There were native villages strung along the coast, mostly making a living by fishing and hunting, and they would get regular visits from traders and missionaries from further south (this was early last century). One of these visits introduced a disease, which killed everyone in a particular village, except for one small girl.  The villagers had kept huskies, which can't just revert to wild dogs if they're abandoned, and now there was no one to take care of them - so they started seeing the young girl as food. Consequently, she retreated into a building with her pet dog who then spent a month or more fighting off all the others.  Eventually, a supply ship turned up on one of its regular visits. The crew must have sensed something was wrong and set about shooting the dogs... including the one who had been fighting all that time to save the girl's life. Then the girl was taken away.  NB: To the downvoters - what kind of answer would you expect to a question like that? I redd that story while I was in Canada, do redditors object to highly plausible accounts from eye witnesses?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 157989.0, "score_ratio": -0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "drlxh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Does the holographic principle imply that the maximum information (in bits) contained within a spherical region of space must be less than or equal to its surface area in Planck length squares? I recall reading something to that effect somewhere, but the Wiki entry on the Holographic Principle doesn't explicitly say that's the case, just that the maximum information is proportional to the surface area.", "c_root_id_A": "c12elx9", "c_root_id_B": "c12fhim", "created_at_utc_A": 1287171451, "created_at_utc_B": 1287189198, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Just going by what I read in the Wikipedia article, doesn't it mention it as at least 4 times the area, given Hawkings constant of proportionality ?", "human_ref_B": "Yes it does imply exactly that (or if not exactly that, then it's certainly proportional to the surface area, not the volume) and here's why.  Thermodynamics' second law says that entropy in a closed system must always increase. But what of black holes? Is it possible that they somehow could be used to violate the 2nd law? Physicists pondered this, they thought, what would happen if I took something that had very very high entropy (say a container filled with diffuse gas) and threw it into a black hole? If the container had higher than average entropy, the net entropy in the universe would decrease, no?  The answer, according to the holographic principle, is that black holes must be the fundamentally maximal entropy a given region can have. Intuitively, this makes sense, since no matter how one would rearrange the microstates inside the black hole, the external appearance would never change (since it's shielded by the event horizon). Given that black holes have maximum entropy, physicists figured out that the total amount of entropy of a black hole is equal to the number of Planck squares it would take to cover its surface area. This has deep implications.  Since black holes have maximum possible entropy, and since the total entropy of a black hole is equal to the number of Planck squares it takes to cover it, then the Planck square *must* be fundamentally the smallest region of space that something can occur within. The reason for this, is logically that if black holes have max entropy, and if it takes a given number of Planck squares to surround this max entropy space, then each Planck square on the black hole's region must be entropy saturated. Since it contains the max number of entropy, principally **nothing** can occur in a region smaller than a Planck square, since *any* action that could occur within the Planck square could increase the region's entropy (but we've already said that our Planck squares contain max entropy).  Brian Greene explains it a little bit better than I do in his Fabric of the Cosmos book if you have access to it.  Oh, I didn't read your entire question. :) Yea, not sure if it's exactly less than or equal to its surface area, or just proportional, but the important part is that it's not proportional to its volume, but rather its surface area. I was going to delete all that stuff I typed up when I realized I misread your question, but I'll leave it just because it's pretty interesting :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17747.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xxhbz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why is it when I stare directly at something in a near pitch black room that I know is there, I can't see it. But when I look away I can see it in my peripheral vision? I'm looking at a piece of paper. I turn the lights off and let my eyes adjust. I still can't see it. But when I look slightly up or any direction, boom; there's the sheet of paper.", "c_root_id_A": "c5qkepb", "c_root_id_B": "c5qmgo2", "created_at_utc_A": 1344528730, "created_at_utc_B": 1344535823, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Most up voted is correct but Explain like I'm five years old would say:  Your central vision has 'cones' in it which are great at picking out minute detail but not so useful for tone (light) when it's dark  Your peripheral vision (rods) is excellent at grabbing light, which I suppose is useful.. I thought they couldn't register color information but someone above posted otherwise..  Note that on a starry night if you look directly at a faint star it might completely appear to disappear... Move your eyes away and it's back :)  Further: Cones and rods are the names for the receptors in our eyes (they receive light) they are clustered separately- not in a jumble of cones and rods but rather cones (central) and rods (around the centre; periphery)  ALSO would like to add that I am 23 and we learned this stuff in high school psychology class when I was 17, so I might be off.. But I enjoyed that semester and I think I'm pretty close to right :0", "human_ref_B": "Astronomers call this technique Averted Vision.  It allows them to see fainter objects in the eyepiece of the telescope by looking off to the side of where the object they want to see is located.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7093.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mc60t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Considering how much fuel it takes to reach escape velocity, and how heavy fuel is, how the heck would a manned mission to Mars be able to bring enough fuel to get back home?", "c_root_id_A": "cm2vzwg", "c_root_id_B": "cm2uzm1", "created_at_utc_A": 1416015106, "created_at_utc_B": 1416012794, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "It  may  be  possible to  collect  and  refine  the  atmosphere of Mars to produce fuel,  resulting in large  savings.   Robert Zubrin and the \"Mars Direct\" group  have  developed a detailed  proposal for a mission along these lines.   We  start  by  sending  an  automated  chemical processing plant  to Mars -  >The first flight ...  would bring an unmanned Earth Return Vehicle to Mars after a 6-month cruise phase, with a supply of hydrogen, a chemical plant and a small nuclear reactor.   >Once there, a series of chemical reactions (the Sabatier reaction coupled with electrolysis) would be used to combine a small amount of hydrogen (8 tons) carried by the Earth Return Vehicle with the carbon dioxide of the Martian atmosphere to create up to 112 tonnes of methane and oxygen.   >This relatively simple chemical-engineering procedure was utilized regularly in the 19th and 20th centuries, and **would ensure that only 7% of the return propellant would need to be carried to the surface of Mars.**  [The rest would be manufactured there.]  >96 tonnes of methane and oxygen would be needed to send the Earth Return Vehicle on a trajectory back home at the conclusion of the surface stay ...  >The process of generating fuel is expected to require approximately ten months to complete.  >Some 26 months after the Earth Return Vehicle is originally launched from Earth, a second vehicle, the \"Mars Habitat Unit\", would be launched on a 6-month long low-energy transfer trajectory to Mars, and would carry a crew of four astronauts (the minimum number required so that the team can be split in two without leaving anyone alone).   >The Habitat Unit would not be launched until the automated factory aboard the ERV had signaled the successful production of chemicals required for operation on the planet and the return trip to Earth.   [ <--  We  don't  even  launch the crew until the  automated  processing plant on Mars  has  manufactured the  fuel  for their  return  mission.]   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Direct#Mission_scenario    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_situ_resource_utilization#Mars   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Zubrin  The Mars Direct folks  talk a good  game,  but they've been  talking it since  1990  and  nobody has  taken them  up  on it yet.    On the other hand, I haven't heard  of  any  serious  objections  to this plan.", "human_ref_B": "I think the trick is not having to carry all the fuel around everywhere you go. The humans could do something like what was done with the moon landings, where a module full of fuel would orbit Mars and just descend a lander to the surface. That lander would have enough fuel to land, take off, and rendezvous with the orbiting module. Then, the people could just depart back to Earth.  There can also be several launches from Earth that deliver fuel to an orbiting spacecraft that will then proceed to Mars.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2312.0, "score_ratio": 1.1052631579, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mc60t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Considering how much fuel it takes to reach escape velocity, and how heavy fuel is, how the heck would a manned mission to Mars be able to bring enough fuel to get back home?", "c_root_id_A": "cm2vzwg", "c_root_id_B": "cm2vzf1", "created_at_utc_A": 1416015106, "created_at_utc_B": 1416015074, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It  may  be  possible to  collect  and  refine  the  atmosphere of Mars to produce fuel,  resulting in large  savings.   Robert Zubrin and the \"Mars Direct\" group  have  developed a detailed  proposal for a mission along these lines.   We  start  by  sending  an  automated  chemical processing plant  to Mars -  >The first flight ...  would bring an unmanned Earth Return Vehicle to Mars after a 6-month cruise phase, with a supply of hydrogen, a chemical plant and a small nuclear reactor.   >Once there, a series of chemical reactions (the Sabatier reaction coupled with electrolysis) would be used to combine a small amount of hydrogen (8 tons) carried by the Earth Return Vehicle with the carbon dioxide of the Martian atmosphere to create up to 112 tonnes of methane and oxygen.   >This relatively simple chemical-engineering procedure was utilized regularly in the 19th and 20th centuries, and **would ensure that only 7% of the return propellant would need to be carried to the surface of Mars.**  [The rest would be manufactured there.]  >96 tonnes of methane and oxygen would be needed to send the Earth Return Vehicle on a trajectory back home at the conclusion of the surface stay ...  >The process of generating fuel is expected to require approximately ten months to complete.  >Some 26 months after the Earth Return Vehicle is originally launched from Earth, a second vehicle, the \"Mars Habitat Unit\", would be launched on a 6-month long low-energy transfer trajectory to Mars, and would carry a crew of four astronauts (the minimum number required so that the team can be split in two without leaving anyone alone).   >The Habitat Unit would not be launched until the automated factory aboard the ERV had signaled the successful production of chemicals required for operation on the planet and the return trip to Earth.   [ <--  We  don't  even  launch the crew until the  automated  processing plant on Mars  has  manufactured the  fuel  for their  return  mission.]   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Direct#Mission_scenario    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_situ_resource_utilization#Mars   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Zubrin  The Mars Direct folks  talk a good  game,  but they've been  talking it since  1990  and  nobody has  taken them  up  on it yet.    On the other hand, I haven't heard  of  any  serious  objections  to this plan.", "human_ref_B": "The return trip is the main thing holding back manned missions to Mars. We can put a spacecraft on Mars, astronauts on ISS have given us insights into prolonged zero-G conditions for a human body, so we should be able to deal with that. The main question that remains is: How to get back?  There are several options. First of all, Mars only has about 40% of the gravity of Earth, so reaching escape velocity will be much easier and require less fuel. That's already something. The spacecraft to fly to Mars could be constructed/deployed/fueled in space. It would be launched from Earth up to a station (ISS?), where it would get a fresh refueling for the trip to Mars.  Additional unmanned spacecraft could be launched to accompany the manned craft to Mars, carrying fuel. The manned craft can then refuel and leave the booster-craft behind.  There are options, but none are straightforward. And right now it's a major bottleneck and one of the reasons why there isn't that much focus on manned missions to Mars.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32.0, "score_ratio": 21.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mc60t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Considering how much fuel it takes to reach escape velocity, and how heavy fuel is, how the heck would a manned mission to Mars be able to bring enough fuel to get back home?", "c_root_id_A": "cm33a7p", "c_root_id_B": "cm2vzf1", "created_at_utc_A": 1416035473, "created_at_utc_B": 1416015074, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The best Mars mission architectures are to *not* bring fuel for returning back to Earth. That's because it's possible to use the Martian atmosphere to manufacture LOX and Methane, which can be used as a quite excellent rocket propellant, provided you have a source of Hydrogen (you can produce 16x the mass of rocket fuel than the mass of Hydrogen by using the Martian atmosphere in this way). This may seem ridiculously optimistic but in reality it is a fairly straightforward thing to do and requires very modest equipment to do. And over a longer term once a Martian colony has proceeded past the very earliest stages it will be possible to mine subsurface water ice on Mars (which exists in plentiful quantities) which can then be processed into a Hydrogen feedstock for Methane manufacturing.  This is precisely why SpaceX's next generation rockets designed to facilitate Martian colonization will use LOX/Methane propulsion. Because they can be refueled on Mars, which massively eases the burden of traveling to/from Mars.  Here's a good video on the subject (Zubrin's original Mars Direct proposal): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mm34Muv6Lsg", "human_ref_B": "The return trip is the main thing holding back manned missions to Mars. We can put a spacecraft on Mars, astronauts on ISS have given us insights into prolonged zero-G conditions for a human body, so we should be able to deal with that. The main question that remains is: How to get back?  There are several options. First of all, Mars only has about 40% of the gravity of Earth, so reaching escape velocity will be much easier and require less fuel. That's already something. The spacecraft to fly to Mars could be constructed/deployed/fueled in space. It would be launched from Earth up to a station (ISS?), where it would get a fresh refueling for the trip to Mars.  Additional unmanned spacecraft could be launched to accompany the manned craft to Mars, carrying fuel. The manned craft can then refuel and leave the booster-craft behind.  There are options, but none are straightforward. And right now it's a major bottleneck and one of the reasons why there isn't that much focus on manned missions to Mars.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20399.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mc60t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Considering how much fuel it takes to reach escape velocity, and how heavy fuel is, how the heck would a manned mission to Mars be able to bring enough fuel to get back home?", "c_root_id_A": "cm2w272", "c_root_id_B": "cm33a7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1416015255, "created_at_utc_B": 1416035473, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Ideally the mission should be able to synthesize (at least some) fuel by living off the land. For example, it could use solar energy to split (water) ice and then recombine those in a rocket engine. Or you could just mine and manufacture everything you need for the trip back, though this is highly non-trivial.", "human_ref_B": "The best Mars mission architectures are to *not* bring fuel for returning back to Earth. That's because it's possible to use the Martian atmosphere to manufacture LOX and Methane, which can be used as a quite excellent rocket propellant, provided you have a source of Hydrogen (you can produce 16x the mass of rocket fuel than the mass of Hydrogen by using the Martian atmosphere in this way). This may seem ridiculously optimistic but in reality it is a fairly straightforward thing to do and requires very modest equipment to do. And over a longer term once a Martian colony has proceeded past the very earliest stages it will be possible to mine subsurface water ice on Mars (which exists in plentiful quantities) which can then be processed into a Hydrogen feedstock for Methane manufacturing.  This is precisely why SpaceX's next generation rockets designed to facilitate Martian colonization will use LOX/Methane propulsion. Because they can be refueled on Mars, which massively eases the burden of traveling to/from Mars.  Here's a good video on the subject (Zubrin's original Mars Direct proposal): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mm34Muv6Lsg", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20218.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mc60t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Considering how much fuel it takes to reach escape velocity, and how heavy fuel is, how the heck would a manned mission to Mars be able to bring enough fuel to get back home?", "c_root_id_A": "cm31j0i", "c_root_id_B": "cm33a7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1416029432, "created_at_utc_B": 1416035473, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It would be entirely possible to carry enough fuel at a low weight of fuel if the fuel powered a nuclear reaction. Chemical fuel does not have enough energy per unit weight but nuclear fuel does. If one was to design a nuclear reactor to use in a spacecraft the best option would be to have an aneutronic fusion reaction and for that the best fuel would be Boron-11. It is still possible that a compact reactor design such as Poly well or Lockheed Martin skunk works high beta reactor might one day be able to achieve this. Until then it won't be possible to have a return trip from Mars with a soft landing at both ends.", "human_ref_B": "The best Mars mission architectures are to *not* bring fuel for returning back to Earth. That's because it's possible to use the Martian atmosphere to manufacture LOX and Methane, which can be used as a quite excellent rocket propellant, provided you have a source of Hydrogen (you can produce 16x the mass of rocket fuel than the mass of Hydrogen by using the Martian atmosphere in this way). This may seem ridiculously optimistic but in reality it is a fairly straightforward thing to do and requires very modest equipment to do. And over a longer term once a Martian colony has proceeded past the very earliest stages it will be possible to mine subsurface water ice on Mars (which exists in plentiful quantities) which can then be processed into a Hydrogen feedstock for Methane manufacturing.  This is precisely why SpaceX's next generation rockets designed to facilitate Martian colonization will use LOX/Methane propulsion. Because they can be refueled on Mars, which massively eases the burden of traveling to/from Mars.  Here's a good video on the subject (Zubrin's original Mars Direct proposal): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mm34Muv6Lsg", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6041.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mc60t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Considering how much fuel it takes to reach escape velocity, and how heavy fuel is, how the heck would a manned mission to Mars be able to bring enough fuel to get back home?", "c_root_id_A": "cm31j0i", "c_root_id_B": "cm3856t", "created_at_utc_A": 1416029432, "created_at_utc_B": 1416060875, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It would be entirely possible to carry enough fuel at a low weight of fuel if the fuel powered a nuclear reaction. Chemical fuel does not have enough energy per unit weight but nuclear fuel does. If one was to design a nuclear reactor to use in a spacecraft the best option would be to have an aneutronic fusion reaction and for that the best fuel would be Boron-11. It is still possible that a compact reactor design such as Poly well or Lockheed Martin skunk works high beta reactor might one day be able to achieve this. Until then it won't be possible to have a return trip from Mars with a soft landing at both ends.", "human_ref_B": "The same way supply lines are established across a desert. You don't bring all your fuel on your mission rocket.  You start by launching a bunch of fuel tankers into high Earth orbit. Then you use that fuel to launch unmanned fuel tankers to Mars orbit (or one of the moons), where they assemble into a staging base. While the trip would take a long time, it wouldn't use a lot of fuel as it could use planetary slingshots and in any case would only be climbing a little way out of the solar gravity well, compared to having to climb out of Earth orbit in the first place.  Continue sending fuel to Mars orbit until you have far more than you'd ever need to return from a Mars mission.  NOW you send your manned mission. Put it in high Earth orbit, refuel it there. Send it to Mars orbit, refuel it again. Send it down to the surface, either with enough fuel to return, or arrange to have mobile unmanned fuel tankers (fuelled originally from Mars orbit) already sitting on the surface in multiple places waiting to resupply the lander.  The lander takes off, and either refuels again in orbit for the trip home or the astronauts transfer to a long-range vehicle (maybe the one they originally arrived in). They travel home, arrive in high Earth orbit again, and transfer to the ground in a vehicle more suited for re-entry.  Is it expensive? Heck yes. But it works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31443.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mc60t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Considering how much fuel it takes to reach escape velocity, and how heavy fuel is, how the heck would a manned mission to Mars be able to bring enough fuel to get back home?", "c_root_id_A": "cm3ew9t", "c_root_id_B": "cm31j0i", "created_at_utc_A": 1416078883, "created_at_utc_B": 1416029432, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Bingo!!! You've touched a sensitive point, one of the biggest issues for a manned Mars mission would be propulsion. Our current propulsive techniques are just not efficient enough for that.  However, and this might seem a bit surprising, reaching escape velocity might be the least of your concerns. The problem is taking fuel there for stopping at Mars and for the return trip, which vastly increases the fuel at departure. Randall Munroe (xkcd) described it as \"to take that fuel you need more fuel\", which is exactly how we calculate multi-stage rockets, though the Tsiolkovsky equation summarizes this pretty well: you'd need a very big *total* delta-v.  Basically this is one of the reasons why we haven't got there yet (the other is the radiation issue). Other replies got it right with in-situ resource utilization.  It's not surprising that today's two most popular proposals of a manned mission are Inspiration Mars, which would use a slingshot for return (this is known as a *free return trajectory*) and Mars One, which does not even foresee the possibility of returning.", "human_ref_B": "It would be entirely possible to carry enough fuel at a low weight of fuel if the fuel powered a nuclear reaction. Chemical fuel does not have enough energy per unit weight but nuclear fuel does. If one was to design a nuclear reactor to use in a spacecraft the best option would be to have an aneutronic fusion reaction and for that the best fuel would be Boron-11. It is still possible that a compact reactor design such as Poly well or Lockheed Martin skunk works high beta reactor might one day be able to achieve this. Until then it won't be possible to have a return trip from Mars with a soft landing at both ends.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 49451.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9xi0s4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "What kind of batteries did the Apollo astronauts have in their backpacks?", "c_root_id_A": "e9ssrwv", "c_root_id_B": "e9stvdx", "created_at_utc_A": 1542346848, "created_at_utc_B": 1542348307, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Silver-zinc batteries (rechargeable) according to this NASA document: https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/ALSJ-FlightPLSS.pdf", "human_ref_B": "From a what I could find in this paper from NASA\u2019s archives, they used silver-zinc batteries. They are apparently very similar to silver-oxide batteries, but instead of being one time use, they are rechargeable.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1459.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1nxjye", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "could you make an iron ball orbit a magnet in space? being that magnets attract iron just as gravitational objects attract one another, and an iron ball will eventually fly away from a magnet with enough speed, if you got the speed right, could you make it so the iron ball orbited the magnet. and being that electromagnetic force so so much stronger than the gravitational force could you do this at a scale that would be impossible for gravity alone?", "c_root_id_A": "ccn1pw6", "c_root_id_B": "ccmz99y", "created_at_utc_A": 1381183925, "created_at_utc_B": 1381177811, "score_A": 66, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "There are only two forces that can have stable orbits: elastic (F=kx) and Coulombic (F=k/x^2 ). Magnets attract each other with a dipole force that is k/x^3 , so you couldn't set up a stable orbit. As for why only these two, check out Bertrand's theorem. This isn't to say you couldn't set up an orbit if you had the right initial conditions, but it would not be stable.", "human_ref_B": "No, firstly because you would need monopoles, because unlike gravity, the field is not uniform through the surrounding space with a dipole.   Secondly, because as you move through a magnetic field, heat would be generated. As energy is conserved, this would have to remove some potential / kinetic energy from the orbit, causing it to degrade.  Third, gravity and simply orbits work because the mass of the larger object is largely unaffected by the smaller, and certainly not in a rotation sense. IE the rotation of the earth isn't going to change by the moons position, only feel a tug on its center of gravity.(this is ignoring tidal locking and many complex interactions)  Unless you fix the magnet in space (connecting it to a spaceship for instance), then it is going to start rotating to face the iron ball, which will mess up the orbit.   So it might be possible with a highly elliptical orbit (due to the dipole aspect), but it would not be stable, as energy would be radiating away along with the added rotation causing it to snap together quickly.   It seems like it MIGHT be possible if you rotate the magnet at the exact same speed as the ball in orbit, so it is always facing it perfectly. However due to the second problem, it would still lose energy, which would cause them to be un-synced, which would make the whole system very unstable.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6114.0, "score_ratio": 3.4736842105, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5r55wh", "c_root_id_B": "i5r50pi", "created_at_utc_A": 1650638127, "created_at_utc_B": 1650638069, "score_A": 397, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Hi, Rh positive mothers will not have antibodies to the RH protein. If they produced antibodies, they would attack their own cells.  The issue with Rh occurs when Rh negative mothers produce antibodies against the Rh antigen in their baby\u2019s blood. The Rh antigen in this case will be recognised as foreign by the Rh negative mother.  Does that make sense?", "human_ref_B": "The adaptive immune system works by recognizing foreign antigens. It does not recognize the *absence* of self antigens, which is what would be the case for a Rh-negative baby.  There is potential for a reaction when it's the other way around - the Rhesus D antigen would be foreign to a Rh- mother's immune system. This is mainly the case when it's not the first Rh+ child, as the response gets stronger for each exposure (just like extra vaccine shots increases the response).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 58.0, "score_ratio": 49.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5ra3i4", "c_root_id_B": "i5r5mey", "created_at_utc_A": 1650640119, "created_at_utc_B": 1650638318, "score_A": 42, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Immune cells identify other cells by the structures that are on their surface. Before being released throughout the body, immune cells are trained to recognize the structures that exist on their own blood cells so they don\u2019t attack them. When they come across a blood cell with a structure they weren\u2019t trained to recognize as part of the body, they attack it.   Rh+ means that your blood cells have the Rh structure. So your immune cells are trained to recognize those as a part of your body and won\u2019t attack them. Rh- means your blood cells don\u2019t have that structure. So a person born with this type would not have cells trained to recognize the Rh structure as a part of their body. So if you give Rh+ cells to an Rh- person, their immune cells will see the Rh structure on the cells and attack.  However, because Rh- by definition means that there is no Rh structure, giving Rh- cells to an Rh+ person wouldn\u2019t trigger anything because there is no structure for the immune cells to identify.  (I\u2019m ignoring all the other structures they use to identify cells in this description of course since we are talking about Rh specifically)", "human_ref_B": "So the \u201cRh\u201d here is a protein on blood cells, yes? And to be Rh+ means you DO have that protein, Rh- means that you DON\u2019T. An Rh- momma\u2019s body will view the Rh protein as \u201cother\u201d, and needing to be attacked, but when it\u2019s the other way around there\u2019s nothing on baby\u2019s cells to worry mom\u2019s immune system.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1801.0, "score_ratio": 2.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5ra3i4", "c_root_id_B": "i5r50pi", "created_at_utc_A": 1650640119, "created_at_utc_B": 1650638069, "score_A": 42, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Immune cells identify other cells by the structures that are on their surface. Before being released throughout the body, immune cells are trained to recognize the structures that exist on their own blood cells so they don\u2019t attack them. When they come across a blood cell with a structure they weren\u2019t trained to recognize as part of the body, they attack it.   Rh+ means that your blood cells have the Rh structure. So your immune cells are trained to recognize those as a part of your body and won\u2019t attack them. Rh- means your blood cells don\u2019t have that structure. So a person born with this type would not have cells trained to recognize the Rh structure as a part of their body. So if you give Rh+ cells to an Rh- person, their immune cells will see the Rh structure on the cells and attack.  However, because Rh- by definition means that there is no Rh structure, giving Rh- cells to an Rh+ person wouldn\u2019t trigger anything because there is no structure for the immune cells to identify.  (I\u2019m ignoring all the other structures they use to identify cells in this description of course since we are talking about Rh specifically)", "human_ref_B": "The adaptive immune system works by recognizing foreign antigens. It does not recognize the *absence* of self antigens, which is what would be the case for a Rh-negative baby.  There is potential for a reaction when it's the other way around - the Rhesus D antigen would be foreign to a Rh- mother's immune system. This is mainly the case when it's not the first Rh+ child, as the response gets stronger for each exposure (just like extra vaccine shots increases the response).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2050.0, "score_ratio": 5.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5r50pi", "c_root_id_B": "i5r5mey", "created_at_utc_A": 1650638069, "created_at_utc_B": 1650638318, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "The adaptive immune system works by recognizing foreign antigens. It does not recognize the *absence* of self antigens, which is what would be the case for a Rh-negative baby.  There is potential for a reaction when it's the other way around - the Rhesus D antigen would be foreign to a Rh- mother's immune system. This is mainly the case when it's not the first Rh+ child, as the response gets stronger for each exposure (just like extra vaccine shots increases the response).", "human_ref_B": "So the \u201cRh\u201d here is a protein on blood cells, yes? And to be Rh+ means you DO have that protein, Rh- means that you DON\u2019T. An Rh- momma\u2019s body will view the Rh protein as \u201cother\u201d, and needing to be attacked, but when it\u2019s the other way around there\u2019s nothing on baby\u2019s cells to worry mom\u2019s immune system.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 249.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5syzck", "c_root_id_B": "i5tmnfv", "created_at_utc_A": 1650664658, "created_at_utc_B": 1650675571, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The Rh or D antigen/agglutinogen work different from the A and B antigen/agglutinogen. If you have an RH+ mom, her body won\u2019t produce Rh antibodies, which is what attacks Rh+ positive red blood cells, so it doesn\u2019t matter what her baby\u2019s blood type is. If the mom is Rh-, she doesn\u2019t have Rh antibodies yet but she\u2019s capable of producing them. So an Rh+ baby generally does ok if it\u2019s the first child for an Rh-mom, but if the mom\u2019s next child is Rh+ too, she\u2019ll have started producing Rh antibodies thanks to the first child and it\u2019s unlikely the second child will survive without medical intervention. Rhogam is given to Rh- moms, particularly when the father is known to be Rh+, so there aren\u2019t often issues anymore. They generally even keep giving Rhogam after they know the fetus is Rh- out of an abundance of caution, so even though my sister and I are AB-, my AB- mom got Rhogam because my father is AB+.", "human_ref_B": "Interestingly enough, I was born to a Rh- mother, Rh+ father. I have 5 older siblings, plus she had one miscarriage. All of us \u201ckids\u201d children are Rh+. All born healthy. All born before RhoGAM was used widely (or created). She never had it. I\u2019m the youngest and was born 6 years PRIOR to the first woman ever to receive RhoGAM.  Simply blessed she didn\u2019t experience sensitization from any of the births?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10913.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5tmnfv", "c_root_id_B": "i5tfrh3", "created_at_utc_A": 1650675571, "created_at_utc_B": 1650672336, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Interestingly enough, I was born to a Rh- mother, Rh+ father. I have 5 older siblings, plus she had one miscarriage. All of us \u201ckids\u201d children are Rh+. All born healthy. All born before RhoGAM was used widely (or created). She never had it. I\u2019m the youngest and was born 6 years PRIOR to the first woman ever to receive RhoGAM.  Simply blessed she didn\u2019t experience sensitization from any of the births?", "human_ref_B": "Think of it like mowing a lawn. RH+ is the tall blades, and RH - is the short blades, and the mower is what attacks whatever it attacks (the antibodies)  If mom is RH+, the mower gets set to the same height as the tall blades, so they don't get cut. This also means that the shorter blades (RH- baby) aren't \"noticed\" by the mower because it cant reach it without cutting the tall blades too.   If mom is RH- though, the mower is set to the height of the short blades, which means that if baby is RH+ , the tall blades of grass will get cut down.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3235.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5tdjax", "c_root_id_B": "i5tmnfv", "created_at_utc_A": 1650671289, "created_at_utc_B": 1650675571, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "RH- mom here of RH+ babies.  I was given an injection during the pregnancies to prevent any issues.  The babies were fine.  But, I\u2019ve always been curious if that could have been a contributing factor in me developing an autoimmune disorder later in life.  Just a shower thought\u2026", "human_ref_B": "Interestingly enough, I was born to a Rh- mother, Rh+ father. I have 5 older siblings, plus she had one miscarriage. All of us \u201ckids\u201d children are Rh+. All born healthy. All born before RhoGAM was used widely (or created). She never had it. I\u2019m the youngest and was born 6 years PRIOR to the first woman ever to receive RhoGAM.  Simply blessed she didn\u2019t experience sensitization from any of the births?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4282.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5tfrh3", "c_root_id_B": "i5tdjax", "created_at_utc_A": 1650672336, "created_at_utc_B": 1650671289, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Think of it like mowing a lawn. RH+ is the tall blades, and RH - is the short blades, and the mower is what attacks whatever it attacks (the antibodies)  If mom is RH+, the mower gets set to the same height as the tall blades, so they don't get cut. This also means that the shorter blades (RH- baby) aren't \"noticed\" by the mower because it cant reach it without cutting the tall blades too.   If mom is RH- though, the mower is set to the height of the short blades, which means that if baby is RH+ , the tall blades of grass will get cut down.", "human_ref_B": "RH- mom here of RH+ babies.  I was given an injection during the pregnancies to prevent any issues.  The babies were fine.  But, I\u2019ve always been curious if that could have been a contributing factor in me developing an autoimmune disorder later in life.  Just a shower thought\u2026", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1047.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5tdjax", "c_root_id_B": "i5udms2", "created_at_utc_A": 1650671289, "created_at_utc_B": 1650689757, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "RH- mom here of RH+ babies.  I was given an injection during the pregnancies to prevent any issues.  The babies were fine.  But, I\u2019ve always been curious if that could have been a contributing factor in me developing an autoimmune disorder later in life.  Just a shower thought\u2026", "human_ref_B": "Rhesus is a little protein tree on a blood cell, when it is positive you have it, if it is negatively you do not.   If you do not have it (RhD-) you produce antibodies against it when you later in life gen in contact with it.    If you have it yourself (RhD+) you do not produce antibodies against yourself  If the mother has RhD+ she doesn't produce rhesus antibodies and anyway the Rh- foetus doesn't have the rhesus \"tree\" on its cells  --nothing happens  If a mother is RhD- the first time she gets pregnant with a RhD+ foetus she starts producing anti-D antibodies (toward the end of the pregnancy generally) and in a later pregnancy with another RhD+ That starting foetus would get attached by mums antibodies and be aborted early in the pregnancy  What we do is we give RhD- mums a shot of antiD during the late stage of the first pregnancy already to trigger her body not to produce memory cells for antiD so that she can more easily get other kids later in life", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18468.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5tdjax", "c_root_id_B": "i5um1ur", "created_at_utc_A": 1650671289, "created_at_utc_B": 1650695915, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "RH- mom here of RH+ babies.  I was given an injection during the pregnancies to prevent any issues.  The babies were fine.  But, I\u2019ve always been curious if that could have been a contributing factor in me developing an autoimmune disorder later in life.  Just a shower thought\u2026", "human_ref_B": "Rh is like blood type. You form antibodies to Rh if you don't have it. If you have Rh (Rh+), then your cells wouldn't form an immune response to Rh because otherwise you would attack your own cells. So you don't have antibodies against Rh at all.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24626.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5udms2", "c_root_id_B": "i5tpq57", "created_at_utc_A": 1650689757, "created_at_utc_B": 1650677049, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Rhesus is a little protein tree on a blood cell, when it is positive you have it, if it is negatively you do not.   If you do not have it (RhD-) you produce antibodies against it when you later in life gen in contact with it.    If you have it yourself (RhD+) you do not produce antibodies against yourself  If the mother has RhD+ she doesn't produce rhesus antibodies and anyway the Rh- foetus doesn't have the rhesus \"tree\" on its cells  --nothing happens  If a mother is RhD- the first time she gets pregnant with a RhD+ foetus she starts producing anti-D antibodies (toward the end of the pregnancy generally) and in a later pregnancy with another RhD+ That starting foetus would get attached by mums antibodies and be aborted early in the pregnancy  What we do is we give RhD- mums a shot of antiD during the late stage of the first pregnancy already to trigger her body not to produce memory cells for antiD so that she can more easily get other kids later in life", "human_ref_B": "They can, which is why it's important to get a blood test if this happens the doctors can give the mother blockers so her body will not attack the baby, usually doesn't happen the first pregnancy, but it will if there is a 2nd pregnancy without the blockers.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12708.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u9c6kp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why does an RH+ mother's cells not attack their RH- baby?", "c_root_id_A": "i5tpq57", "c_root_id_B": "i5um1ur", "created_at_utc_A": 1650677049, "created_at_utc_B": 1650695915, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "They can, which is why it's important to get a blood test if this happens the doctors can give the mother blockers so her body will not attack the baby, usually doesn't happen the first pregnancy, but it will if there is a 2nd pregnancy without the blockers.", "human_ref_B": "Rh is like blood type. You form antibodies to Rh if you don't have it. If you have Rh (Rh+), then your cells wouldn't form an immune response to Rh because otherwise you would attack your own cells. So you don't have antibodies against Rh at all.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18866.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ub4b2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Are stem cells really that \"next big thing\" as advertised? Why or why not? I don't really understand much about stem cell biology, only that it is very concentrated in the bone marrow, and that it can take the function of any other cell in the body. Is that it?", "c_root_id_A": "co6wvq3", "c_root_id_B": "co6ttu7", "created_at_utc_A": 1422728024, "created_at_utc_B": 1422721911, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The potential implications of stem cell based regenerative medicine are huge for medicine.  While most stem cell therapies that go on today use adult stem cells like the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow for blood cancers or immune related disorders or mesenchymal stem cells which are often what's used in treatments for multiple sclerosis or ligament injuries for instance, I believe the real renaissance in stem cell therapies will be due to induced pluripotent stem cells which are embryonic-like stem cells that are derived from any adult cell, such as skin.    These cells can make any cell in the body, and despite the advancement to do so being only 8 years old, these cells are already being used in clinical trials for age related macular degeneration.  By turning these stem cells into different types of cells of the body, we have the ability to treat a wide variety of disease (liver, heart, diabetes, genetic disorders, etc) and injuries (spinal cord, muscle, etc).  Additionally, since these cells can be derived from patients themselves, they allow for the ability to study genetic diseases in order to understand the underlying mechanisms of disease and develop new therapies.  Combined with genetic engineering, a patient's own cells can be genetically corrected and re-transplanted back into the patient.    So yes, stem cells offer huge potential and you will see in the coming years more and more therapies using stem cells.  This post is really just scratching the surface, but research in this area is very exciting.", "human_ref_B": "Probably \"yes and no\".   They are great research tools, teaching us how the body develops, maintains itself, and fixes damage. We develop from a single stem cell and have lots constantly renewing our bodies our whole lives. They also could be very useful for repairing tissue damage, especially in the case of some long-term degenerative diseases or repairing injuries like spinal cord damage.   Are they a panacea? Of course not, nothing is, but they can teach us a lot that helps us better approach cures, and in some cases, could be part of the cure themselves. While they're living cells that can be used to repair damage, the thing to keep in mind is that if you coax living cells to divide too much, you pretty much end up with cancer, so they would need to be used with extreme caution.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6113.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ub4b2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Are stem cells really that \"next big thing\" as advertised? Why or why not? I don't really understand much about stem cell biology, only that it is very concentrated in the bone marrow, and that it can take the function of any other cell in the body. Is that it?", "c_root_id_A": "co714o7", "c_root_id_B": "co6ttu7", "created_at_utc_A": 1422736150, "created_at_utc_B": 1422721911, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Stem cell biology and the associated engineering is incredibly exciting, BUT  I'm skeptical of most therapies involving stem cells in the near to medium term future, with a few exceptions.  The thing is, diseases are complicated, multifacted, and incompletely understood. I'll list a few examples and give some thoughts about why I think stem cells will/won't make an impact. For the purposes of this, I'll talk about two classic treatment paradigms: inject/place stem cells, and place material/scaffold + stem cell.  **Cancer:**  Don't expect much from stem cells here. Cancer is an overgrowth of malignant cells. We don't know how to kill them and stem cells aren't really a solution here. If stem cell engineering gets *incredible* at some point, you can imagine a surgeon being extra aggressive with surgery and replacing with new engineered organs. (\"Bladder cancer? Cut the whole damn thing out! We can put in a GlaxoSmithKline PeeBag 1200 back in once you're in remission.\")   The exception to this is some types of blood cancers, where stem cell therapy is already a thing. In short, doctors wipe out the immune system with chemo/radiation, and \"reboot\" the immune system by infusing you with stem cells. Read more from American Cancer Society here.    **Diabetes:**  Type 1 diabetes, chances are probably pretty good we can make some progress here. T1 Diabetes results from the immune system killing off specific cells in the pancreas. Stop the immune response, add in pancreatic beta cells, you might just have a T1 diabetes cure. Problem is, the more common type (type 2) is pretty different in cause (insulin insensitivity from poor diet/no exercise) and probably can't be affected much by stem cells.   **Heart disease:**  Don't expect much progress here, either. The heart is crazy complex, and so are blood vessels. It's not obvious how to actually repair a heart with stem cells. In a heart attack, you're looking at actual death of heart muscle cells. However, they're rapidly replaced with scar tissue. You can't really just cut out the damaged parts and replace it with new tissue.   **Liver:**  The liver is relatively promising! The liver regrows pretty nicely on its own after you cut part of it out, and the tissue is relatively homogenous with function. When an organ regrows on its own really nicely, you can imagine that the biology is relatively robust, if we can figure out the right materials and cell regimes.   However, there's no treatment anywhere near clinical application yet.   **Connective tissue:** bone, skin, muscle.  Bone: You don't even really need stem cells here. There are some great biomaterials that recruit bone cells to do their thing and fully integrate the implant into bone, and remodel it over time. There are even a couple that are FDA approved.  Skin: Think next generation bandages, pitri dish grown skin grafts, etc. This is actually already done and it'll likely get even better. Stay tuned...  Muscle: Muscle is a tough one. Muscle fibers are REALLY long, and encouraging them to form their attachment sites might be a tall order. On the other hand, they aren't too complicated so someone might figure it out. There's not an obvious way to use them to fix muscular disorders though, so short of muscle tears or muscle cancers (rare), the impact may be limited.    TL;DR: Stem cells aren't the end all, be all of medicine. However, they are an incredibly *exciting* area, and at some point they (and related therapies) will be as exciting as news stories suggest. That point, however, may be year 2100 or beyond. We've really solved all the diseases that can be easily solved.   TL;DR part 2: If you want something that can do everything stem cells have been promised to do and more, eat a healthy diet and maintain a healthy body weight, eat lots of vegetables, don't consume too much sugar or alcohol, exercise regularly (cardio AND weights), don't smoke, get your annual flu shot, and wear sunscreen and a seatbelt and don't live in a house with a gun. You've drastically **reduced your risks of dying early** from the top TEN leading causes of death and you'll enjoy the remaining years of your life too. If you follow this advice, you'll reduce your risk of cardiovascular death, diabetes, preventable cancer of almost every kind, and you'll be strong enough and healthy enough to enjoy your later years too.", "human_ref_B": "Probably \"yes and no\".   They are great research tools, teaching us how the body develops, maintains itself, and fixes damage. We develop from a single stem cell and have lots constantly renewing our bodies our whole lives. They also could be very useful for repairing tissue damage, especially in the case of some long-term degenerative diseases or repairing injuries like spinal cord damage.   Are they a panacea? Of course not, nothing is, but they can teach us a lot that helps us better approach cures, and in some cases, could be part of the cure themselves. While they're living cells that can be used to repair damage, the thing to keep in mind is that if you coax living cells to divide too much, you pretty much end up with cancer, so they would need to be used with extreme caution.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14239.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "548lfl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why did we develop anxiety as an evolutionary advantage and why do so many people suffer from it today? Evolution is survival of the fittest; so why/how is anxiety a \"positive\" thing that we developed and kept so strongly throughout our evolution?  This is not a call for religion vs science, so please don't go there in this thread.", "c_root_id_A": "d7zzq1e", "c_root_id_B": "d800mib", "created_at_utc_A": 1474713919, "created_at_utc_B": 1474717108, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "It's likely not an advantage but some unfortunate baggage we brought along that arose alongside something that was advantageous.   Yet it is slightly advantageous in that anxious animals are less likely to stay in dangerous situations, so more likely to survive and breed", "human_ref_B": "Fear and Anxiety are evolutionary traits developed to keep us alive. While the experience of fear/anxiety (chemically it's the release of cortisol and other hormones/pheromones) causes mixed responses (Fight, Flight, or Freeze) it does just that, illicits a response for survival. No promise that you will make a correct response, but in a life or death situation any response may be better than a non-response. ['Freeze' can be decisive response, like 'play dead and maybe the predator won't notice me'] As far as why it becomes so debilitating for some; because there are less natural situations to which we as humans are responding to the body is left to adapt this ability to modern society, sometimes it does so in a useless fashion. The release of hormones may be triggered in events which don't really call for it, or even in situations that may require a limited supply of the chemical reaction and the body does so excessively. This can be a malfunction in the brain which issues the 'call to action' or the gland being over-stimulated but that's why anti-anxiety medications can treat the chemical reaction and reduce anxiety (though these medications are mostly intended to be taken before the response of anxiety, not after, to prevent the release of hormones not treat it).  I may or may not have explained this correctly but this is my understanding of it from my time studying psychology.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3189.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "548lfl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why did we develop anxiety as an evolutionary advantage and why do so many people suffer from it today? Evolution is survival of the fittest; so why/how is anxiety a \"positive\" thing that we developed and kept so strongly throughout our evolution?  This is not a call for religion vs science, so please don't go there in this thread.", "c_root_id_A": "d8012md", "c_root_id_B": "d801hcf", "created_at_utc_A": 1474718508, "created_at_utc_B": 1474719605, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Humans have been the main mitigating factor in our own evolution for thousands of years. So unlike most species our evolution has been the result of sexual selection and murder for quite a while. The only possible answer is that we maintain anxiety because fearful women are easier to herd and control for breeding,  and paranoid males are more likely to kill other males for fear of being killed themselves... Fear=need for security, security=survival, survival=passage of hereditary traits. Paranoia makes us more dangerous and more likely to engage in strict self-regulation, which makes us more manipulable and aggressive. Objective free thinkers were at an evolutionary disadvantage in the long term. They'd eventually be murdered or ostracised for being \"weird.\"", "human_ref_B": "u/AriaLynn essentially said what I would say. Simply put, it was an advantage to be careful -- to have negative thought and feeling about potential dangers like uncertain terrain, predators and competitors, poisonous plants, and so on. But these days we have so many baseless triggers for negativity; we actually may need to practice finding the goodness in our situations.  There is a new movement in psychotherapy that teaches one to focus on good, safe, and nurturing aspects of experience, and to 'steep' in them, feeling the goodness deeply and resting in it. No doubt this practice is meant to change mental and hormonal pathways from negative to positive.  One can consider the great many (baseless) negative triggers we have in modern society, from the flashing lights of road signs, cars, store fronts, and billboards, to the TV commercials that warn us of the dire, family-ruining consequences of using the wrong cereal or detergent, to the many dramas that depict terror and violence, and the more insidious reality shows that engender a broad sense of mistrust and competition -- as if we are a society of rivals rather than mutually supportive beings, and that nothing in life can simply be enjoyed without it becoming a pursuit that you either win or lose at.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1097.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ht2er", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Are we humans really that much more intelligent than other species? How much of our perceived intelligence can be attributed to inherited knowledge and experience? I'm not sure how one would go about measuring something like this or if it's really comparing apples to oranges, but it is something that intrigues me.  Certain animals certainly can, at the very least, appear to be highly intelligent but the best cases always seem to involve human training.  It's obviously taken us a long time to get where we are today as a species but I get the feeling that our perceived dominance over all other life in terms of intelligence can be largely attributed to a very small number of traits - sort of like the total being more than the sum of the parts.  This makes me think that certain animals, such as Dolphins or Elephants given a few hundred thousand years or so (just as we have had) could possibly rival us if only they had an effective means of writing (hands/opposable thumbs) because I think the recording of information for future generations is the biggest contributing factor to our intelligence.  Here's some more anecdotal evidence - from time to time (actually pretty damn regularly) we all do stupid things.  When I really think about what it is that I know and consider myself intelligent for I cannot attribute to myself and are all things that I have learned from other peoples trials and tribulations.  TLDR; Are we really that intelligent? or just standing on the shoulders of giants?", "c_root_id_A": "c1y7wtp", "c_root_id_B": "c1y51ar", "created_at_utc_A": 1307417638, "created_at_utc_B": 1307389837, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "You cannot separate the question  >Are we really that intelligent?   from the question  >or just standing on the shoulders of giants?  The answer is: we define humans as \"intelligent\" **because** humans have the ability to stand on the shoulders of giants. The capacity for language, learning, and abstract critical thinking go hand in hand. And all of these qualities are what make humans \"intelligent\".   And think about what the word \"intelligent\" means. In psychology, one great theory is that of (multiple intelligences)[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences], which states that intelligence is not a single quality, but a set of different abilities. High aptitude in one or more of these abilities is said to make one \"intelligent\". But, of course, intrinsic aptitude is only potential; for that potential to be fulfilled, one muse apply that aptitude, and *learn*. And the more there is to learn, the more \"intelligent\" one can be. And the more shoulders you stand on, the more there is to learn. You cannot separate the two.  I also have to mention anatomy. Anatomically speaking, humans are more well-endowed than any other animal in one specific area: neocortex to body-mass ratio. (Unfortunately I can't find a graph of that at the moment.) As you might know, brain size is proportional to body mass, in animals, because the brain's biggest job is to take care of the body. Humans follow this trend, except that our (neocortex)[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocortex] is much bigger than it should be. The neocortex handles higher order processing and decision-making (it's as close to a \"consciousness region\" as we can find), so it makes sense that it is more prominent in humans than in other animals.  TL;DR: Yes, humans are smarter (because of genetics, anatomy). We're so smart, we can learn.", "human_ref_B": "My understanding is that we really aren't that much smarter.  We have just enough of an edge in being able to teach, learn, read, and things like that. This lets us build up knowledge beyond what can be learned and memorized by a person in their lifetime. And the amount of new knowledge that can be generated is based on the amount of knowledge we already have, in other words we see exponential growth.  It might be that other animals are on such an exponential track, but they are in the negative arguments still. So even if they continue for a hundred years, they might not make much progress.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27801.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ht2er", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Are we humans really that much more intelligent than other species? How much of our perceived intelligence can be attributed to inherited knowledge and experience? I'm not sure how one would go about measuring something like this or if it's really comparing apples to oranges, but it is something that intrigues me.  Certain animals certainly can, at the very least, appear to be highly intelligent but the best cases always seem to involve human training.  It's obviously taken us a long time to get where we are today as a species but I get the feeling that our perceived dominance over all other life in terms of intelligence can be largely attributed to a very small number of traits - sort of like the total being more than the sum of the parts.  This makes me think that certain animals, such as Dolphins or Elephants given a few hundred thousand years or so (just as we have had) could possibly rival us if only they had an effective means of writing (hands/opposable thumbs) because I think the recording of information for future generations is the biggest contributing factor to our intelligence.  Here's some more anecdotal evidence - from time to time (actually pretty damn regularly) we all do stupid things.  When I really think about what it is that I know and consider myself intelligent for I cannot attribute to myself and are all things that I have learned from other peoples trials and tribulations.  TLDR; Are we really that intelligent? or just standing on the shoulders of giants?", "c_root_id_A": "c1y8z5m", "c_root_id_B": "c1y51ar", "created_at_utc_A": 1307429584, "created_at_utc_B": 1307389837, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "One major component that humans seem to have but that other animals lack is the ability to think about the non-real. We can imagine what will be, what might be, what could be, what could have been, etc. Other animals don't seem to have this ability to think about counterfactuals. The closest you find is anticipatory behavior which itself doesn't require thought in any proper sense (not unless we're willing to concede that a computer that turns on your AC if the weather report says it'll be hot today is intelligent!). We also seem to make extensive use of analogistic reasoning for problem solving, where animals don't, but this might be because of the extraordinary complexity of human environs compared to animal environs which lends us a vast array of conceptual domains that is a prerequisite to analogistic reasoning.", "human_ref_B": "My understanding is that we really aren't that much smarter.  We have just enough of an edge in being able to teach, learn, read, and things like that. This lets us build up knowledge beyond what can be learned and memorized by a person in their lifetime. And the amount of new knowledge that can be generated is based on the amount of knowledge we already have, in other words we see exponential growth.  It might be that other animals are on such an exponential track, but they are in the negative arguments still. So even if they continue for a hundred years, they might not make much progress.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 39747.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ht2er", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Are we humans really that much more intelligent than other species? How much of our perceived intelligence can be attributed to inherited knowledge and experience? I'm not sure how one would go about measuring something like this or if it's really comparing apples to oranges, but it is something that intrigues me.  Certain animals certainly can, at the very least, appear to be highly intelligent but the best cases always seem to involve human training.  It's obviously taken us a long time to get where we are today as a species but I get the feeling that our perceived dominance over all other life in terms of intelligence can be largely attributed to a very small number of traits - sort of like the total being more than the sum of the parts.  This makes me think that certain animals, such as Dolphins or Elephants given a few hundred thousand years or so (just as we have had) could possibly rival us if only they had an effective means of writing (hands/opposable thumbs) because I think the recording of information for future generations is the biggest contributing factor to our intelligence.  Here's some more anecdotal evidence - from time to time (actually pretty damn regularly) we all do stupid things.  When I really think about what it is that I know and consider myself intelligent for I cannot attribute to myself and are all things that I have learned from other peoples trials and tribulations.  TLDR; Are we really that intelligent? or just standing on the shoulders of giants?", "c_root_id_A": "c1y57h3", "c_root_id_B": "c1y7wtp", "created_at_utc_A": 1307391276, "created_at_utc_B": 1307417638, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I remember taking a class on this a few years ago.  Our intelligence (or mental capacities) evolved concurrently with our abilities to speak came as a consequence of tool usage  If you believe that you could argue that our using tools allowed for greater social interaction and thus mental comprehension.  So given enough time any species could have developed into us today.  Furthermore, physiologically there isn't a meaningful difference in the genetic makeup of a 'caveman' than to todays man.  So to your point about our collective information providing intelligence, I believe it may be right but only partly.  Also consider how 'primitive' a person today could be if born on an isolated island.  I would be curious if they would behave similar or not to a caveman.", "human_ref_B": "You cannot separate the question  >Are we really that intelligent?   from the question  >or just standing on the shoulders of giants?  The answer is: we define humans as \"intelligent\" **because** humans have the ability to stand on the shoulders of giants. The capacity for language, learning, and abstract critical thinking go hand in hand. And all of these qualities are what make humans \"intelligent\".   And think about what the word \"intelligent\" means. In psychology, one great theory is that of (multiple intelligences)[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences], which states that intelligence is not a single quality, but a set of different abilities. High aptitude in one or more of these abilities is said to make one \"intelligent\". But, of course, intrinsic aptitude is only potential; for that potential to be fulfilled, one muse apply that aptitude, and *learn*. And the more there is to learn, the more \"intelligent\" one can be. And the more shoulders you stand on, the more there is to learn. You cannot separate the two.  I also have to mention anatomy. Anatomically speaking, humans are more well-endowed than any other animal in one specific area: neocortex to body-mass ratio. (Unfortunately I can't find a graph of that at the moment.) As you might know, brain size is proportional to body mass, in animals, because the brain's biggest job is to take care of the body. Humans follow this trend, except that our (neocortex)[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocortex] is much bigger than it should be. The neocortex handles higher order processing and decision-making (it's as close to a \"consciousness region\" as we can find), so it makes sense that it is more prominent in humans than in other animals.  TL;DR: Yes, humans are smarter (because of genetics, anatomy). We're so smart, we can learn.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26362.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ht2er", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Are we humans really that much more intelligent than other species? How much of our perceived intelligence can be attributed to inherited knowledge and experience? I'm not sure how one would go about measuring something like this or if it's really comparing apples to oranges, but it is something that intrigues me.  Certain animals certainly can, at the very least, appear to be highly intelligent but the best cases always seem to involve human training.  It's obviously taken us a long time to get where we are today as a species but I get the feeling that our perceived dominance over all other life in terms of intelligence can be largely attributed to a very small number of traits - sort of like the total being more than the sum of the parts.  This makes me think that certain animals, such as Dolphins or Elephants given a few hundred thousand years or so (just as we have had) could possibly rival us if only they had an effective means of writing (hands/opposable thumbs) because I think the recording of information for future generations is the biggest contributing factor to our intelligence.  Here's some more anecdotal evidence - from time to time (actually pretty damn regularly) we all do stupid things.  When I really think about what it is that I know and consider myself intelligent for I cannot attribute to myself and are all things that I have learned from other peoples trials and tribulations.  TLDR; Are we really that intelligent? or just standing on the shoulders of giants?", "c_root_id_A": "c1y57h3", "c_root_id_B": "c1y8z5m", "created_at_utc_A": 1307391276, "created_at_utc_B": 1307429584, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I remember taking a class on this a few years ago.  Our intelligence (or mental capacities) evolved concurrently with our abilities to speak came as a consequence of tool usage  If you believe that you could argue that our using tools allowed for greater social interaction and thus mental comprehension.  So given enough time any species could have developed into us today.  Furthermore, physiologically there isn't a meaningful difference in the genetic makeup of a 'caveman' than to todays man.  So to your point about our collective information providing intelligence, I believe it may be right but only partly.  Also consider how 'primitive' a person today could be if born on an isolated island.  I would be curious if they would behave similar or not to a caveman.", "human_ref_B": "One major component that humans seem to have but that other animals lack is the ability to think about the non-real. We can imagine what will be, what might be, what could be, what could have been, etc. Other animals don't seem to have this ability to think about counterfactuals. The closest you find is anticipatory behavior which itself doesn't require thought in any proper sense (not unless we're willing to concede that a computer that turns on your AC if the weather report says it'll be hot today is intelligent!). We also seem to make extensive use of analogistic reasoning for problem solving, where animals don't, but this might be because of the extraordinary complexity of human environs compared to animal environs which lends us a vast array of conceptual domains that is a prerequisite to analogistic reasoning.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 38308.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6dq37t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Can seemingly clear gases be seen with electromagnetic waves not visible to the human eye? Saw this on the front page and started thinking about all the things that can only be seen with infrared and made me wonder if it worked with Oxygen or nitrogen or some other seemingly clear gas.", "c_root_id_A": "di4wc28", "c_root_id_B": "di4qw24", "created_at_utc_A": 1495942764, "created_at_utc_B": 1495933287, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Yes and no.  Gases have absorption/emission spectra that extend into the IR. Here is the spectrum for atomic hydrogen, and all the lines past ~700 nm or so are IR lines.  But these lines also extend in the visible range, and we consider the gases to be transparent because they only absorb a small fraction of the visible light. So it is hard to say what the right threshold would be where we could say you are \"seeing\" the gas in the IR but not the visible. A sensitive visible detector can \"see\" hydrogen, and a sensitive IR detector can \"see\" hydrogen as well, even if we would call hydrogen transparent. However, it is often the case that gases can absorb more IR light than visible light.  Maybe it helps to look at the spectrum of sunlight at sea level. You can see there how \"invisible\" greenhouse gases absorb large chunks of the IR spectrum. These gases are affecting the visible light too, but the IR light can be almost completely absorbed at specific wavelengths. So \"clear\" water vapor should be easier to detect in the IR, for instance.", "human_ref_B": "Infrared radiation is given off by pretty much all matter as black body radiation, somewhat proportional in wavelength and intensity to the temperature of the matter. So a gas above 0 Kelvin will give off infrared radiation. However gases, by there very nature, are so incredibly diffuse that there isn't enough matter to give off enough light to be very significant over small areas. But sure that is one of the ways we see large interstellar clouds. IR on its own won't let us differentiate between chemicals/elements though", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9477.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7cuwac", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "When we dream, do our bodies and minds \"remember\" the dream experiences at a chemical level even though our waking mind has no memory? Do dreams have a physiological effect on the human body?", "c_root_id_A": "dptgz36", "c_root_id_B": "dptibwk", "created_at_utc_A": 1510686658, "created_at_utc_B": 1510687959, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Dreams are preparation for real life scenarios.   Your body develops muscle memory by learning how to flee from someone with a knife in your dreams. Where else would you learn that skill?  Similarly, you learn how to react to embarrassing situations, etc.   All of your dreams are your brain concocting scenarios for you to learn from because it will provide a possible advantage to you in your conscious state.", "human_ref_B": "Based on this excerpt published in Scientific American, the short answer is yes: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-dreaming-and-what-does-it-tell-us-about-memory-excerpt/  > One study showed that people who were deprived of water before they slept, but then drank in their dreams, felt less thirsty when they woke up.  However it seems that the answers as to how, under what conditions, and by what mechanism are not clear cut and likely depend on a lot of variables.  Also it would be good to note that dreams can change physiological state -- emotions that were experienced during a dream can carry over into wakefulness.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1301.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rnbj6v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "What types of species (animal, plant, etc.) from the USA are invasive species to other countries?", "c_root_id_A": "hpse06r", "c_root_id_B": "hps76rc", "created_at_utc_A": 1640334386, "created_at_utc_B": 1640329100, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Here are a some invasive species in South Africa that originate from the USA:  Plants  Honey mesquite tree (Prosopis glandulosa)  Sand blackberry (Rubus cuneifolius)  Box elder (Acer negundo)  Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)  Bloodberry (Rivinea humilis)  Boxing glove cactus (Cylindropuntia fulgida)  Imbricate prickly pear (Cylindropuntia imbricata)  Several other cactus species in the genus Opuntia and Cylindropuntia  Cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana)  Common elderberry (Sambucus canadensis)  Field dodder (Cuscuta campestris)  Forest inkberry (Phytolocca octandra)  Honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos)  Common lantana (Lantana camara)  Large cocklebur (Xanthiim strumarium)  Monterey pine (Pinus radiata)  Eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana)  Century plant (Agave americana)  Yellow waterlily (Nymphea mexicana)  Animals  Common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina)  Aligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys temminckii)  Red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta)  Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis)  Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)  Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu)  Spotted bass (Micropterus punctulatus)  Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)  Source: https:invasives.org.za  This list is not complete, I just picked the species I could easily confirm having their natural range in the USA.  Edit: spacing, spelling", "human_ref_B": "It's impossible to predict what plant will be invasive in another country. There's a lot of phases they go through before being considered invasive, some plants go though them immediatly, some take years.  The phases are as follow ;  -Import : the plant is brought, getting through the geography barrier  -Introduction : the plants grow, getting through the environnemental barrier  -Acclimatization : it manadge to reproduce  -Naturalization : The plant survive a year ; it is now able to spread  -Expansion : The plant colonise new ecosystems and have a negative effect on them, thus becoming an exotic invasive specie  An exotic garden plant (and most of them are exotic, our garden are to plants what zoos are to us) can someday become acclimated and roam free, destroying ecosystems. Use locals plants in your garden, and be careful when visiting other countries !", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5286.0, "score_ratio": 4.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rnbj6v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "What types of species (animal, plant, etc.) from the USA are invasive species to other countries?", "c_root_id_A": "hpt8sbs", "c_root_id_B": "hps76rc", "created_at_utc_A": 1640356930, "created_at_utc_B": 1640329100, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Grey squirrels were introduced to Britain about 100 years ago from America.  Now the native red squirrel has almost been wiped out and only remains in a few isolated areas such as part of the Scottish highlands and a few islands.", "human_ref_B": "It's impossible to predict what plant will be invasive in another country. There's a lot of phases they go through before being considered invasive, some plants go though them immediatly, some take years.  The phases are as follow ;  -Import : the plant is brought, getting through the geography barrier  -Introduction : the plants grow, getting through the environnemental barrier  -Acclimatization : it manadge to reproduce  -Naturalization : The plant survive a year ; it is now able to spread  -Expansion : The plant colonise new ecosystems and have a negative effect on them, thus becoming an exotic invasive specie  An exotic garden plant (and most of them are exotic, our garden are to plants what zoos are to us) can someday become acclimated and roam free, destroying ecosystems. Use locals plants in your garden, and be careful when visiting other countries !", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27830.0, "score_ratio": 2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "49nxgj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "is there any other molecule/element in existance than increases in volume when solid like water? waters' unique property to float as ice and protect the liquid underneath has had a large impact on the genesis of life and its diversity. so are there any other substances that share this property?", "c_root_id_A": "d0u0kuv", "c_root_id_B": "d0tthi2", "created_at_utc_A": 1457566070, "created_at_utc_B": 1457556331, "score_A": 100, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "There have been good lists so far but one important one to mention is silica. Why is it important? Well, it is important for life on earth that Ice floats above water, otherwise oceans would freeze from the bottom up and life would not exist as we know it. However it is equally important that *silica* floats on liquid silica since without this the earth would not have a crust. Two anomalous behaviours, that seem normal.  Edit: I'm wrong about the silica mantle being molten, my mistake, sorry everyone. Its not liquid, though it is *fluid* because of the pressure its under.", "human_ref_B": "Actually, to be completely accurate here, the individual water molecules don't increase their volume when they freeze, they orient themselves into a very rigid and ordered 3-dimensional structure, and it just so happens that the distance between individual water molecules in their solid state is greater than the distance between them when they are in the liquid state.  So, the volume of the SAMPLE of water increases when it freezes, but the volume of the individual molecules does not.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9739.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "49nxgj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "is there any other molecule/element in existance than increases in volume when solid like water? waters' unique property to float as ice and protect the liquid underneath has had a large impact on the genesis of life and its diversity. so are there any other substances that share this property?", "c_root_id_A": "d0tnzch", "c_root_id_B": "d0u0kuv", "created_at_utc_A": 1457549156, "created_at_utc_B": 1457566070, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 100, "human_ref_A": "Bit of a side-question here... But I've been under the impression that water crystallizes with larger volume than it's liquid form because the crystals entrap air molecules within their matrix.  If that's the case, what would happen if water were to solidify in an airless environment?  Perhaps with different liquid, or more dense gas, or no other substances present.", "human_ref_B": "There have been good lists so far but one important one to mention is silica. Why is it important? Well, it is important for life on earth that Ice floats above water, otherwise oceans would freeze from the bottom up and life would not exist as we know it. However it is equally important that *silica* floats on liquid silica since without this the earth would not have a crust. Two anomalous behaviours, that seem normal.  Edit: I'm wrong about the silica mantle being molten, my mistake, sorry everyone. Its not liquid, though it is *fluid* because of the pressure its under.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16914.0, "score_ratio": 100.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "49nxgj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "is there any other molecule/element in existance than increases in volume when solid like water? waters' unique property to float as ice and protect the liquid underneath has had a large impact on the genesis of life and its diversity. so are there any other substances that share this property?", "c_root_id_A": "d0tthi2", "c_root_id_B": "d0tnzch", "created_at_utc_A": 1457556331, "created_at_utc_B": 1457549156, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Actually, to be completely accurate here, the individual water molecules don't increase their volume when they freeze, they orient themselves into a very rigid and ordered 3-dimensional structure, and it just so happens that the distance between individual water molecules in their solid state is greater than the distance between them when they are in the liquid state.  So, the volume of the SAMPLE of water increases when it freezes, but the volume of the individual molecules does not.", "human_ref_B": "Bit of a side-question here... But I've been under the impression that water crystallizes with larger volume than it's liquid form because the crystals entrap air molecules within their matrix.  If that's the case, what would happen if water were to solidify in an airless environment?  Perhaps with different liquid, or more dense gas, or no other substances present.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7175.0, "score_ratio": 25.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qdqtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Are there organisms that have evolved two separate tracts for food and oxygen? It's very easy for us to choke when our esophagus leads to both our stomach and lungs, and it seems that most terrestrial organisms have this same problem. Are there any species that have adapted to this problem by evolving two different tracts for food and oxygen or is this something that all land animals share with some of our earliest ancestors? (I'm curious too if this applies to marine life, crustaceans, or insects, but I know nothing of their anatomies)", "c_root_id_A": "c3wvacp", "c_root_id_B": "c3wxngi", "created_at_utc_A": 1330669175, "created_at_utc_B": 1330696382, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Wait...our esophagus leads only to our stomach. Our trachea leads to our lungs. There ARE two separate tracts. Am I misunderstanding your question?", "human_ref_B": "yes. dolphins & whales.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27207.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ermdi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do mammals other than humans have \"child\" teeth that fall out naturally to make way for \"adult\" teeth, or is this a human phenomena?", "c_root_id_A": "ck2rqjr", "c_root_id_B": "ck2qlcf", "created_at_utc_A": 1409233231, "created_at_utc_B": 1409230085, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Most definitely.  You see this in dogs and cats, too.  One of the ways you can tell the age of a young dog or cat is by seeing how far along its adult teeth are.  They'll start losing their teeth around two months, and should have all of their adult teeth by 8 months.  When someone brings in a puppy that they don't know the age of (happens more often than you'd think) this is how we give them an estimate of the age.", "human_ref_B": "Cats do it. They have grey little 'needle' like teeth that are pushed out by the bigger whiter ones. I kinda panicked when my kitten did this as he actually lost a tooth before the big tooth came through, and my other kitten had 8 canine teeth instead of 4!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3146.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mqc1s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Gravity and the Electric field are similar (inverse square laws). Electric fields give rise to Magnetic fields. Why is there no analogous field for Gravity? As I believe it, magnetism is a relativistic correction to the electric field. What is the difference between the electric and gravitational fields that gives no \"magnetic field for gravity\".", "c_root_id_A": "cm70ziw", "c_root_id_B": "cm6wd29", "created_at_utc_A": 1416412707, "created_at_utc_B": 1416400264, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Relativistic gravity turns out to be very different from relativistic EM. For example, gravity is mediated by a spin-2 field while EM by a spin-1 field.   They of course still belong to the same *class* of theories, that is gauge theories. But they're very different.  Now, there is something called gravitoelectromagnetism, where you have a field that could be called the \"gravitomagnetic field\", but **be wary** that it is **not** like EM (it's not covariant, for example) and it is a **crude approximation** of the real picture.  In the end, there is nothing analogous to the magnetic field for gravity, because the gravitational field is more complex and has more components with different transformation properties.", "human_ref_B": "Classical gravity is different from electricity or magnetism. There is no known repulsive gravitational force (except for dark energy, maybe).  An electromagnetic field is \"made up\" of virtual photons that are \"exchanged\" between interacting particles. These behave identically to real photons. The construct for gravity is different: instead of it being a field that exists across space-time, gravity transforms the geometry of space-time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12443.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3afv6l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Would it be possible with modern technology to produce a sword that would handily deal with medieval swords and armor? Is tool steel, or tungsten carbine, or some other material we can make now equivalent to a medieval superweapon?", "c_root_id_A": "cscg0l0", "c_root_id_B": "cscgh2e", "created_at_utc_A": 1434759340, "created_at_utc_B": 1434760333, "score_A": 404, "score_B": 2343, "human_ref_A": "I actually work in an auxiliary role for a large metallurgical research program. The really frustrating thing is that over the years I've talked to all these graduate students, researchers and professors there about how cool it would be for them to have some kind of black/sword-smithing club to apply all that institutional knowledge in a fun and creative way. But have any of them ever made so much as a sheath knife? Nope.   Why?   Access to the world's full range of metallurgical materials and fantastically accurate and powerful forging tools? Sure. Knowledge about alloy design and microstructure control? Absolutely. The technology and knowledge needed to perform impossibly precise heat-treatments for annealing/tempering? No problem. Machine tools for sharpening and polishing that would send blacksmith hobbists into bleak bouts of depression? Scattered randomly about. But the creative vision and sense of fun and adventure to use all those things in a non-academic way? Absolutely lacking. FML.", "human_ref_B": "Modern metals would make better and stronger swords than they had in medieval times, but it would make little difference in a fight. The sword would last longer before losing its edge, but it wouldn't be some kind of super weapon that could slice through plate armour or cut through blades.   This video shows what I mean. He uses a modern high quality steel sword and tries to cut through a cheap knock-off knife. It is incredibly ideal circumstances with the knife braced against a hard surface and a clean 90 degree cut, something that would never happen in real life, yet it still takes a huge amount of force and multiple attempts to cut through. In combat you would likely never have a situation like that, and the force would never be completely transferred into the blade.   This is especially true when talking about combat in plate armour, because they would very rarely strike with edge of the blade, if at all. It was all about thrusts and grappling with the opponent and they would hold the sword half way down the blade to use as a fast and accurate stabbing weapon to reach between the joints in the armour. You could hit plate armour all day long with a sword and make little more than a dent and some scratches.  While medieval metallurgy wasn't as advanced as modern metallurgy, by the end of the medieval period they had finely tuned the designs of swords to be very practical and good at their job. I doubt modern craftsmen could make anything better since a lot of the skills they had would have been lost so it would mostly come down to guessing and copying old designs. So the only advantage a modern sword would have would be the higher quality steel.  As for many of the advanced materials that are used in cutting tools nowadays, most of them are far too brittle to use as a sword and would shatter or break very quickly, and the ones that wouldn't would have be little improvement over steel.   TLDR; Modern swords would be more resilient and hold an edge longer, but would make little to no difference in combat. You wouldn't be able to slice through blades and cut through plate armour, and the designs of medieval swords were already very well designed for their purpose and not much could be changed to make them noticeably better.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 993.0, "score_ratio": 5.7995049505, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3afv6l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Would it be possible with modern technology to produce a sword that would handily deal with medieval swords and armor? Is tool steel, or tungsten carbine, or some other material we can make now equivalent to a medieval superweapon?", "c_root_id_A": "csc8t1v", "c_root_id_B": "cscgh2e", "created_at_utc_A": 1434745759, "created_at_utc_B": 1434760333, "score_A": 156, "score_B": 2343, "human_ref_A": "Just assuming you're talking about Europe, medieval metallurgy was no where near as technologically advanced as it is today. We can now make alloys that are harder than their steel and less brittle. So their swords wouldn't stand a chance, modern technology would snap the blade off at the hilt in a contest.              As far as armor goes, I doubt if we can make a blade that would readily slice through the armor, but penetrating the armor in a more stabby way wasn't too hard then. The life of the blade could probably be improved with modern alloys, so you could get more penetrations out of the same blade, but the penetrating power of a single attempt would probably not be changed too much. .", "human_ref_B": "Modern metals would make better and stronger swords than they had in medieval times, but it would make little difference in a fight. The sword would last longer before losing its edge, but it wouldn't be some kind of super weapon that could slice through plate armour or cut through blades.   This video shows what I mean. He uses a modern high quality steel sword and tries to cut through a cheap knock-off knife. It is incredibly ideal circumstances with the knife braced against a hard surface and a clean 90 degree cut, something that would never happen in real life, yet it still takes a huge amount of force and multiple attempts to cut through. In combat you would likely never have a situation like that, and the force would never be completely transferred into the blade.   This is especially true when talking about combat in plate armour, because they would very rarely strike with edge of the blade, if at all. It was all about thrusts and grappling with the opponent and they would hold the sword half way down the blade to use as a fast and accurate stabbing weapon to reach between the joints in the armour. You could hit plate armour all day long with a sword and make little more than a dent and some scratches.  While medieval metallurgy wasn't as advanced as modern metallurgy, by the end of the medieval period they had finely tuned the designs of swords to be very practical and good at their job. I doubt modern craftsmen could make anything better since a lot of the skills they had would have been lost so it would mostly come down to guessing and copying old designs. So the only advantage a modern sword would have would be the higher quality steel.  As for many of the advanced materials that are used in cutting tools nowadays, most of them are far too brittle to use as a sword and would shatter or break very quickly, and the ones that wouldn't would have be little improvement over steel.   TLDR; Modern swords would be more resilient and hold an edge longer, but would make little to no difference in combat. You wouldn't be able to slice through blades and cut through plate armour, and the designs of medieval swords were already very well designed for their purpose and not much could be changed to make them noticeably better.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14574.0, "score_ratio": 15.0192307692, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3afv6l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Would it be possible with modern technology to produce a sword that would handily deal with medieval swords and armor? Is tool steel, or tungsten carbine, or some other material we can make now equivalent to a medieval superweapon?", "c_root_id_A": "cscg0l0", "c_root_id_B": "csc8t1v", "created_at_utc_A": 1434759340, "created_at_utc_B": 1434745759, "score_A": 404, "score_B": 156, "human_ref_A": "I actually work in an auxiliary role for a large metallurgical research program. The really frustrating thing is that over the years I've talked to all these graduate students, researchers and professors there about how cool it would be for them to have some kind of black/sword-smithing club to apply all that institutional knowledge in a fun and creative way. But have any of them ever made so much as a sheath knife? Nope.   Why?   Access to the world's full range of metallurgical materials and fantastically accurate and powerful forging tools? Sure. Knowledge about alloy design and microstructure control? Absolutely. The technology and knowledge needed to perform impossibly precise heat-treatments for annealing/tempering? No problem. Machine tools for sharpening and polishing that would send blacksmith hobbists into bleak bouts of depression? Scattered randomly about. But the creative vision and sense of fun and adventure to use all those things in a non-academic way? Absolutely lacking. FML.", "human_ref_B": "Just assuming you're talking about Europe, medieval metallurgy was no where near as technologically advanced as it is today. We can now make alloys that are harder than their steel and less brittle. So their swords wouldn't stand a chance, modern technology would snap the blade off at the hilt in a contest.              As far as armor goes, I doubt if we can make a blade that would readily slice through the armor, but penetrating the armor in a more stabby way wasn't too hard then. The life of the blade could probably be improved with modern alloys, so you could get more penetrations out of the same blade, but the penetrating power of a single attempt would probably not be changed too much. .", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13581.0, "score_ratio": 2.5897435897, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3afv6l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Would it be possible with modern technology to produce a sword that would handily deal with medieval swords and armor? Is tool steel, or tungsten carbine, or some other material we can make now equivalent to a medieval superweapon?", "c_root_id_A": "csclrwh", "c_root_id_B": "csc8t1v", "created_at_utc_A": 1434772176, "created_at_utc_B": 1434745759, "score_A": 222, "score_B": 156, "human_ref_A": "The biggest benefits of modern technology would probably only be available after you move away from a medieval design such as a solid metal blade.  A composite blade might well prove lighter and more flexible than a metal blade.  Most swords weren't all that heavy to begin with though.  Also, even with a lighter, more flexible, sharper blade, skill is going to be pretty important.  Such a sword would give it's wielder an edge, but probably not one sufficient to overcome a lifetime of training, as many medieval combatants would have had.    One thing you're overlooking though is shields.  RPG's may portray them as defensive items, but shields were historically wielded in a variety of highly offensive ways. They really are weapons in the truest sense of the word.  Modern materials could likely do far more for shields than they could for swords.  A shield built with modern materials could be substantially lighter and tuned to be rigid when striking yet cushioning when struck, making them better at both giving blows and blocking them.  You could make them transparent, which would give the wielder better awareness of his opponent.  You might also make them permeable to air to reduce wind resistance to make them faster to move.  A modern shield might offer a much bigger edge than a modern sword.    All that being said, it would take less expertise, effort, and work to produce a crude gun from scratch, which would actually *be* the superweapon you're after.  There's a reason why guns took over!", "human_ref_B": "Just assuming you're talking about Europe, medieval metallurgy was no where near as technologically advanced as it is today. We can now make alloys that are harder than their steel and less brittle. So their swords wouldn't stand a chance, modern technology would snap the blade off at the hilt in a contest.              As far as armor goes, I doubt if we can make a blade that would readily slice through the armor, but penetrating the armor in a more stabby way wasn't too hard then. The life of the blade could probably be improved with modern alloys, so you could get more penetrations out of the same blade, but the penetrating power of a single attempt would probably not be changed too much. .", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26417.0, "score_ratio": 1.4230769231, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3afv6l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Would it be possible with modern technology to produce a sword that would handily deal with medieval swords and armor? Is tool steel, or tungsten carbine, or some other material we can make now equivalent to a medieval superweapon?", "c_root_id_A": "csclrwh", "c_root_id_B": "csch3h7", "created_at_utc_A": 1434772176, "created_at_utc_B": 1434761656, "score_A": 222, "score_B": 64, "human_ref_A": "The biggest benefits of modern technology would probably only be available after you move away from a medieval design such as a solid metal blade.  A composite blade might well prove lighter and more flexible than a metal blade.  Most swords weren't all that heavy to begin with though.  Also, even with a lighter, more flexible, sharper blade, skill is going to be pretty important.  Such a sword would give it's wielder an edge, but probably not one sufficient to overcome a lifetime of training, as many medieval combatants would have had.    One thing you're overlooking though is shields.  RPG's may portray them as defensive items, but shields were historically wielded in a variety of highly offensive ways. They really are weapons in the truest sense of the word.  Modern materials could likely do far more for shields than they could for swords.  A shield built with modern materials could be substantially lighter and tuned to be rigid when striking yet cushioning when struck, making them better at both giving blows and blocking them.  You could make them transparent, which would give the wielder better awareness of his opponent.  You might also make them permeable to air to reduce wind resistance to make them faster to move.  A modern shield might offer a much bigger edge than a modern sword.    All that being said, it would take less expertise, effort, and work to produce a crude gun from scratch, which would actually *be* the superweapon you're after.  There's a reason why guns took over!", "human_ref_B": "Depends what you mean.  My understanding is that in real battles, swords were never able to actually cut through plate armor of the late medieval era. In battle against an armored opponent, you would try to use a more concussive weapon such as a mace, axe or war hammer, that would be capable of delivering substantial force even through plate armor and possibly deforming the armor under the point of impact. If a sword was all you had available, you'd try to poke it between the armor plates where hopefully there's a lot less metal between the sword point and your opponent's skin.  Modern metallurgy is unlikely to change this. The main advantage of a sword made with modern alloys over an equivalent medieval sword is that, in a sword-on-sword fight where the swords are being used to block each other, the medieval one is much more likely to break sooner (assuming they're wielded with equal skill). However, as far as actually slicing through plate armor is concerned, the modern sword still won't be effective.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10520.0, "score_ratio": 3.46875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3afv6l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Would it be possible with modern technology to produce a sword that would handily deal with medieval swords and armor? Is tool steel, or tungsten carbine, or some other material we can make now equivalent to a medieval superweapon?", "c_root_id_A": "cscjjlx", "c_root_id_B": "csclrwh", "created_at_utc_A": 1434766971, "created_at_utc_B": 1434772176, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 222, "human_ref_A": "Ok, so clearly modern metallurgy isn't up to the task by itself.  So let's get clever.  How about electrifying the sword (specially insulated from the hilt) so that if it touches the opponent's sword or armor it operates like a taser?", "human_ref_B": "The biggest benefits of modern technology would probably only be available after you move away from a medieval design such as a solid metal blade.  A composite blade might well prove lighter and more flexible than a metal blade.  Most swords weren't all that heavy to begin with though.  Also, even with a lighter, more flexible, sharper blade, skill is going to be pretty important.  Such a sword would give it's wielder an edge, but probably not one sufficient to overcome a lifetime of training, as many medieval combatants would have had.    One thing you're overlooking though is shields.  RPG's may portray them as defensive items, but shields were historically wielded in a variety of highly offensive ways. They really are weapons in the truest sense of the word.  Modern materials could likely do far more for shields than they could for swords.  A shield built with modern materials could be substantially lighter and tuned to be rigid when striking yet cushioning when struck, making them better at both giving blows and blocking them.  You could make them transparent, which would give the wielder better awareness of his opponent.  You might also make them permeable to air to reduce wind resistance to make them faster to move.  A modern shield might offer a much bigger edge than a modern sword.    All that being said, it would take less expertise, effort, and work to produce a crude gun from scratch, which would actually *be* the superweapon you're after.  There's a reason why guns took over!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5205.0, "score_ratio": 6.9375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3afv6l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Would it be possible with modern technology to produce a sword that would handily deal with medieval swords and armor? Is tool steel, or tungsten carbine, or some other material we can make now equivalent to a medieval superweapon?", "c_root_id_A": "cscnzx7", "c_root_id_B": "cscjjlx", "created_at_utc_A": 1434777945, "created_at_utc_B": 1434766971, "score_A": 48, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "Very little.  Sword tech was excellent at its peak, and saw plenty of production.  However, there were still plenty of armies which lost in part due to problems arming themselves with effective equipment.  There's not much better you could do.  A sword could already cut an arm badly on light hit.  Ceramic or whatever is no more likely to get through steel plate or chainmail.  In fact, swords were NOT the primary weapon in most of history.  Polearms were, and bows.  Polearms could pack together and make a deep barrier you just couldn't get through.  Swords need space to swing.  Swords were generally ineffective against plate or chain.  In fact, most armor was padded cloth/canvas that did a lot to stop a sword.  Swords with a sharp edge would more likely have the edge damaged on a plate impact rather than penetrating the plate.   A polearm, with shaft, was relatively massive.  It could separate chainmail links or break your bones through unbroken chainmail.  On a thrust, it could travel up one steel plate until it got to a joint and pushed under the next overlapping plate.  What's underneath could be a padded gambeson or a gambeson over chainmail, which it could injure through.  One thing that WOULD be improved would be arrowheads.  Most weren't hardened steel and probably not effective at penetrating plate.  Also most weren't broadheads, broadheads cost too much to mass-mfg and were ineffective on chainmail, probably heavy cloth/canvas too.  And it was hard to carry a LOT of the shafts due to head width.    Instead they were narrow steel \"bodkin points\" which handily penetrated chain and cloth but, like I say, not super-effective on plate and also didn't cause really serious injury for immediate stopping power.  About like getting stabbed with a pencil.   Hardened steel points could penetrate plate better, and might be made wider to cause more dire injury.  The more interesting question- could modern materials and engineering make SUPERARMOR??  Yes, actually.  I think so.  Many plastics are more effective than steel at stopping these impacts.  Ballistic nylon is radically better at stopping blades from cutting, as would stainless mesh chainmail.  One primary limitation was what would be practical to both make and wear and still fight.  Modern 3D CAD design would go a long way to making effective, form-fitting, practical designs- especially covering the joints.  Making the armor bulky enough to absorb huge impacts without having the impact carry far enough to break bones.  Helmets... that was sort of a limiting factor.  Wearing steel plates all over was NOT as heavy as you probably think.  But an effective steel helm was hot, bulky, very restrictive for vision/breathing, and slowed you down overall.  Also a concussion through those things would take you down easier than trying to strike through plate or chain.  If you don't have an effective helm, going with super-effective plate over, say, chainmail isn't all that beneficial.  In the thick of things they'll just strike for your head regardless of how much armor you have elsewhere.  Modern football helmet would probably be super-effective in medieval combat.  Generally speaking you can't knife through the plastic shell, a sword won't do much better.  An axe would smash through it, but those are relatively slow weapons and due to the shape, most impacts would glance off.  The grille protects the lower face ok without impairing breathing or vision much.  You'd probably add a solid nosebridge to the design, but it's mostly \"there\".", "human_ref_B": "Ok, so clearly modern metallurgy isn't up to the task by itself.  So let's get clever.  How about electrifying the sword (specially insulated from the hilt) so that if it touches the opponent's sword or armor it operates like a taser?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10974.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nabey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Are there testable hypotheses that come from the theory of evolution? First, it is sad I feel I have to preface with this, but I am not trying to draw doubt to the theory of evolution, I just have a question about it.   It seems to me that mostly evolution is used to explain observations, but I'm wondering has there been a prediction made by evolutionary theory which biologists or others than went out and tested and found it to be true? If so, what are they?", "c_root_id_A": "c37j49t", "c_root_id_B": "c37jebb", "created_at_utc_A": 1323740010, "created_at_utc_B": 1323741850, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Almost any species ever domesticated is a good example. Natural selection is replaced with artificial selection, and there are many examples of traits being passed on as predicted.", "human_ref_B": "Here is a great description of a confirmed prediction that has to do with our relationship to chimps. We have 23 pairs of chromosomes while most of our close relatives (chimps, gorillas, orangutans) have 24. There are only a few ways this could happen: either we lost a whole chromosome, some of our chromosomes merged, or we aren't actually related to other apes. We know that losing an entire chromosome would result in a huge loss of genetic info that would make survival impossible; therefore merging is the only possibility. Guess what? Human chromosome #2 is a perfect match with 2 chromosomes from chimps, which are the only 2 chromosomes that aren't present separately in our cells. Evolution works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1840.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nabey", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Are there testable hypotheses that come from the theory of evolution? First, it is sad I feel I have to preface with this, but I am not trying to draw doubt to the theory of evolution, I just have a question about it.   It seems to me that mostly evolution is used to explain observations, but I'm wondering has there been a prediction made by evolutionary theory which biologists or others than went out and tested and found it to be true? If so, what are they?", "c_root_id_A": "c37jvar", "c_root_id_B": "c37j49t", "created_at_utc_A": 1323744949, "created_at_utc_B": 1323740010, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Not directly related to the question, but why would it be a bad thing to doubt or draw doubt to the theory of evolution? The theory of evolution, as with every scientific theory, should be doubted, questioned, and critically analyzed as much as possible by everyone. It has thus far proven strong enough to withstand the most rigorous criticism by people much more intelligent and educated than myself, so doubt certainly poses no threat to the theory, and even if it did, the worst that would come out of it would be a more accurate theory. Doubt is good.  Also, thanks for the question. It's a good one and I've enjoyed the responses. I have questions about evolution all the time because there are so many things about it that seem fantastic and improbable. But after scrutiny, my questions are always answered, and I am left even more fascinated and awestruck by this natural process.", "human_ref_B": "Almost any species ever domesticated is a good example. Natural selection is replaced with artificial selection, and there are many examples of traits being passed on as predicted.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4939.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1hee2t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "If we are able to take pictures of deep space (Hubble telescope or observatories), why can't we take videos? Would these provide new information? Even if it wouldn't provide useful information, I still think it would be very interesting if not eye-opening to see these stars and galaxies rotate and move.", "c_root_id_A": "catj9xe", "c_root_id_B": "cativqq", "created_at_utc_A": 1372646586, "created_at_utc_B": 1372645362, "score_A": 11, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "There are two issues with getting video of celestial objects.  The first, which others here have addressed, is that the time scales that these things move on are so long that you would not see anything.    The second is that these pictures are often not pictures in the sense we often use the word.  Instead, they are composites or amalgamations of really long exposures.  For example, in order to get the necessary amount of light, the Hubble Deep Field took something like 40 hour exposures at different wavelengths which were then reassembled.  So a real time video would just be dark.", "human_ref_B": "The only problem is that the galaxies and the stars are so far away from the earth that it would look like a still image. Remember that the speed of light is 3x10^8 and these objects are so far away that your eyes wouldn't detect the motion of even the closest stars except the sun. In fact we can't even see the galaxies move!  If we wait for 100 years we still wouldn't see most galaxies move cause they spend millions of years to spin once.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1224.0, "score_ratio": -5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1hee2t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "If we are able to take pictures of deep space (Hubble telescope or observatories), why can't we take videos? Would these provide new information? Even if it wouldn't provide useful information, I still think it would be very interesting if not eye-opening to see these stars and galaxies rotate and move.", "c_root_id_A": "catjbfc", "c_root_id_B": "cativqq", "created_at_utc_A": 1372646714, "created_at_utc_B": 1372645362, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "As stated, the main problem with video of celestial events is the issue of duration.  Most interesting events happen on very long time scales.  Often there is also an intensity issue.  One of the most famous HST pictures is the Hubble Deep Field which is actually a compilation of hundreds of individual photos taken over a ten day period.  This is because individual pictures did not obtain enough light to create a whole picture so several pictures were added together.  But to the point about video, something of the sort has been done several times.  For one example (http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2013/01/25/supernova-timelapse-video_n_2548290.html) a supernova was photographed several times over decades to produce a video of the event.", "human_ref_B": "The only problem is that the galaxies and the stars are so far away from the earth that it would look like a still image. Remember that the speed of light is 3x10^8 and these objects are so far away that your eyes wouldn't detect the motion of even the closest stars except the sun. In fact we can't even see the galaxies move!  If we wait for 100 years we still wouldn't see most galaxies move cause they spend millions of years to spin once.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1352.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1hee2t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "If we are able to take pictures of deep space (Hubble telescope or observatories), why can't we take videos? Would these provide new information? Even if it wouldn't provide useful information, I still think it would be very interesting if not eye-opening to see these stars and galaxies rotate and move.", "c_root_id_A": "cativqq", "c_root_id_B": "catm3zj", "created_at_utc_A": 1372645362, "created_at_utc_B": 1372655603, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The only problem is that the galaxies and the stars are so far away from the earth that it would look like a still image. Remember that the speed of light is 3x10^8 and these objects are so far away that your eyes wouldn't detect the motion of even the closest stars except the sun. In fact we can't even see the galaxies move!  If we wait for 100 years we still wouldn't see most galaxies move cause they spend millions of years to spin once.", "human_ref_B": "Here you can see video of a star (labeled \"S2\") orbiting the black hole at the center of our galaxy.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10241.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1hee2t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "If we are able to take pictures of deep space (Hubble telescope or observatories), why can't we take videos? Would these provide new information? Even if it wouldn't provide useful information, I still think it would be very interesting if not eye-opening to see these stars and galaxies rotate and move.", "c_root_id_A": "cativqq", "c_root_id_B": "catpzbf", "created_at_utc_A": 1372645362, "created_at_utc_B": 1372679501, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The only problem is that the galaxies and the stars are so far away from the earth that it would look like a still image. Remember that the speed of light is 3x10^8 and these objects are so far away that your eyes wouldn't detect the motion of even the closest stars except the sun. In fact we can't even see the galaxies move!  If we wait for 100 years we still wouldn't see most galaxies move cause they spend millions of years to spin once.", "human_ref_B": ">I still think it would be very interesting if not eye-opening to see these stars and galaxies rotate and move.  Our galaxy takes roughly ~220 million years to rotate. To have an appreciable movie (say, one rotation) you'd need to have either started a time lapse, or have begun watching, at about the time the dinosaurs were really becoming a force.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34139.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b295fx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If a person with light skin got a skin graft from a person with dark skin, would the skin color eventually change?", "c_root_id_A": "eisrue1", "c_root_id_B": "eiskmzg", "created_at_utc_A": 1552914028, "created_at_utc_B": 1552905820, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Burn survivor here!  I\u2019ve had grafts from my own body, animal grafts (from memory I think it was from a pig) and also had my skin taken and grown in a lab and then grafted, which they termed \u201ccultured skin.\u201d  I might be having another graft down the track where the surgeon wants to use skin donated from a dead body. He explained it as it\u2019s all \u201ccleaned\u201d so there\u2019s no DNA to create rejection.   If I get it done might end up having a graft of each type \ud83d\udc4d", "human_ref_B": "Tangentially related, but it's a motif in a lot of early Christian paintings, apparently a couple of Saints transplanted a black man's leg onto a white man's body https://moorsleg.blogspot.com/p/the-miracle-of-transplantation-of-black.html  I've also heard it explained as a failed transplant attempt or simply a gangrenous leg that is black due to disease.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8208.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ie4tk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "What physical differences can we detect between people that are well rested, running on little sleep, and running on no sleep? Obviously we all know what happens if people don't get enough sleep. What are the physical changes (brain activity, blood chemistry, etc.) that scientists can measure in people who go without sleep?", "c_root_id_A": "cl1oky2", "c_root_id_B": "cl1mtd3", "created_at_utc_A": 1412574762, "created_at_utc_B": 1412569219, "score_A": 91, "score_B": 82, "human_ref_A": "Salivary amylase increases with sleepiness, ref  This group claims that the protein composition of saliva changes with sleepiness, ref.  The Multiple Sleep Latency Test is the gold standard in the medical world for measuring daytime sleepiness where people that are sleepier will fall asleep quicker, wikipedia.  The Psychomotor Vigilance Task is used in research to measure sleepiness where sleepy individuals will respond slower, miss more responses, and make more premature responses, wikipedia.", "human_ref_B": "Attention folks: as always, anecdotes and personal medical information are not appropriate for /r/AskScience and will be removed. Any answers need to be based on peer-reviewed scientific information.  Also, we cannot offer medical advice here. Asking for or offering it may result in a ban.  Thank you!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5543.0, "score_ratio": 1.1097560976, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "al5ywy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "How accurate are people when self-diagnosing mental illness, and how accurate are people at identifying contributing factors to their own disorders? On the one hand, people have privileged information about themselves.  On the other hand people have inherent bias about themselves!  Is there any research on the ability of people to accurately self diagnose or identify things like depression, PTSD, anxiety, etc?  And then further, are people generally accurate when identifying likely contributing factors such as events, environmental conditions, etc. to their own disorders?  Thanks in advance!", "c_root_id_A": "efb5gxu", "c_root_id_B": "efb0jr7", "created_at_utc_A": 1548805727, "created_at_utc_B": 1548802964, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Question on insight  It depends.   What you are talking about is called insight. Insight, as the name might suggest refers to your own  knowledge, as the patient, of the disease at play. While many patients with certain diseases  might indeed have a lot of insight (E.g. I am feeling kind of down and lonely, just like the time I got depressed) other diseases, specially those that alter perception may not (E.g. I have heard voices telling me I am the savior of mankind).   An article on psychology today on insight   Question on risk factors  It depends.   We are pattern seeking animals, this can work to our advantage or to the contrary. Many patients can try and seek a single cause for depression. This can sometimes be identified, with major life events, such as a divorce or the death of a family member or close friend. All that being said, it is sometimes easy to overlook risk factors, such as over sleeping, not sleeping enough, reduced social interactions, no physical exercise, not having a good diet, Just to name a few.   Article talking about risk factors for depression   Hope this helps, thanks for the question", "human_ref_B": "Please do not post anecdotes about your personal experiences. They will be removed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2763.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "al5ywy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "How accurate are people when self-diagnosing mental illness, and how accurate are people at identifying contributing factors to their own disorders? On the one hand, people have privileged information about themselves.  On the other hand people have inherent bias about themselves!  Is there any research on the ability of people to accurately self diagnose or identify things like depression, PTSD, anxiety, etc?  And then further, are people generally accurate when identifying likely contributing factors such as events, environmental conditions, etc. to their own disorders?  Thanks in advance!", "c_root_id_A": "efbonee", "c_root_id_B": "efb0jr7", "created_at_utc_A": 1548817718, "created_at_utc_B": 1548802964, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Most classified disorders have a qualifying symptom that points to some kind of external validation. Like for alcoholism, on a questionnaire you might see a question like \"has anyone ever told you that they are concerned about your drinking?\" or \"have you ever gotten into any legal trouble?\"  There is usually some kind of attempt by the person diagnosing to get an idea for the effect the person's symptoms have on the person's life as a whole.", "human_ref_B": "Please do not post anecdotes about your personal experiences. They will be removed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14754.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "al5ywy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "How accurate are people when self-diagnosing mental illness, and how accurate are people at identifying contributing factors to their own disorders? On the one hand, people have privileged information about themselves.  On the other hand people have inherent bias about themselves!  Is there any research on the ability of people to accurately self diagnose or identify things like depression, PTSD, anxiety, etc?  And then further, are people generally accurate when identifying likely contributing factors such as events, environmental conditions, etc. to their own disorders?  Thanks in advance!", "c_root_id_A": "efce1gg", "c_root_id_B": "efb0jr7", "created_at_utc_A": 1548840869, "created_at_utc_B": 1548802964, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Very interesting question. One thing to bear in mind is that we don't always have a \"ground truth\" when it comes to mental illness. I may be wrong but I can't think of a single biological indicator of a mental illness in the same way that there are biomarkers for physical illnesses like cancer, arthritis etc.   So much, sometimes all, of the diagnosis of mental illness simply comes from a patient's description of symptoms and a clinician's interpretation of them. Therefore if a patient read some simple descriptions of a condition I would guess they could pretty accurately diagnose themselves with several conditions like autism, PTSD, anxiety, depression.   On the other hand, conditions that actually alter your sensory perception of the world might be very hard to self diagnose e.g. schizophrenia, dementia, Capgras syndrome etc. Check out Oliver Sacks' \"The Man who Mistook his Wife for a Hat\" for loads of fascinating case studies where patients don't recognise their bizarre neurological illnesses.", "human_ref_B": "Please do not post anecdotes about your personal experiences. They will be removed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 37905.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "k7xrgz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How does immunity to bacterial infections work? Or does it even exist? My fiance gets strep multiple times a year. She is going to have her tonsils out as soon as COVID calms down and hospitals aren't overloaded. She should have years ago but I guess her family never did it for some reason.   Anyways, I still have my tonsils and I have had strep maybe once since I was 10. Even when she had it and we have been in close contact, I never get it. And we usually go get tested together and I'm always negative which seems to rule out me being a carrier. But while I understand how immunity works with viruses to some extent, I always felt resistance to bacterial infection always seemed odd. So does immunity exist? As many times as she has had it and I've been in contact, statistically I would assume I would get it once even if I just have a stronger immune system or blind luck. If there is immunity, are there ways to develop vaccines for bacterial illnesses?", "c_root_id_A": "geuu9ke", "c_root_id_B": "geutyel", "created_at_utc_A": 1607279507, "created_at_utc_B": 1607279372, "score_A": 7, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Vaccines against bacterial infections generally rely on generating immunity to the toxins they produce. For example, diphtheria, tetanus, and anthrax are all vaccine-preventable bacterial infections, but the biggest reason they make people so sick is the very potent toxins they produce. And those toxins are what we vaccinate against, not the bacteria themselves.  The problem is, bacterial infections are usually cleared by the innate immune system\u2014these are WBCs that you're born with that aren't specific for any one thing. But they can spring into action immediately because they're already floating around in your blood just waiting for outside bacteria (or parasites, yeast, etc.) to attack. Unfortunately, it's easy to get reinfected with the exact same thing over and over again because this branch of the immune system doesn't have any way to remember the organism that caused this specific infection so that it can act faster next time.  Viruses on the other hand generally activate the adaptive immune system\u2014it takes longer to get your immune system going because the cells have to be infected with the virus and start dying before your immune system really knows anything is wrong. Then it takes a bit of time to get specialized WBCs to start producing antibodies and generating a killing response, which is kind of a bummer because you can get really sick in the time it takes for your immune system to get it all figured out, but this tactic has one very critical advantage. These adaptive WBCs can form a memory of that infection and keep some cells around that \"remember\" what those viral antigens looked like and so if you ever get sick again, they're already ready to go. So the next time that virus enters your body, your immune system can nip it in the bud before you ever feel sick.", "human_ref_B": "Immunity is actually a word for...your body recognizes the bug and knows how to kill it.  You still get infected, its just your body knows how to kill it better and has security to recognize it faster and before it can take hold.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 135.0, "score_ratio": -3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ggy03t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "How does the body's immune system create an antibody to a novel virus it has never encountered yet? Is there some machanism of trial and error (creating random molecules)? Can those attempts create molecules that are harmful to us in the process?", "c_root_id_A": "fq606fe", "c_root_id_B": "fq60wyl", "created_at_utc_A": 1589121694, "created_at_utc_B": 1589122154, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "\u3030The immune system has two main components: white blood cells and antibodies circulating in the blood. The antigen-antibody reaction forms the basis for this immunity. When an antigen (antibody generator)-such as a harmful bacterium, virus, fungus, parasite, or other foreign substance-invades the body, a specific antibody is generated to attack the antigen.   \u3030The antibody is produced by B lymphocytes (B cells) in the spleen or lymph nodes. An antibody may either destroy the antigen directly or it may \"label\" it so that a white blood cell (called a macrophage, or scavenger cell) can engulf the foreign intruder. After a human has been exposed to an antigen, a later exposure to the same antigen will produce a faster immune system reaction. The necessary antibodies will be produced more rapidly and in larger amounts.   \u3030Artificial immunization uses this antigen-antibody reaction to protect the human body from certain diseases by exposing the body to a safe dose of antigen to produce effective antibodies as well as a \"readiness\" for any future attacks of the harmful antigen.", "human_ref_B": "Until a more thorough answer comes around, yes and yes. The body creates random antigen-binding antibodies, around 10 billion all together, each capable of binding to a distinct epitope. One of the key mechanisms for this is V(D)J recombination. Basically, there are several regions of DNA that are randomly selected and recombined in developing B cells, which are then used in the creation of the pieces of an antibody. So, this now genetically unique B cell with its unique antibody all over the surface goes out into the bloodstream and, if it finds something binding to its antigens, will check to see if that something is \"self\", that is if it's attached to a human cell, or not. If it doesn't recognize it as self, it will then communicate with another type of immune cell, and eventually produce more and more copies of itself. This process of proliferation is highly variable, and will result in a population of similar antigens with variable binding affinities, some weaker, some stronger. That process is called somatic hypermutation. Stronger binding affinities will outperform weaker ones, and over time the antigen sensitivity increases in a process called affinity maturation.   Occasionally, these processes can result in the aberrant creation of antibodies against human cellular structures. In these cases, autoimmune diseases can be developed.  Edit: for mobile typos.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 460.0, "score_ratio": 3.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "stnlid", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Do two different species need the same number of chromosomes to interbreed?", "c_root_id_A": "hx8j3gd", "c_root_id_B": "hx7hp1h", "created_at_utc_A": 1645052719, "created_at_utc_B": 1645038073, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "They may be able to interbreed if they have different numbers of chromosomes, but their offspring will be infertile due to the odd number of chromosomes.  For example, a donkey (62 chromosomes) and a horse (64 chromosomes) can interbreed and have a baby mule that has 63 chromosomes, but mules are inherently sterile.  Note that the two different species have to be similar enough for the chromosomes from the different species to be able to pair up. And the sperm has to be able to fertilize the egg (which also requires the species to be very similar)", "human_ref_B": "From what I understand, a species is defined as a group of organisms that are capable of breeding and having offspring.  So two creatures from different species would not be able to interbreed, because by definition they are not able to have offspring as they are a different species.  So instead, can two creatures from different species that have the same number of chromosomes breed?   I believe the answer is no, because there's more to genetic compatibility than number of chromosomes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14646.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "stnlid", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Do two different species need the same number of chromosomes to interbreed?", "c_root_id_A": "hx8j3gd", "c_root_id_B": "hx7uzrk", "created_at_utc_A": 1645052719, "created_at_utc_B": 1645043166, "score_A": 7, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "They may be able to interbreed if they have different numbers of chromosomes, but their offspring will be infertile due to the odd number of chromosomes.  For example, a donkey (62 chromosomes) and a horse (64 chromosomes) can interbreed and have a baby mule that has 63 chromosomes, but mules are inherently sterile.  Note that the two different species have to be similar enough for the chromosomes from the different species to be able to pair up. And the sperm has to be able to fertilize the egg (which also requires the species to be very similar)", "human_ref_B": "Yes, that's how numbers change. As long as the data on the chromosomes code for the same things, in the same places, it'll be fine.  Imagine having 2 editions of a book with different page numbers, like you'd get studying Shakespeare. As long as the words are in the same order, and for the same story, either version is acceptable. You can always pull up line 15 of Act 3 Scene 2 in Hamlet and get \"I warrant your honor.\"  I could even split Hamlet up into 3 different books, and no data would be lost. If I then wanted to make an accurate copy of the play, I would compare the split up version to the not split up version. As long as the words in the versions are the same, I know either copy is accurate.  It's similar with the number of chromosomes, except with chromosomes there is a bit more leeway. The genes don't need to have the exact same data, they just need to code for the same thing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9553.0, "score_ratio": -3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "stnlid", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Do two different species need the same number of chromosomes to interbreed?", "c_root_id_A": "hxk42uy", "c_root_id_B": "hx7uzrk", "created_at_utc_A": 1645261046, "created_at_utc_B": 1645043166, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Yes, *usually* having different chromosome numbers will prevent two species from interbreeding, but this isn't always the case. Sometimes you can even find variation in chromosome number within a species. The common European shrew can have between 22 and 25 chromosomes, and examples also exist in other animals, including several insects.  The main thing that determines fertility is whether all the genetic information can be parceled out properly during meiosis, the cell division that produces sperm/eggs. During meiosis, matching chromosomes in a pair line up together and are split equally between the daughter cells. If your parents were from two species with different chromosome numbers, you've typically got a mismatched set that can't line up properly during meiosis, and as a result you'll be sterile (this is often what we see in hybrid animals like mules).  The shrews make it work because although the chromosome numbers differ, it's basically the same set of genetic material split up different ways. For a few of their chromosomes, what is one chromosome in one individual will be two in another, and when it's time for their offspring to make sperm or eggs, the two half-chromosomes will just line up with their matching whole-chromosome. It's a bit like a folk dance session where some of the dancers are half-people consisting either of just a torso or just a pair of legs. So long as they team up and act as a single dancer, everyone can find a dance partner just fine.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, that's how numbers change. As long as the data on the chromosomes code for the same things, in the same places, it'll be fine.  Imagine having 2 editions of a book with different page numbers, like you'd get studying Shakespeare. As long as the words are in the same order, and for the same story, either version is acceptable. You can always pull up line 15 of Act 3 Scene 2 in Hamlet and get \"I warrant your honor.\"  I could even split Hamlet up into 3 different books, and no data would be lost. If I then wanted to make an accurate copy of the play, I would compare the split up version to the not split up version. As long as the words in the versions are the same, I know either copy is accurate.  It's similar with the number of chromosomes, except with chromosomes there is a bit more leeway. The genes don't need to have the exact same data, they just need to code for the same thing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 217880.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "49ancl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Do the same species of animals from different parts of the world have different accents? Humans speak different languages in different regions of the world. Do wolves from North America, for example, have the exact same calls as wolves from Russia?", "c_root_id_A": "d0qnxi6", "c_root_id_B": "d0qn6k0", "created_at_utc_A": 1457353293, "created_at_utc_B": 1457350582, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Dolphines have their own cultures and languages.  Different tribes have different games they play and different tools they know how to use.  It was researched that if you record voices of dolphines from western Pacific and play it in the eastern part - local dolphines will be curious but will not understand the information.  I read about that couple of years ago and am not sure if my detalis are accurate so I want to encourage others to contribute. I'm on my mobile so I have also limited abilities to research it online now. Maybe when I'll find some time I'll add sources.", "human_ref_B": "Here is a rundown of a recent paper (here's the paper itself) which looks at \"dialects\" of sperm whales. The research seems to suggest that regional groups of whales develop standardised communication over time, which might vary from group to group.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2711.0, "score_ratio": 1.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "49ancl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Do the same species of animals from different parts of the world have different accents? Humans speak different languages in different regions of the world. Do wolves from North America, for example, have the exact same calls as wolves from Russia?", "c_root_id_A": "d0qk2nr", "c_root_id_B": "d0qnxi6", "created_at_utc_A": 1457338207, "created_at_utc_B": 1457353293, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "My roommate is a biologist and I remember her telling me that one of her labmates was studying \"accents\"/\"dialects\" in hummingbirds.  Apparently their vocalizations can vary pretty significantly, depending on where they are.", "human_ref_B": "Dolphines have their own cultures and languages.  Different tribes have different games they play and different tools they know how to use.  It was researched that if you record voices of dolphines from western Pacific and play it in the eastern part - local dolphines will be curious but will not understand the information.  I read about that couple of years ago and am not sure if my detalis are accurate so I want to encourage others to contribute. I'm on my mobile so I have also limited abilities to research it online now. Maybe when I'll find some time I'll add sources.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15086.0, "score_ratio": 24.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "49ancl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Do the same species of animals from different parts of the world have different accents? Humans speak different languages in different regions of the world. Do wolves from North America, for example, have the exact same calls as wolves from Russia?", "c_root_id_A": "d0qk2nr", "c_root_id_B": "d0qn6k0", "created_at_utc_A": 1457338207, "created_at_utc_B": 1457350582, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "My roommate is a biologist and I remember her telling me that one of her labmates was studying \"accents\"/\"dialects\" in hummingbirds.  Apparently their vocalizations can vary pretty significantly, depending on where they are.", "human_ref_B": "Here is a rundown of a recent paper (here's the paper itself) which looks at \"dialects\" of sperm whales. The research seems to suggest that regional groups of whales develop standardised communication over time, which might vary from group to group.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12375.0, "score_ratio": 22.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "49ancl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Do the same species of animals from different parts of the world have different accents? Humans speak different languages in different regions of the world. Do wolves from North America, for example, have the exact same calls as wolves from Russia?", "c_root_id_A": "d0qk2nr", "c_root_id_B": "d0qtm5g", "created_at_utc_A": 1457338207, "created_at_utc_B": 1457365574, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "My roommate is a biologist and I remember her telling me that one of her labmates was studying \"accents\"/\"dialects\" in hummingbirds.  Apparently their vocalizations can vary pretty significantly, depending on where they are.", "human_ref_B": "Honey bees have different \"dance language\" dialects, and birds with elaborate songs have different regional dialects as well.  Probably for similar reasons to the diversification of human languages . . . things drift randomly a bit over time, and differences become more fixed if there is geographical isolation.  Another interesting thing about these two examples is there appears to be a genetic component, not just a cultural one.  http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00220950  http://stel.ub.edu/evolang2008/feher_etal_abstract.pdf", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27367.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "49ancl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Do the same species of animals from different parts of the world have different accents? Humans speak different languages in different regions of the world. Do wolves from North America, for example, have the exact same calls as wolves from Russia?", "c_root_id_A": "d0qp34a", "c_root_id_B": "d0qk2nr", "created_at_utc_A": 1457356725, "created_at_utc_B": 1457338207, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Where I live there is a distinct difference between songs of tits that live in urban areas and those that live in the countryside.  Urban version is simpler. My guess is that in urban areas ambient noise muffles complex songs, so they invest more on volume.", "human_ref_B": "My roommate is a biologist and I remember her telling me that one of her labmates was studying \"accents\"/\"dialects\" in hummingbirds.  Apparently their vocalizations can vary pretty significantly, depending on where they are.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18518.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5ll9p1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "How are memories formed and stored in the human brain? How does information go from \"pattern of electrochemical activity\" to \"hard\" storage? I've heard that memories are solidified during sleep: does this mean that information is sitting in \"RAM\", so to speak, until then? And is this why we get tired?   Are there specific structures that contain memories, or are they distributed throughout our neural net? A combination? Can we detect changes as memories are formed using an MRI or other instruments?", "c_root_id_A": "dbx2fv1", "c_root_id_B": "dbx1w7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1483393632, "created_at_utc_B": 1483392903, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There's a phenomenon in the brain called Long Term Potentiation which essentially causes synapses in the brain to fire more easily when they are used frequently. There's some speculation that part of how memory works is from LTP. This is due to the fact that the hippocampus (a structure associated with memories) \"replays\" synaptic patterns that occurred during the day while you are sleeping [source]. Hippocampal replay and LTP are thought to contribute to the reinforcement of certain \"circuits\" of synapses used - causing patterns of electrochemical activity to be more likely to occur again if they frequently occur. [link].  Your brain doesn't really undergo any major structural changes during learning or memory so science thinks currently that memory may come from changes to synaptic strengths through LTP. Though really much of science is uncertain to what extent it contributes.  Edit: Please someone correct me if I'm mistaken - its been over a year since taking neuroscience in University.", "human_ref_B": "We really aren't very close to knowing how memories are formed or represented in the brain. We can't really observe the scale at which memories are formed, possibly in large part due to the gaps in resolution of the techniques we have for detecting brain activity.   We can measure activity of 10s or 100s of neurons (albeit probably not in a human) using probes, and we can measure activity (or something like activity) of millions of neurons using neuroimaging techniques like EEG and fMRI. It seems that memories are stored diffusely across the brain, and we really don't have a technique that can pick up activity at very fine spatial resolution across the entire brain.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 729.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5ll9p1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "How are memories formed and stored in the human brain? How does information go from \"pattern of electrochemical activity\" to \"hard\" storage? I've heard that memories are solidified during sleep: does this mean that information is sitting in \"RAM\", so to speak, until then? And is this why we get tired?   Are there specific structures that contain memories, or are they distributed throughout our neural net? A combination? Can we detect changes as memories are formed using an MRI or other instruments?", "c_root_id_A": "dbx2fv1", "c_root_id_B": "dbx15ah", "created_at_utc_A": 1483393632, "created_at_utc_B": 1483391926, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There's a phenomenon in the brain called Long Term Potentiation which essentially causes synapses in the brain to fire more easily when they are used frequently. There's some speculation that part of how memory works is from LTP. This is due to the fact that the hippocampus (a structure associated with memories) \"replays\" synaptic patterns that occurred during the day while you are sleeping [source]. Hippocampal replay and LTP are thought to contribute to the reinforcement of certain \"circuits\" of synapses used - causing patterns of electrochemical activity to be more likely to occur again if they frequently occur. [link].  Your brain doesn't really undergo any major structural changes during learning or memory so science thinks currently that memory may come from changes to synaptic strengths through LTP. Though really much of science is uncertain to what extent it contributes.  Edit: Please someone correct me if I'm mistaken - its been over a year since taking neuroscience in University.", "human_ref_B": "Richarg G Morris was on \"Life Scientific\" last month describing his work on the water maze and how some drugs can suppress the formation of long term memories.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation is one of the topics he studied, leading to :  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_tagging  as a theory.  The general impression I got from the radio program was that it is still not well understood.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1706.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5ll9p1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "How are memories formed and stored in the human brain? How does information go from \"pattern of electrochemical activity\" to \"hard\" storage? I've heard that memories are solidified during sleep: does this mean that information is sitting in \"RAM\", so to speak, until then? And is this why we get tired?   Are there specific structures that contain memories, or are they distributed throughout our neural net? A combination? Can we detect changes as memories are formed using an MRI or other instruments?", "c_root_id_A": "dbx15ah", "c_root_id_B": "dbx1w7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1483391926, "created_at_utc_B": 1483392903, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Richarg G Morris was on \"Life Scientific\" last month describing his work on the water maze and how some drugs can suppress the formation of long term memories.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation is one of the topics he studied, leading to :  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_tagging  as a theory.  The general impression I got from the radio program was that it is still not well understood.", "human_ref_B": "We really aren't very close to knowing how memories are formed or represented in the brain. We can't really observe the scale at which memories are formed, possibly in large part due to the gaps in resolution of the techniques we have for detecting brain activity.   We can measure activity of 10s or 100s of neurons (albeit probably not in a human) using probes, and we can measure activity (or something like activity) of millions of neurons using neuroimaging techniques like EEG and fMRI. It seems that memories are stored diffusely across the brain, and we really don't have a technique that can pick up activity at very fine spatial resolution across the entire brain.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 977.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ub9ixn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Do pain medications actually relieve pain or do they rewire the brain to feel pain differently?", "c_root_id_A": "i65dh6q", "c_root_id_B": "i659xf1", "created_at_utc_A": 1650904539, "created_at_utc_B": 1650903187, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Ibuprofen and most NSAIDs block the pain and inflammation at the source, usually with COX mechanism.   Tylenol is different and blocks substance P which reduces inflammation and pain. It also acts centrally on your temperature control center and lowers fever very effectively.   Opioids act on the mu opioid receptor and make you \u201cfeel less\u201d pain. They do not actually target the source of pain.", "human_ref_B": "Depends on what kind of pain meds you are talking about. Pain killers like opioids block pain in one way that don\u2019t quote me on this but isn\u2019t really blocking pain it\u2019s almost like making you not care about it? Endogenous morphine being a peptide has a more complicated mechanism of action than other things that simply agonize a receptor for neurotransmitters. The way something like Tylenol works is it inhibits the enzyme Cox-2 and maybe cox1? This blocks the production of prostaglandins from cholesterol like molecules which do things like cause fever create a mucus layer in the gut inflammation and feelings of pain", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1352.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "528dqx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What's the brain's role in interpreting music into dancing? How does that process work at a physiological level? I'm not really familiar with ballets but I'm taking about the type of dancing you may see at a hip hop concert that usually involves highly choreographed dance routines. Also how people dance at clubs and how their moves change depending on song / genre. Or maybe bobbing your head while driving to work and listening to the radio.  Is it some process that excites certain nerves and makes you want to move to the beat? How do we make the choice of what move goes with the beat?", "c_root_id_A": "d7ic8tv", "c_root_id_B": "d7impob", "created_at_utc_A": 1473612739, "created_at_utc_B": 1473625517, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Ok so I read this book five years ago called The Science of Music by Dan Levitan and I can't seem to find it but from what I remember it has to do with the reptilian brain/medulla. Melodic processing is a higher function while rhythmic processing is a baser function. This is why every culture has some form of dance and why everyone can interpret a beat with a steady pulse. I'm sure there's more to it but that's what I remember.", "human_ref_B": "As far as rhythm translating to movement in general, there are two competing theories. First is Action Simulation for Auditory Perception (ASAP), advocated by Patel and Iversen (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4026735/). Basically, you hear the music, and that information is communicated to your motor system. Then the motor system uses pre-existing motor patterns to simulate the beat, which creates the sensation of a 'beat' or a pulse. Importantly, it says that specific brain adaptations (related to vocal flexibility and mimicry) are required to achieve synchronization to a beat, meaning that only some animals with these brain adaptations should be able to find and move to a beat.  The other theory is neural resonance (http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnsys.2015.00159/full), which is based on a much more fundamental process in nervous systems. In essence, the sound causes neural oscillations in the auditory cortex that matches the beat pattern. These oscillations are coupled to similar oscillators in the motor system, which can be activated to produce motor movement that's highly coupled to the rhythms of the input audio. It doesn't require highly specialized brain adaptations, which means that many more species should be able to 'dance' to a beat.  We've only very recently seen animals proven to be able to keep a beat like Snowball the dancing cockatoo (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N7IZmRnAo6s) or Ronan the sea lion (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6yS6qU_w3JQ) so it will be interesting to see what they can tell us about how humans do it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12778.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2d54vf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Does the human brain use any form of quantum entanglement? I was watching through the wormhole earlier (s2 episode 1) and according to one of the scientists,  the human brain uses quantum entanglement to help process information and it may also have something to do with consciousness.  Does this have much standing in the scientific community? Why/why not?", "c_root_id_A": "cjmt91f", "c_root_id_B": "cjmkwgg", "created_at_utc_A": 1407730457, "created_at_utc_B": 1407711035, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes, some birds navigate via a combination of light and magnetic sensing that appears to utilize quantum entanglement occurring within the retina, which is a brain structure.  Here is a Google search that brings up some of the relevant research.", "human_ref_B": "Roger Penrose is perhaps the most prominent scientist to argue that explaining human consciousness requires quantum mechanics, or perhaps even new physics. He's probably one of the few people who understands quantum mechanics well enough, and theories of computation well enough, to have an informed opinion. He develops his argument in two books. I read the first, The Emperor's New Mind, and enjoyed it quite a bit:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose#Physics_and_consciousness  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Mind  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadows_of_the_Mind:_A_Search_for_the_Missing_Science_of_Consciousness  EDIT: Found a 2014 paper by Hameroff and Penrose detailing their ideas:  http://quantum-mind.org/documents/CUniverse1.pdf  >The nature of consciousness, the mechanism by which it occurs in the brain, and its ultimate place in the universe are un- known. We proposed in the mid 1990\u2019s that consciousness depends on biologically \u2018orchestrated\u2019 coherent quantum processes in collections of microtubules within brain neurons, that these quantum processes correlate with, and regulate, neuronal synaptic and membrane activity, and that the continuous Schr\u00f6dinger evolution of each such process terminates in accordance with the specific Di\u00f3si\u2013Penrose (DP) scheme of \u2018objective reduction\u2019 (\u2018OR\u2019) of the quantum state. This orchestrated OR activity (\u2018Orch OR\u2019) is taken to result in moments of conscious awareness and/or choice. The DP form of OR is related to the fundamentals of quantum mechanics and space\u2013time geometry, so Orch OR suggests that there is a connection between the brain\u2019s biomolecular processes and the basic structure of the universe. Here we review Orch OR in light of criticisms and developments in quantum biology, neu- roscience, physics and cosmology. We also introduce a novel suggestion of \u2018beat frequencies\u2019 of faster microtubule vibrations as a possible source of the observed electro-encephalographic (\u2018EEG\u2019) correlates of consciousness. We conclude that consciousness plays an intrinsic role in the universe.  Here are 7 commentaries on it, and a reply:  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1571064513001905", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19422.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2d54vf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Does the human brain use any form of quantum entanglement? I was watching through the wormhole earlier (s2 episode 1) and according to one of the scientists,  the human brain uses quantum entanglement to help process information and it may also have something to do with consciousness.  Does this have much standing in the scientific community? Why/why not?", "c_root_id_A": "cjme53i", "c_root_id_B": "cjmt91f", "created_at_utc_A": 1407696398, "created_at_utc_B": 1407730457, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The best possible answer is this: we don't know. This is a highly contested area of questioning. From what I've seen, reddit scientists will almost always say no. A few others would disagree. The discussion has been going back and forth.  I've been studying the subject very lightly (armchair neuroscience!)  in my spare time, while I personally lean towards the quantum entanglement theory, we are a fair bit away from proving one way or another. It isn't about whether or not we need to be 'hooked' to another plane for consciousness, it's whether or not we ARE hooked to another one.  Another thing that's in this steep debate is this: what is consciousness? Are we looking at thoughts, decisionmaking? Are we looking at goals, aspirations, what?", "human_ref_B": "Yes, some birds navigate via a combination of light and magnetic sensing that appears to utilize quantum entanglement occurring within the retina, which is a brain structure.  Here is a Google search that brings up some of the relevant research.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34059.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2d54vf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Does the human brain use any form of quantum entanglement? I was watching through the wormhole earlier (s2 episode 1) and according to one of the scientists,  the human brain uses quantum entanglement to help process information and it may also have something to do with consciousness.  Does this have much standing in the scientific community? Why/why not?", "c_root_id_A": "cjmkwgg", "c_root_id_B": "cjme53i", "created_at_utc_A": 1407711035, "created_at_utc_B": 1407696398, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Roger Penrose is perhaps the most prominent scientist to argue that explaining human consciousness requires quantum mechanics, or perhaps even new physics. He's probably one of the few people who understands quantum mechanics well enough, and theories of computation well enough, to have an informed opinion. He develops his argument in two books. I read the first, The Emperor's New Mind, and enjoyed it quite a bit:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose#Physics_and_consciousness  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Mind  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadows_of_the_Mind:_A_Search_for_the_Missing_Science_of_Consciousness  EDIT: Found a 2014 paper by Hameroff and Penrose detailing their ideas:  http://quantum-mind.org/documents/CUniverse1.pdf  >The nature of consciousness, the mechanism by which it occurs in the brain, and its ultimate place in the universe are un- known. We proposed in the mid 1990\u2019s that consciousness depends on biologically \u2018orchestrated\u2019 coherent quantum processes in collections of microtubules within brain neurons, that these quantum processes correlate with, and regulate, neuronal synaptic and membrane activity, and that the continuous Schr\u00f6dinger evolution of each such process terminates in accordance with the specific Di\u00f3si\u2013Penrose (DP) scheme of \u2018objective reduction\u2019 (\u2018OR\u2019) of the quantum state. This orchestrated OR activity (\u2018Orch OR\u2019) is taken to result in moments of conscious awareness and/or choice. The DP form of OR is related to the fundamentals of quantum mechanics and space\u2013time geometry, so Orch OR suggests that there is a connection between the brain\u2019s biomolecular processes and the basic structure of the universe. Here we review Orch OR in light of criticisms and developments in quantum biology, neu- roscience, physics and cosmology. We also introduce a novel suggestion of \u2018beat frequencies\u2019 of faster microtubule vibrations as a possible source of the observed electro-encephalographic (\u2018EEG\u2019) correlates of consciousness. We conclude that consciousness plays an intrinsic role in the universe.  Here are 7 commentaries on it, and a reply:  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1571064513001905", "human_ref_B": "The best possible answer is this: we don't know. This is a highly contested area of questioning. From what I've seen, reddit scientists will almost always say no. A few others would disagree. The discussion has been going back and forth.  I've been studying the subject very lightly (armchair neuroscience!)  in my spare time, while I personally lean towards the quantum entanglement theory, we are a fair bit away from proving one way or another. It isn't about whether or not we need to be 'hooked' to another plane for consciousness, it's whether or not we ARE hooked to another one.  Another thing that's in this steep debate is this: what is consciousness? Are we looking at thoughts, decisionmaking? Are we looking at goals, aspirations, what?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14637.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxth9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do we feel a pain in the center of the chest area when we are emotionally hurt and/or embarrassed?   Whenever I remember something embarrassing I did sometime earlier in the day or week, I feel a dull pain in the center of the chest area, and it gets worse as I start to remember more embarrassing things. This also happens when someone insults me. Why is that?  If this has already been discussed, please give me the link to that question.", "c_root_id_A": "c34trhy", "c_root_id_B": "c34twi4", "created_at_utc_A": 1322884731, "created_at_utc_B": 1322885906, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "Similar question: when I'm nervous/emotional, I tend to feel a hollowness in my stomach and become too unsettled to eat. Is there a biological explanation?", "human_ref_B": "Emotion scientist, here.  I'm not exactly certain which plays a more prominent role, but it's a combination of your parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems responding to the situation. Your parasympathetic nervous system withdraws its regulation of the heart via the vagus nerve and your sympathetic nervous system upregulates its interaction with the heart via the HPA axis (endocrine system). Combining these effects, you experience a shift in pulmonary function, heart contractility, and heart rate level/variability. This causes the sensations you feel in your heart and chest that you've come to associate with feeling bad. Concurrently, you may feel a visceral response preparing you for fight or flight, so you may feel sick from the halt of digestion, your throat may seize up, you may start to cry. This is all started by the inhibition or excitation of cortical social cognitive mechanisms regulating these response patterns.  EDIT: Medical advice redacted.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1175.0, "score_ratio": 5.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxth9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do we feel a pain in the center of the chest area when we are emotionally hurt and/or embarrassed?   Whenever I remember something embarrassing I did sometime earlier in the day or week, I feel a dull pain in the center of the chest area, and it gets worse as I start to remember more embarrassing things. This also happens when someone insults me. Why is that?  If this has already been discussed, please give me the link to that question.", "c_root_id_A": "c34tth7", "c_root_id_B": "c34twi4", "created_at_utc_A": 1322885202, "created_at_utc_B": 1322885906, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "You can read up on the limbic system.  It's the mechanism in the body that leads emotional reactions to give physical notifications to the body.  Your body sends out some chemicals when you get embarassed.  The fifth or flight response is part of this, when that happens some chemicals get sent out which move your body into a more alert state.", "human_ref_B": "Emotion scientist, here.  I'm not exactly certain which plays a more prominent role, but it's a combination of your parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems responding to the situation. Your parasympathetic nervous system withdraws its regulation of the heart via the vagus nerve and your sympathetic nervous system upregulates its interaction with the heart via the HPA axis (endocrine system). Combining these effects, you experience a shift in pulmonary function, heart contractility, and heart rate level/variability. This causes the sensations you feel in your heart and chest that you've come to associate with feeling bad. Concurrently, you may feel a visceral response preparing you for fight or flight, so you may feel sick from the halt of digestion, your throat may seize up, you may start to cry. This is all started by the inhibition or excitation of cortical social cognitive mechanisms regulating these response patterns.  EDIT: Medical advice redacted.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 704.0, "score_ratio": 10.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxth9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do we feel a pain in the center of the chest area when we are emotionally hurt and/or embarrassed?   Whenever I remember something embarrassing I did sometime earlier in the day or week, I feel a dull pain in the center of the chest area, and it gets worse as I start to remember more embarrassing things. This also happens when someone insults me. Why is that?  If this has already been discussed, please give me the link to that question.", "c_root_id_A": "c34riyp", "c_root_id_B": "c34twi4", "created_at_utc_A": 1322867492, "created_at_utc_B": 1322885906, "score_A": -32, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "I have never heard of this happening.   It does not happen to me.   Not to freak you out, but i would consult a physician", "human_ref_B": "Emotion scientist, here.  I'm not exactly certain which plays a more prominent role, but it's a combination of your parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems responding to the situation. Your parasympathetic nervous system withdraws its regulation of the heart via the vagus nerve and your sympathetic nervous system upregulates its interaction with the heart via the HPA axis (endocrine system). Combining these effects, you experience a shift in pulmonary function, heart contractility, and heart rate level/variability. This causes the sensations you feel in your heart and chest that you've come to associate with feeling bad. Concurrently, you may feel a visceral response preparing you for fight or flight, so you may feel sick from the halt of digestion, your throat may seize up, you may start to cry. This is all started by the inhibition or excitation of cortical social cognitive mechanisms regulating these response patterns.  EDIT: Medical advice redacted.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18414.0, "score_ratio": -0.65625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxth9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do we feel a pain in the center of the chest area when we are emotionally hurt and/or embarrassed?   Whenever I remember something embarrassing I did sometime earlier in the day or week, I feel a dull pain in the center of the chest area, and it gets worse as I start to remember more embarrassing things. This also happens when someone insults me. Why is that?  If this has already been discussed, please give me the link to that question.", "c_root_id_A": "c34riyp", "c_root_id_B": "c34trhy", "created_at_utc_A": 1322867492, "created_at_utc_B": 1322884731, "score_A": -32, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I have never heard of this happening.   It does not happen to me.   Not to freak you out, but i would consult a physician", "human_ref_B": "Similar question: when I'm nervous/emotional, I tend to feel a hollowness in my stomach and become too unsettled to eat. Is there a biological explanation?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17239.0, "score_ratio": -0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxth9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do we feel a pain in the center of the chest area when we are emotionally hurt and/or embarrassed?   Whenever I remember something embarrassing I did sometime earlier in the day or week, I feel a dull pain in the center of the chest area, and it gets worse as I start to remember more embarrassing things. This also happens when someone insults me. Why is that?  If this has already been discussed, please give me the link to that question.", "c_root_id_A": "c34riyp", "c_root_id_B": "c34tth7", "created_at_utc_A": 1322867492, "created_at_utc_B": 1322885202, "score_A": -32, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I have never heard of this happening.   It does not happen to me.   Not to freak you out, but i would consult a physician", "human_ref_B": "You can read up on the limbic system.  It's the mechanism in the body that leads emotional reactions to give physical notifications to the body.  Your body sends out some chemicals when you get embarassed.  The fifth or flight response is part of this, when that happens some chemicals get sent out which move your body into a more alert state.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17710.0, "score_ratio": -0.0625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxth9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do we feel a pain in the center of the chest area when we are emotionally hurt and/or embarrassed?   Whenever I remember something embarrassing I did sometime earlier in the day or week, I feel a dull pain in the center of the chest area, and it gets worse as I start to remember more embarrassing things. This also happens when someone insults me. Why is that?  If this has already been discussed, please give me the link to that question.", "c_root_id_A": "c353s2r", "c_root_id_B": "c34riyp", "created_at_utc_A": 1322983692, "created_at_utc_B": 1322867492, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -32, "human_ref_A": "Heartache can make you feel like you're having a heart attack. This entity is not uncommon and very interesting.   http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takotsubo_cardiomyopathy", "human_ref_B": "I have never heard of this happening.   It does not happen to me.   Not to freak you out, but i would consult a physician", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 116200.0, "score_ratio": -0.0625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vc2e1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Former creationist here: with so few pre-human fossils over millions of years, how do we extrapolate data of past human evolution? 21 years old and for the first time I'm getting a science education at my local community college. But I'm just confused at this area of human evolution. We have a small amount of our ancestor's fossils, and usually they're spread across millennia and vast geographic distances, how does science form connections between these fossils?    I'm not trying to ask this as a \"gotcha\" question or anything, I'm genuinely confused about how we are able to relate fossils that are so far apart in geography and time.", "c_root_id_A": "cer5gqt", "c_root_id_B": "cer0vr1", "created_at_utc_A": 1389893919, "created_at_utc_B": 1389882641, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I am actually a grad student studying paleoanthropology, and I'm happy to answer any questions that you might have about human evolution. I mutatron answer some of the basics, and I just wanted to chime in with some more details.   Depending on who you ask, there are either a lot of human fossils, or not very many. Obviously as a paleontologist you always want more. Heres a cool map that shows many human fossil bearing sites around the world. Its several years old, so by now there are many more dots that could be added (http://www.handprint.com/LS/ANC/disp.html). The number of fossils (actual specimens, not necessarily species) also depends on what time period you're looking at. Humans and chimpanzees last shared a common ancestor somewhere around 7-6 mya, and for the several million years following this splitting, there are very few fossils. Once we get to about 4.5 million years ago, we start seeing more, and then once we get to around 2 million years ago we start seeing even more.  So what happens when someone finds a human fossil (lets say a skull, which is rare to find)? As mutatron mentioned, hopefully we have a pretty good idea of how old it is if we're lucky enough to have found it between two layers of date-able volcanic ash. If we cant peg down the date of a fossil very well, then things get much more complicated (as with some caves sites in South Africa). The person who finds the skull, who presumable has spent a lot of time studying comparative anatomy of apes, monkeys, and other fossil humans, will determine if this a new species or not. If there are other fossil humans known from the same area or time period, and the new skull looks like others from the same place/time, it will usually be assumed that the new fossil belongs to one of the existing species. Also keep in mind, when I say \"looks like\" this is actually a judgement based on qualitative features and quantitative measurements of the fossil and comparisons with others. If the new fossil is sufficiently different than others, then it will probably be classified as a new species, and potentially even a new genus. When this happens, the other will publish a description of the fossil, as well as the diagnostic features (in this case of the skull) which separate from other known fossils.   Ok, so now, getting back to your question, how do we know the patterns of relationships between the fossils we find, and living humans and apes? For this we resort to a method called cladistics. (Here is a more in depth summary then im about to give: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad1.html). The basic assumption is that species that are more closely related, tend to share features that animals more distantly related do not possess. For example apes (humans, chimpanzees, gibbons, orangutans, and gorillas), do not have a tail. All other monkey species do. Therefore, we can use this piece of information to assume that the loss of a tail is a feature that unites apes together as a group, to the exclusion of monkeys. And in fact this is one of many shared features which unites apes as a group of individuals more closely related to each other than to any monkeys. We use this same method within a group that includes humans and things more closely related to humans than chimpanzees (members of this group are called hominins), and using lots of different pieces of anatomical information, we can generate hypotheses of patterns of relationships, in the form of phylogenetic trees (heres a simple one that I would tend to agree with but its also missing several species: http://tolweb.org/onlinecontributors/app?service=external/ViewImageData&sp=20939). In this tree, humans, (Homo) are more closely related to the genus paranthropus than either are to Australopithecus afarensis for example. Using this method we can deduce relationships among all the fossil hominins that we find.   Also keep in mind, that when a lot of people get into human evolution, we all tend to assume that its linear. For example, Australopithecus afarensis (~3.3 mya) begat Homo habilis (~2.3 mya) begat Homo erectus (1.8 mya), but these kind of direct relationships are super hard to establish, and many people try to stay clear of that, at least now-a-days. In addition, from what we see in the fossil record, there are generally several hominin species roaming around at the same time. For example 100,000 years ago there were Homo erectus, Homo sapiens, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo floresiensis, some of which were in the same place at the same time!  So I meant to say more too, but I feel like this post is sufficiently long. If you want any more info just ask!", "human_ref_B": "I'm reading Richard Dawkins' \"The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution\" at the moment, and he mentions that in Darwin's day, we had hardly any human fossils, but since then we have discovered thousands and we have a very good sampling of fossils from the earliest hominids to our most recent ancestors.  EDIT: hominids, not humans", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11278.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vc2e1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Former creationist here: with so few pre-human fossils over millions of years, how do we extrapolate data of past human evolution? 21 years old and for the first time I'm getting a science education at my local community college. But I'm just confused at this area of human evolution. We have a small amount of our ancestor's fossils, and usually they're spread across millennia and vast geographic distances, how does science form connections between these fossils?    I'm not trying to ask this as a \"gotcha\" question or anything, I'm genuinely confused about how we are able to relate fossils that are so far apart in geography and time.", "c_root_id_A": "cer5gqt", "c_root_id_B": "cer524e", "created_at_utc_A": 1389893919, "created_at_utc_B": 1389893041, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I am actually a grad student studying paleoanthropology, and I'm happy to answer any questions that you might have about human evolution. I mutatron answer some of the basics, and I just wanted to chime in with some more details.   Depending on who you ask, there are either a lot of human fossils, or not very many. Obviously as a paleontologist you always want more. Heres a cool map that shows many human fossil bearing sites around the world. Its several years old, so by now there are many more dots that could be added (http://www.handprint.com/LS/ANC/disp.html). The number of fossils (actual specimens, not necessarily species) also depends on what time period you're looking at. Humans and chimpanzees last shared a common ancestor somewhere around 7-6 mya, and for the several million years following this splitting, there are very few fossils. Once we get to about 4.5 million years ago, we start seeing more, and then once we get to around 2 million years ago we start seeing even more.  So what happens when someone finds a human fossil (lets say a skull, which is rare to find)? As mutatron mentioned, hopefully we have a pretty good idea of how old it is if we're lucky enough to have found it between two layers of date-able volcanic ash. If we cant peg down the date of a fossil very well, then things get much more complicated (as with some caves sites in South Africa). The person who finds the skull, who presumable has spent a lot of time studying comparative anatomy of apes, monkeys, and other fossil humans, will determine if this a new species or not. If there are other fossil humans known from the same area or time period, and the new skull looks like others from the same place/time, it will usually be assumed that the new fossil belongs to one of the existing species. Also keep in mind, when I say \"looks like\" this is actually a judgement based on qualitative features and quantitative measurements of the fossil and comparisons with others. If the new fossil is sufficiently different than others, then it will probably be classified as a new species, and potentially even a new genus. When this happens, the other will publish a description of the fossil, as well as the diagnostic features (in this case of the skull) which separate from other known fossils.   Ok, so now, getting back to your question, how do we know the patterns of relationships between the fossils we find, and living humans and apes? For this we resort to a method called cladistics. (Here is a more in depth summary then im about to give: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad1.html). The basic assumption is that species that are more closely related, tend to share features that animals more distantly related do not possess. For example apes (humans, chimpanzees, gibbons, orangutans, and gorillas), do not have a tail. All other monkey species do. Therefore, we can use this piece of information to assume that the loss of a tail is a feature that unites apes together as a group, to the exclusion of monkeys. And in fact this is one of many shared features which unites apes as a group of individuals more closely related to each other than to any monkeys. We use this same method within a group that includes humans and things more closely related to humans than chimpanzees (members of this group are called hominins), and using lots of different pieces of anatomical information, we can generate hypotheses of patterns of relationships, in the form of phylogenetic trees (heres a simple one that I would tend to agree with but its also missing several species: http://tolweb.org/onlinecontributors/app?service=external/ViewImageData&sp=20939). In this tree, humans, (Homo) are more closely related to the genus paranthropus than either are to Australopithecus afarensis for example. Using this method we can deduce relationships among all the fossil hominins that we find.   Also keep in mind, that when a lot of people get into human evolution, we all tend to assume that its linear. For example, Australopithecus afarensis (~3.3 mya) begat Homo habilis (~2.3 mya) begat Homo erectus (1.8 mya), but these kind of direct relationships are super hard to establish, and many people try to stay clear of that, at least now-a-days. In addition, from what we see in the fossil record, there are generally several hominin species roaming around at the same time. For example 100,000 years ago there were Homo erectus, Homo sapiens, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo floresiensis, some of which were in the same place at the same time!  So I meant to say more too, but I feel like this post is sufficiently long. If you want any more info just ask!", "human_ref_B": "All information about the history of the human lineage is not exclusively locked up in fossil morphology. In recent years, a prodigious amount of data and unique insights have begun to emerge from comparing the human genome to that of great apes and even of other fossil hominids. The discovery of readable DNA from Neanderthals, Denisovians and even those little florensis people is a breakthough nobody dreamed of which has brought a whole new light on the relationships between these species.  Amongst the notable insights: degrees of divergence and cladistic positioning, relatively precise estimates for the age of last common ancestors, specific identification of genetic divergences (what genes make a human \"human\" and a dennisovian \"dennisovian\").   This tells us a lot about out the ways in which we were similar to and different from these other species.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 878.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3i29k4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.99, "history": "If sound waves travel farther and faster in denser media, such as water, than it does through air, then why do walls and other solids block sound from passing through?", "c_root_id_A": "cucuc13", "c_root_id_B": "cucunzq", "created_at_utc_A": 1440342245, "created_at_utc_B": 1440342965, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I reckon it's something to do with the change from being transmitted through gas to being transmitted through a solid.  When the sound waves originate in air and hit a solid you're right, it does not transmit well through the wall.  If you were to put a sub woofer right up to the wall it would transmit better. I feel too stupid to express what I feel is the correct answer.", "human_ref_B": "It bounces off those objects because the waves don't have enough energy to vibrate something so massive. The materials are too dissimilar and impedance (Pa\u00b7s/m^3) is too high. Sound waves already lose a lot of energy just going through the air so almost all of them will be reflected back.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 720.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "id6n9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "If chimps were to be breeded selectively based on their intelligence, how many generations would it take before we could describe them as \"human-like\" in terms of intelligence?", "c_root_id_A": "c22v9jk", "c_root_id_B": "c22sw4i", "created_at_utc_A": 1309461311, "created_at_utc_B": 1309442534, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "When you take into account as given that humans are breeding selectively to decrease their intelligence, I don't imagine it would take that long for the curves to converge.", "human_ref_B": "Have we not been breeding dogs for their intelligence?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18777.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "id6n9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "If chimps were to be breeded selectively based on their intelligence, how many generations would it take before we could describe them as \"human-like\" in terms of intelligence?", "c_root_id_A": "c22tnow", "c_root_id_B": "c22v9jk", "created_at_utc_A": 1309448942, "created_at_utc_B": 1309461311, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "This has come up a few times in /r/askscience.   My references aren't about breeding, but about rearing chimps: I will point you towards Nim Chimpsky and Sarah).   In short, the acute answer is no.", "human_ref_B": "When you take into account as given that humans are breeding selectively to decrease their intelligence, I don't imagine it would take that long for the curves to converge.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12369.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6noq2l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "What would happen if an extension cord was wired to itself on the female end then plugged in? I had to test some chandeliers for my dad and when I was done with the extension cord I used I was just messing around with it and started to wonder.  Visual for reference", "c_root_id_A": "dkcm8ol", "c_root_id_B": "dkc8tza", "created_at_utc_A": 1500324667, "created_at_utc_B": 1500310854, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I feel I should say this as no one else has yet - DO NOT TRY THIS AT HOME! Fire hazard. Electrical hazard. Can cause death. Just saying.", "human_ref_B": "It creates a short circuit between phase and neutral and hence infinite current flows through the circuit which will blow the fuse or trip the circuit breaker. If the gauge of the fuse wire is more than the conductors( generally copper) inside the cord, the conductor heats up and melts the surrounding outer layer (plastic) resulting in fire hazards.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13813.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxylun", "c_root_id_B": "ejxx3wi", "created_at_utc_A": 1554208762, "created_at_utc_B": 1554207284, "score_A": 304, "score_B": 190, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, thank you so much for this Q&A session!  I have a question:  Dr. Schmidt mentions that taking folic acid whilst pregnant reduces the chances of the autism in the infant.  But women with the mthfr gene mutation have trouble processing the folic acid. That mutation and the folic acid consumption is known for an increased number of autism cases.  Women with the mthfr mutation are encouraged to use folinic acid instead of folic acid.  So my question is:  shouldn't all women be encouraged to use folinic acid - and NOT folic acid - because the majority of women do not know if they carry the mthfr mutation?", "human_ref_B": "There are many people on the autism spectrum who do not view autism as a disorder or a disability, and so do not necessarily feel as though autism is something that needs to be prevented.  (For instance, here's an op-ed by Nikki Stevenson, who chairs a UK autism charity, which argues against a disease/disability model of autism.)  Have you come across anyone who feels that way?  How do they feel about your work to reduce or protect against the occurrence of autism?  If an autistic person were to tell you that they feel as if your work to prevent autism at least indirectly leads to a perpetuation of negative perceptions of autistic people, how would you address their concerns?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1478.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxuskr", "c_root_id_B": "ejxylun", "created_at_utc_A": 1554204712, "created_at_utc_B": 1554208762, "score_A": 86, "score_B": 304, "human_ref_A": "Since autism is generally described as a \"group of ...] disorders\" rather than a single disorder [NIH fact sheet, does this influence of folic acid in general or vitamins more broadly represent a uniform reduction in autism, or are there certain parts of the spectrum that are more or less effected that suggest that this is only influencing one way autism is expressed or potentially caused?  A related question with this would be that since autism has high comorbidities with many other conditions, does the reduction in autism correlate with a reduction in these other diagnoses as well, or only the autism rates? So, for example, an autism diagnosis is outlined in DSM-V as something that may or may not have an accompanying intellectual impairment, but said impairment isn't part of an autism diagnosis. Does the impact of vitamins result in a decrease in intellectual impairment as well, or just a reduction in autism rates?", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, thank you so much for this Q&A session!  I have a question:  Dr. Schmidt mentions that taking folic acid whilst pregnant reduces the chances of the autism in the infant.  But women with the mthfr gene mutation have trouble processing the folic acid. That mutation and the folic acid consumption is known for an increased number of autism cases.  Women with the mthfr mutation are encouraged to use folinic acid instead of folic acid.  So my question is:  shouldn't all women be encouraged to use folinic acid - and NOT folic acid - because the majority of women do not know if they carry the mthfr mutation?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4050.0, "score_ratio": 3.5348837209, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxwrf7", "c_root_id_B": "ejxylun", "created_at_utc_A": 1554206927, "created_at_utc_B": 1554208762, "score_A": 63, "score_B": 304, "human_ref_A": "Are there any dietary factors that could be contributing to the increase in the Autism rate?", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, thank you so much for this Q&A session!  I have a question:  Dr. Schmidt mentions that taking folic acid whilst pregnant reduces the chances of the autism in the infant.  But women with the mthfr gene mutation have trouble processing the folic acid. That mutation and the folic acid consumption is known for an increased number of autism cases.  Women with the mthfr mutation are encouraged to use folinic acid instead of folic acid.  So my question is:  shouldn't all women be encouraged to use folinic acid - and NOT folic acid - because the majority of women do not know if they carry the mthfr mutation?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1835.0, "score_ratio": 4.8253968254, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxylun", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554208762, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 304, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, thank you so much for this Q&A session!  I have a question:  Dr. Schmidt mentions that taking folic acid whilst pregnant reduces the chances of the autism in the infant.  But women with the mthfr gene mutation have trouble processing the folic acid. That mutation and the folic acid consumption is known for an increased number of autism cases.  Women with the mthfr mutation are encouraged to use folinic acid instead of folic acid.  So my question is:  shouldn't all women be encouraged to use folinic acid - and NOT folic acid - because the majority of women do not know if they carry the mthfr mutation?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4624.0, "score_ratio": 13.8181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxylun", "c_root_id_B": "ejxttk0", "created_at_utc_A": 1554208762, "created_at_utc_B": 1554203495, "score_A": 304, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, thank you so much for this Q&A session!  I have a question:  Dr. Schmidt mentions that taking folic acid whilst pregnant reduces the chances of the autism in the infant.  But women with the mthfr gene mutation have trouble processing the folic acid. That mutation and the folic acid consumption is known for an increased number of autism cases.  Women with the mthfr mutation are encouraged to use folinic acid instead of folic acid.  So my question is:  shouldn't all women be encouraged to use folinic acid - and NOT folic acid - because the majority of women do not know if they carry the mthfr mutation?", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5267.0, "score_ratio": 30.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxuskr", "c_root_id_B": "ejxx3wi", "created_at_utc_A": 1554204712, "created_at_utc_B": 1554207284, "score_A": 86, "score_B": 190, "human_ref_A": "Since autism is generally described as a \"group of ...] disorders\" rather than a single disorder [NIH fact sheet, does this influence of folic acid in general or vitamins more broadly represent a uniform reduction in autism, or are there certain parts of the spectrum that are more or less effected that suggest that this is only influencing one way autism is expressed or potentially caused?  A related question with this would be that since autism has high comorbidities with many other conditions, does the reduction in autism correlate with a reduction in these other diagnoses as well, or only the autism rates? So, for example, an autism diagnosis is outlined in DSM-V as something that may or may not have an accompanying intellectual impairment, but said impairment isn't part of an autism diagnosis. Does the impact of vitamins result in a decrease in intellectual impairment as well, or just a reduction in autism rates?", "human_ref_B": "There are many people on the autism spectrum who do not view autism as a disorder or a disability, and so do not necessarily feel as though autism is something that needs to be prevented.  (For instance, here's an op-ed by Nikki Stevenson, who chairs a UK autism charity, which argues against a disease/disability model of autism.)  Have you come across anyone who feels that way?  How do they feel about your work to reduce or protect against the occurrence of autism?  If an autistic person were to tell you that they feel as if your work to prevent autism at least indirectly leads to a perpetuation of negative perceptions of autistic people, how would you address their concerns?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2572.0, "score_ratio": 2.2093023256, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxx3wi", "c_root_id_B": "ejxwrf7", "created_at_utc_A": 1554207284, "created_at_utc_B": 1554206927, "score_A": 190, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "There are many people on the autism spectrum who do not view autism as a disorder or a disability, and so do not necessarily feel as though autism is something that needs to be prevented.  (For instance, here's an op-ed by Nikki Stevenson, who chairs a UK autism charity, which argues against a disease/disability model of autism.)  Have you come across anyone who feels that way?  How do they feel about your work to reduce or protect against the occurrence of autism?  If an autistic person were to tell you that they feel as if your work to prevent autism at least indirectly leads to a perpetuation of negative perceptions of autistic people, how would you address their concerns?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any dietary factors that could be contributing to the increase in the Autism rate?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 357.0, "score_ratio": 3.0158730159, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxx3wi", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554207284, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 190, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "There are many people on the autism spectrum who do not view autism as a disorder or a disability, and so do not necessarily feel as though autism is something that needs to be prevented.  (For instance, here's an op-ed by Nikki Stevenson, who chairs a UK autism charity, which argues against a disease/disability model of autism.)  Have you come across anyone who feels that way?  How do they feel about your work to reduce or protect against the occurrence of autism?  If an autistic person were to tell you that they feel as if your work to prevent autism at least indirectly leads to a perpetuation of negative perceptions of autistic people, how would you address their concerns?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3146.0, "score_ratio": 8.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxttk0", "c_root_id_B": "ejxx3wi", "created_at_utc_A": 1554203495, "created_at_utc_B": 1554207284, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 190, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "human_ref_B": "There are many people on the autism spectrum who do not view autism as a disorder or a disability, and so do not necessarily feel as though autism is something that needs to be prevented.  (For instance, here's an op-ed by Nikki Stevenson, who chairs a UK autism charity, which argues against a disease/disability model of autism.)  Have you come across anyone who feels that way?  How do they feel about your work to reduce or protect against the occurrence of autism?  If an autistic person were to tell you that they feel as if your work to prevent autism at least indirectly leads to a perpetuation of negative perceptions of autistic people, how would you address their concerns?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3789.0, "score_ratio": 19.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1gur", "c_root_id_B": "ejxuskr", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211351, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204712, "score_A": 117, "score_B": 86, "human_ref_A": "I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.  It\u2019s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.  Why does this research have to be age specific?", "human_ref_B": "Since autism is generally described as a \"group of ...] disorders\" rather than a single disorder [NIH fact sheet, does this influence of folic acid in general or vitamins more broadly represent a uniform reduction in autism, or are there certain parts of the spectrum that are more or less effected that suggest that this is only influencing one way autism is expressed or potentially caused?  A related question with this would be that since autism has high comorbidities with many other conditions, does the reduction in autism correlate with a reduction in these other diagnoses as well, or only the autism rates? So, for example, an autism diagnosis is outlined in DSM-V as something that may or may not have an accompanying intellectual impairment, but said impairment isn't part of an autism diagnosis. Does the impact of vitamins result in a decrease in intellectual impairment as well, or just a reduction in autism rates?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6639.0, "score_ratio": 1.3604651163, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1gur", "c_root_id_B": "ejxwrf7", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211351, "created_at_utc_B": 1554206927, "score_A": 117, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.  It\u2019s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.  Why does this research have to be age specific?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any dietary factors that could be contributing to the increase in the Autism rate?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4424.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1gur", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0vft", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211351, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210832, "score_A": 117, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.  It\u2019s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.  Why does this research have to be age specific?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m aware that girls autistic \u201csymptoms\u201d can be quite different and girls often go undiagnosed, or are diagnosed much later.   Is gender and the potential for a diagnosis being missed taken into account in these studies, or is anything being done to ensure girls slipping through the cracks won\u2019t effect your data?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 519.0, "score_ratio": 2.5434782609, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxubc4", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1gur", "created_at_utc_A": 1554204138, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211351, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 117, "human_ref_A": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "human_ref_B": "I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.  It\u2019s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.  Why does this research have to be age specific?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7213.0, "score_ratio": 5.3181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxyxbi", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1gur", "created_at_utc_A": 1554209058, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211351, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 117, "human_ref_A": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "human_ref_B": "I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.  It\u2019s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.  Why does this research have to be age specific?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2293.0, "score_ratio": 7.3125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1gur", "c_root_id_B": "ejxttk0", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211351, "created_at_utc_B": 1554203495, "score_A": 117, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.  It\u2019s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.  Why does this research have to be age specific?", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7856.0, "score_ratio": 11.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1gur", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0mcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211351, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210609, "score_A": 117, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.  It\u2019s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.  Why does this research have to be age specific?", "human_ref_B": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 742.0, "score_ratio": 11.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0zh8", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1gur", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210931, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211351, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 117, "human_ref_A": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "human_ref_B": "I still suffer at 29 because the focus is on children. It feels like being an adult my existence is no longer considered. I try explaining to my job what I go through and no one has a clue as to what I am talking about.  It\u2019s been years since I began to try and find help, and I have gotten nowhere.  Why does this research have to be age specific?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 420.0, "score_ratio": 16.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxuskr", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554204712, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 86, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Since autism is generally described as a \"group of ...] disorders\" rather than a single disorder [NIH fact sheet, does this influence of folic acid in general or vitamins more broadly represent a uniform reduction in autism, or are there certain parts of the spectrum that are more or less effected that suggest that this is only influencing one way autism is expressed or potentially caused?  A related question with this would be that since autism has high comorbidities with many other conditions, does the reduction in autism correlate with a reduction in these other diagnoses as well, or only the autism rates? So, for example, an autism diagnosis is outlined in DSM-V as something that may or may not have an accompanying intellectual impairment, but said impairment isn't part of an autism diagnosis. Does the impact of vitamins result in a decrease in intellectual impairment as well, or just a reduction in autism rates?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 574.0, "score_ratio": 3.9090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxuskr", "c_root_id_B": "ejxttk0", "created_at_utc_A": 1554204712, "created_at_utc_B": 1554203495, "score_A": 86, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Since autism is generally described as a \"group of ...] disorders\" rather than a single disorder [NIH fact sheet, does this influence of folic acid in general or vitamins more broadly represent a uniform reduction in autism, or are there certain parts of the spectrum that are more or less effected that suggest that this is only influencing one way autism is expressed or potentially caused?  A related question with this would be that since autism has high comorbidities with many other conditions, does the reduction in autism correlate with a reduction in these other diagnoses as well, or only the autism rates? So, for example, an autism diagnosis is outlined in DSM-V as something that may or may not have an accompanying intellectual impairment, but said impairment isn't part of an autism diagnosis. Does the impact of vitamins result in a decrease in intellectual impairment as well, or just a reduction in autism rates?", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1217.0, "score_ratio": 8.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyce8j", "c_root_id_B": "ejxwrf7", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219636, "created_at_utc_B": 1554206927, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any dietary factors that could be contributing to the increase in the Autism rate?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12709.0, "score_ratio": 1.0317460317, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0vft", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210832, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 46, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m aware that girls autistic \u201csymptoms\u201d can be quite different and girls often go undiagnosed, or are diagnosed much later.   Is gender and the potential for a diagnosis being missed taken into account in these studies, or is anything being done to ensure girls slipping through the cracks won\u2019t effect your data?", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8804.0, "score_ratio": 1.4130434783, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy24ez", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211908, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7728.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy7k7j", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216174, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3462.0, "score_ratio": 2.3214285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyce8j", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219636, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 81.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxubc4", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554204138, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15498.0, "score_ratio": 2.9545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyahtg", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218300, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1336.0, "score_ratio": 2.9545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxyxbi", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554209058, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10578.0, "score_ratio": 4.0625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy688n", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554215184, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4452.0, "score_ratio": 5.4166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxttk0", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554203495, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16141.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyce8j", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0mcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219636, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210609, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "human_ref_B": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9027.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyce8j", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1zvt", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219636, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211801, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7835.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy83l3", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216570, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "What (if any) effect does the age of the mother have on the risk of her child having ASD?", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3066.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyce8j", "c_root_id_B": "ejyaq3a", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219636, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218463, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "human_ref_B": "Is it true that the current blood test on pregnant women for folate, actually tests how much folic acid is in the patients blood, not how much is actually used (uptake)? Meaning if the patient is taking folic acid, but it\u2019s not absorbed, we are not getting an accurate measurement on how the folic acid/folate is impacting an embryo/fetus?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1173.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyce8j", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0zh8", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219636, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210931, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "human_ref_B": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8705.0, "score_ratio": 9.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyce8j", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219636, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8053.0, "score_ratio": 10.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy8djd", "c_root_id_B": "ejyce8j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216773, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219636, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Do Antivaxxers annoy the crap out of you?    How many do you have to try and educate on a daily basis?", "human_ref_B": "There has been an established medical \"fact\" that people who live a majority of their lives in the northern states of the USA have an increased change of Multiple Sclerosis (at least, there was when I went to school 20 years ago).  Has there been anything established like this for autism, whether birth or living locations?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2863.0, "score_ratio": 9.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxwrf7", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554206927, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 63, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Are there any dietary factors that could be contributing to the increase in the Autism rate?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2789.0, "score_ratio": 2.8636363636, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxttk0", "c_root_id_B": "ejxwrf7", "created_at_utc_A": 1554203495, "created_at_utc_B": 1554206927, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "human_ref_B": "Are there any dietary factors that could be contributing to the increase in the Autism rate?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3432.0, "score_ratio": 6.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0vft", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210832, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m aware that girls autistic \u201csymptoms\u201d can be quite different and girls often go undiagnosed, or are diagnosed much later.   Is gender and the potential for a diagnosis being missed taken into account in these studies, or is anything being done to ensure girls slipping through the cracks won\u2019t effect your data?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13252.0, "score_ratio": 1.0217391304, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejy24ez", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211908, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12176.0, "score_ratio": 1.5666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy7k7j", "c_root_id_B": "ejyiuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216174, "created_at_utc_B": 1554224084, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7910.0, "score_ratio": 1.6785714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4529.0, "score_ratio": 1.8076923077, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19946.0, "score_ratio": 2.1363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyahtg", "c_root_id_B": "ejyiuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218300, "created_at_utc_B": 1554224084, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5784.0, "score_ratio": 2.1363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejxyxbi", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554209058, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15026.0, "score_ratio": 2.9375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejy688n", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554215184, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8900.0, "score_ratio": 3.9166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxttk0", "c_root_id_B": "ejyiuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1554203495, "created_at_utc_B": 1554224084, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20589.0, "score_ratio": 4.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0mcx", "c_root_id_B": "ejyiuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210609, "created_at_utc_B": 1554224084, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13475.0, "score_ratio": 4.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1zvt", "c_root_id_B": "ejyiuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211801, "created_at_utc_B": 1554224084, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12283.0, "score_ratio": 4.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy83l3", "c_root_id_B": "ejyiuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216570, "created_at_utc_B": 1554224084, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "What (if any) effect does the age of the mother have on the risk of her child having ASD?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7514.0, "score_ratio": 4.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejyaq3a", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218463, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "Is it true that the current blood test on pregnant women for folate, actually tests how much folic acid is in the patients blood, not how much is actually used (uptake)? Meaning if the patient is taking folic acid, but it\u2019s not absorbed, we are not getting an accurate measurement on how the folic acid/folate is impacting an embryo/fetus?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5621.0, "score_ratio": 4.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0zh8", "c_root_id_B": "ejyiuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210931, "created_at_utc_B": 1554224084, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13153.0, "score_ratio": 6.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12501.0, "score_ratio": 7.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyexey", "c_root_id_B": "ejyiuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1554221426, "created_at_utc_B": 1554224084, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "What are the largest and most common sources of the environmental contaminants you mention?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2658.0, "score_ratio": 6.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyiuep", "c_root_id_B": "ejy8djd", "created_at_utc_A": 1554224084, "created_at_utc_B": 1554216773, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Hi there!  Thanks for coming.  I would like to know your answer about an issue very important to me; namely, reporting on \"positive findings\" without adjusting for multiple comparisons.  I note that many of your publications  rely on data taken from a cohort \"Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE)\", and MARBLES, and I must confess, I have some sciencey concerns because it doesn't appear to me that you are making adjustments for multiple comparisons (I continue to see 95% CI being reported as \"significant \").  Even your recent study (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2726608) you made 5 comparisons (MARBLES cohort), from what I can tell, in your final model (primary outcome).  By using alpha at 0.05, we can get the following results:  >Alpha: 0.05 R: 5  >**With no correction the chance of finding one or more significant differences in 5 tests=  0.2262 (22.62%).**  >Adjustments with no correlation For an overall alpha level of 0.05  >Sidak's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.0102062  >Bonferonni's adjustment, for each test: Lower the 0.05 to 0.01  **When I add table 3 to the mix (another 6), the chance of finding a \"significant\" result is 43%, and the corrected p-value should have been to around ~0.0045.**  In other words, the chance of replicability with your study could be rather low, and some of your results may simply be due to chance.     The first month prenatal vitamin \"ASD\" result had a respectable CI (0.5, 0.3-0.81)so it might hold up. But honestly, how many times can the MARBLES/CHARGES cohorts be tested without adjusting for multiple comparisons?  When i look at the studies that have been published with MARBLES cohort, there are some with literally hundreds of comparisons (https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0428-4).  In that particular study, there is a throwaway comment about \"multiple comparisons\" but even the most rudimentary of adjustments would have likely obliterated most of the \"significant\" findings.  A long winded way to get to my question: **have you re-run your results adjusting for multiple comparisons, and if so, did the results change?**  With the number of studies published using MARBLES/CHARGE data, couldn't it be very valuable to put it into the context of the (now) hundreds of multiple comparisons that the investigators using these datasets have done?", "human_ref_B": "Do Antivaxxers annoy the crap out of you?    How many do you have to try and educate on a daily basis?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7311.0, "score_ratio": 6.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0vft", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210832, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 46, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m aware that girls autistic \u201csymptoms\u201d can be quite different and girls often go undiagnosed, or are diagnosed much later.   Is gender and the potential for a diagnosis being missed taken into account in these studies, or is anything being done to ensure girls slipping through the cracks won\u2019t effect your data?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6694.0, "score_ratio": 2.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxyxbi", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0vft", "created_at_utc_A": 1554209058, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210832, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m aware that girls autistic \u201csymptoms\u201d can be quite different and girls often go undiagnosed, or are diagnosed much later.   Is gender and the potential for a diagnosis being missed taken into account in these studies, or is anything being done to ensure girls slipping through the cracks won\u2019t effect your data?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1774.0, "score_ratio": 2.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxttk0", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0vft", "created_at_utc_A": 1554203495, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210832, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m aware that girls autistic \u201csymptoms\u201d can be quite different and girls often go undiagnosed, or are diagnosed much later.   Is gender and the potential for a diagnosis being missed taken into account in these studies, or is anything being done to ensure girls slipping through the cracks won\u2019t effect your data?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7337.0, "score_ratio": 4.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0mcx", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0vft", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210609, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210832, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m aware that girls autistic \u201csymptoms\u201d can be quite different and girls often go undiagnosed, or are diagnosed much later.   Is gender and the potential for a diagnosis being missed taken into account in these studies, or is anything being done to ensure girls slipping through the cracks won\u2019t effect your data?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 223.0, "score_ratio": 4.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy24ez", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211908, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7770.0, "score_ratio": 1.3636363636, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy24ez", "c_root_id_B": "ejxyxbi", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211908, "created_at_utc_B": 1554209058, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "human_ref_B": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2850.0, "score_ratio": 1.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxttk0", "c_root_id_B": "ejy24ez", "created_at_utc_A": 1554203495, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211908, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "human_ref_B": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8413.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy24ez", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0mcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211908, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210609, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "human_ref_B": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1299.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy24ez", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1zvt", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211908, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211801, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 107.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy24ez", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0zh8", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211908, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210931, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "human_ref_B": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 977.0, "score_ratio": 4.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy24ez", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211908, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Have you seen a link between maternal inflammation during pregnancy (and gut flora ) and the development of autism in the child?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 325.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy7k7j", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216174, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12036.0, "score_ratio": 1.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxyxbi", "c_root_id_B": "ejy7k7j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554209058, "created_at_utc_B": 1554216174, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "human_ref_B": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7116.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy688n", "c_root_id_B": "ejy7k7j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554215184, "created_at_utc_B": 1554216174, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "human_ref_B": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 990.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxttk0", "c_root_id_B": "ejy7k7j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554203495, "created_at_utc_B": 1554216174, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "human_ref_B": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12679.0, "score_ratio": 2.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0mcx", "c_root_id_B": "ejy7k7j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210609, "created_at_utc_B": 1554216174, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "human_ref_B": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5565.0, "score_ratio": 2.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1zvt", "c_root_id_B": "ejy7k7j", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211801, "created_at_utc_B": 1554216174, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "human_ref_B": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4373.0, "score_ratio": 2.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy7k7j", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0zh8", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216174, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210931, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "human_ref_B": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5243.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy7k7j", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216174, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Hello, you talk about a lot of research that puts the mom's health as a strong influence as to whether or not a child has Autism. Is there any research about the father's health? And if so what?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4591.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyca1w", "c_root_id_B": "ejxubc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219555, "created_at_utc_B": 1554204138, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "human_ref_B": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15417.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyahtg", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218300, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1255.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxyxbi", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554209058, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10497.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy688n", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554215184, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4371.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyca1w", "c_root_id_B": "ejxttk0", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219555, "created_at_utc_B": 1554203495, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16060.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyca1w", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0mcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219555, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210609, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "human_ref_B": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8946.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1zvt", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211801, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7754.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy83l3", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216570, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "What (if any) effect does the age of the mother have on the risk of her child having ASD?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2985.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyca1w", "c_root_id_B": "ejyaq3a", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219555, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218463, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "human_ref_B": "Is it true that the current blood test on pregnant women for folate, actually tests how much folic acid is in the patients blood, not how much is actually used (uptake)? Meaning if the patient is taking folic acid, but it\u2019s not absorbed, we are not getting an accurate measurement on how the folic acid/folate is impacting an embryo/fetus?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1092.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0zh8", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210931, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8624.0, "score_ratio": 3.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyca1w", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554219555, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7972.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy8djd", "c_root_id_B": "ejyca1w", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216773, "created_at_utc_B": 1554219555, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Do Antivaxxers annoy the crap out of you?    How many do you have to try and educate on a daily basis?", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019ve been noticing increasing discussions concerning the link between autism and pesticides. Especially in children of mothers that live close to agricultural fields. Can you please speak a bit about this? I\u2019m interested in your perspective and insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2782.0, "score_ratio": 3.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxubc4", "c_root_id_B": "ejxttk0", "created_at_utc_A": 1554204138, "created_at_utc_B": 1554203495, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Hi, wondering what the role endocrine disrupting chemicals might play in ASD?   this position statement  from europe May 2018 raises some of the environmental health concerns - im still curious to know if you see a link to ASD?    Appendix has this additional suggested reasearch:  \u2022 Investigate EDC effects on enzymes involved in steroidogenesis, hormone metabolism, and protein processing in humans and animal models.  Are you aware of any current research into this?   Thanks for doing this AMA- big fan of science communicators :)", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 643.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxyxbi", "c_root_id_B": "ejyahtg", "created_at_utc_A": 1554209058, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218300, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "human_ref_B": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9242.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy688n", "c_root_id_B": "ejyahtg", "created_at_utc_A": 1554215184, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218300, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "human_ref_B": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3116.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyahtg", "c_root_id_B": "ejxttk0", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218300, "created_at_utc_B": 1554203495, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14805.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyahtg", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0mcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218300, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210609, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "human_ref_B": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7691.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyahtg", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1zvt", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218300, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211801, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6499.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyahtg", "c_root_id_B": "ejy83l3", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218300, "created_at_utc_B": 1554216570, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "human_ref_B": "What (if any) effect does the age of the mother have on the risk of her child having ASD?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1730.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0zh8", "c_root_id_B": "ejyahtg", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210931, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218300, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "human_ref_B": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7369.0, "score_ratio": 3.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1qrl", "c_root_id_B": "ejyahtg", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211583, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218300, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "human_ref_B": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6717.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyahtg", "c_root_id_B": "ejy8djd", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218300, "created_at_utc_B": 1554216773, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "What is your opinion about the studies that have recently come out about fragrance as a hormone disruptor that may play a role in increase of autism? With fragrance being such a \u201cnecessary\u201d ingredient in so many of our every day products, it seems like a plausible environmental factor.", "human_ref_B": "Do Antivaxxers annoy the crap out of you?    How many do you have to try and educate on a daily basis?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1527.0, "score_ratio": 3.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxyxbi", "c_root_id_B": "ejz06iv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554209058, "created_at_utc_B": 1554235275, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "human_ref_B": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26217.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejz06iv", "c_root_id_B": "ejy688n", "created_at_utc_A": 1554235275, "created_at_utc_B": 1554215184, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "human_ref_B": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20091.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejz06iv", "c_root_id_B": "ejxttk0", "created_at_utc_A": 1554235275, "created_at_utc_B": 1554203495, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31780.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejz06iv", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0mcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1554235275, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210609, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "human_ref_B": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24666.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejz06iv", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1zvt", "created_at_utc_A": 1554235275, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211801, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23474.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy83l3", "c_root_id_B": "ejz06iv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216570, "created_at_utc_B": 1554235275, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "What (if any) effect does the age of the mother have on the risk of her child having ASD?", "human_ref_B": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18705.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyaq3a", "c_root_id_B": "ejz06iv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218463, "created_at_utc_B": 1554235275, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Is it true that the current blood test on pregnant women for folate, actually tests how much folic acid is in the patients blood, not how much is actually used (uptake)? Meaning if the patient is taking folic acid, but it\u2019s not absorbed, we are not getting an accurate measurement on how the folic acid/folate is impacting an embryo/fetus?", "human_ref_B": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16812.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0zh8", "c_root_id_B": "ejz06iv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210931, "created_at_utc_B": 1554235275, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "human_ref_B": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24344.0, "score_ratio": 2.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1qrl", "c_root_id_B": "ejz06iv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211583, "created_at_utc_B": 1554235275, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "human_ref_B": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23692.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyexey", "c_root_id_B": "ejz06iv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554221426, "created_at_utc_B": 1554235275, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "What are the largest and most common sources of the environmental contaminants you mention?", "human_ref_B": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13849.0, "score_ratio": 2.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy8djd", "c_root_id_B": "ejz06iv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216773, "created_at_utc_B": 1554235275, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Do Antivaxxers annoy the crap out of you?    How many do you have to try and educate on a daily basis?", "human_ref_B": "A small clinical trial at UCLA found that two doses of MDMA (\"ecstasy\") caused long-lasting improvement in social anxiety in adults with autism. Now that FDA has labeled MDMA a \"breakthrough therapy\" for post-traumatic stress disorder, it will presumably be easier to do clinical trials with MDMA.   Have you heard MDMA discussed in the autism research community?  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/30196397/?i=2&from=/25818246/related", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18502.0, "score_ratio": 2.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxyxbi", "c_root_id_B": "ejxttk0", "created_at_utc_A": 1554209058, "created_at_utc_B": 1554203495, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What are some environmental effects, such as pollution, on occurrence of Autism?", "human_ref_B": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5563.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejxttk0", "c_root_id_B": "ejy688n", "created_at_utc_A": 1554203495, "created_at_utc_B": 1554215184, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Drs. Schmidt and Lawler, than you for your service! I\u2019m a parent of a girl with asd and I work with hundreds of families here in NYC who have a love one with asd.  Can you share specific resources such a research studies or articles that I can share with families so they can understand better what is and what is not not asd? It is hard to find information that is easy for families to understand that doesn\u2019t use sophisticated   language  they can understand.  Many parents are left on on their own to understand what is ASD, many professionals guide them the Dx and that is all. \u201cGoogle\u201d doctor is what they have left and oh my, is overwhelming..", "human_ref_B": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11689.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy688n", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0mcx", "created_at_utc_A": 1554215184, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210609, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "human_ref_B": "How do you navigate conducting and presenting research in a way that minimizes harm to the existing autistic community? It's quite exhausting to have the vast majority of funding go to prevention (erradication) and cure-focused research while many autists are suffering due to lack of supports and lack of societal acceptance. I don't think this research *shouldn't* happen but I'm genuinely curious about how researchers approach these issues and how they connect to the needs of those they are researching. Thank you for your replies & time!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4575.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy688n", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1zvt", "created_at_utc_A": 1554215184, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211801, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3383.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0zh8", "c_root_id_B": "ejy688n", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210931, "created_at_utc_B": 1554215184, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4253.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy688n", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554215184, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Are there any day to day coping techniques for an adult dealing with Autistic tendencies who couldn't afford to be diagnosed or treated as a child?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3601.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1zvt", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0zh8", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211801, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210931, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "human_ref_B": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 870.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy1qrl", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1zvt", "created_at_utc_A": 1554211583, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211801, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this AMA, would you say that whatever environmental factors there are that influence autism, it's pre-birth so therefore after being born there is nothing that could make a kid autistic or prevent that (I don't mean vaccines but rather some other factor like special type of baby food etc.)?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 218.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy83l3", "c_root_id_B": "ejy0zh8", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216570, "created_at_utc_B": 1554210931, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "What (if any) effect does the age of the mother have on the risk of her child having ASD?", "human_ref_B": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5639.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy83l3", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216570, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "What (if any) effect does the age of the mother have on the risk of her child having ASD?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4987.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy0zh8", "c_root_id_B": "ejyaq3a", "created_at_utc_A": 1554210931, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218463, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What do you believe has most contributed to the rise in incidence of autism in the US? Could it potentially be better diagnosis criteria and screenings or is it more linked to environmental factors?", "human_ref_B": "Is it true that the current blood test on pregnant women for folate, actually tests how much folic acid is in the patients blood, not how much is actually used (uptake)? Meaning if the patient is taking folic acid, but it\u2019s not absorbed, we are not getting an accurate measurement on how the folic acid/folate is impacting an embryo/fetus?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7532.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyaq3a", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554218463, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Is it true that the current blood test on pregnant women for folate, actually tests how much folic acid is in the patients blood, not how much is actually used (uptake)? Meaning if the patient is taking folic acid, but it\u2019s not absorbed, we are not getting an accurate measurement on how the folic acid/folate is impacting an embryo/fetus?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6880.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy8djd", "c_root_id_B": "ejyaq3a", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216773, "created_at_utc_B": 1554218463, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Do Antivaxxers annoy the crap out of you?    How many do you have to try and educate on a daily basis?", "human_ref_B": "Is it true that the current blood test on pregnant women for folate, actually tests how much folic acid is in the patients blood, not how much is actually used (uptake)? Meaning if the patient is taking folic acid, but it\u2019s not absorbed, we are not getting an accurate measurement on how the folic acid/folate is impacting an embryo/fetus?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1690.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejyexey", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554221426, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "What are the largest and most common sources of the environmental contaminants you mention?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9843.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b8hqa7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: Hi! We're Drs. Rebecca Schmidt from UC-Davis, and Cindy Lawler, from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, part of NIH, and we work on how environmental factors can increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Ask us anything! Today is the 12th annual World Autism Awareness Day. In honor of that, we're here to answer your questions about how our environment can influence risk of developing Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, in our most vulnerable population -- our children.  Autism encompasses a group of complex disorders involving brain development. Autism symptoms appear very early in childhood and include difficulties in social communication as well as restricted patterns of behavior and interests. Once considered rare, current estimates indicate that autism affects about one in 59 children in the United States.  Scientists now know that ASD is most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of NIH, supports autism research aimed at understanding how environmental exposures early in life may combine with genetic susceptibility to alter brain development to create the core symptoms of autism. One way we do that is to support researchers, like Dr. Schmidt, on her work focusing on maternal folic acid intake during pregnancy.  Her research has found that maternal folic acid, the synthetic form of folate, is one of the first modifiable factors identified to date with the potential to reduce occurrence of ASD by 40 percent if taken near conception. Folic acid appears to protect against ASD especially in mothers and children who are genetically susceptible to ASD. Further, her  provide evidence that folic acid supplements near conception might counter risk associated with gestational environmental contaminant exposures, like pesticides, air pollution, and phthalates.  Her recent work shows that taking prenatal vitamins that contain folic acid in the first month of pregnancy is also associated with reduced recurrence of autism by about half in younger siblings of children with autism who are at higher risk due to shared genetics and environment. She is also looking at potential ways that folic acid might protect against autism. There are many ways the many nutrients in prenatal vitamins could be critical for brain development and could protect mechanistic pathways implicated in autism, such as epigenetics, DNA repair/synthesis, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Dr. Schmidt hopes that future research to understand the pathways involved could improve our understanding of autism etiology.  Dr. Schmidt is also helping to lead the NIEHS-funded Markers of Autism Risk in Babies (MARBLES) study, which is a longitudinal study for pregnant women who have a biological child with ASD. The MARBLES study, which began in 2006, investigates possible prenatal and postpartum biological and environmental exposures and risk factors that may contribute to the development of autism.  Ask us anything about Dr. Schmidt's research on folic acid, the MARBLES study, or other NIEHS-funded research on the environmental risk factors of ASD!  **Your hosts today are**:  * Rebecca J. Schmidt, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Public Health Sciences and the MIND Institute at UC-Davis. Rebecca enjoys flying small airplanes, paddle boarding, backpacking, and triathlons!  * Cindy Lawler, Ph.D., chief of the Genes, Environment, and Health Branch in the Division of Extramural Research and Training at NIEHS. Cindy is an avid walker who usually logs more than ten miles each day, and is also well known for her decorated cut-out sugar cookies!", "c_root_id_A": "ejy8djd", "c_root_id_B": "ejy1qrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554216773, "created_at_utc_B": 1554211583, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Do Antivaxxers annoy the crap out of you?    How many do you have to try and educate on a daily basis?", "human_ref_B": "Have sources of chronic systemic irritation and inflammation been a target of your investigations?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5190.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7lksd7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why is it that, when I leave a crystal lying in the sun for a long time, it loses its color? One time when I was buying some crystals, the person selling them said not to do this, because they\u2019ll lose the color, but never actually explained why.", "c_root_id_A": "drnr45f", "c_root_id_B": "drnh0yx", "created_at_utc_A": 1514036132, "created_at_utc_B": 1514009451, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Rockhound and gem cutter here, I suspect they have had some bad experience with dyed agate.  Most of the time when you see extremely vivid color in agate, it is dye- the different layers accept dye differently.  They can by dyed permanently with metal salts, but ink is cheaper.  I've worked with one type of topaz from Guerrero Mexico that fades from champagne to transparent in sunlight, but most crystals have more durable color, caused by metal ions, that won't fade.", "human_ref_B": "The same reason why leaving a t-shirt or piece of clothing in the sun will make it fade too, or a plastic sign, or ink on paper. Tonnes of other stuff too, I'm sure.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodegradation    Photodegredation occurs when photodegradable (particles destroyed/altered by photons) molecules are broken down, most likely your crystals were dyed with some sort of organic compound, which are particularly more sensitive to photodegredation if I'm not mistaken.   On photons effects on polystyrene plastic: >Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation may cause the significant degradation of many materials. UV radiation causes photooxidative degradation which results in breaking of the polymer chains, produces free radical and reduces the molecular weight, causing deterioration of mechanical properties and leading to useless materials, after an unpredictable time.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4320144/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26681.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bbome", "c_root_id_B": "f3bbf39", "created_at_utc_A": 1570806513, "created_at_utc_B": 1570806330, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "You probably cant. Conspiracy theorists move the goalposts. However, density and buoyancy don't have a vector. If you release a stone that's more dense than the air around it then it should logically go left or right or diagonal sometimes. It doesn't, instead always traveling downward. This vector could be explained several ways but the only way that appears consistent is a force towards the earth.   Most fe people hate math but you can show that. Otherwise ask why the rate of fall is universal if it's about density. (After removing air resistance of course.)", "human_ref_B": "If I suck all the air out of a box and drop something inside it, that object still falls. Not only that, the density or even mass of that object is completely irrelevant. It all falls at the same fixed 9.8 m/s^(2) acceleration.  Your flat Earth friend might not appreciate it, but you might enjoy one of my favorite science experiments ever: Astronaut David Scott dropping a hammer and feather on the Moon,  * https://youtu.be/5C5_dOEyAfk  Here's the same experiment on the Earth, done by Brian Cox,  * https://youtu.be/E43-CfukEgs", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 183.0, "score_ratio": 2.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bbome", "c_root_id_B": "f3bb4x8", "created_at_utc_A": 1570806513, "created_at_utc_B": 1570806138, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "You probably cant. Conspiracy theorists move the goalposts. However, density and buoyancy don't have a vector. If you release a stone that's more dense than the air around it then it should logically go left or right or diagonal sometimes. It doesn't, instead always traveling downward. This vector could be explained several ways but the only way that appears consistent is a force towards the earth.   Most fe people hate math but you can show that. Otherwise ask why the rate of fall is universal if it's about density. (After removing air resistance of course.)", "human_ref_B": "Maybe start off with some pictures of the earth from ISS, demonstrate the concept of day and night using a globe and a light source and prove that the earth is a sphere. Then explain the universal law of gravitation", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 375.0, "score_ratio": 19.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bb4x8", "c_root_id_B": "f3bbf39", "created_at_utc_A": 1570806138, "created_at_utc_B": 1570806330, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Maybe start off with some pictures of the earth from ISS, demonstrate the concept of day and night using a globe and a light source and prove that the earth is a sphere. Then explain the universal law of gravitation", "human_ref_B": "If I suck all the air out of a box and drop something inside it, that object still falls. Not only that, the density or even mass of that object is completely irrelevant. It all falls at the same fixed 9.8 m/s^(2) acceleration.  Your flat Earth friend might not appreciate it, but you might enjoy one of my favorite science experiments ever: Astronaut David Scott dropping a hammer and feather on the Moon,  * https://youtu.be/5C5_dOEyAfk  Here's the same experiment on the Earth, done by Brian Cox,  * https://youtu.be/E43-CfukEgs", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 192.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bb4x8", "c_root_id_B": "f3bcdqo", "created_at_utc_A": 1570806138, "created_at_utc_B": 1570806986, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Maybe start off with some pictures of the earth from ISS, demonstrate the concept of day and night using a globe and a light source and prove that the earth is a sphere. Then explain the universal law of gravitation", "human_ref_B": "That depends on whether he's just naive or whether he wants to believe this.  If he simply lacks knowledge, you could tell him about experiments that have detected gravity, such as LIGO. You could tell him about demonstrations routinely done by high school students showing that objects fall at the same speed in a vacuum, which rules out any effect of density or buoyancy. You could tell him about the observation of gravitational lensing during solar eclipses.  Sadly, if he's a flat Earther, he probably refuses to accept anything that doesn't fit his worldview, and you will not get through to him. All those experiments could be a NASA conspiracy, even the ones done by high school students and the one in 1919. These people want to believe that they see a reality to which the rest of us are blind, because that makes them feel special and gives them a sense of agency in an indifferent world, and reason will not penetrate that kind of thinking.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 848.0, "score_ratio": 7.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3c8tkr", "c_root_id_B": "f3bd1bc", "created_at_utc_A": 1570821166, "created_at_utc_B": 1570807429, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "human_ref_B": "An earthbound experiment directly demonstrating gravitational attraction between large masses other than the earth is the Cavendish experiment, published in 1798, using a torsion balance in which weights at the end of a stick are attracted to large stationary weights sitting on the ground.  This Scientific American story includes a video of a version of it set up by high-school students.   That video might help your friend, or you might set one up yourselves.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13737.0, "score_ratio": 4.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3c8tkr", "c_root_id_B": "f3bj4qj", "created_at_utc_A": 1570821166, "created_at_utc_B": 1570811466, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "human_ref_B": "You can't really tell conspiracy theorist they are wrong. If they are insistent they believe it they are usually so deep that they have a prepared response to everything. Or they will default to \"you blindly believe x or y, it hasn't been proven.\" Literally you would have to show them. The only way to really do that would be to take them to space of course. Or alternatively if you are near a beach, it is somewhat possible.   I've never had the chance to try it but supposedly if you wait until sunset, probably when the waves are calm, you can see an interesting phenomena that shows that the earth has curvature.  Lay on the ground, completely prone, as the sun starts to reach the horizon. Wait until the last bit of that giant glowing orb disappears behind the horizon, and stand up IMMEDIATELY. You will see the top edge of the sun again, and you will watch it set a second time.    As far as I understand, it's this subtle phenomena that allowed Eratosthenes to calculate the approximate size of the earth, like 2,000 years ago.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9700.0, "score_ratio": 4.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3c8tkr", "c_root_id_B": "f3bxyul", "created_at_utc_A": 1570821166, "created_at_utc_B": 1570817452, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "human_ref_B": "Ask them why, when the air around an object has the same density on all sides of it, it would know to fall *down* in particular. Why not left, or up? Actually the air upwards is *slightly* less dense, so it really should fall up.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3714.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bcv8o", "c_root_id_B": "f3c8tkr", "created_at_utc_A": 1570807315, "created_at_utc_B": 1570821166, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "You can present all the evidence you want but these people usually have their mind set and don't want to change no matter how much evidence you provide.  My main suggestion is to be kind. No one changes their mind when its seen as an attack on their core values, in fact presenting evidence makes them dig in their heels more.  Its complicated but it takes a conversational intelligence I dont posses to make them come to the conclusion on their own.", "human_ref_B": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13851.0, "score_ratio": 7.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3c8tkr", "c_root_id_B": "f3bcqyd", "created_at_utc_A": 1570821166, "created_at_utc_B": 1570807234, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "human_ref_B": "The density thing is easily disproven. Just find a chunk of lead or something really dense and ask to compare the gravity of that dense object to Earth.  You'll probably (hopefully) get a response that notes the size (volume) difference. At which point you just point out that what you're talking about is mass.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13932.0, "score_ratio": 7.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3c8tkr", "c_root_id_B": "f3bfies", "created_at_utc_A": 1570821166, "created_at_utc_B": 1570809067, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "human_ref_B": "We have a 9.81 m/s\\^2 acceleration downwards due to gravity. Disregarding air resistance, all objects on Earth fall with that acceleration, no matter their density or any other material property.  If gravity doesn't exist, and instead things fall because of density, ask him to derive you a mathematical function that takes in densities of two interacting objects as an input and gives 9.81 m/s\\^2 as an output for all combinations of densities.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12099.0, "score_ratio": 7.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3c8tkr", "c_root_id_B": "f3bi6la", "created_at_utc_A": 1570821166, "created_at_utc_B": 1570810842, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "human_ref_B": "It might be best to have him work through things instead of telling him. Like ask him what he expects his density theory to behave in a certain experiment. Then do it and try to have him figure out why what his theory predicted wasn't what happened.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10324.0, "score_ratio": 7.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bb4x8", "c_root_id_B": "f3c8tkr", "created_at_utc_A": 1570806138, "created_at_utc_B": 1570821166, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Maybe start off with some pictures of the earth from ISS, demonstrate the concept of day and night using a globe and a light source and prove that the earth is a sphere. Then explain the universal law of gravitation", "human_ref_B": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15028.0, "score_ratio": 7.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3c8tkr", "c_root_id_B": "f3bgnea", "created_at_utc_A": 1570821166, "created_at_utc_B": 1570809820, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "human_ref_B": "It isn't clear why this is an avenue of approach that would have any positive results. If someone says \"belief\" or faith transcends empirical observation and experiments, no amount of logical reasoning would be effective. Just cut your losses, see if you can agree to disagree and never discuss this topic again and maintain some kind of friendship. Don't get your ego involved in these matters - there is no \"winning\" or \"I am better/smarter/more correct than you\" involved in this. I'd also advise against a \"noble\" pursuit of \"improving someone\" - ultimately (despite the idea of \"we are a village\" or loyalty etc) we make our own choices as individuals, especially in this age where education and information (from reputable sources) is so easily accessed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11346.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3c8tkr", "c_root_id_B": "f3bravr", "created_at_utc_A": 1570821166, "created_at_utc_B": 1570815205, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Well, I once tried going back to basics with a guy online and he stopped replying. That doesn't mean anything of course, but here's what I did.   1. Newton's Laws are the model that we mostly use. They will most likely agree that \"Yes, scientists believe in this model\" 2. Tell them of the three rules    Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving  uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change  its state by force impressed.     Law II: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive  force impress'd; and is made in the direction of the right line in which  that force is impress'd.     Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or  the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and  directed to contrary parts.     3. Explain what the first Law REALLY means. A thing that isn't moving won't suddenly fly away and a thing that is flying in the air won't suddenly stop midair. They will most likely agree to this. If they say \"but what if..\" then just explain that if NOTHING is messing with it, it will continue in motion or not start moving.  4. Explain what the second Law REALLY means. A thing will move equally much as the force that was applied. If you kick a ball really hard, it will fly really far, if you kick it really lightly, it will move really short. They will mostly agree to this as well. So far everything can be tested.  5. Explain what the third Law REALLY means. Every time a force is exerted on something, it will experience the same amount of force. You can test this by standing feet together a few feet from your friend and then push on their hands, both of you will fall over if you don't adjust your legs. If you punch a wall, it will hurt. If you run into something heavy it will hurt. They will most likely agree to this.  6. Now drop something in front of them. IF the Laws are true, which we tested, what is pulling the thing down? If the first rule is true, then gravity must exist to pull it down. If the second law is true then that force must be towards the middle of Earth. The third law doesn't really apply in that example.  7. Now give up as they will most certainly have moved the goal posts.      This was all for my first post, thank you for reading.", "human_ref_B": "Good luck trying to educate the ignorant. He likely will refuse to believe anything you say and will continue to believe his own false thoughts. Some people will go down in flames before they admit they are wrong.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5961.0, "score_ratio": 22.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bcv8o", "c_root_id_B": "f3bd1bc", "created_at_utc_A": 1570807315, "created_at_utc_B": 1570807429, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "You can present all the evidence you want but these people usually have their mind set and don't want to change no matter how much evidence you provide.  My main suggestion is to be kind. No one changes their mind when its seen as an attack on their core values, in fact presenting evidence makes them dig in their heels more.  Its complicated but it takes a conversational intelligence I dont posses to make them come to the conclusion on their own.", "human_ref_B": "An earthbound experiment directly demonstrating gravitational attraction between large masses other than the earth is the Cavendish experiment, published in 1798, using a torsion balance in which weights at the end of a stick are attracted to large stationary weights sitting on the ground.  This Scientific American story includes a video of a version of it set up by high-school students.   That video might help your friend, or you might set one up yourselves.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 114.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bd1bc", "c_root_id_B": "f3bcqyd", "created_at_utc_A": 1570807429, "created_at_utc_B": 1570807234, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "An earthbound experiment directly demonstrating gravitational attraction between large masses other than the earth is the Cavendish experiment, published in 1798, using a torsion balance in which weights at the end of a stick are attracted to large stationary weights sitting on the ground.  This Scientific American story includes a video of a version of it set up by high-school students.   That video might help your friend, or you might set one up yourselves.", "human_ref_B": "The density thing is easily disproven. Just find a chunk of lead or something really dense and ask to compare the gravity of that dense object to Earth.  You'll probably (hopefully) get a response that notes the size (volume) difference. At which point you just point out that what you're talking about is mass.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 195.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bd1bc", "c_root_id_B": "f3bb4x8", "created_at_utc_A": 1570807429, "created_at_utc_B": 1570806138, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "An earthbound experiment directly demonstrating gravitational attraction between large masses other than the earth is the Cavendish experiment, published in 1798, using a torsion balance in which weights at the end of a stick are attracted to large stationary weights sitting on the ground.  This Scientific American story includes a video of a version of it set up by high-school students.   That video might help your friend, or you might set one up yourselves.", "human_ref_B": "Maybe start off with some pictures of the earth from ISS, demonstrate the concept of day and night using a globe and a light source and prove that the earth is a sphere. Then explain the universal law of gravitation", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1291.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bcv8o", "c_root_id_B": "f3bj4qj", "created_at_utc_A": 1570807315, "created_at_utc_B": 1570811466, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "You can present all the evidence you want but these people usually have their mind set and don't want to change no matter how much evidence you provide.  My main suggestion is to be kind. No one changes their mind when its seen as an attack on their core values, in fact presenting evidence makes them dig in their heels more.  Its complicated but it takes a conversational intelligence I dont posses to make them come to the conclusion on their own.", "human_ref_B": "You can't really tell conspiracy theorist they are wrong. If they are insistent they believe it they are usually so deep that they have a prepared response to everything. Or they will default to \"you blindly believe x or y, it hasn't been proven.\" Literally you would have to show them. The only way to really do that would be to take them to space of course. Or alternatively if you are near a beach, it is somewhat possible.   I've never had the chance to try it but supposedly if you wait until sunset, probably when the waves are calm, you can see an interesting phenomena that shows that the earth has curvature.  Lay on the ground, completely prone, as the sun starts to reach the horizon. Wait until the last bit of that giant glowing orb disappears behind the horizon, and stand up IMMEDIATELY. You will see the top edge of the sun again, and you will watch it set a second time.    As far as I understand, it's this subtle phenomena that allowed Eratosthenes to calculate the approximate size of the earth, like 2,000 years ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4151.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bj4qj", "c_root_id_B": "f3bcqyd", "created_at_utc_A": 1570811466, "created_at_utc_B": 1570807234, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "You can't really tell conspiracy theorist they are wrong. If they are insistent they believe it they are usually so deep that they have a prepared response to everything. Or they will default to \"you blindly believe x or y, it hasn't been proven.\" Literally you would have to show them. The only way to really do that would be to take them to space of course. Or alternatively if you are near a beach, it is somewhat possible.   I've never had the chance to try it but supposedly if you wait until sunset, probably when the waves are calm, you can see an interesting phenomena that shows that the earth has curvature.  Lay on the ground, completely prone, as the sun starts to reach the horizon. Wait until the last bit of that giant glowing orb disappears behind the horizon, and stand up IMMEDIATELY. You will see the top edge of the sun again, and you will watch it set a second time.    As far as I understand, it's this subtle phenomena that allowed Eratosthenes to calculate the approximate size of the earth, like 2,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "The density thing is easily disproven. Just find a chunk of lead or something really dense and ask to compare the gravity of that dense object to Earth.  You'll probably (hopefully) get a response that notes the size (volume) difference. At which point you just point out that what you're talking about is mass.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4232.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bj4qj", "c_root_id_B": "f3bfies", "created_at_utc_A": 1570811466, "created_at_utc_B": 1570809067, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "You can't really tell conspiracy theorist they are wrong. If they are insistent they believe it they are usually so deep that they have a prepared response to everything. Or they will default to \"you blindly believe x or y, it hasn't been proven.\" Literally you would have to show them. The only way to really do that would be to take them to space of course. Or alternatively if you are near a beach, it is somewhat possible.   I've never had the chance to try it but supposedly if you wait until sunset, probably when the waves are calm, you can see an interesting phenomena that shows that the earth has curvature.  Lay on the ground, completely prone, as the sun starts to reach the horizon. Wait until the last bit of that giant glowing orb disappears behind the horizon, and stand up IMMEDIATELY. You will see the top edge of the sun again, and you will watch it set a second time.    As far as I understand, it's this subtle phenomena that allowed Eratosthenes to calculate the approximate size of the earth, like 2,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "We have a 9.81 m/s\\^2 acceleration downwards due to gravity. Disregarding air resistance, all objects on Earth fall with that acceleration, no matter their density or any other material property.  If gravity doesn't exist, and instead things fall because of density, ask him to derive you a mathematical function that takes in densities of two interacting objects as an input and gives 9.81 m/s\\^2 as an output for all combinations of densities.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2399.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bj4qj", "c_root_id_B": "f3bi6la", "created_at_utc_A": 1570811466, "created_at_utc_B": 1570810842, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "You can't really tell conspiracy theorist they are wrong. If they are insistent they believe it they are usually so deep that they have a prepared response to everything. Or they will default to \"you blindly believe x or y, it hasn't been proven.\" Literally you would have to show them. The only way to really do that would be to take them to space of course. Or alternatively if you are near a beach, it is somewhat possible.   I've never had the chance to try it but supposedly if you wait until sunset, probably when the waves are calm, you can see an interesting phenomena that shows that the earth has curvature.  Lay on the ground, completely prone, as the sun starts to reach the horizon. Wait until the last bit of that giant glowing orb disappears behind the horizon, and stand up IMMEDIATELY. You will see the top edge of the sun again, and you will watch it set a second time.    As far as I understand, it's this subtle phenomena that allowed Eratosthenes to calculate the approximate size of the earth, like 2,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "It might be best to have him work through things instead of telling him. Like ask him what he expects his density theory to behave in a certain experiment. Then do it and try to have him figure out why what his theory predicted wasn't what happened.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 624.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bb4x8", "c_root_id_B": "f3bj4qj", "created_at_utc_A": 1570806138, "created_at_utc_B": 1570811466, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Maybe start off with some pictures of the earth from ISS, demonstrate the concept of day and night using a globe and a light source and prove that the earth is a sphere. Then explain the universal law of gravitation", "human_ref_B": "You can't really tell conspiracy theorist they are wrong. If they are insistent they believe it they are usually so deep that they have a prepared response to everything. Or they will default to \"you blindly believe x or y, it hasn't been proven.\" Literally you would have to show them. The only way to really do that would be to take them to space of course. Or alternatively if you are near a beach, it is somewhat possible.   I've never had the chance to try it but supposedly if you wait until sunset, probably when the waves are calm, you can see an interesting phenomena that shows that the earth has curvature.  Lay on the ground, completely prone, as the sun starts to reach the horizon. Wait until the last bit of that giant glowing orb disappears behind the horizon, and stand up IMMEDIATELY. You will see the top edge of the sun again, and you will watch it set a second time.    As far as I understand, it's this subtle phenomena that allowed Eratosthenes to calculate the approximate size of the earth, like 2,000 years ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5328.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bj4qj", "c_root_id_B": "f3bgnea", "created_at_utc_A": 1570811466, "created_at_utc_B": 1570809820, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "You can't really tell conspiracy theorist they are wrong. If they are insistent they believe it they are usually so deep that they have a prepared response to everything. Or they will default to \"you blindly believe x or y, it hasn't been proven.\" Literally you would have to show them. The only way to really do that would be to take them to space of course. Or alternatively if you are near a beach, it is somewhat possible.   I've never had the chance to try it but supposedly if you wait until sunset, probably when the waves are calm, you can see an interesting phenomena that shows that the earth has curvature.  Lay on the ground, completely prone, as the sun starts to reach the horizon. Wait until the last bit of that giant glowing orb disappears behind the horizon, and stand up IMMEDIATELY. You will see the top edge of the sun again, and you will watch it set a second time.    As far as I understand, it's this subtle phenomena that allowed Eratosthenes to calculate the approximate size of the earth, like 2,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "It isn't clear why this is an avenue of approach that would have any positive results. If someone says \"belief\" or faith transcends empirical observation and experiments, no amount of logical reasoning would be effective. Just cut your losses, see if you can agree to disagree and never discuss this topic again and maintain some kind of friendship. Don't get your ego involved in these matters - there is no \"winning\" or \"I am better/smarter/more correct than you\" involved in this. I'd also advise against a \"noble\" pursuit of \"improving someone\" - ultimately (despite the idea of \"we are a village\" or loyalty etc) we make our own choices as individuals, especially in this age where education and information (from reputable sources) is so easily accessed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1646.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bxyul", "c_root_id_B": "f3bcv8o", "created_at_utc_A": 1570817452, "created_at_utc_B": 1570807315, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Ask them why, when the air around an object has the same density on all sides of it, it would know to fall *down* in particular. Why not left, or up? Actually the air upwards is *slightly* less dense, so it really should fall up.", "human_ref_B": "You can present all the evidence you want but these people usually have their mind set and don't want to change no matter how much evidence you provide.  My main suggestion is to be kind. No one changes their mind when its seen as an attack on their core values, in fact presenting evidence makes them dig in their heels more.  Its complicated but it takes a conversational intelligence I dont posses to make them come to the conclusion on their own.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10137.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bxyul", "c_root_id_B": "f3bcqyd", "created_at_utc_A": 1570817452, "created_at_utc_B": 1570807234, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Ask them why, when the air around an object has the same density on all sides of it, it would know to fall *down* in particular. Why not left, or up? Actually the air upwards is *slightly* less dense, so it really should fall up.", "human_ref_B": "The density thing is easily disproven. Just find a chunk of lead or something really dense and ask to compare the gravity of that dense object to Earth.  You'll probably (hopefully) get a response that notes the size (volume) difference. At which point you just point out that what you're talking about is mass.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10218.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bfies", "c_root_id_B": "f3bxyul", "created_at_utc_A": 1570809067, "created_at_utc_B": 1570817452, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "We have a 9.81 m/s\\^2 acceleration downwards due to gravity. Disregarding air resistance, all objects on Earth fall with that acceleration, no matter their density or any other material property.  If gravity doesn't exist, and instead things fall because of density, ask him to derive you a mathematical function that takes in densities of two interacting objects as an input and gives 9.81 m/s\\^2 as an output for all combinations of densities.", "human_ref_B": "Ask them why, when the air around an object has the same density on all sides of it, it would know to fall *down* in particular. Why not left, or up? Actually the air upwards is *slightly* less dense, so it really should fall up.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8385.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bxyul", "c_root_id_B": "f3bi6la", "created_at_utc_A": 1570817452, "created_at_utc_B": 1570810842, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Ask them why, when the air around an object has the same density on all sides of it, it would know to fall *down* in particular. Why not left, or up? Actually the air upwards is *slightly* less dense, so it really should fall up.", "human_ref_B": "It might be best to have him work through things instead of telling him. Like ask him what he expects his density theory to behave in a certain experiment. Then do it and try to have him figure out why what his theory predicted wasn't what happened.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6610.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bb4x8", "c_root_id_B": "f3bxyul", "created_at_utc_A": 1570806138, "created_at_utc_B": 1570817452, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Maybe start off with some pictures of the earth from ISS, demonstrate the concept of day and night using a globe and a light source and prove that the earth is a sphere. Then explain the universal law of gravitation", "human_ref_B": "Ask them why, when the air around an object has the same density on all sides of it, it would know to fall *down* in particular. Why not left, or up? Actually the air upwards is *slightly* less dense, so it really should fall up.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11314.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bxyul", "c_root_id_B": "f3bgnea", "created_at_utc_A": 1570817452, "created_at_utc_B": 1570809820, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Ask them why, when the air around an object has the same density on all sides of it, it would know to fall *down* in particular. Why not left, or up? Actually the air upwards is *slightly* less dense, so it really should fall up.", "human_ref_B": "It isn't clear why this is an avenue of approach that would have any positive results. If someone says \"belief\" or faith transcends empirical observation and experiments, no amount of logical reasoning would be effective. Just cut your losses, see if you can agree to disagree and never discuss this topic again and maintain some kind of friendship. Don't get your ego involved in these matters - there is no \"winning\" or \"I am better/smarter/more correct than you\" involved in this. I'd also advise against a \"noble\" pursuit of \"improving someone\" - ultimately (despite the idea of \"we are a village\" or loyalty etc) we make our own choices as individuals, especially in this age where education and information (from reputable sources) is so easily accessed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7632.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bxyul", "c_root_id_B": "f3bravr", "created_at_utc_A": 1570817452, "created_at_utc_B": 1570815205, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Ask them why, when the air around an object has the same density on all sides of it, it would know to fall *down* in particular. Why not left, or up? Actually the air upwards is *slightly* less dense, so it really should fall up.", "human_ref_B": "Good luck trying to educate the ignorant. He likely will refuse to believe anything you say and will continue to believe his own false thoughts. Some people will go down in flames before they admit they are wrong.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2247.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3bgnea", "c_root_id_B": "f3bi6la", "created_at_utc_A": 1570809820, "created_at_utc_B": 1570810842, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It isn't clear why this is an avenue of approach that would have any positive results. If someone says \"belief\" or faith transcends empirical observation and experiments, no amount of logical reasoning would be effective. Just cut your losses, see if you can agree to disagree and never discuss this topic again and maintain some kind of friendship. Don't get your ego involved in these matters - there is no \"winning\" or \"I am better/smarter/more correct than you\" involved in this. I'd also advise against a \"noble\" pursuit of \"improving someone\" - ultimately (despite the idea of \"we are a village\" or loyalty etc) we make our own choices as individuals, especially in this age where education and information (from reputable sources) is so easily accessed.", "human_ref_B": "It might be best to have him work through things instead of telling him. Like ask him what he expects his density theory to behave in a certain experiment. Then do it and try to have him figure out why what his theory predicted wasn't what happened.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1022.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3edh7r", "c_root_id_B": "f3bgnea", "created_at_utc_A": 1570870623, "created_at_utc_B": 1570809820, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Ask what causes the more dense item to sink. Without a force pulling it down, why doesn't it just stay in place? Newtons laws are pretty universal. Why would F=ma work for your car or pushing a heavy box or your computer (electronics don't work if F=ma isn't true), but not for gravity.  There is a documentary on Netflix about the flat earth movement called *Behind the Curve*. The take away is that the flat earth conspiracy becomes such a core belief that giving up on it would push believers away from the only community and friends they have left. It might be frustrating, but now might be your chance to save your friend from this fate. (That is, unless they also believe much more dangerous conspiracies, then it might be too late.)", "human_ref_B": "It isn't clear why this is an avenue of approach that would have any positive results. If someone says \"belief\" or faith transcends empirical observation and experiments, no amount of logical reasoning would be effective. Just cut your losses, see if you can agree to disagree and never discuss this topic again and maintain some kind of friendship. Don't get your ego involved in these matters - there is no \"winning\" or \"I am better/smarter/more correct than you\" involved in this. I'd also advise against a \"noble\" pursuit of \"improving someone\" - ultimately (despite the idea of \"we are a village\" or loyalty etc) we make our own choices as individuals, especially in this age where education and information (from reputable sources) is so easily accessed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 60803.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dgeepe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How do I explain to a FLAT EARTHER friend that gravity exists and what we experience is not just an effect of density? So I have a friend who is a flat earther and he believes that gravity does not exist and what we experience is due to only density I have tried to explain to him that density is not a force but he does not understand or believe me. What else can I do to help him believe in gravity.", "c_root_id_A": "f3edh7r", "c_root_id_B": "f3bravr", "created_at_utc_A": 1570870623, "created_at_utc_B": 1570815205, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Ask what causes the more dense item to sink. Without a force pulling it down, why doesn't it just stay in place? Newtons laws are pretty universal. Why would F=ma work for your car or pushing a heavy box or your computer (electronics don't work if F=ma isn't true), but not for gravity.  There is a documentary on Netflix about the flat earth movement called *Behind the Curve*. The take away is that the flat earth conspiracy becomes such a core belief that giving up on it would push believers away from the only community and friends they have left. It might be frustrating, but now might be your chance to save your friend from this fate. (That is, unless they also believe much more dangerous conspiracies, then it might be too late.)", "human_ref_B": "Good luck trying to educate the ignorant. He likely will refuse to believe anything you say and will continue to believe his own false thoughts. Some people will go down in flames before they admit they are wrong.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 55418.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5h60tt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why could I hear the pilots radio comms through my noise-cancelling headphones? I fly quite a bit and I always wear my noise cancelling headphones when I do. But this morning while we were waiting to take off I could hear the pilots radio communication coming through.  I was listening to music on my phone (on flight mode), and I can't figure out the mechanism which would allow the radio comms to be picked up...  I tried turning off the noise cancelling and it appeared to stop, but he might have just stopped talking - it's hard to tell.", "c_root_id_A": "daxyhfg", "c_root_id_B": "daxs25q", "created_at_utc_A": 1481211127, "created_at_utc_B": 1481200478, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "My guess is that you could only hear one side of the conversation, the pilot talking over the radio transmitter inside the airplane.  The plane's transmitter was overloading the circuitry inside your headphones and a diode was demodulating the signal, allowing you to hear one side of the conversation. Could also be that the particular plane you were on had an issue that allowed a higher than normal RF field inside the cabin (poor connection within the plane's radio, a frayed coaxial cable, antenna connection issue, among others) to aid in this overloading.  Airlines still use amplitude modulation for their communications. This can be demodulated with a simple diode.  Your headset, given it has a bunch of electronics (integrated circuits, transistors and diodes) inside it, is full of things that can act as diodes that could demodulate the radio signal. Your headphones just happen to have a circuit design that allowed this unwanted reception to happen.  Your headphones circuitry probably lacks sufficient RF bypass capacitor filtering or RF shielding that would keep this from happening. This is not uncommon for inexpensive consumer electronics products.", "human_ref_B": "Need more detail!   Was the pilots voice being played *through* the speakers? If so, are your headphones wireless?  Or did the headphones not cancel out the noise like you thought they should?  Edit--  * If playing through the speakers, your headphones are wireless and the signal sounded fine: digital comm problem (implausible) * If playing through the speakers and the signal sounded poor: Accidental induction, demodulation (maybe, but unlikely if this has not happened many times before)  * If not cancelling: Noise cancelling is extremely hard to do perfectly.   Most likely explanation: the pilot was talking loudly and you heard it because you were in the front row. Otherwise, we have a mystery on our hands.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10649.0, "score_ratio": 1.1081081081, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5h60tt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why could I hear the pilots radio comms through my noise-cancelling headphones? I fly quite a bit and I always wear my noise cancelling headphones when I do. But this morning while we were waiting to take off I could hear the pilots radio communication coming through.  I was listening to music on my phone (on flight mode), and I can't figure out the mechanism which would allow the radio comms to be picked up...  I tried turning off the noise cancelling and it appeared to stop, but he might have just stopped talking - it's hard to tell.", "c_root_id_A": "daxwxmi", "c_root_id_B": "daxyhfg", "created_at_utc_A": 1481209070, "created_at_utc_B": 1481211127, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "Sounds super-weird, maybe the microphones or audio circuits in your headphones that are used for noise cancellation picked up electromagnetic audio-frequency interference? But that's near impossible, or at least highly unlikely...", "human_ref_B": "My guess is that you could only hear one side of the conversation, the pilot talking over the radio transmitter inside the airplane.  The plane's transmitter was overloading the circuitry inside your headphones and a diode was demodulating the signal, allowing you to hear one side of the conversation. Could also be that the particular plane you were on had an issue that allowed a higher than normal RF field inside the cabin (poor connection within the plane's radio, a frayed coaxial cable, antenna connection issue, among others) to aid in this overloading.  Airlines still use amplitude modulation for their communications. This can be demodulated with a simple diode.  Your headset, given it has a bunch of electronics (integrated circuits, transistors and diodes) inside it, is full of things that can act as diodes that could demodulate the radio signal. Your headphones just happen to have a circuit design that allowed this unwanted reception to happen.  Your headphones circuitry probably lacks sufficient RF bypass capacitor filtering or RF shielding that would keep this from happening. This is not uncommon for inexpensive consumer electronics products.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2057.0, "score_ratio": -8.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5h60tt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why could I hear the pilots radio comms through my noise-cancelling headphones? I fly quite a bit and I always wear my noise cancelling headphones when I do. But this morning while we were waiting to take off I could hear the pilots radio communication coming through.  I was listening to music on my phone (on flight mode), and I can't figure out the mechanism which would allow the radio comms to be picked up...  I tried turning off the noise cancelling and it appeared to stop, but he might have just stopped talking - it's hard to tell.", "c_root_id_A": "daxwexi", "c_root_id_B": "daxyhfg", "created_at_utc_A": 1481208332, "created_at_utc_B": 1481211127, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "My understanding of noise cancelling headphones is that they work by using a microphone to listen to the background noise and then play an inverted sound to cancel it out. This works for most part on a place because the rumbling is pretty consistent  The pilot talking would be difficult to cancel out because it is abrupt and varying in pitch so the headphones can't effectively determine the noise cancelling sound to play", "human_ref_B": "My guess is that you could only hear one side of the conversation, the pilot talking over the radio transmitter inside the airplane.  The plane's transmitter was overloading the circuitry inside your headphones and a diode was demodulating the signal, allowing you to hear one side of the conversation. Could also be that the particular plane you were on had an issue that allowed a higher than normal RF field inside the cabin (poor connection within the plane's radio, a frayed coaxial cable, antenna connection issue, among others) to aid in this overloading.  Airlines still use amplitude modulation for their communications. This can be demodulated with a simple diode.  Your headset, given it has a bunch of electronics (integrated circuits, transistors and diodes) inside it, is full of things that can act as diodes that could demodulate the radio signal. Your headphones just happen to have a circuit design that allowed this unwanted reception to happen.  Your headphones circuitry probably lacks sufficient RF bypass capacitor filtering or RF shielding that would keep this from happening. This is not uncommon for inexpensive consumer electronics products.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2795.0, "score_ratio": -8.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5h60tt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why could I hear the pilots radio comms through my noise-cancelling headphones? I fly quite a bit and I always wear my noise cancelling headphones when I do. But this morning while we were waiting to take off I could hear the pilots radio communication coming through.  I was listening to music on my phone (on flight mode), and I can't figure out the mechanism which would allow the radio comms to be picked up...  I tried turning off the noise cancelling and it appeared to stop, but he might have just stopped talking - it's hard to tell.", "c_root_id_A": "day2btd", "c_root_id_B": "daxwxmi", "created_at_utc_A": 1481215667, "created_at_utc_B": 1481209070, "score_A": 11, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "I think the most likely answer is that the headphone cable was just the right length. Ground communications on aircraft are normally at 121.7MHz. A good antenna length to pick this up would be 2.46 meters, or any multiple of that, most likely half, at 1.23 meters. I used to pick up a taxi company on my guitar cable when plugged into an amplifier, I chopped a few inches of the cable and it was gone.", "human_ref_B": "Sounds super-weird, maybe the microphones or audio circuits in your headphones that are used for noise cancellation picked up electromagnetic audio-frequency interference? But that's near impossible, or at least highly unlikely...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6597.0, "score_ratio": -2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5h60tt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why could I hear the pilots radio comms through my noise-cancelling headphones? I fly quite a bit and I always wear my noise cancelling headphones when I do. But this morning while we were waiting to take off I could hear the pilots radio communication coming through.  I was listening to music on my phone (on flight mode), and I can't figure out the mechanism which would allow the radio comms to be picked up...  I tried turning off the noise cancelling and it appeared to stop, but he might have just stopped talking - it's hard to tell.", "c_root_id_A": "day2btd", "c_root_id_B": "daxwexi", "created_at_utc_A": 1481215667, "created_at_utc_B": 1481208332, "score_A": 11, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "I think the most likely answer is that the headphone cable was just the right length. Ground communications on aircraft are normally at 121.7MHz. A good antenna length to pick this up would be 2.46 meters, or any multiple of that, most likely half, at 1.23 meters. I used to pick up a taxi company on my guitar cable when plugged into an amplifier, I chopped a few inches of the cable and it was gone.", "human_ref_B": "My understanding of noise cancelling headphones is that they work by using a microphone to listen to the background noise and then play an inverted sound to cancel it out. This works for most part on a place because the rumbling is pretty consistent  The pilot talking would be difficult to cancel out because it is abrupt and varying in pitch so the headphones can't effectively determine the noise cancelling sound to play", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7335.0, "score_ratio": -2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5h60tt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why could I hear the pilots radio comms through my noise-cancelling headphones? I fly quite a bit and I always wear my noise cancelling headphones when I do. But this morning while we were waiting to take off I could hear the pilots radio communication coming through.  I was listening to music on my phone (on flight mode), and I can't figure out the mechanism which would allow the radio comms to be picked up...  I tried turning off the noise cancelling and it appeared to stop, but he might have just stopped talking - it's hard to tell.", "c_root_id_A": "daxwxmi", "c_root_id_B": "daykwoa", "created_at_utc_A": 1481209070, "created_at_utc_B": 1481237251, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Sounds super-weird, maybe the microphones or audio circuits in your headphones that are used for noise cancellation picked up electromagnetic audio-frequency interference? But that's near impossible, or at least highly unlikely...", "human_ref_B": "In addition to the above, it's important to remember that aircraft communications is done using AM rather than FM or SSB. As such, all you need to decode the signal is a diode bridge in just the right spot to act as an envelope follower. Something in your headphones was likely acting as ye olde crystal set radio, which was then getting amplified enough for you to hear it.  Given that you were relatively close to the transmitter, the drive circuit to it wouldn't have to be all that well tuned/resonant. It just works on the sheer power of the transmission.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28181.0, "score_ratio": -0.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5h60tt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why could I hear the pilots radio comms through my noise-cancelling headphones? I fly quite a bit and I always wear my noise cancelling headphones when I do. But this morning while we were waiting to take off I could hear the pilots radio communication coming through.  I was listening to music on my phone (on flight mode), and I can't figure out the mechanism which would allow the radio comms to be picked up...  I tried turning off the noise cancelling and it appeared to stop, but he might have just stopped talking - it's hard to tell.", "c_root_id_A": "daykwoa", "c_root_id_B": "daxwexi", "created_at_utc_A": 1481237251, "created_at_utc_B": 1481208332, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "In addition to the above, it's important to remember that aircraft communications is done using AM rather than FM or SSB. As such, all you need to decode the signal is a diode bridge in just the right spot to act as an envelope follower. Something in your headphones was likely acting as ye olde crystal set radio, which was then getting amplified enough for you to hear it.  Given that you were relatively close to the transmitter, the drive circuit to it wouldn't have to be all that well tuned/resonant. It just works on the sheer power of the transmission.", "human_ref_B": "My understanding of noise cancelling headphones is that they work by using a microphone to listen to the background noise and then play an inverted sound to cancel it out. This works for most part on a place because the rumbling is pretty consistent  The pilot talking would be difficult to cancel out because it is abrupt and varying in pitch so the headphones can't effectively determine the noise cancelling sound to play", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28919.0, "score_ratio": -0.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1s7pvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Why did cells evolve to have potassium inside, and not just lower concentrations of sodium? And what's the point of having a negative potential across the membrane? I wondered about this question a lot, but I still do not know the answer. Obviously, we can not quite test it, but from the common sense of view: what's the point of having K inside, and not just lower concentration of Na? And what's the point of having a negative potential over the membrane?  One hypothesis that I have is that when you are talking cross-membrane proteins, you an not rely on ATP that much anymore, because ATP is only inside, while considerable parts of your proteins need to work outside of the cell. And here the transmembrane potential can come handy, especially if you can change it at your will. Which, in turn, could be easier if you have Na-K gradient, and not just Na pumps. But I am not sure my line of thinking is even remotely true.  Do you have any ideas?", "c_root_id_A": "cdv14lc", "c_root_id_B": "cdutcp2", "created_at_utc_A": 1386340614, "created_at_utc_B": 1386305811, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why are cells rich in potassium but poor in sodium? One idea concerns how the oceans grew salty as cells evolved (about a billion years ago). The early oceans were relatively rich in potassium; they have grown more salty with sodium over time. The reason is that, while there are about equal parts potassium and sodium in the earth's crust, silicates (soils) bind potassium more tightly than they bind sodium. Thus, as the rains fell, they preferentially leached sodium out of the soil, loading up the oceans with sodium. Evidently, it was easier for cells to evolve mechanisms allowing them to retain their primitive potassium-rich intracellular milieu than to evolve enzymes tolerant of sodium.", "human_ref_B": "I'm a graduate student studying K+ channels, so I can shed some light on a few of your questions. I can't really speculate as to why eukaryotic cells evolved to have a high internal [K+], but there is a large milieu of K-selective channels, thus making the membrane of most electrically-excitable cells most permeable to K at the resting potential. Thus, the resting potential typically hovers around -80 mV, which is very near the voltage at which K+ ions \"switch direction;\" above this value (depolarized), K flows out, and vice-versa. We (electrophysiologists) say that the resting potential is negative because the potential on the inner side of the membrane is more negative than the potential on the outer side of the membrane. This is due in large part to the many negatively-charged species (eg, DNA, proteins) found inside the cell. When ion permeability changes (like opening a Na+ channel), you get Na+ flowing into the cell because the membrane potential at which it would switch direction and flow out of the cell is very high, roughly +60 mV. Therefore, having high [K] in the cell plays a large part in setting the resting membrane potential, which is important, considering the electrical activity in eukaryotic cells seems to have evolved around this fact.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 34803.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1s7pvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Why did cells evolve to have potassium inside, and not just lower concentrations of sodium? And what's the point of having a negative potential across the membrane? I wondered about this question a lot, but I still do not know the answer. Obviously, we can not quite test it, but from the common sense of view: what's the point of having K inside, and not just lower concentration of Na? And what's the point of having a negative potential over the membrane?  One hypothesis that I have is that when you are talking cross-membrane proteins, you an not rely on ATP that much anymore, because ATP is only inside, while considerable parts of your proteins need to work outside of the cell. And here the transmembrane potential can come handy, especially if you can change it at your will. Which, in turn, could be easier if you have Na-K gradient, and not just Na pumps. But I am not sure my line of thinking is even remotely true.  Do you have any ideas?", "c_root_id_A": "cdutcp2", "c_root_id_B": "cdv16p4", "created_at_utc_A": 1386305811, "created_at_utc_B": 1386340797, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I'm a graduate student studying K+ channels, so I can shed some light on a few of your questions. I can't really speculate as to why eukaryotic cells evolved to have a high internal [K+], but there is a large milieu of K-selective channels, thus making the membrane of most electrically-excitable cells most permeable to K at the resting potential. Thus, the resting potential typically hovers around -80 mV, which is very near the voltage at which K+ ions \"switch direction;\" above this value (depolarized), K flows out, and vice-versa. We (electrophysiologists) say that the resting potential is negative because the potential on the inner side of the membrane is more negative than the potential on the outer side of the membrane. This is due in large part to the many negatively-charged species (eg, DNA, proteins) found inside the cell. When ion permeability changes (like opening a Na+ channel), you get Na+ flowing into the cell because the membrane potential at which it would switch direction and flow out of the cell is very high, roughly +60 mV. Therefore, having high [K] in the cell plays a large part in setting the resting membrane potential, which is important, considering the electrical activity in eukaryotic cells seems to have evolved around this fact.", "human_ref_B": "I think you have to go back to the ancestral organisms and look at them. I too do not know the answer, but I have read that the Na/K ATPase and the Na/K gradient evolved to help the cell maintain a roughly equal osmolarity on each side of the membrane so the cell would not shrivel or burst. In bacteria, the presence of the cell wall helps them to withstand osmotic pressure, so controlling the Na/K gradient may be a mechanism to help the cell to survive without a cell wall.  I think the part you said about setting up useful gradients is also true. If we imagine an early eukaryote in the ocean, there will be high Na+ and relatively low K+ in the seawater. We can make an Na+ gradient by excluding Na+, this way we can use the Na+ gradient to power proton pumps and glucose transporters, etc.   But to keep the level of solutes relatively even inside and out, and to keep the membrane voltage potential from becoming excessive (at which point the voltage will not be held by the membrane), we can pick another cation to pump in the opposite direction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34986.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3p0g9u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Can someone explain to me how Matt Damon created water on Mars in the movie \"The Martian\"? and if it was realistic.", "c_root_id_A": "cw2anhk", "c_root_id_B": "cw28dl5", "created_at_utc_A": 1445029648, "created_at_utc_B": 1445026148, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "NASA keeps a plan for, \"What do we do if the government tells us to go to Mars right away, like happened with the Moon?\" They update it every few years, as technologies and knowledge improve.  The current version was the source for most of the tech and concepts used in the book: https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/373667main_NASA-SP-2009-566-ADD.pdf", "human_ref_B": "The chemistry for making water checks out, but the catalyst he is using for the reaction was iridium. The amount of which he is shown using would weigh closer to two pounds than not. Him being able to salvage two pounds of iridium on mars is the part I find to be unrealistic.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3500.0, "score_ratio": 3.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3p0g9u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Can someone explain to me how Matt Damon created water on Mars in the movie \"The Martian\"? and if it was realistic.", "c_root_id_A": "cw2anhk", "c_root_id_B": "cw23l65", "created_at_utc_A": 1445029648, "created_at_utc_B": 1445018994, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "NASA keeps a plan for, \"What do we do if the government tells us to go to Mars right away, like happened with the Moon?\" They update it every few years, as technologies and knowledge improve.  The current version was the source for most of the tech and concepts used in the book: https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/373667main_NASA-SP-2009-566-ADD.pdf", "human_ref_B": "I read the book, haven't seen the movie, but the short version is:   Yes, it's possible, however, Weir significantly downplayed the amount of energy it would have taken and the amount of heat it would have generated, exponentially.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10654.0, "score_ratio": 7.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3p0g9u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Can someone explain to me how Matt Damon created water on Mars in the movie \"The Martian\"? and if it was realistic.", "c_root_id_A": "cw23l65", "c_root_id_B": "cw28dl5", "created_at_utc_A": 1445018994, "created_at_utc_B": 1445026148, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I read the book, haven't seen the movie, but the short version is:   Yes, it's possible, however, Weir significantly downplayed the amount of energy it would have taken and the amount of heat it would have generated, exponentially.", "human_ref_B": "The chemistry for making water checks out, but the catalyst he is using for the reaction was iridium. The amount of which he is shown using would weigh closer to two pounds than not. Him being able to salvage two pounds of iridium on mars is the part I find to be unrealistic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7154.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h3oty", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.99, "history": "Is there any strong evidence for or against the theory of Redshift quantization? I was reading Carl Sagans Billions & Billions tonight and he mentioned Redshift quantization.  This is the first I had ever heard of it and the Wikipedia page seems to indicate that not much has been done on the subject.  It seems to me like this is something that could be very important so I was wondering why there hasnt been more work done do debunk this theory if it is incorrect.", "c_root_id_A": "c1sca7l", "c_root_id_B": "c1sckez", "created_at_utc_A": 1304484111, "created_at_utc_B": 1304487820, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "could you go into more detail? I've never heard of it.", "human_ref_B": "Wiki article on Redshift Quantization  To summarize the article, it looks like redshift quantization was something that astronomers had found in earlier years (1970s-1990s) when there weren't as many catalogued galaxies and redshifts.  It looks like the effect disappeared in the last ten or twenty years because we've been able to find and measure the redshifts of so many more galaxies now.  I mean, you have to remember that the Hubble Space Telescope went into full operation as recently as 1993.  That telescope gave us the Hubble Deep Field, and really showed us that every point in the sky was filled with tons and tons of galaxies.  Since then, we've found so many more galaxies that the dataset before 1993 is just a small piece of our current dataset.  The first studies done on the redshifts, according to the Wiki article, were done with 200 galaxies in 1973.  The Sloan Digital Sky Survey in the past decade has catalogued over 800,000 galaxies and 100,000 quasars.  So it looks like, with this greatly expanded dataset, this anomaly pretty much disappears.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3709.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "38tmix", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "I read an article about how researchers extended the life span of mice by 50% when they added telomeres to lengthen chromosomes. How did they do this and how did this length the lifespans of the mice? Edit: Lengthen*", "c_root_id_A": "cry76qr", "c_root_id_B": "cry6ow7", "created_at_utc_A": 1433654844, "created_at_utc_B": 1433653403, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "So to get at the heart of this question, you have to tackle DNA replication. Whenever your cells replicate, they have to copy the DNA so that each daughter cell has a copy. Because of the mechanics of DNA replication (namely, DNA polymerase III and okazaki fragments), every time the DNA is copied a little bit is left behind at the very end of each chromosome. That means that every time your cells replicate, you're losing just a little bit of genetic material. Your cells account for this by including long strands of repetitive, non-coding DNA at the ends of your chromosomes called telomeres. However, as your telomeres slowly get shaved off by repeated replication throughout the years, you start to lose important, coding DNA. This loss is partially responsible for aging. Note that sun damage ages your skin partially by constantly forcing replication and renewal, effectively accelerating the aging process. Also interesting, people born with abnormally short telomeres due to mutation develop progeria, where they age abnormally quickly such that a 10 year old can look sixty and die of old age before turning 15.   Your body has means of combating this process with an enzyme called telomerase, which lengthens your telomeres naturally. Telomerase is most active in cells that divide a great deal (bone marrow, gametes, and stem cells) but not in all cells. Scientists can trigger telomerase activity artificially, lengthening your chromosomes, thereby increasing the number of replications a cell is able to go through, slowing down the aging process.  People often ask then if we can slow down the aging process why are we not doing it to people yet, and the answer seems to be that cellular aging and death seem to be important in overall regulation. Fiddling with telomerase has a nasty habit of causing spontaneous cancers to form and otherwise healthy cells to be highly oncogenic. We're working on it, but it's got a long way to go.   TL; DR: DNA replication bug (feature?) partially causes aging, telomerase patches it up.", "human_ref_B": "Do you have a link to the actual article?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1441.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "43eao8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Is an orbiting mission to Pluto possible and if so how long would it take to get there? In previous threads about New Horizon's mission to Pluto there have been questions asking why the spacecraft did a fly-by and didn't go into orbit. Understandably the probe was designed to get to Pluto and Charon as quickly as possible which made braking to get into orbit unrealistic. In such threads, when people estimated how long it would take for an orbiting mission to reach the system, it was usually a rough guess or using technology that wasn't feasible or economically viable.   I'm curious if it's possible for engineers/mathematicians to give a more realistic estimate as to how long it might take an orbiter designed in the present day to reach Pluto. I had a quick look on google scholar and couldn't find anything obvious that tackled this issue so if there are papers or books I've missed that would be fascinating to know about too.    Thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "czhthdg", "c_root_id_B": "czhm2eu", "created_at_utc_A": 1454182469, "created_at_utc_B": 1454169030, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There have been at least two preliminary proposals for a Pluto (or other KBO) orbiter mission [1][2]. Both propose the use of radioisotope electric propulsion - that is, ion thrusters powered by RTGs - and a gravity assist at Jupiter for a surprisingly short time of flight of roughly 16 years.  [1] S.R. Oleson et al. Kuiper Belt Object Orbiter Using Advanced Radioisotope Power  Sources and Electric Propulsion. 2011. <http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110014485.pdf>.  [2] T. Bondo et al. Preliminary Design of an Advanced Mission to Pluto. 2004. <http://www.esa.int/gsp/ACT/doc/PRO/ACT-RPR-PRO-ISTS2004-Pluto.pdf>.", "human_ref_B": "~~I would venture to say - no.  An orbiter mission to Pluto is not possible with current conventional rocket technology~~  ~~Unconventional is a different story~~ If you went with nuclear pulse propulsion, fusion, NTR or some other wild-and-wacky scheme it's definitely doable.    Also if you didn't care about the probe getting there ~~within your lifetime~~ anytime soon you could go with electric propulsion (ion thrusters, etc.)  But realistically it's just too far away to get any real mass out there, and you need mass to slow down, and you need more mass to take pictures and send them back.    EDIT: Looks like I was wrong.  Total trip time from Earth escape to KBO orbit looks like around 16 years with electric propulsion according to multiple sources on /u/Sharlinator 's comment.  Still keep in mind that using EP at that kind of crazy distance means you will still need a LOT of plutonium for the RTG's.  At which point you might as well just use an NTR.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13439.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "43eao8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Is an orbiting mission to Pluto possible and if so how long would it take to get there? In previous threads about New Horizon's mission to Pluto there have been questions asking why the spacecraft did a fly-by and didn't go into orbit. Understandably the probe was designed to get to Pluto and Charon as quickly as possible which made braking to get into orbit unrealistic. In such threads, when people estimated how long it would take for an orbiting mission to reach the system, it was usually a rough guess or using technology that wasn't feasible or economically viable.   I'm curious if it's possible for engineers/mathematicians to give a more realistic estimate as to how long it might take an orbiter designed in the present day to reach Pluto. I had a quick look on google scholar and couldn't find anything obvious that tackled this issue so if there are papers or books I've missed that would be fascinating to know about too.    Thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "czhmcts", "c_root_id_B": "czhthdg", "created_at_utc_A": 1454169597, "created_at_utc_B": 1454182469, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "It's going to be tough to give one answer to this question because the simplest transfer to get to Pluto\u2014a Hohmann tranfer\u2014would take over 100 years to get there.  You can reduce this time by using a more direct route and by using flybys of Jupiter or other planets to help you, but of course the faster you go in traveling to Pluto, the more it'll take to slow down and capture yourself in Pluto's gravity well.  So of course the first question is how long are you willing to let the craft spend in transit?  This is just an engineering question.  Ideally the craft should have plenty of power left when it arrives, though, and solar panels are out when you consider how to generate power because you're just too far from the sun.  You could use an RTG like Voyager or Curiosity, but these have a limited lifespan, too.  Then there's the question of how big of a craft you want to get to Pluto.  The smaller your craft the more delta V it can have, since the rocket equation cares only about the ratio of fuel mass to everything else's mass.  So is it possible?  Sure, probably, if you're willing to make enough concessions in other aspects of the mission.  But it's probably not practical.  If it were then I'm sure the New Horizons team would have chosen to put New Horizons in orbit instead of just flying by.", "human_ref_B": "There have been at least two preliminary proposals for a Pluto (or other KBO) orbiter mission [1][2]. Both propose the use of radioisotope electric propulsion - that is, ion thrusters powered by RTGs - and a gravity assist at Jupiter for a surprisingly short time of flight of roughly 16 years.  [1] S.R. Oleson et al. Kuiper Belt Object Orbiter Using Advanced Radioisotope Power  Sources and Electric Propulsion. 2011. <http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110014485.pdf>.  [2] T. Bondo et al. Preliminary Design of an Advanced Mission to Pluto. 2004. <http://www.esa.int/gsp/ACT/doc/PRO/ACT-RPR-PRO-ISTS2004-Pluto.pdf>.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12872.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihkxgfc", "c_root_id_B": "ihktjd4", "created_at_utc_A": 1658759031, "created_at_utc_B": 1658757334, "score_A": 114, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Ok so aside from targeting the molecular differences between cancerous and non cancerous cells (of which there are more and more new therapies), older chemotherapy and non-specific anti cancer drugs don\u2019t necessarily target cancer cells, hence their significant side effect profiles. Instead, they are often destructive to cells which are more frequently dividing. Cancer cells divide frequently, which is what makes those cells more sensitive to the drug than normal cells, which may be less likely to divide.  Also, note that some cancers are targeted by adjusting things like hormonal milieu. Prostate and breast cancers are often hormone sensitive, so if you limit those pathways, you can starve the cancer cells of their signal for growth.  I\u2019m sure there are more.", "human_ref_B": "I am studying molecular and technical medicine and we recently just talked about that. There are a lot of signaling pathways that are altered in cancer cell. Our body possess Oncogenes and Tumor supressor genes which are in an equilibrium in healthy cells. With certain mutations the Oncogenes have a gain of function driving the proliferation of the tumor cells whereas tumor suppressor genes lose their function. This is why in cancerous cells the signaling pathway that drives the apoptosis is not activated. So with non targeted drugs the unspecific target is the DNA itself - in targeted therapy we address proteins with abnormal expression. So basically the non-target drug is able to distinguish between equilibrium in said genes and the loss or gain of function. Therefor the mutated DNA within the cancerous cells is destroyed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1697.0, "score_ratio": 38.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihlhrfk", "c_root_id_B": "ihlarx0", "created_at_utc_A": 1658767055, "created_at_utc_B": 1658764386, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The classic chemo approach is to target some aspect of DNA replication, which would disproportionally destroy rapidly dividing cells, like most cancer cells. There are many ways to do this, for example some of the earliest known chemo drugs were antifolates, they inhibit enzymes involved in the production of thymine (the T in DNA), low thymine means failed replication and apoptosis. Another common approach includes cross-linking DNA strands which activates p53 and apoptosis, this is often done through platinum based chemicals/pi stacking and even nitrogen mustard compounds from ww1 era chemical weapons. Basically take any step of DNA replication or cell division and find a drug that messes with it and it could potentially be used for chemo. The down sides to this approach is it is very toxic, and even if the cancer goes into remission there is a risk of secondary cancers from the chemo itself, as many are mutagenic.  A more targeted approach is to target kinases, enzymes involved in signaling in cancer cells and involved in their proliferation. These became very popular drug candidates in the early 2000\u2019s after one was found to essentially cure a type of leukemia. Though unfortunately most are not as effective as the first approved kinase inhibitor was.  A major challenge cancer treatments face is resistance. Cancer cells can mutate target sites, find alternate pathways or even physically pump out drugs making them ineffective. That is why cancer treatments often consist of a combination of drugs along with radiation and sometimes surgery. Even then it\u2019s often not enough.  More recently there has been a focus on using the immune system to fight cancer. The adaptive immune system can be incredibly precise and effective making it an ideal tool for treating cancer. In fact, the immune system already targets cancers, immunotherapies just give it a boost. For example, checkpoint inhibitors, can prevent cancer cells from evading the immune system leading to the destruction of cancerous cells by t cells (The 2018 Nobel prize in physiology was awarded to it\u2019s discoverers). In addition we have CAR T cell therapies in which engineered T cells (immune cells) are introduced to destroy cancer cells, and therapeutic cancer vaccines (given after cancer is present rather than before like the prophylactic vaccines most people think of) which further aid the immune system in targeting cancer cells.", "human_ref_B": "the drugs are designed to target rapidly dividing cells! They will still affect normal cells too (all drugs have side effects & bind to things we don\u2019t necessarily want). In addition to cancer cells, hair cells are also rapidly dividing; this is why hair often falls out with chemo.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2669.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihlhrfk", "c_root_id_B": "ihktjd4", "created_at_utc_A": 1658767055, "created_at_utc_B": 1658757334, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The classic chemo approach is to target some aspect of DNA replication, which would disproportionally destroy rapidly dividing cells, like most cancer cells. There are many ways to do this, for example some of the earliest known chemo drugs were antifolates, they inhibit enzymes involved in the production of thymine (the T in DNA), low thymine means failed replication and apoptosis. Another common approach includes cross-linking DNA strands which activates p53 and apoptosis, this is often done through platinum based chemicals/pi stacking and even nitrogen mustard compounds from ww1 era chemical weapons. Basically take any step of DNA replication or cell division and find a drug that messes with it and it could potentially be used for chemo. The down sides to this approach is it is very toxic, and even if the cancer goes into remission there is a risk of secondary cancers from the chemo itself, as many are mutagenic.  A more targeted approach is to target kinases, enzymes involved in signaling in cancer cells and involved in their proliferation. These became very popular drug candidates in the early 2000\u2019s after one was found to essentially cure a type of leukemia. Though unfortunately most are not as effective as the first approved kinase inhibitor was.  A major challenge cancer treatments face is resistance. Cancer cells can mutate target sites, find alternate pathways or even physically pump out drugs making them ineffective. That is why cancer treatments often consist of a combination of drugs along with radiation and sometimes surgery. Even then it\u2019s often not enough.  More recently there has been a focus on using the immune system to fight cancer. The adaptive immune system can be incredibly precise and effective making it an ideal tool for treating cancer. In fact, the immune system already targets cancers, immunotherapies just give it a boost. For example, checkpoint inhibitors, can prevent cancer cells from evading the immune system leading to the destruction of cancerous cells by t cells (The 2018 Nobel prize in physiology was awarded to it\u2019s discoverers). In addition we have CAR T cell therapies in which engineered T cells (immune cells) are introduced to destroy cancer cells, and therapeutic cancer vaccines (given after cancer is present rather than before like the prophylactic vaccines most people think of) which further aid the immune system in targeting cancer cells.", "human_ref_B": "I am studying molecular and technical medicine and we recently just talked about that. There are a lot of signaling pathways that are altered in cancer cell. Our body possess Oncogenes and Tumor supressor genes which are in an equilibrium in healthy cells. With certain mutations the Oncogenes have a gain of function driving the proliferation of the tumor cells whereas tumor suppressor genes lose their function. This is why in cancerous cells the signaling pathway that drives the apoptosis is not activated. So with non targeted drugs the unspecific target is the DNA itself - in targeted therapy we address proteins with abnormal expression. So basically the non-target drug is able to distinguish between equilibrium in said genes and the loss or gain of function. Therefor the mutated DNA within the cancerous cells is destroyed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9721.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihlarx0", "c_root_id_B": "ihm5m0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1658764386, "created_at_utc_B": 1658776125, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "the drugs are designed to target rapidly dividing cells! They will still affect normal cells too (all drugs have side effects & bind to things we don\u2019t necessarily want). In addition to cancer cells, hair cells are also rapidly dividing; this is why hair often falls out with chemo.", "human_ref_B": "Cancer cells are selfish and absorb more nutrients from the blood stream than regular cells do.  It\u2019s a bit like Halloween where some houses leave a bucket of candy outside with a sign that says \u201cLimit One Per Person!\u201d.   Cancer cells are like the greedy kid who heaps fistfuls of candy instead of taking just one.  Drugs that target cancer are often just poisoning the candy, making the normal kids sick because they only eat 1 candy because they\u2019re good kids.  However, the cancer cells die because they\u2019re the bad kids who were greedy and ate tons of the poisoned candy.  This is why cancer treatments make the patient feel sick, because their good cells are being slightly poisoned.  But their bad, cancerous cells are being heavily poisoned and will die.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11739.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihktjd4", "c_root_id_B": "ihm5m0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1658757334, "created_at_utc_B": 1658776125, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I am studying molecular and technical medicine and we recently just talked about that. There are a lot of signaling pathways that are altered in cancer cell. Our body possess Oncogenes and Tumor supressor genes which are in an equilibrium in healthy cells. With certain mutations the Oncogenes have a gain of function driving the proliferation of the tumor cells whereas tumor suppressor genes lose their function. This is why in cancerous cells the signaling pathway that drives the apoptosis is not activated. So with non targeted drugs the unspecific target is the DNA itself - in targeted therapy we address proteins with abnormal expression. So basically the non-target drug is able to distinguish between equilibrium in said genes and the loss or gain of function. Therefor the mutated DNA within the cancerous cells is destroyed.", "human_ref_B": "Cancer cells are selfish and absorb more nutrients from the blood stream than regular cells do.  It\u2019s a bit like Halloween where some houses leave a bucket of candy outside with a sign that says \u201cLimit One Per Person!\u201d.   Cancer cells are like the greedy kid who heaps fistfuls of candy instead of taking just one.  Drugs that target cancer are often just poisoning the candy, making the normal kids sick because they only eat 1 candy because they\u2019re good kids.  However, the cancer cells die because they\u2019re the bad kids who were greedy and ate tons of the poisoned candy.  This is why cancer treatments make the patient feel sick, because their good cells are being slightly poisoned.  But their bad, cancerous cells are being heavily poisoned and will die.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18791.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihm5m0s", "c_root_id_B": "ihls68f", "created_at_utc_A": 1658776125, "created_at_utc_B": 1658770987, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Cancer cells are selfish and absorb more nutrients from the blood stream than regular cells do.  It\u2019s a bit like Halloween where some houses leave a bucket of candy outside with a sign that says \u201cLimit One Per Person!\u201d.   Cancer cells are like the greedy kid who heaps fistfuls of candy instead of taking just one.  Drugs that target cancer are often just poisoning the candy, making the normal kids sick because they only eat 1 candy because they\u2019re good kids.  However, the cancer cells die because they\u2019re the bad kids who were greedy and ate tons of the poisoned candy.  This is why cancer treatments make the patient feel sick, because their good cells are being slightly poisoned.  But their bad, cancerous cells are being heavily poisoned and will die.", "human_ref_B": "Another point, some types of cancer treatments, specifically radiation, mainly works by damaging cell DNA. This doesn't actually kill the cell until it tries to divide and copy that broken DNA. Inherently a cell that divides faster is more sensitive to this. Additionally, cancer mutations make it much harder for a cancerous cell to repair that DNA than for a healthy cell, which also helps the therapeutic effect.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5138.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihltbhn", "c_root_id_B": "ihm5m0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1658771422, "created_at_utc_B": 1658776125, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Poorly.  The other comments are good but I'll also add that cancer  cells aren't normal and those abnormalities can often be recognized by the immune system. There are often mutations that lead to the formation of a novel protein (neoantigen) that the immune system recognizes and then kills the cell that produces it-- that unless the cancer cell secretes something that turns off the immune system and then we can look at drugs like keytruda to help that issue.", "human_ref_B": "Cancer cells are selfish and absorb more nutrients from the blood stream than regular cells do.  It\u2019s a bit like Halloween where some houses leave a bucket of candy outside with a sign that says \u201cLimit One Per Person!\u201d.   Cancer cells are like the greedy kid who heaps fistfuls of candy instead of taking just one.  Drugs that target cancer are often just poisoning the candy, making the normal kids sick because they only eat 1 candy because they\u2019re good kids.  However, the cancer cells die because they\u2019re the bad kids who were greedy and ate tons of the poisoned candy.  This is why cancer treatments make the patient feel sick, because their good cells are being slightly poisoned.  But their bad, cancerous cells are being heavily poisoned and will die.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4703.0, "score_ratio": -4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihmbsbq", "c_root_id_B": "ihltbhn", "created_at_utc_A": 1658778492, "created_at_utc_B": 1658771422, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Targeting cancer cells specifically is in general extremely difficult for a variety of reasons and specific to each type of cancer. On top of having to find specific, targetable differences between the cancerous cells and your normal cells, cancer cells are also often buried in dense clumps into which it's very difficult to deliver any molecules effectively.   More often chemotherapy takes advantage of cancer cells' fast division rate, so therapies will target cell division broadly speaking and hope that the cancer dies before too much damage is done to the rest of your healthy cells.   The most exciting cancer research focuses on rewiring our own immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells, but progress is slow, difficult, and the therapies are very expensive, so the standard cancer treatment is in general still 1. cut out as much of the cancer as possible 2. chemotherapy to kill what remains 3. radiation therapy", "human_ref_B": "Poorly.  The other comments are good but I'll also add that cancer  cells aren't normal and those abnormalities can often be recognized by the immune system. There are often mutations that lead to the formation of a novel protein (neoantigen) that the immune system recognizes and then kills the cell that produces it-- that unless the cancer cell secretes something that turns off the immune system and then we can look at drugs like keytruda to help that issue.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7070.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihnf8am", "c_root_id_B": "ihltbhn", "created_at_utc_A": 1658794455, "created_at_utc_B": 1658771422, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "While these posts point out a lot of good points and some true targeting is still in research phases.  I am surprised no one has brought up the single most responsible reason for targeting of cancer drugs..  Most drugs simply work by what\u2019s called the EPR effect which has more to do with how cancer grows together than the actual cellular structure.  Most tumors grow abnormally with abnormal vasculature. This abnormal growth leads to leaky vessels that do not have the correct lymph system to flush things out. So simply put drugs go into tumors and get stuck. Increasing the amount of drug that makes it to cancer.  AKA cancer cells will always have a higher concentration of drug than normal cells.  Don\u2019t let anyone tell you anything differently this simple effect is responsible for most \u201ctargeting\u201d behavior.  [Be careful what you read in these comments there are a few that are not exactly correct.]  1. Most drugs don\u2019t actually target the nucleus (if they did that\u2019d be gene therapy). Most go for easier routes instead that may end up screwing up the rest of the cell. 2. Cancer cells aren\u2019t typically picked up by our immune system. If they were you wouldn\u2019t get cancer. Getting that to happen is very difficult because after all cancer cells look just like your normal cells. ]", "human_ref_B": "Poorly.  The other comments are good but I'll also add that cancer  cells aren't normal and those abnormalities can often be recognized by the immune system. There are often mutations that lead to the formation of a novel protein (neoantigen) that the immune system recognizes and then kills the cell that produces it-- that unless the cancer cell secretes something that turns off the immune system and then we can look at drugs like keytruda to help that issue.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23033.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "ihltbhn", "c_root_id_B": "iho0c4a", "created_at_utc_A": 1658771422, "created_at_utc_B": 1658803931, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Poorly.  The other comments are good but I'll also add that cancer  cells aren't normal and those abnormalities can often be recognized by the immune system. There are often mutations that lead to the formation of a novel protein (neoantigen) that the immune system recognizes and then kills the cell that produces it-- that unless the cancer cell secretes something that turns off the immune system and then we can look at drugs like keytruda to help that issue.", "human_ref_B": "I work on monoclonal antibodies for a living (mostly, I've dabbled in other, similar fields.) The mAb in question targets specific receptor sites on cancer cells that seem to be not present on healthy cells. In theory this will completely eradicate the cancer, but in practice there are usually off-target effects and some cells that may not display the same morphologies as the typical cancer cell for a specific type of cancer.  I'm mostly on the bioprocessing side, not the clinical side, so I couldn't really give very good examples. I do know more targeted immunotherapies are coming out. I believe in the science sub there was an article about a rare type of colon cancer being completely eradicated by immunotherapy alone. Usually immunotherapy is combined with other therapies since they don't seem to be 100% effective, and sometimes have nasty side effects.  I usually start to fall asleep when there's talks about heavy/light chains in antibodies and glycosylation profiles. I grow cells \u2014 I quite detest analyzing products.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32509.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "w7od4e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How do drugs target our cancerous cells, and not our normal cells, when administered?    If we have a population of normal and cancer cells, and we give a drug to this population. And lets say this drug induces apoptosis. Usually, the drug would have a detrimental effects on the cancerous cells, but would pretty much cause the normal cells to be unaffected. How is that? If the drug can induce cell death in both normal and cancerous cells, why do the cancerous cells tend to die first? Is it because cancerous cells are way better at metabolism than non-cancerous cells, and so they suck everything from their environment; Therefore the normal cells get a small quantity of the drug, while the cancerous cells consume most of it and hence die?  (I know that some drugs might target  molecules that are unique to cancerous cells. However for the ones that are non-specific, how do these drugs manage to destroy our cancerous cells pretty well, while sort of not over-harming our normal cells)  (if anyone has like really credible references that would be nice also", "c_root_id_A": "iho1lbc", "c_root_id_B": "ihltbhn", "created_at_utc_A": 1658804526, "created_at_utc_B": 1658771422, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "chemo targets rapidly dividing cells (cancer cells). it can\u2019t distinguish between cancer cells are other rapidly dividing cells, which is is why hair loss and nausea are two common side effects - those are also rapidly dividing cells.", "human_ref_B": "Poorly.  The other comments are good but I'll also add that cancer  cells aren't normal and those abnormalities can often be recognized by the immune system. There are often mutations that lead to the formation of a novel protein (neoantigen) that the immune system recognizes and then kills the cell that produces it-- that unless the cancer cell secretes something that turns off the immune system and then we can look at drugs like keytruda to help that issue.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 33104.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1acxqo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How are dams able to be constructed against the constant push of flowing water? Secondly, how exactly does a dam hold back a constantly accumulating amount of water without simply overflowing? I know they drain some water through spillways, but it seems like the vast majority of water is still trapped above the dam. Where does it all go?", "c_root_id_A": "c8w7wf8", "c_root_id_B": "c8w831j", "created_at_utc_A": 1363368444, "created_at_utc_B": 1363368950, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "The water is only constantly accumulating if the flow rate out of the body of water behind the dam is less than the flow rate into that body.  For example, let's turn on a faucet into a bucket. The flow rate into the bucket is equal to the flow rate through the faucet. One such measure is cubic feet per minute (CFM). If the bucket holds 2 cubic feet, it would take around 2 minutes to fill.  Now if you wanted, you could say \"I want this bucket to stop filling at 80%\" and make a hole in the bucket such that the bottom of the hole is around the 80% fill mark. When the bucket fills past this point, the flow rate out of the bucket increases (since it's going through the hole). This regulates the contents of the bucket to the specified value, as long as the hole allows the flow rate in and the flow rate out to be equal (ie, it's not a pinprick).  Replace faucet with river and bucket with body of water behind the dam, and you can get a general principle. The engineers know the flow rates of the rivers feeding into the reservoir, they knew how much water they needed to hold behind the dam, and they designed it to meet these requirements.", "human_ref_B": "Usually the river is redirected around the site where permanent dam construction is taking place. A temporary dam may be used to assist the redirection.  A hydroelectric dam routes some of the water through the turbines within the dam to create electricity. Excess water exits through spillways.  When the lake upstream of the dam has reached the target level, the dam engineers allow water to flow downstream, else the damn would overflow. So at some point in time, the water exiting through spillways (and turbines) is equal in volumetric flow rate to the amount of water entering the lake that has formed above the dam.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 506.0, "score_ratio": 18.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1acxqo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How are dams able to be constructed against the constant push of flowing water? Secondly, how exactly does a dam hold back a constantly accumulating amount of water without simply overflowing? I know they drain some water through spillways, but it seems like the vast majority of water is still trapped above the dam. Where does it all go?", "c_root_id_A": "c8w8o4p", "c_root_id_B": "c8w7wf8", "created_at_utc_A": 1363370572, "created_at_utc_B": 1363368444, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "http://www.hydroquebec.com/learning/hydroelectricite/construction-refection.html  I live in Quebec and our home power company has all you need to know with a nice animation.", "human_ref_B": "The water is only constantly accumulating if the flow rate out of the body of water behind the dam is less than the flow rate into that body.  For example, let's turn on a faucet into a bucket. The flow rate into the bucket is equal to the flow rate through the faucet. One such measure is cubic feet per minute (CFM). If the bucket holds 2 cubic feet, it would take around 2 minutes to fill.  Now if you wanted, you could say \"I want this bucket to stop filling at 80%\" and make a hole in the bucket such that the bottom of the hole is around the 80% fill mark. When the bucket fills past this point, the flow rate out of the bucket increases (since it's going through the hole). This regulates the contents of the bucket to the specified value, as long as the hole allows the flow rate in and the flow rate out to be equal (ie, it's not a pinprick).  Replace faucet with river and bucket with body of water behind the dam, and you can get a general principle. The engineers know the flow rates of the rivers feeding into the reservoir, they knew how much water they needed to hold behind the dam, and they designed it to meet these requirements.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2128.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1acxqo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How are dams able to be constructed against the constant push of flowing water? Secondly, how exactly does a dam hold back a constantly accumulating amount of water without simply overflowing? I know they drain some water through spillways, but it seems like the vast majority of water is still trapped above the dam. Where does it all go?", "c_root_id_A": "c8w9jfc", "c_root_id_B": "c8w8o5y", "created_at_utc_A": 1363372984, "created_at_utc_B": 1363370574, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "In simple terms, the builders will typically do one of two things:   (1) Create a diversion tunnel. In many dam/reservoir systems, the operators will need a spillway that can divert water around the dam when big storms come in. This means they tunnel into the canyon wall or under the surface of the streambed and force the river to follow that tunnel rather than the natural channel for a stretch to dry out the area and allow for construction.  (2) Create a coffer dam that pushes the water into half of the original channel. The coffer dam is sometimes just a pile of earthen material to dry out the desired location.  This allows them to build one half of the new dam with a built in spillway. Then they can remove that coffer dam (or lower it) while creating another coffer dam on the other half of the channel bed. This results in the reservoir filling until it reaches the spillway's level but dries out the other half of the channel which allows for the completion of the other half of the dam.  **TLDR; Dry out the stream flow either by using a tunnel or pushing the follow into half of the channel (at a time) so that construction happens in dry conditions.**", "human_ref_B": "http://youtu.be/EjVbaHaConw  They also divert water around the construction site -- the Hoover Dam bypass tunnels were especially cool.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2410.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1acxqo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How are dams able to be constructed against the constant push of flowing water? Secondly, how exactly does a dam hold back a constantly accumulating amount of water without simply overflowing? I know they drain some water through spillways, but it seems like the vast majority of water is still trapped above the dam. Where does it all go?", "c_root_id_A": "c8w7wf8", "c_root_id_B": "c8w9jfc", "created_at_utc_A": 1363368444, "created_at_utc_B": 1363372984, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "The water is only constantly accumulating if the flow rate out of the body of water behind the dam is less than the flow rate into that body.  For example, let's turn on a faucet into a bucket. The flow rate into the bucket is equal to the flow rate through the faucet. One such measure is cubic feet per minute (CFM). If the bucket holds 2 cubic feet, it would take around 2 minutes to fill.  Now if you wanted, you could say \"I want this bucket to stop filling at 80%\" and make a hole in the bucket such that the bottom of the hole is around the 80% fill mark. When the bucket fills past this point, the flow rate out of the bucket increases (since it's going through the hole). This regulates the contents of the bucket to the specified value, as long as the hole allows the flow rate in and the flow rate out to be equal (ie, it's not a pinprick).  Replace faucet with river and bucket with body of water behind the dam, and you can get a general principle. The engineers know the flow rates of the rivers feeding into the reservoir, they knew how much water they needed to hold behind the dam, and they designed it to meet these requirements.", "human_ref_B": "In simple terms, the builders will typically do one of two things:   (1) Create a diversion tunnel. In many dam/reservoir systems, the operators will need a spillway that can divert water around the dam when big storms come in. This means they tunnel into the canyon wall or under the surface of the streambed and force the river to follow that tunnel rather than the natural channel for a stretch to dry out the area and allow for construction.  (2) Create a coffer dam that pushes the water into half of the original channel. The coffer dam is sometimes just a pile of earthen material to dry out the desired location.  This allows them to build one half of the new dam with a built in spillway. Then they can remove that coffer dam (or lower it) while creating another coffer dam on the other half of the channel bed. This results in the reservoir filling until it reaches the spillway's level but dries out the other half of the channel which allows for the completion of the other half of the dam.  **TLDR; Dry out the stream flow either by using a tunnel or pushing the follow into half of the channel (at a time) so that construction happens in dry conditions.**", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4540.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1acxqo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How are dams able to be constructed against the constant push of flowing water? Secondly, how exactly does a dam hold back a constantly accumulating amount of water without simply overflowing? I know they drain some water through spillways, but it seems like the vast majority of water is still trapped above the dam. Where does it all go?", "c_root_id_A": "c8w8o5y", "c_root_id_B": "c8w7wf8", "created_at_utc_A": 1363370574, "created_at_utc_B": 1363368444, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "http://youtu.be/EjVbaHaConw  They also divert water around the construction site -- the Hoover Dam bypass tunnels were especially cool.", "human_ref_B": "The water is only constantly accumulating if the flow rate out of the body of water behind the dam is less than the flow rate into that body.  For example, let's turn on a faucet into a bucket. The flow rate into the bucket is equal to the flow rate through the faucet. One such measure is cubic feet per minute (CFM). If the bucket holds 2 cubic feet, it would take around 2 minutes to fill.  Now if you wanted, you could say \"I want this bucket to stop filling at 80%\" and make a hole in the bucket such that the bottom of the hole is around the 80% fill mark. When the bucket fills past this point, the flow rate out of the bucket increases (since it's going through the hole). This regulates the contents of the bucket to the specified value, as long as the hole allows the flow rate in and the flow rate out to be equal (ie, it's not a pinprick).  Replace faucet with river and bucket with body of water behind the dam, and you can get a general principle. The engineers know the flow rates of the rivers feeding into the reservoir, they knew how much water they needed to hold behind the dam, and they designed it to meet these requirements.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2130.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7535bj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How much does the toothpaste you use really affect your dental hygiene?", "c_root_id_A": "do4fk6z", "c_root_id_B": "do43wiv", "created_at_utc_A": 1507561441, "created_at_utc_B": 1507539184, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Fluoride ions in toothpaste and drinking water intercalate into the enamel that covers the outside of the tooth increasing resistance to decay and acidic erosion. Also, triclosan, a bactericidal agent, is added to some brands to inhibit plaque formation and gingivitis. It also combats bad breath due to bacterial growth. These claims must be supported by extensive clinical evidence.", "human_ref_B": "Are you asking about the differences between using toothpaste and not using toothpaste or about the difference between using different brands of toothpaste? As /u/BloodyMundane mentions toothpaste vs no (or non fluoride) toothpaste makes a big difference. The differences between brands are I believe largely marketing (though I have no source to back this up).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22257.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1kwuzu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Do washing dishes and/or hands with warm water allow for more bacteria to be killed, as compared to cold water? was washing the dishes by hand and my mom questioned why I was using cold water instead of hot. This made me think.", "c_root_id_A": "cbtflha", "c_root_id_B": "cbteyff", "created_at_utc_A": 1377221314, "created_at_utc_B": 1377219482, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Washing isn't necessarily about killing bacteria, but about removing them.  Here's the way I understand it. Soap has molecules which are have water attractive and water repulsive parts on opposite ends.  When you mechanically scrub a surface, the bacteria, and other debris get surrounded by water repulsive ends of these molecules, while the water attractive ends stick to the surrounding water.  This keeps the bacteria \"stuck\" to the water, so it doesn't fall back and stick to your skin (or dishes), but gets flushed down the drain.   Now, having taken chemistry, chemical reactions tend to speed up with heat.  The application to this is that the soap action should occur faster.  Antibacterial soaps have ingredients that do kill some bacteria, and this should also occur faster with heat.  Good scrubbing action should get most of the bacteria and contaminants off your dishes, but not all.  More are removed when you dry with a towel.  However, if you are washing dishes, it is possible to scrub some bacteria off one dish that maybe didn't get as clean as it should have, and spread it around on others.", "human_ref_B": "Honestly it hasn't been proven either way. The biggest reason that people say warm water is for comfort, so you wash your hands for the right amount of time.   Source: CDC http://www.cdc.gov/handwashing/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1832.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15kvpi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How long can I reuse the same breath? So I have a balloon like device attached over my mouth, it easily inflates when I exhale.  How long can I continue to use this device (and therefore the same volume of air) before I blackout/die?", "c_root_id_A": "c7nkqr6", "c_root_id_B": "c7nfley", "created_at_utc_A": 1356745322, "created_at_utc_B": 1356724984, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Try it and let us know. Have a safety team with you.", "human_ref_B": "Not sure if this is actually helpful to your question, but it's in the same vein. Marina Abramovic did a performance art piece in the 70s where she and her lover clamp their mouths together and breath the same breath until they pass out. The piece is called Breathing In, Breathing Out. They end up going for 19 minutes before they black out. Here's an interview with her about it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20338.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "172kvf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why don't nitrogen and oxygen form layers in the atmosphere? According to this table, at standard temperature and pressure, one cubic meter of oxygen (O2) weighs 1.43Kg, but the same volume of nitrogen (N2) only weighs 1.25Kg.  So according to the buoyancy equation:  F = Vs dL g  For one cubic meter of nitrogen, Vs (volume submerged) is 1 m^3 , dL (the density of the liquid submerged in) is 1.43Kg, and g is 9.8m/s^2 . This gives a force of 14.0N. Since the gravitational force on the nitrogen is only 12.3N, the nitrogen should experience an upward force of 1.7N, or an acceleration of 1.36 m/s^2 .  Over time, shouldn't this force lift the nitrogen above the oxygen, forming an oxygen layer at the surface with a nitrogen layer above it? Why does this not happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c81p7uw", "c_root_id_B": "c81ouu3", "created_at_utc_A": 1358891660, "created_at_utc_B": 1358890695, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Gravity will try to separate the gases, but Brownian motion will tend to uniformly mix the gases.  For the most part, gravity loses to Brownian motion.  One explanation is because of entropy.  The entropy of the mixed gases is greater than that of unmixed gases, and a closed system will not decrease in entropy, per the second law of thermodynamics.  There is some separation, as hydrogen and helium are sufficiently less dense than the other atmospheric constituents, that they do rise to the top, and some of these gases are even lost to space.  There is also some stratification of nitrogen and oxygen within the thermosphere.  For the most part, though, gravity does not have enough force to separate the gases. The only way to separate the gases in air are means that require external energy, like cryogenic distillation, selective membranes, gas centrifuges, etc.", "human_ref_B": "Oxygen and Nitrogen do stratify (some) in the atmosphere.  This is what gives the Aurora layers of varying color. http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/4D.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 965.0, "score_ratio": 2.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "172kvf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why don't nitrogen and oxygen form layers in the atmosphere? According to this table, at standard temperature and pressure, one cubic meter of oxygen (O2) weighs 1.43Kg, but the same volume of nitrogen (N2) only weighs 1.25Kg.  So according to the buoyancy equation:  F = Vs dL g  For one cubic meter of nitrogen, Vs (volume submerged) is 1 m^3 , dL (the density of the liquid submerged in) is 1.43Kg, and g is 9.8m/s^2 . This gives a force of 14.0N. Since the gravitational force on the nitrogen is only 12.3N, the nitrogen should experience an upward force of 1.7N, or an acceleration of 1.36 m/s^2 .  Over time, shouldn't this force lift the nitrogen above the oxygen, forming an oxygen layer at the surface with a nitrogen layer above it? Why does this not happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c81p7uw", "c_root_id_B": "c81ovhh", "created_at_utc_A": 1358891660, "created_at_utc_B": 1358890744, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Gravity will try to separate the gases, but Brownian motion will tend to uniformly mix the gases.  For the most part, gravity loses to Brownian motion.  One explanation is because of entropy.  The entropy of the mixed gases is greater than that of unmixed gases, and a closed system will not decrease in entropy, per the second law of thermodynamics.  There is some separation, as hydrogen and helium are sufficiently less dense than the other atmospheric constituents, that they do rise to the top, and some of these gases are even lost to space.  There is also some stratification of nitrogen and oxygen within the thermosphere.  For the most part, though, gravity does not have enough force to separate the gases. The only way to separate the gases in air are means that require external energy, like cryogenic distillation, selective membranes, gas centrifuges, etc.", "human_ref_B": "Near the Earth's surface the main reason is that the effect of gravity is small compared to the random thermal motion of the molecules.  Mixing due to convection/weather as mentioned by DeskFlyer certainly contributes but is not necessary to explain why the nitrogen and oxygen don't separate.  I wondered this same thing a while back and read about it but now I can't find the source.  I think the derivation is fairly straightforward but my thermodynamics is way too rusty to attempt it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 916.0, "score_ratio": 21.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bcam3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can a moon have a moon? What limits the \"levels\" of satellite that can exist in a stable solar system?", "c_root_id_A": "ekpc8uz", "c_root_id_B": "ekppzc0", "created_at_utc_A": 1555064819, "created_at_utc_B": 1555076085, "score_A": 110, "score_B": 173, "human_ref_A": "If you treat anything orbiting something else as a \"moon\", then there is a satellite orbiting the Moon, which is orbiting the Earth, which is orbiting the Sun, which is orbiting the Galaxy's centre of mass! I would imagine there are natural systems that add a level or two onto that without resorting to exotic physics or objects!", "human_ref_B": "Its thought that Iapetus, Titan (moons of Saturn) and Callisto (one of Jupiter's moons) as well as our own moon, are the four within this solar system, which are capable of having a submoon of their very own, of around the ten kilometer across scale, and holding them in stable orbits.    Whether they do or not is going to be tricky to discover, because ten kilometers can look like an awful lot of nothing in space. To put it in perspective, our own moon could have such a submoon, and we might never know of it, depending on exactly how it orbits.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11266.0, "score_ratio": 1.5727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bcam3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can a moon have a moon? What limits the \"levels\" of satellite that can exist in a stable solar system?", "c_root_id_A": "ekppzc0", "c_root_id_B": "ekp2jsm", "created_at_utc_A": 1555076085, "created_at_utc_B": 1555053400, "score_A": 173, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "Its thought that Iapetus, Titan (moons of Saturn) and Callisto (one of Jupiter's moons) as well as our own moon, are the four within this solar system, which are capable of having a submoon of their very own, of around the ten kilometer across scale, and holding them in stable orbits.    Whether they do or not is going to be tricky to discover, because ten kilometers can look like an awful lot of nothing in space. To put it in perspective, our own moon could have such a submoon, and we might never know of it, depending on exactly how it orbits.", "human_ref_B": "Theres likely infinite theoretical levels which are would be related to the relative masses of the various bodies and their distances from each parent/grandparent/greatgrandparent body.  If you have a satellite and want it to orbit the moon then considering the forces on the satellite.  MoonGravForce >> EarthGravForce  Basically the satellite must be practically influenced only by the moon, with a tiny or even negligible force due to the earths gravity. To achieve this then the satellite must be much closer to the moon than to the earth even at its closest point in orbit. Distance to Earth >> Distance to Moon  This can be applied to any number of levels within a solar system so long as there is enough distance in the orbits. There is probably a hard limit due to factors like the limit of planet size and the limit of sun size and how they relate to the definitions of a solar system, a sun and a planet. Its also likely that the smaller an object becomes, the less stable its orbit will be. As small perturbations can have a larger relative effect on a smaller mass. A high level system will decay far more quickly, which is supported by the tendency of the universe to become more chaotic or to tend towards equilibrium.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22685.0, "score_ratio": 4.023255814, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bcam3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can a moon have a moon? What limits the \"levels\" of satellite that can exist in a stable solar system?", "c_root_id_A": "ekp2jsm", "c_root_id_B": "ekpc8uz", "created_at_utc_A": 1555053400, "created_at_utc_B": 1555064819, "score_A": 43, "score_B": 110, "human_ref_A": "Theres likely infinite theoretical levels which are would be related to the relative masses of the various bodies and their distances from each parent/grandparent/greatgrandparent body.  If you have a satellite and want it to orbit the moon then considering the forces on the satellite.  MoonGravForce >> EarthGravForce  Basically the satellite must be practically influenced only by the moon, with a tiny or even negligible force due to the earths gravity. To achieve this then the satellite must be much closer to the moon than to the earth even at its closest point in orbit. Distance to Earth >> Distance to Moon  This can be applied to any number of levels within a solar system so long as there is enough distance in the orbits. There is probably a hard limit due to factors like the limit of planet size and the limit of sun size and how they relate to the definitions of a solar system, a sun and a planet. Its also likely that the smaller an object becomes, the less stable its orbit will be. As small perturbations can have a larger relative effect on a smaller mass. A high level system will decay far more quickly, which is supported by the tendency of the universe to become more chaotic or to tend towards equilibrium.", "human_ref_B": "If you treat anything orbiting something else as a \"moon\", then there is a satellite orbiting the Moon, which is orbiting the Earth, which is orbiting the Sun, which is orbiting the Galaxy's centre of mass! I would imagine there are natural systems that add a level or two onto that without resorting to exotic physics or objects!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11419.0, "score_ratio": 2.5581395349, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bcam3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can a moon have a moon? What limits the \"levels\" of satellite that can exist in a stable solar system?", "c_root_id_A": "ekpvd1y", "c_root_id_B": "ekq5t13", "created_at_utc_A": 1555079465, "created_at_utc_B": 1555085792, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "According to physics, anything can have a moon, including you! Every object has a gravitational pull on everything thing around it. For example, a 150 lb person (~68 kg) will have a 4.5 \u00d7 10^-9 newton gravitational pull on an object 1 meter away.  Edit: should be more general and say satellite, not moon", "human_ref_B": "Yes, in theory. However, the *moonmoon* (or *submoon*, if you prefer) must be very small (in the order of 10's of km in diameter) around a much larger moon (in the order of 1,000's of km in diameter), and the moon must be relatively far from the host planet (otherwise the *moonmoon* would be captured by the planet's gravity directly). Also, these are highly dynamic systems, and so don't tend to stick around very long (though on the timescale of celestial mechanics, a \"couple million years\" is still considered \"short\").  The abstract of the paper on the subject (Can Moons Have Moons by Kollmeier & Raymond (2019)):  > Each of the giant planets within the Solar System has large moons butnone ofthese moons have their own moons (which we call *submoons*). By analogy with studies of moons around short-period exoplanets, we investigate the tidal-dynamical stability of submoons. We find that 10 km-scale submoons can only survive around large (1000km-scale) moons on wide-separation orbits. Tidal dissipation destabilizes the orbits of submoons around moons that are small or too close to their host planet; this is the case for most of the Solar System\u2019s moons. A handful of known moons are, however, capable of hosting long-lived submoons: Saturn\u2019s moons Titan and Iapetus, Jupiter\u2019s moon Callisto, and Earth\u2019s Moon. Based on its inferred mass and orbital separation, the newly-discovered exomoon candidate Kepler-1625b-I can in principle host a large submoon, although its stability depends on a number of unknown parameters. We discuss the possible habitability of submoons and the potential for subsubmoons. The existence, or lack thereof, of submoons, may yield important constraints on satellite formation and evolution in planetary systems", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6327.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bcam3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can a moon have a moon? What limits the \"levels\" of satellite that can exist in a stable solar system?", "c_root_id_A": "ekq5t13", "c_root_id_B": "ekputg7", "created_at_utc_A": 1555085792, "created_at_utc_B": 1555079145, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Yes, in theory. However, the *moonmoon* (or *submoon*, if you prefer) must be very small (in the order of 10's of km in diameter) around a much larger moon (in the order of 1,000's of km in diameter), and the moon must be relatively far from the host planet (otherwise the *moonmoon* would be captured by the planet's gravity directly). Also, these are highly dynamic systems, and so don't tend to stick around very long (though on the timescale of celestial mechanics, a \"couple million years\" is still considered \"short\").  The abstract of the paper on the subject (Can Moons Have Moons by Kollmeier & Raymond (2019)):  > Each of the giant planets within the Solar System has large moons butnone ofthese moons have their own moons (which we call *submoons*). By analogy with studies of moons around short-period exoplanets, we investigate the tidal-dynamical stability of submoons. We find that 10 km-scale submoons can only survive around large (1000km-scale) moons on wide-separation orbits. Tidal dissipation destabilizes the orbits of submoons around moons that are small or too close to their host planet; this is the case for most of the Solar System\u2019s moons. A handful of known moons are, however, capable of hosting long-lived submoons: Saturn\u2019s moons Titan and Iapetus, Jupiter\u2019s moon Callisto, and Earth\u2019s Moon. Based on its inferred mass and orbital separation, the newly-discovered exomoon candidate Kepler-1625b-I can in principle host a large submoon, although its stability depends on a number of unknown parameters. We discuss the possible habitability of submoons and the potential for subsubmoons. The existence, or lack thereof, of submoons, may yield important constraints on satellite formation and evolution in planetary systems", "human_ref_B": "A question comes to mind because of the answers to OP\u2019s question - why don\u2019t all moons within a solar system  simply become planets around the Sun? Surly the suns gravitational effect is greater than any planet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6647.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bcam3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can a moon have a moon? What limits the \"levels\" of satellite that can exist in a stable solar system?", "c_root_id_A": "ekpvd1y", "c_root_id_B": "ekputg7", "created_at_utc_A": 1555079465, "created_at_utc_B": 1555079145, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "According to physics, anything can have a moon, including you! Every object has a gravitational pull on everything thing around it. For example, a 150 lb person (~68 kg) will have a 4.5 \u00d7 10^-9 newton gravitational pull on an object 1 meter away.  Edit: should be more general and say satellite, not moon", "human_ref_B": "A question comes to mind because of the answers to OP\u2019s question - why don\u2019t all moons within a solar system  simply become planets around the Sun? Surly the suns gravitational effect is greater than any planet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 320.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bcam3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can a moon have a moon? What limits the \"levels\" of satellite that can exist in a stable solar system?", "c_root_id_A": "ekq89ao", "c_root_id_B": "ekputg7", "created_at_utc_A": 1555087286, "created_at_utc_B": 1555079145, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Yes. In the exact same way a star has planets and a planet has moons. This can continue, a moon having submoons, submoons have subsubmoons, etc. until the other 3 fundamental forces (strong, weak, electromagnetism) start to have stronger effects as compared to gravity.  But then again, aren't electrons \"orbiting\" a nucleus really just subsubsubsubsubsub...moons orbiting a subsubsubsub...moon?", "human_ref_B": "A question comes to mind because of the answers to OP\u2019s question - why don\u2019t all moons within a solar system  simply become planets around the Sun? Surly the suns gravitational effect is greater than any planet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8141.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bcam3b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Can a moon have a moon? What limits the \"levels\" of satellite that can exist in a stable solar system?", "c_root_id_A": "eksfj7j", "c_root_id_B": "ekputg7", "created_at_utc_A": 1555153701, "created_at_utc_B": 1555079145, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Gravity just needs to be strong enough to hold the system together. It is not impossible to imagine a sufficiently large planet with a sufficiently large moon that then has a smaller moon of its own. Your planet will have to be rather large, since its moon would be significantly smaller (otherwise we can't really call it a moon, and it would be more of a twin planet pairing), but the moon should still be large enough to have a moon of its own (which may end up being very small).  How such a thing would form is a bigger problem. Things would have to come together in just the right way. However, there might be quite a few things in which that could happen. Maybe the submoon would just be a rogue body that got caught in the planetary moon's gravity well. Maybe a large collision somewhere in space spawned a lot of debris that ended up forming two bodies. There are a few methods. It's unlikely to happen, but with the sheer amount of solar systems and planets out there, even the smallest chances happen eventually.", "human_ref_B": "A question comes to mind because of the answers to OP\u2019s question - why don\u2019t all moons within a solar system  simply become planets around the Sun? Surly the suns gravitational effect is greater than any planet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 74556.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bp5aqt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How have scientists improved the efficiency of solar cells in the past, and how are scientists trying to improve the efficiency of solar cells today? Like, what specifically do solar researchers research on a day-to-day basis, and what strategies have they tried in the past?  Also, what majors could I work toward in college if I wanted to help develop more efficient solar cells? (I'd guess electrical engineering or materials science, or even like physics or something, but I am not sure.)  Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "enp098m", "c_root_id_B": "enoss0u", "created_at_utc_A": 1557967541, "created_at_utc_B": 1557964563, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Broader absorption spectra (utilizing deeper absorption into UV and less selective about wavelengths in the visible spectrum) has increased the amount of raw energy collected.   Otherwise, I'm sure advances electrical engineering has improved the efficiency of power distribution.   If you want to work on solar technologies, I would recommend solid state physics and material science.", "human_ref_B": "I've read of improvements in the surface area of the panel by making them bumpy, changes in the glass to both stop blocking some spectrum and also amplify and focus the light on spots, and also changing the receptors to work with more of the spectrum.  I'm not sure how much of that is research or how much is applied.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2978.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bp5aqt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How have scientists improved the efficiency of solar cells in the past, and how are scientists trying to improve the efficiency of solar cells today? Like, what specifically do solar researchers research on a day-to-day basis, and what strategies have they tried in the past?  Also, what majors could I work toward in college if I wanted to help develop more efficient solar cells? (I'd guess electrical engineering or materials science, or even like physics or something, but I am not sure.)  Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "enp5zlp", "c_root_id_B": "ens5x63", "created_at_utc_A": 1557970102, "created_at_utc_B": 1558024664, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There is a lot of chemistry and materials research being done to improve the amount of light that is absorbed. Synthesizing new absorbers, understanding detrimental decay pathways, etc. There are relatively new fields called singlet fission (for organic materials) and multiple exciton generation (for inorganic semiconductors) where you can generate multiple electrons for each photon that is absorbed, which is pretty cool. There is also a lot of research being done to understand how to get electrons out of materials after they have absorbed light. So understanding polymer morphology, charge transfer between material interfaces, etc.  You could major in a physical science like chemistry, physics, or even biochemistry, or you could major in an engineering discipline (chemical engineering, electrical engineering, materials or polymers engineering) and still do research on improving solar cell efficiency. It is a very interdisciplinary field. I work in a chemistry department and we collectively do a lot of different things: traditional organic synthesis, materials science, device construction, computational chemistry and modelling. I personally use lasers to study what happens to molecules after they absorb light.  Other engineering fields work on alternative energy as well, but are more focused on the infrastructure aspects of it.", "human_ref_B": "A lot of the work on the panel side of the equation is on coming up with a cheap and efficient panel.  One of the current problems we have is that we have a lot of fairly cheap panels and a lot of efficient ones, but not a lot of them that are both.  https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/04/f30/efficiency_chart_0.jpg  We have fairly cheap solar panels like a lot of the Silicon based ones, but there are technologies we already know about that are much more efficient.  These technologies can usually be some combination of Galium, Indium, Arsinide, etc. (GaInAr)  however compared to Silicon these metals are not as abundant naturally and also have some other considerations to worry about.  Nor are they mass produced on the scale that Silicon is.   The GaInAr type panels and others in the same class can in many cases have twice the efficiency of many of the panels we currently have on the market, but they aren't really competitive for general use just yet. Plus the other thing a lot of work has been done on is ensuring the panels actually have long term endurance under constant use.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 54562.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bp5aqt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How have scientists improved the efficiency of solar cells in the past, and how are scientists trying to improve the efficiency of solar cells today? Like, what specifically do solar researchers research on a day-to-day basis, and what strategies have they tried in the past?  Also, what majors could I work toward in college if I wanted to help develop more efficient solar cells? (I'd guess electrical engineering or materials science, or even like physics or something, but I am not sure.)  Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "enr4hik", "c_root_id_B": "ens5x63", "created_at_utc_A": 1558008756, "created_at_utc_B": 1558024664, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There you go... The research was real, but the anticipated improvement didn't pan out.  This isn't so much about the surface area of the panels or cells, but maximizing the surface on which you can mount your panels...  https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/123719-mit-stacks-solar-panels-like-pancakes-increases-their-power-output-by-up-to-20x", "human_ref_B": "A lot of the work on the panel side of the equation is on coming up with a cheap and efficient panel.  One of the current problems we have is that we have a lot of fairly cheap panels and a lot of efficient ones, but not a lot of them that are both.  https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/04/f30/efficiency_chart_0.jpg  We have fairly cheap solar panels like a lot of the Silicon based ones, but there are technologies we already know about that are much more efficient.  These technologies can usually be some combination of Galium, Indium, Arsinide, etc. (GaInAr)  however compared to Silicon these metals are not as abundant naturally and also have some other considerations to worry about.  Nor are they mass produced on the scale that Silicon is.   The GaInAr type panels and others in the same class can in many cases have twice the efficiency of many of the panels we currently have on the market, but they aren't really competitive for general use just yet. Plus the other thing a lot of work has been done on is ensuring the panels actually have long term endurance under constant use.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15908.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bp5aqt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How have scientists improved the efficiency of solar cells in the past, and how are scientists trying to improve the efficiency of solar cells today? Like, what specifically do solar researchers research on a day-to-day basis, and what strategies have they tried in the past?  Also, what majors could I work toward in college if I wanted to help develop more efficient solar cells? (I'd guess electrical engineering or materials science, or even like physics or something, but I am not sure.)  Thank you", "c_root_id_A": "enr7coz", "c_root_id_B": "ens5x63", "created_at_utc_A": 1558010134, "created_at_utc_B": 1558024664, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There was actually a paper released just the other day about perovskite solar cells doped with *caffeine* of all things.  https://www.reddit.com/r/Physics/comments/bmweu1/new_material_bolsters_thinfilm_solar_cells/  Perovskite cells are supposed to be a much cheaper alternative to silicon-based cells, but they have a lot of problems with longevity; the crystal structure is unstable and breaks down too quickly to be commercially viable. This lab was trying to figure out an additive to boost the cells' performance and someone jokingly suggested caffeine. They tried it just to see what happened, and to the surprise of literally everyone it worked! The efficiency boost isn't spectacular (up from 17% to 19.8%), but the stability improvement is enormous: The \"decaffeinated\" cells lose 40% of their energy output after only 175 hours, but the caffeinated cells only lose 14% after 1300 hours!  They believe this works by slowing down the growth of the perovskite crystals (the article mentions the growth time increased from a couple of seconds to a couple of minutes), which allows the individual crystal grains to grow larger, and also by stabilizing the grain boundaries because each caffeine molecule can bond to two lead atoms in the crystal structure, effectively acting like a bridge between grains. They're using this knowledge to search for even better dopants.", "human_ref_B": "A lot of the work on the panel side of the equation is on coming up with a cheap and efficient panel.  One of the current problems we have is that we have a lot of fairly cheap panels and a lot of efficient ones, but not a lot of them that are both.  https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/04/f30/efficiency_chart_0.jpg  We have fairly cheap solar panels like a lot of the Silicon based ones, but there are technologies we already know about that are much more efficient.  These technologies can usually be some combination of Galium, Indium, Arsinide, etc. (GaInAr)  however compared to Silicon these metals are not as abundant naturally and also have some other considerations to worry about.  Nor are they mass produced on the scale that Silicon is.   The GaInAr type panels and others in the same class can in many cases have twice the efficiency of many of the panels we currently have on the market, but they aren't really competitive for general use just yet. Plus the other thing a lot of work has been done on is ensuring the panels actually have long term endurance under constant use.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14530.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dux56", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What does it mean to be immune to a disease, and how do \"carriers\" work? From what I understand (I might even be completely wrong?) there is bound to be at least one person on this earth immune to disease X, they could carry it and spread it - but not be affected and killed by it. How does this work? Does their immune system not care about the disease or just isolate it in the body? What happens?", "c_root_id_A": "c9u43k6", "c_root_id_B": "c9u4h41", "created_at_utc_A": 1367938087, "created_at_utc_B": 1367939320, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I realize you're talking about infectious diseases, but there is at least one other type of carrier.  My wife, for example, is a carrier of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.   Because she's female, her other X chromosome tends to pick up the slack, which is why women generally have no, or very mild symptoms.    However, a male child has 50/50 chance of getting the damage X-Chromosome from her.  Since males only have one X, they can't produce dystrophin, which results in the condition.  If she were to have a female child, she'd have a 50/50 chance of getting the bad X as well, and the daughter would then also be a carrier.", "human_ref_B": "There are different kinds of immunity.  If the infectious disease cannot grow in the host or has been completely wiped out, then they can't be a carrier.  This can happen several ways, for example:  1.  The disease has been completely obliterated by the concerted effort of your immune system or through drugs.  For example, if you clear a yeast infection completely, you can't give it to someone else afterwards because there's simply no yeast left.  2.  Certain people are naturally immune to certain types of disease because of there genetics.  For example, some people are immune to HIV because they don't have a receptor that HIV attaches to.  If the virus can't enter the cells, it can't infect and be passed on.  However, there are other disease that the host can contain (maybe for a little while anyway) and render asymptomatic but cannot completely clear, even with the help of drugs.  These include herpes, HIV.  The disease has mechanisms to avoid or suppress the immune system enough that there aren't any symptoms, but the disease can still be transmitted.  Every disease has it's own way of doing though.  Typhoid fever, for example, can be asymptomatic in a host, but still be tranmissible because in certain people the bacteria can \"hide\" from the host immune defense.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1233.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dux56", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What does it mean to be immune to a disease, and how do \"carriers\" work? From what I understand (I might even be completely wrong?) there is bound to be at least one person on this earth immune to disease X, they could carry it and spread it - but not be affected and killed by it. How does this work? Does their immune system not care about the disease or just isolate it in the body? What happens?", "c_root_id_A": "c9u2zoo", "c_root_id_B": "c9u4h41", "created_at_utc_A": 1367934165, "created_at_utc_B": 1367939320, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Well, assuming a disease is infectious and communicable, being immune to it means you have antibodies to it that have previously killed such an infection, whether a full-blown infection or a vaccine, and are unlikely to develop the full-blown disease of that particular strain again.  In the case of 'carriers', resistance to full-blown infection is probably dependent partially on genetics.", "human_ref_B": "There are different kinds of immunity.  If the infectious disease cannot grow in the host or has been completely wiped out, then they can't be a carrier.  This can happen several ways, for example:  1.  The disease has been completely obliterated by the concerted effort of your immune system or through drugs.  For example, if you clear a yeast infection completely, you can't give it to someone else afterwards because there's simply no yeast left.  2.  Certain people are naturally immune to certain types of disease because of there genetics.  For example, some people are immune to HIV because they don't have a receptor that HIV attaches to.  If the virus can't enter the cells, it can't infect and be passed on.  However, there are other disease that the host can contain (maybe for a little while anyway) and render asymptomatic but cannot completely clear, even with the help of drugs.  These include herpes, HIV.  The disease has mechanisms to avoid or suppress the immune system enough that there aren't any symptoms, but the disease can still be transmitted.  Every disease has it's own way of doing though.  Typhoid fever, for example, can be asymptomatic in a host, but still be tranmissible because in certain people the bacteria can \"hide\" from the host immune defense.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5155.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dux56", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What does it mean to be immune to a disease, and how do \"carriers\" work? From what I understand (I might even be completely wrong?) there is bound to be at least one person on this earth immune to disease X, they could carry it and spread it - but not be affected and killed by it. How does this work? Does their immune system not care about the disease or just isolate it in the body? What happens?", "c_root_id_A": "c9u4h41", "c_root_id_B": "c9u3rn1", "created_at_utc_A": 1367939320, "created_at_utc_B": 1367937007, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There are different kinds of immunity.  If the infectious disease cannot grow in the host or has been completely wiped out, then they can't be a carrier.  This can happen several ways, for example:  1.  The disease has been completely obliterated by the concerted effort of your immune system or through drugs.  For example, if you clear a yeast infection completely, you can't give it to someone else afterwards because there's simply no yeast left.  2.  Certain people are naturally immune to certain types of disease because of there genetics.  For example, some people are immune to HIV because they don't have a receptor that HIV attaches to.  If the virus can't enter the cells, it can't infect and be passed on.  However, there are other disease that the host can contain (maybe for a little while anyway) and render asymptomatic but cannot completely clear, even with the help of drugs.  These include herpes, HIV.  The disease has mechanisms to avoid or suppress the immune system enough that there aren't any symptoms, but the disease can still be transmitted.  Every disease has it's own way of doing though.  Typhoid fever, for example, can be asymptomatic in a host, but still be tranmissible because in certain people the bacteria can \"hide\" from the host immune defense.", "human_ref_B": "A famous carrier in history: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_Mary The exact mechanism of her immunity was unknown, I believe.  The short answer to your question is that immunity mechanism varies between disease and body- there is no single catch-all mechanism.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2313.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dux56", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What does it mean to be immune to a disease, and how do \"carriers\" work? From what I understand (I might even be completely wrong?) there is bound to be at least one person on this earth immune to disease X, they could carry it and spread it - but not be affected and killed by it. How does this work? Does their immune system not care about the disease or just isolate it in the body? What happens?", "c_root_id_A": "c9u2zoo", "c_root_id_B": "c9u43k6", "created_at_utc_A": 1367934165, "created_at_utc_B": 1367938087, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Well, assuming a disease is infectious and communicable, being immune to it means you have antibodies to it that have previously killed such an infection, whether a full-blown infection or a vaccine, and are unlikely to develop the full-blown disease of that particular strain again.  In the case of 'carriers', resistance to full-blown infection is probably dependent partially on genetics.", "human_ref_B": "I realize you're talking about infectious diseases, but there is at least one other type of carrier.  My wife, for example, is a carrier of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.   Because she's female, her other X chromosome tends to pick up the slack, which is why women generally have no, or very mild symptoms.    However, a male child has 50/50 chance of getting the damage X-Chromosome from her.  Since males only have one X, they can't produce dystrophin, which results in the condition.  If she were to have a female child, she'd have a 50/50 chance of getting the bad X as well, and the daughter would then also be a carrier.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3922.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1dux56", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What does it mean to be immune to a disease, and how do \"carriers\" work? From what I understand (I might even be completely wrong?) there is bound to be at least one person on this earth immune to disease X, they could carry it and spread it - but not be affected and killed by it. How does this work? Does their immune system not care about the disease or just isolate it in the body? What happens?", "c_root_id_A": "c9u3rn1", "c_root_id_B": "c9u43k6", "created_at_utc_A": 1367937007, "created_at_utc_B": 1367938087, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "A famous carrier in history: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_Mary The exact mechanism of her immunity was unknown, I believe.  The short answer to your question is that immunity mechanism varies between disease and body- there is no single catch-all mechanism.", "human_ref_B": "I realize you're talking about infectious diseases, but there is at least one other type of carrier.  My wife, for example, is a carrier of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.   Because she's female, her other X chromosome tends to pick up the slack, which is why women generally have no, or very mild symptoms.    However, a male child has 50/50 chance of getting the damage X-Chromosome from her.  Since males only have one X, they can't produce dystrophin, which results in the condition.  If she were to have a female child, she'd have a 50/50 chance of getting the bad X as well, and the daughter would then also be a carrier.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1080.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1zmibh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why do cells have a copy of the whole genome instead of only the genes they need? It isn't energetically expensive to copy ALL the DNA when the cell undergoes mitosis? Neurons use a very different set of genes than, for instance, hepatic cells, or muscular cells. Why not just have a copy only of the genes they need?", "c_root_id_A": "cfv0mn3", "c_root_id_B": "cfv0htl", "created_at_utc_A": 1394035260, "created_at_utc_B": 1394034953, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "First of all, since an organism evolving multicellularity would already have a mechanisms for silencing genes in response to it's environment, these mechanisms are probably the easiest way for different cell types to evolve. This is what we see when we compare the silencing mechanisms in say yeast, to humans. Yeast have only one cell type, but the systems they use to turn off say, their sporulation genes, are related to what we use to switch off brain genes in our muscles. Elimination of DNA would require some complex, reliable targeting mechanism not present in single cells. No sense evolving wings from scratch if you can just repurpose your arms.  It's also worth noting that some ciliates (single celled organisms unrelated to plants animals or fungi) DO eliminate some of their genome, when they create a second, larger 'Macronucleus' (this nucleus does most of the work in the cell, but is never replicated. they have a second smaller germline nucleus which is used to reproduce).  This mechanism hasn't evolved in complex organisms, and one could speculate that a complex organism has too much to lose by re-arranging it's DNA. Broken DNA can lead to random re-arrangements and deletions, so one slip up could lead to a cancerous cell and kill the whole organism.   Remember as well that the DNA exists in only 2 molecules per cell -replicating it might not offer a large energy saving compared to maintaining a complex system of proteins to do the genome elimination.  Also note that genes can get re activated - such as when amphibians regenerate lost limbs. Simpler animals are even better at this, so it may have been important even if humans have lost it.  It's possible of course that if we could run evolution on again a few thousand times we'd end up with complex genome eliminating organisms some or even most of the time. Evolution just builds on the first solution it hits. This isn't necessarily the only solution it could have hit, or the best possible.", "human_ref_B": "Because it would be much more difficult than just silencing genes that shouldn't be expressed in each cell type epigenetically (via DNA methylation, histone modifications, lincRNAs, etc).  There are also very few genes that are truly cell-type-specific. Essentially all genes are expressed at least transiently in most cells (and often at very low levels). It's not really clear yet whether this is just \"noise\" in the system or if it plays some essential part in biology.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 307.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1zmibh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why do cells have a copy of the whole genome instead of only the genes they need? It isn't energetically expensive to copy ALL the DNA when the cell undergoes mitosis? Neurons use a very different set of genes than, for instance, hepatic cells, or muscular cells. Why not just have a copy only of the genes they need?", "c_root_id_A": "cfv0g68", "c_root_id_B": "cfv0mn3", "created_at_utc_A": 1394034847, "created_at_utc_B": 1394035260, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Before the cells differentiated into the different cell types, they were all the same totipotent cells in the developing fetus.  As the cells begin to differentiate they express certain genes and inactivate others.  This gives rise to the different cell types found throughout the body.    As to your question, why would you only want the set of genes the cell needs?  This is a very simplistic outlook on how the cells in the body function and communicate.  Don't think of the body as a static object but rather an object constantly changing and adapting to the ever changing external, and internal, environment.  As a cell, you want access to the entire genome to quickly respond to any event in the body.  If you only have a specific number of genes at your disposal, then you are limited in your ability to mount a strong response.  Again, this is very simplistic view, but this is a complex process and one we, as scientists, are actively pursuing figuring out.  In an ending note, I mentioned early-on in my response about the totipotency of stem cells.  Currently we have the ability to take human Fibroblasts and induce them to form pluripotent stem cells.  This is phenomenal in respect to the long-held belief that once cells differentiated into a mature state, they could not go back to pluripotent status.  This research has shown that even mature cells have pluripotent potential in their mature form!  Even newer research has shown they can be induced using a low-acid solution.  Does this mean it could be possible for the body to naturally produce pluripotent stem cells?  We don't have the answer yet, but it is possible.  Tl;dr Limiting your genetic repertoire limits the ability of the cell, organ, body to respond to an ever changing external and internal environment.", "human_ref_B": "First of all, since an organism evolving multicellularity would already have a mechanisms for silencing genes in response to it's environment, these mechanisms are probably the easiest way for different cell types to evolve. This is what we see when we compare the silencing mechanisms in say yeast, to humans. Yeast have only one cell type, but the systems they use to turn off say, their sporulation genes, are related to what we use to switch off brain genes in our muscles. Elimination of DNA would require some complex, reliable targeting mechanism not present in single cells. No sense evolving wings from scratch if you can just repurpose your arms.  It's also worth noting that some ciliates (single celled organisms unrelated to plants animals or fungi) DO eliminate some of their genome, when they create a second, larger 'Macronucleus' (this nucleus does most of the work in the cell, but is never replicated. they have a second smaller germline nucleus which is used to reproduce).  This mechanism hasn't evolved in complex organisms, and one could speculate that a complex organism has too much to lose by re-arranging it's DNA. Broken DNA can lead to random re-arrangements and deletions, so one slip up could lead to a cancerous cell and kill the whole organism.   Remember as well that the DNA exists in only 2 molecules per cell -replicating it might not offer a large energy saving compared to maintaining a complex system of proteins to do the genome elimination.  Also note that genes can get re activated - such as when amphibians regenerate lost limbs. Simpler animals are even better at this, so it may have been important even if humans have lost it.  It's possible of course that if we could run evolution on again a few thousand times we'd end up with complex genome eliminating organisms some or even most of the time. Evolution just builds on the first solution it hits. This isn't necessarily the only solution it could have hit, or the best possible.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 413.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1zmibh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why do cells have a copy of the whole genome instead of only the genes they need? It isn't energetically expensive to copy ALL the DNA when the cell undergoes mitosis? Neurons use a very different set of genes than, for instance, hepatic cells, or muscular cells. Why not just have a copy only of the genes they need?", "c_root_id_A": "cfv0htl", "c_root_id_B": "cfv3rju", "created_at_utc_A": 1394034953, "created_at_utc_B": 1394042034, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Because it would be much more difficult than just silencing genes that shouldn't be expressed in each cell type epigenetically (via DNA methylation, histone modifications, lincRNAs, etc).  There are also very few genes that are truly cell-type-specific. Essentially all genes are expressed at least transiently in most cells (and often at very low levels). It's not really clear yet whether this is just \"noise\" in the system or if it plays some essential part in biology.", "human_ref_B": "Because. Evolution is a stochastic process. The metazoan lineage (of which we are a part) doesn't do programmatic DNA rearrangement. Other organisms, such as ciliates, chop there DNA up into tiny pieces and do all sorts of stuff with it. It is entirely possible that if cilliates had become multicellular, they would use programmatic DNA rearrangements to regulate cell fate. But they didn't become multicellular. Instead our linage did. And we don't rearrange our DNA.  There are all sorts of limits that evolutionary history places on organisms. There are many organisms that would benefit from having wings. Wings are wonderful things. But, these organisms don't have them because their ancestors didn't have them and that is that. Just because it would be wonderful to have a trait doesn't mean the trait evolves. Wouldn\u2019t it be nice if we lived forever? Well, to bad, we don't, and that is that.   Additionally copying DNA isn't really very expensive. Nearly the entire energy budget of a cell is spent on producing proteins and ribosomes, and very little is spent on replicating DNA. Even in extremely fast growing bacteria there seems to be no relationship between genome size and growth rate, so I wouldn't expect a slowly growing organisms that does very little cell division to have even the slightest problem dealing with enormous genomes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7081.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1zmibh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why do cells have a copy of the whole genome instead of only the genes they need? It isn't energetically expensive to copy ALL the DNA when the cell undergoes mitosis? Neurons use a very different set of genes than, for instance, hepatic cells, or muscular cells. Why not just have a copy only of the genes they need?", "c_root_id_A": "cfv3rju", "c_root_id_B": "cfv0g68", "created_at_utc_A": 1394042034, "created_at_utc_B": 1394034847, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Because. Evolution is a stochastic process. The metazoan lineage (of which we are a part) doesn't do programmatic DNA rearrangement. Other organisms, such as ciliates, chop there DNA up into tiny pieces and do all sorts of stuff with it. It is entirely possible that if cilliates had become multicellular, they would use programmatic DNA rearrangements to regulate cell fate. But they didn't become multicellular. Instead our linage did. And we don't rearrange our DNA.  There are all sorts of limits that evolutionary history places on organisms. There are many organisms that would benefit from having wings. Wings are wonderful things. But, these organisms don't have them because their ancestors didn't have them and that is that. Just because it would be wonderful to have a trait doesn't mean the trait evolves. Wouldn\u2019t it be nice if we lived forever? Well, to bad, we don't, and that is that.   Additionally copying DNA isn't really very expensive. Nearly the entire energy budget of a cell is spent on producing proteins and ribosomes, and very little is spent on replicating DNA. Even in extremely fast growing bacteria there seems to be no relationship between genome size and growth rate, so I wouldn't expect a slowly growing organisms that does very little cell division to have even the slightest problem dealing with enormous genomes.", "human_ref_B": "Before the cells differentiated into the different cell types, they were all the same totipotent cells in the developing fetus.  As the cells begin to differentiate they express certain genes and inactivate others.  This gives rise to the different cell types found throughout the body.    As to your question, why would you only want the set of genes the cell needs?  This is a very simplistic outlook on how the cells in the body function and communicate.  Don't think of the body as a static object but rather an object constantly changing and adapting to the ever changing external, and internal, environment.  As a cell, you want access to the entire genome to quickly respond to any event in the body.  If you only have a specific number of genes at your disposal, then you are limited in your ability to mount a strong response.  Again, this is very simplistic view, but this is a complex process and one we, as scientists, are actively pursuing figuring out.  In an ending note, I mentioned early-on in my response about the totipotency of stem cells.  Currently we have the ability to take human Fibroblasts and induce them to form pluripotent stem cells.  This is phenomenal in respect to the long-held belief that once cells differentiated into a mature state, they could not go back to pluripotent status.  This research has shown that even mature cells have pluripotent potential in their mature form!  Even newer research has shown they can be induced using a low-acid solution.  Does this mean it could be possible for the body to naturally produce pluripotent stem cells?  We don't have the answer yet, but it is possible.  Tl;dr Limiting your genetic repertoire limits the ability of the cell, organ, body to respond to an ever changing external and internal environment.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7187.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r6qm1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "How do we know the decimals of Pi are infinite if we've never counted far enough? I don't understand how the value of Pi is calculated. How do we know what the next digit is? Is there ever an end to Pi? How do we know that it has an infinite amount of digits if we don't have computers to work it out?   (Wasn't sure whether to post this here or on r/shittyaskscience but I want a legitimate answer so I'll ask here)", "c_root_id_A": "c43c4xi", "c_root_id_B": "c43c3or", "created_at_utc_A": 1332339727, "created_at_utc_B": 1332339524, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "It's not hard to prove using a bit of geometry and some calculus that pi is what's called an \"irrational\" number\u2014that is, a number that **cannot** be represented as a fraction of two integers. Another famous example of such a number is the square root of 2.  Now think about how decimals work. (We'll stick in base 10 for now, but this works for any base).  * First you write an integer, say 3. * Then you put a digit after the decimal point in the tenths place, to make something like 3.1, which represents the number 31/10. * Then you add another digit in the hundredths place, to make something like 3.14, which represents the number 314/100. * And so on.  Once you put a digit in the nth place, you're representing your number as a fraction with denominator 10^n ; but pi **cannot be represented as a fraction of integers**, so no finite decimal expansion is the actual value of pi. Therefore, you need infinitely many digits.", "human_ref_B": "We know qualities that the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter must have.  One of those is that it's not representable by a fraction of two integers -- and only things representable by a fraction of two integers have terminating or repeating decimals.  (So really, \"most\" numbers go on forever)  In addition, we also know that Pi is not a solution of any polynomial with rational coefficients.  And we also know that only solutions of polynomials with rational coefficients coefficients can possibly have numbers with terminating or repeating digits, due to the power of logic and stuff.  Some places to look for more research:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi#Irrationality_and_transcendence", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 203.0, "score_ratio": 3.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r6qm1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "How do we know the decimals of Pi are infinite if we've never counted far enough? I don't understand how the value of Pi is calculated. How do we know what the next digit is? Is there ever an end to Pi? How do we know that it has an infinite amount of digits if we don't have computers to work it out?   (Wasn't sure whether to post this here or on r/shittyaskscience but I want a legitimate answer so I'll ask here)", "c_root_id_A": "c43c4xi", "c_root_id_B": "c43c45l", "created_at_utc_A": 1332339727, "created_at_utc_B": 1332339600, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It's not hard to prove using a bit of geometry and some calculus that pi is what's called an \"irrational\" number\u2014that is, a number that **cannot** be represented as a fraction of two integers. Another famous example of such a number is the square root of 2.  Now think about how decimals work. (We'll stick in base 10 for now, but this works for any base).  * First you write an integer, say 3. * Then you put a digit after the decimal point in the tenths place, to make something like 3.1, which represents the number 31/10. * Then you add another digit in the hundredths place, to make something like 3.14, which represents the number 314/100. * And so on.  Once you put a digit in the nth place, you're representing your number as a fraction with denominator 10^n ; but pi **cannot be represented as a fraction of integers**, so no finite decimal expansion is the actual value of pi. Therefore, you need infinitely many digits.", "human_ref_B": "Because pi is not a rational number. A rational number would be a quotient of two integers. Since it is not a rational number, the decimal expansion of pi does not end, and doesn't repeat. Not ending and not repeating is a property of irrational numbers.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 127.0, "score_ratio": 7.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r6qm1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "How do we know the decimals of Pi are infinite if we've never counted far enough? I don't understand how the value of Pi is calculated. How do we know what the next digit is? Is there ever an end to Pi? How do we know that it has an infinite amount of digits if we don't have computers to work it out?   (Wasn't sure whether to post this here or on r/shittyaskscience but I want a legitimate answer so I'll ask here)", "c_root_id_A": "c43c45l", "c_root_id_B": "c43e7uq", "created_at_utc_A": 1332339600, "created_at_utc_B": 1332349996, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Because pi is not a rational number. A rational number would be a quotient of two integers. Since it is not a rational number, the decimal expansion of pi does not end, and doesn't repeat. Not ending and not repeating is a property of irrational numbers.", "human_ref_B": "A very good respond here as well  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mlnc7/how_do_we_know_pi_is_neverending_and_nonrepeating/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10396.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "22d6kf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Why do bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics but not hand sanitizers? Aren't the same rules for natural selection the same for both threats?", "c_root_id_A": "cglq7r8", "c_root_id_B": "cglqfhg", "created_at_utc_A": 1396821222, "created_at_utc_B": 1396821737, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I wouldn't exactly say this.  Bacteria can form resistances to antibiotics and to hand sanitizers.  More importantly, the problem with hand sanitizers is that they tend to kill most bacteria, including the good ones that help keep your skin soft and healthy.  As a microbiologist I tend to just wash my hands with soap and water.  I'm of the mind that hand sanitizers help to promote superbugs like MRSA and other resistant bacteria.  Unfortunately there isn't much (if any) peer reviewed literature out there that addresses this issue.  Hand sanitizers can be good in certain situations where you clearly need disinfection, but an overuse can be bad.  Everything in moderation, right?  Sorry if that didn't quite answer your question.  I can dig some more if you'd like further information.", "human_ref_B": "To build on xerale's answer: Stuff like the alcohol in hand sanitizer and bleach act by attacking the structure of the bacteria. It's like dousing something in acid or blowing it up. The downside to this is that you can't treat a person's infection this way. You'd destroy their cells too. So it's good for sterilizing a countertop, but not people. In theory, the bacteria could develop a resistance to bleach or alcohol, but it'd likely be so cumbersome or energetically expensive that the it would make it hard to live. Then they'd be outcompeted by other bacteria when either alcohol or bleach wasn't around.  Antibiotics act more subtly. They do things like block protein production in ribosomes, prevent growing bacterial cell walls from forming by mimicking proteins that are used there, or inhibiting DNA synthesis. Typically these things are targeted at specific bacterial structures, so they don't affect humans as much. These are also things that bacteria can develop resistance to by slightly changing their ribosomal structure or activating cellular pumps that pump out the antibiotic before it can affect the bacteria. The changes are smaller and don't cost as much, resource-wise, so they're much more likely to get propagated down the line.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 515.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kfknb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If a modern day automobile were sent back in time to 1885, would they be able to keep it functional for very long? Obviously there would be problems like an absence of gasoline, motor oil, tires, spark plugs, etc.  Would 19th century science be able to keep the car running and maintained?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jvmky", "c_root_id_B": "c2jvlcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1316028336, "created_at_utc_B": 1316028095, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is this a hidden way of asking if Back to the Future Part III is historically accurate?", "human_ref_B": "As long as the more advanced parts of the car didn't break down eg. the microchip- they could probably reverse engineer enough of the components to keep one running for quite some time given that it was functional in the first place.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 241.0, "score_ratio": 17.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kfknb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If a modern day automobile were sent back in time to 1885, would they be able to keep it functional for very long? Obviously there would be problems like an absence of gasoline, motor oil, tires, spark plugs, etc.  Would 19th century science be able to keep the car running and maintained?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jvlcc", "c_root_id_B": "c2jvzmn", "created_at_utc_A": 1316028095, "created_at_utc_B": 1316030761, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "As long as the more advanced parts of the car didn't break down eg. the microchip- they could probably reverse engineer enough of the components to keep one running for quite some time given that it was functional in the first place.", "human_ref_B": "High octane fuels werent commonly available until after WWII.   Most gasoline powered cars from 100(+) years ago had compression ratios of 7:1 or (typically) much lower than that. The engines were hand cranked, had poor cooling systems (relatively) and ran much cooler as a result of necessity.   The high heat operating temps and relatively high compression ratio of modern engines (not uncommon to see greater than 9:1) would make a modern gasoline powered auto a terrible candidate for the low octane fuel that was available back then.   Diesel or perhaps even a flex fuel vehicle (could blend alcohol with the fuel of yesteryear perhaps) would likely fare much better. The low octane rating of early fuels would cause even a modern, electronically controlled, engine to detonate it's self to death.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2666.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kfknb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If a modern day automobile were sent back in time to 1885, would they be able to keep it functional for very long? Obviously there would be problems like an absence of gasoline, motor oil, tires, spark plugs, etc.  Would 19th century science be able to keep the car running and maintained?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jw8nw", "c_root_id_B": "c2jvlcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1316032497, "created_at_utc_B": 1316028095, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Just the automobile and no manuals or people with it? Nah, it wouldn't last \"very long\", if you're defining that by the length of time cars usually last. By the time they figured out how most of the parts work and interact with each other, too many will have probably broken to get them all replicated and replaced. Additionally, you have to consider how specialized most engine fluids are nowadays. But let's assume they can figure out how to make those fluids. There's one technology they just simply could not have done then: replace the computers in the cars. I hear my old man yelling in my ear \"they're not computers, they're just control cards\", because they're essentially tiny circuit boards with a processor and some programming, but the fact remains that they can't make those in 1885, and modern cars have some pretty vital things monitored and controlled by computers, control cards, whatever you want to call them. As soon as transistors, processors and such start frying, that modern car is toast unless the circuit that fried was controlling an accessory. Additionally, did they have the technology to make fuses then? Because as soon as you get a fuse blown, you may have problems just with those.", "human_ref_B": "As long as the more advanced parts of the car didn't break down eg. the microchip- they could probably reverse engineer enough of the components to keep one running for quite some time given that it was functional in the first place.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4402.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kfknb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If a modern day automobile were sent back in time to 1885, would they be able to keep it functional for very long? Obviously there would be problems like an absence of gasoline, motor oil, tires, spark plugs, etc.  Would 19th century science be able to keep the car running and maintained?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jwcao", "c_root_id_B": "c2jvlcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1316033233, "created_at_utc_B": 1316028095, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This depends. Something like a Prius? No , probably not due to the fact that it is full of computers and ECU's and all sorts of other electronic nonsense. A car from the 60's or 70's though I can imagine you could make last a very long time as long as you had a source of consumables like oil and gas. Pretty much every part on a 70's chevy could be machines by a skilled machinist/tool maker.", "human_ref_B": "As long as the more advanced parts of the car didn't break down eg. the microchip- they could probably reverse engineer enough of the components to keep one running for quite some time given that it was functional in the first place.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5138.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kfknb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If a modern day automobile were sent back in time to 1885, would they be able to keep it functional for very long? Obviously there would be problems like an absence of gasoline, motor oil, tires, spark plugs, etc.  Would 19th century science be able to keep the car running and maintained?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jwrvh", "c_root_id_B": "c2jvlcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1316036452, "created_at_utc_B": 1316028095, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Totally read the title as 1995 and was thoroughly confused by all the comments", "human_ref_B": "As long as the more advanced parts of the car didn't break down eg. the microchip- they could probably reverse engineer enough of the components to keep one running for quite some time given that it was functional in the first place.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8357.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kfknb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If a modern day automobile were sent back in time to 1885, would they be able to keep it functional for very long? Obviously there would be problems like an absence of gasoline, motor oil, tires, spark plugs, etc.  Would 19th century science be able to keep the car running and maintained?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jvlcc", "c_root_id_B": "c2jx1hq", "created_at_utc_A": 1316028095, "created_at_utc_B": 1316038558, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As long as the more advanced parts of the car didn't break down eg. the microchip- they could probably reverse engineer enough of the components to keep one running for quite some time given that it was functional in the first place.", "human_ref_B": "You might want to x-post this in r/AskHistorians.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10463.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kfknb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If a modern day automobile were sent back in time to 1885, would they be able to keep it functional for very long? Obviously there would be problems like an absence of gasoline, motor oil, tires, spark plugs, etc.  Would 19th century science be able to keep the car running and maintained?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jx1hq", "c_root_id_B": "c2jwzrw", "created_at_utc_A": 1316038558, "created_at_utc_B": 1316038153, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You might want to x-post this in r/AskHistorians.", "human_ref_B": "I'd just take spare parts of the Delorean that I hid inside a cave. Then leave the future version to get the parts replaced before going back in time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 405.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kfknb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "If a modern day automobile were sent back in time to 1885, would they be able to keep it functional for very long? Obviously there would be problems like an absence of gasoline, motor oil, tires, spark plugs, etc.  Would 19th century science be able to keep the car running and maintained?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jx0l9", "c_root_id_B": "c2jx1hq", "created_at_utc_A": 1316038354, "created_at_utc_B": 1316038558, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Send a diesel truck/car back and you'll be fine.", "human_ref_B": "You might want to x-post this in r/AskHistorians.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 204.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pgh5f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why is it so much worse to get chicken pox as an adult than as a kid? I always assumed our immune systems got better as we got older (eventually declining with old age obviously)", "c_root_id_A": "c3pcch4", "c_root_id_B": "c3pcks8", "created_at_utc_A": 1328755888, "created_at_utc_B": 1328757386, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If you're asking about getting chicken pox for the first time (not reappearance of a childhood virus as shingles) then the most frequent complication in adults is varicella pneumonia and adults are much (~25x) more likely to get varicella pneumonia than children.   Like the other answers, this just raises your question to \"Why are adults more likely to get pneumonia?\" It looks like the main risk factors for varicella pneumonia are smoking, lung disease, direct contact with infected (caring for child) and pregnancy. I'm not sure if it's any or all of the answer but all of those risk factors are things that are obviously much more likely in adults.", "human_ref_B": "I just read a couple of interesting articles about this.  It sounds like a decrease in  cell mediated immunity towards the virus as we age is the culprit. During an infection, our body responds in two ways: a cell-mediated response (wikipedia has a better explanation that I could put here), or a humoral response where we make antibodies to fight the current infection and stave off future infections.   Unlike many other diseases, when attacked by the chicken pox virus, or varicella zoster (VZV), the body's response by making antibodies is not very effective at clearing the disease though it is still effective at preventing future infections.  This is why it can reactivate, causing shingles, in immunocompromised patients or in the elderly as their VSV cell mediated response declines.  I believe these articles are implying the lack of both of significant cell mediated response in an adult with no antibodies makes the disease much more difficult for the body to handle.  When you say our immune system gets better as we get older, I think you are referring the the fact we build up antibodies to more pathogens.  Sadly, this only helps for the ones we have been exposed to, and if you weren't as a kid or were never immunized, your out of luck.  Couple of good articles, but a bit technical:  1 - Scroll down to the cell mediated immunity section  2 - Good overview of VSV. Figure 5 shows the decline of the cell mediated response to the virus with age.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1498.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "26ou9i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "They say magnetic fields do no work. What is going on in this .gif of a ferrofluid being lifted by a magnet? Is it really being lifted by a magnet? Here is .gif link  http://www.gfycat.com/GreatHeftyCanadagoose  I am a senior physics undergraduate who has had EMT, so hit me with the math if need be.  In my course it was explained that magnetic fields do no work.  How the sort of phenomena as in the .gif occur was not elaborated upon.", "c_root_id_A": "chtae5n", "c_root_id_B": "chtdmn9", "created_at_utc_A": 1401300243, "created_at_utc_B": 1401306667, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Hey, let's get back to basics, take a moment and define what we mean by \"work\" anyway.  Work = Force x Distance.  If I push a 10 lb box across the room, moving it 10 feet, I've done work. 10 lb * 10 ft = 100 ft lbf = 135.6 Joules = 0.04 Watt hours  If I push as hard as I can against a stationary wall but the wall doesn't move, I haven't done any work. 50 lb * 0 ft = 0 work.  This whole business of defining a field around magnet serves to help us quantify the difference between two points.  It's the same thing as saying a hill exists in different points in a gravity field.  Roll a ball up a hill?  That requires a force exerted over a distance, so work's getting done.  Let a ball roll down a hill?  Same thing, just that gravity is doing the pushing instead of me.  Likewise, if we were talking about a magnet picking up a steel ball bearing, the magnet would be exerting a force across some distance (as the ball rises).  Work's done, because the force acted across a distance.  This example with the ferrofluid is really the same thing, except instead of a single steel ball bearing, we've got lots of tiny bits of iron in suspension in a liquid.  The math is a lot harder, but it's still a force acting on some mass of stuff, moving across some distance.  That's work.  If I may go further: the magnet isn't expending any energy.  You could pick up ball bearings or ferrofluid once, twice or a thousand times.  This action isn't going to change the magnetic field of the permanent magnet any more than rolling a ball down a hill a thousand times is going to change a hill.  While you can demagnetize permanent magnets in a number of ways (heat, shock, powerful magnetic fields), simply picking stuff up doesn't \"expend\" any of the magnet's magnetization.", "human_ref_B": "In this lowest-order approximation, the appropriate Hamiltonian for the particles and dipoles is the Darwin Hamiltonian: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_Lagrangian (here for charged particles only). If you take this expression and substitute dipoles for charged particles, then you can see that work can be done between dipoles/magnets. This is also what gives you the fine structure in spectral lines: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_structure .  People (physicists included) get confused because a magnetic dipole is just some spinning charge and so if the magnetostatic field does no work work on charged particles, then it can't do any work on dipoles right? But from the Darwin Hamiltonian, you can see that there are relativistic corrections for charged particles, like the spin-orbit interaction http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93orbit_interaction , which does have an energy associated with it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6424.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "26ou9i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "They say magnetic fields do no work. What is going on in this .gif of a ferrofluid being lifted by a magnet? Is it really being lifted by a magnet? Here is .gif link  http://www.gfycat.com/GreatHeftyCanadagoose  I am a senior physics undergraduate who has had EMT, so hit me with the math if need be.  In my course it was explained that magnetic fields do no work.  How the sort of phenomena as in the .gif occur was not elaborated upon.", "c_root_id_A": "chtmbps", "c_root_id_B": "chtae5n", "created_at_utc_A": 1401326480, "created_at_utc_B": 1401300243, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It's been a while since my physics degree, but if i remember correctly, the reason they say 'magnetic fields do no work' is because it's actually the electric field that is doing the work.  I don't remember the details, but if you change your reference frame, you will find the magnetic field is creating an electric field, and the electric field is doing the work.", "human_ref_B": "Hey, let's get back to basics, take a moment and define what we mean by \"work\" anyway.  Work = Force x Distance.  If I push a 10 lb box across the room, moving it 10 feet, I've done work. 10 lb * 10 ft = 100 ft lbf = 135.6 Joules = 0.04 Watt hours  If I push as hard as I can against a stationary wall but the wall doesn't move, I haven't done any work. 50 lb * 0 ft = 0 work.  This whole business of defining a field around magnet serves to help us quantify the difference between two points.  It's the same thing as saying a hill exists in different points in a gravity field.  Roll a ball up a hill?  That requires a force exerted over a distance, so work's getting done.  Let a ball roll down a hill?  Same thing, just that gravity is doing the pushing instead of me.  Likewise, if we were talking about a magnet picking up a steel ball bearing, the magnet would be exerting a force across some distance (as the ball rises).  Work's done, because the force acted across a distance.  This example with the ferrofluid is really the same thing, except instead of a single steel ball bearing, we've got lots of tiny bits of iron in suspension in a liquid.  The math is a lot harder, but it's still a force acting on some mass of stuff, moving across some distance.  That's work.  If I may go further: the magnet isn't expending any energy.  You could pick up ball bearings or ferrofluid once, twice or a thousand times.  This action isn't going to change the magnetic field of the permanent magnet any more than rolling a ball down a hill a thousand times is going to change a hill.  While you can demagnetize permanent magnets in a number of ways (heat, shock, powerful magnetic fields), simply picking stuff up doesn't \"expend\" any of the magnet's magnetization.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26237.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83m74d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is there any reason Death Valley happens to be both one of the lowest and hottest points on earth, or is this just a coincidence?", "c_root_id_A": "dviyw3q", "c_root_id_B": "dvj57x3", "created_at_utc_A": 1520776170, "created_at_utc_B": 1520784837, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 82, "human_ref_A": "A low-lying area in lee of mountains will often experience higher temperatures due to foehn wind, and it gets stronger the bigger the elevation difference. In addition, lower-lying areas tend to be hotter due to an amplified greenhouse effect.  There's also some peculiarity with the shape of the valley sort of trapping the air and hampering the convection that would normally spread more of the heat upwards. How much that depends on the low elevation of the valley I'm not sure.", "human_ref_B": "Okay important:  It *gets* the hottest. In summer, it has record high temperatures. In winter, even the nearby Sonoran desert will be warmer than Death Valley.  The high temperature is due to a combination of the low elevation (higher atmospheric pressure) and extremely dry conditions allowing for high insolation (\"insolation\" being sunlight).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8667.0, "score_ratio": 3.9047619048, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2oyboz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How do submarines navigate without sonar and avoid hitting things? I was watching the hunt for red October and started thinking about submarine navigation. I know they have depth gauges and charts that they can use to keep track of their location but two specific questions:  1. Without using sonar, how can they be sure how far they are from the bottom? Doesn't the depth of the ocean change in certain areas at certain times depending on the moon and storms and other things? Is that difference just negligible? Is the depth gauge always accurate to some constant \"top\" point where the measurement starts? Obviously they can use sonar to confirm their distance from the bottom, but when they have to go silent, do they just stay far enough from the bottom to account for some kind of margin of error? 2. Depending on ocean currents and probably other factors, doesn't their acceleration vary by some amount that isn't necessarily what would be expected from the propulsion system? How can they truly gauge their position with respect to land/the ocean floor without having a visual of it or GPS when they are too deep to use it. Is it all just (really good) guess work? I'm pretty sure there is a device that all vessels have that basically confirms the speed by calculating some kind of difference between what the expected speed would be versus the device's measurement of the flow of water... But is that it?  _I'm aware there are way more than two questions here_", "c_root_id_A": "cmrx6nl", "c_root_id_B": "cmrzydo", "created_at_utc_A": 1418317314, "created_at_utc_B": 1418322124, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "http://imgs.xkcd.com/comics/lakes_and_oceans_large.png  Here's a relevant XKCD regarding this topic.   The rest of your question was already answered, but part of the answer is that the ocean is really, really, really deep unless you're very close to shore. A submarine is going to avoid spending a whole lot of time so close to shore that the bottom is something worth worrying about. No reason to risk it without cause.", "human_ref_B": "As /u/sverdrupian said, inertial navigation. They have a gyroscope that senses rotation and accelerometers that sense movement, they do it for all three axis's and add up the numbers.  As for the depth below them, well they do use sonar to find it, but they also have depth detectors that sense their own depth via measuring water pressure and they got good maps of the depths of the ocean, so they can just plot themselves on a map and look at the depths. The depth gauge is pretty accurate, pressure rises rapidly with depth so it's easy to measure. Truth is it probably doesn't matter that much, average depth of the ocean is ~2.3 miles, very few submarines go that deep, so distance from the bottom does not matter often at all, it's only an issue when you're near the shore (in which case they might just surface and stick to shipping lanes).  As for water speed, they got sensors for that as well, it helps the inertial navigation system mostly. They also have a special navigation sonar system, it's a special sonar system that measures stuff like velocity.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4810.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "170cw3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "If a person has a cold/flu, is there a point where they stop sneezing and coughing out live viruses and instead expel dead one which might actually inoculate people around them? As I understand it, early in a cold you are expelling live viruses that can infect people. But after your body figures out how to defeat the virus, yet you're still coughing and blowing your nose, are you actually sending out destroyed viruses which could inoculate others in a similar way to vaccines which use dead viruses to engage an immune response?", "c_root_id_A": "c81du16", "c_root_id_B": "c81dz98", "created_at_utc_A": 1358847876, "created_at_utc_B": 1358849163, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "maybe a better response in a health subreddit?", "human_ref_B": "I wouldn't think so. Inactivated vaccines most often need to be given with an adjuvant to stimulate the immune response, and if they don't have that they often don't take (as it were). Another issues is likely to be the route this sneezed out dead virus you propose would take. If a person were to pick up that virus it would be through their airways but since the virus is dead it will not bind to or enter any cells in the airways so will not make it to the blood to stimulate an immune response. The difference with a vaccine is that it is injected directly to the blood where the white blood cells can get at it straight away so it doesn't matter that it can't bind.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1287.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7u1wgk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is it a coincidence that two of the monoliths in Monument Valley have the same superficial 'mitten' structure', or does this reveal a systematic geological process leading to formation of such structures?", "c_root_id_A": "dthheav", "c_root_id_B": "dth1m7b", "created_at_utc_A": 1517347953, "created_at_utc_B": 1517333387, "score_A": 476, "score_B": 414, "human_ref_A": "Cool question. No, I think it's not a coincidence, in that similar geology and weathering patterns made it possible for the \"mitten\" structure to occur more than once in Monument Valley.  One important thing to know to understand the mittens is that they are actually long and skinny, even though you might think they're round based on the pictures from the main lookout. The skinny mesa in this picture is actually one of the mittens viewed edge on. When you think of a long, skinny, highly fractured (\"jointed\") mesa, it's easy to imagine part of the middle section collapsing first, leaving an isolated end pinnacle. This makes the \"mitten\" shape.  But why are the mesas long and skinny in the first place? If you look at larger mesas in Monument Valley, you can see how it happens: drainages off the side of the mesa cut into its walls over time. The rock on top is harder, so erosion mostly happens bottom-up. The bigger the mesa, the faster these drainages cut, because bigger mesas collect more water for runoff. When two of these drainages are parallel to each other, they meet in a \"knife-edge\" the same way that glaciers form aretes in mountains. These skinny mesas collect very little rainwater because their area is so small, so erosion works a lot slower on them. Eventually, once everything else has eroded away, all that you have left are some skinny mesas ready to make mitten shapes.", "human_ref_B": "The monoliths I think he is referring to are pictured here:  Clicky -  Monument Valley Mittens   Pastey - https://pixabay.com/en/monument-valley-arizona-monoliths-798063/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14566.0, "score_ratio": 1.1497584541, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7u1wgk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is it a coincidence that two of the monoliths in Monument Valley have the same superficial 'mitten' structure', or does this reveal a systematic geological process leading to formation of such structures?", "c_root_id_A": "dthheav", "c_root_id_B": "dth0r8e", "created_at_utc_A": 1517347953, "created_at_utc_B": 1517332587, "score_A": 476, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "Cool question. No, I think it's not a coincidence, in that similar geology and weathering patterns made it possible for the \"mitten\" structure to occur more than once in Monument Valley.  One important thing to know to understand the mittens is that they are actually long and skinny, even though you might think they're round based on the pictures from the main lookout. The skinny mesa in this picture is actually one of the mittens viewed edge on. When you think of a long, skinny, highly fractured (\"jointed\") mesa, it's easy to imagine part of the middle section collapsing first, leaving an isolated end pinnacle. This makes the \"mitten\" shape.  But why are the mesas long and skinny in the first place? If you look at larger mesas in Monument Valley, you can see how it happens: drainages off the side of the mesa cut into its walls over time. The rock on top is harder, so erosion mostly happens bottom-up. The bigger the mesa, the faster these drainages cut, because bigger mesas collect more water for runoff. When two of these drainages are parallel to each other, they meet in a \"knife-edge\" the same way that glaciers form aretes in mountains. These skinny mesas collect very little rainwater because their area is so small, so erosion works a lot slower on them. Eventually, once everything else has eroded away, all that you have left are some skinny mesas ready to make mitten shapes.", "human_ref_B": "All you would need to form such a shape is an off-center vertical crack in the rock that becomes the plateau, so that as it is being carved, the plateau splits into two parts with one part much bigger than the other. Such fractures are very common. For example, if you take a look in Google Maps or Google Earth at Arches National Park, you'll see that its geology is dominated by these vertical cracks (in geology we call them joints, and they often form more or less regular patterns).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15366.0, "score_ratio": 10.8181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7u1wgk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is it a coincidence that two of the monoliths in Monument Valley have the same superficial 'mitten' structure', or does this reveal a systematic geological process leading to formation of such structures?", "c_root_id_A": "dthheav", "c_root_id_B": "dthfj86", "created_at_utc_A": 1517347953, "created_at_utc_B": 1517346275, "score_A": 476, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Cool question. No, I think it's not a coincidence, in that similar geology and weathering patterns made it possible for the \"mitten\" structure to occur more than once in Monument Valley.  One important thing to know to understand the mittens is that they are actually long and skinny, even though you might think they're round based on the pictures from the main lookout. The skinny mesa in this picture is actually one of the mittens viewed edge on. When you think of a long, skinny, highly fractured (\"jointed\") mesa, it's easy to imagine part of the middle section collapsing first, leaving an isolated end pinnacle. This makes the \"mitten\" shape.  But why are the mesas long and skinny in the first place? If you look at larger mesas in Monument Valley, you can see how it happens: drainages off the side of the mesa cut into its walls over time. The rock on top is harder, so erosion mostly happens bottom-up. The bigger the mesa, the faster these drainages cut, because bigger mesas collect more water for runoff. When two of these drainages are parallel to each other, they meet in a \"knife-edge\" the same way that glaciers form aretes in mountains. These skinny mesas collect very little rainwater because their area is so small, so erosion works a lot slower on them. Eventually, once everything else has eroded away, all that you have left are some skinny mesas ready to make mitten shapes.", "human_ref_B": "The first first rock formation this reminded me of was Teapot Dome. It looks sort of like a mitten and sort of like a teapot. There are more than one \"Teapot Dome\" in the country: .  http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-tea-kettle-butte-near-green-river-city-wyoming-became-the-visual-symbol-32384470.html .  https://www.bigstockphoto.com/image-35890255/stock-photo-arches-national-park-teapot-dome-formation   Here are other examples showing variations on the mitten motif with several thumbs:  http://www.ipernity.com/doc/jacquespfjc/11714809 .  http://www.byte-sizetravel.com/2015/08/from-red-rocks-to-slot-canyons-astounding-arizona/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1678.0, "score_ratio": 238.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7u1wgk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is it a coincidence that two of the monoliths in Monument Valley have the same superficial 'mitten' structure', or does this reveal a systematic geological process leading to formation of such structures?", "c_root_id_A": "dth0r8e", "c_root_id_B": "dth1m7b", "created_at_utc_A": 1517332587, "created_at_utc_B": 1517333387, "score_A": 44, "score_B": 414, "human_ref_A": "All you would need to form such a shape is an off-center vertical crack in the rock that becomes the plateau, so that as it is being carved, the plateau splits into two parts with one part much bigger than the other. Such fractures are very common. For example, if you take a look in Google Maps or Google Earth at Arches National Park, you'll see that its geology is dominated by these vertical cracks (in geology we call them joints, and they often form more or less regular patterns).", "human_ref_B": "The monoliths I think he is referring to are pictured here:  Clicky -  Monument Valley Mittens   Pastey - https://pixabay.com/en/monument-valley-arizona-monoliths-798063/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 800.0, "score_ratio": 9.4090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qczcp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "When two billiard balls make contact, what is the surface area of the billiard ball that is actually touching the other billiard ball? I'm more curious about this scenario when the billiard balls are simply touching in a stationary position, as opposed to having one billiard ball collide with another billiard ball. How do you measure that single point that \"connects\" the two billiard balls?", "c_root_id_A": "cdblrnj", "c_root_id_B": "cdbmlnu", "created_at_utc_A": 1384153185, "created_at_utc_B": 1384156942, "score_A": 62, "score_B": 80, "human_ref_A": "If both billiard balls start as perfect spheres, then this problem was solved by Hertz in the 19th century. Wikipedia has the results, but not the derivations. The upshot is that the contact area is a circle of radius a, where a^3 = 3FR/(4E\\*). where F is the force holding the two balls together, R is the radius of the balls, and E\\* is the material stiffness of the two balls.", "human_ref_B": "That depends on how fast they're moving when they make contact. There's no single point here; besides the fact that billiard balls aren't perfect mathematical spheres, they deform on contact. Even if they seem rigid, no material is perfectly rigid. Or if you like, everything behaves like rubber balls to an extent, even steel, glass, concrete, rock. It's just that the elastic deformation is usually too small for you to see with the naked eye.   Theory and experiment by this account, gives the deformation of the balls to be 0.3-0.35 mm when they collide at 7 m/s. Square that number and you'll have an order-of-magnitude estimate of the area, ~10^-7 m^2 or so.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3757.0, "score_ratio": 1.2903225806, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vtm0e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If I were floating 100 yards away from the Voyager 1 at its current location, would there be enough light for me to see it?", "c_root_id_A": "c57ixji", "c_root_id_B": "c57j3ni", "created_at_utc_A": 1341020240, "created_at_utc_B": 1341021124, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 956, "human_ref_A": "voyagers current location", "human_ref_B": "I think the answer is yes.  Consider your ability to see things at night with a full moon out--it's possible to read the big print on a newspaper and you can see objects around you quite clearly.  Now consider the Sun is about 400,000 times the brightness of the full moon here on Earth at one AU.  Voyager 1 is now about 120 AUs away from the Sun, which means the Sun is about 1/14400 the brightness it is here on Earth (inverse square law), which is still 28 times the brightness of the full moon (400,000/14400  = 28).  If you were 100 yards away from Voyager 1 while being illuminated by an object 28 times as bright as the full moon, I'd say you could probably pick it out pretty easily.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 884.0, "score_ratio": 25.8378378378, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vtm0e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If I were floating 100 yards away from the Voyager 1 at its current location, would there be enough light for me to see it?", "c_root_id_A": "c57jfri", "c_root_id_B": "c57ixji", "created_at_utc_A": 1341022858, "created_at_utc_B": 1341020240, "score_A": 216, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "**TL:DR**- Yes.But you really should read on as I believe science is not just cool facts and figures, but how cool facts and figures can be **obtained** by making good use of existing information.   Approach to solving the problem:  > 1. Check the sun's brightness. > 2. Check the sun's apparent brightness at the location of the voyager probe. > 3. Check if the probe is sufficiently illuminated to be visible.  .  .  **1. Check the sun's brightness.**  The sun's absolute magnitude is 4.83. Absolute magnitude measures a celestial object's brightness. At the Voyager 1, the apparent magnitude of the sun is calculated as:  .  .  **2. Check the sun's apparent brightness at the location of the voyager probe.**  Currently, the probe is approximately 18,100,000,000 km away from the sun. Conveniently, a table of apparent magnitudes of the sun when seen from different places is available. At Pluto's aphelion (7,311,000,000 km from the sun), the apparently magnitude of the sun is -18.2.  The brightness of the sun when viewed from Voyager 1 can be determined by using the inverse square law. Let B be the luminosity of the sun when observed from Pluto's aphelion. The brightness when viewed from Voyager 1 is B x 7,311,000,000^2 / 18,100,000,000^2 = 0.16315 B. The luminosity of the sun at Voyager 1's position is merely 16% of the luminosity at Pluto's aphelion.  Returning to the apparent magnitude- the apparent magnitude reduces by 1 for every 2.512 times increase in brightness. The ratio of brightness between the sun's brightness at Pluto and Voyager 1 is 0.16315. Therefore the difference in apparent magnitude is 2.512^M = 0.16315, and M can be calculated from M = log(base 2.512) 0.16315. This gives M = -1.97.  The sun's apparent magnitude at Voyager 1 is -18.2 + 1.97 = -16.3 (lower brightness means higher magnitude).  .  .  **3. Check if the sun is visible from the location of the voyager probe.**  Based the table of apparent magnitudes, the full moon is at apparent magnitude of -12.9. The sun when viewed from Voyager 1 has apparent magnitude of -16.3. Therefore, the sun at Voyager 1 is 3.4 magnitudes brighter than the full moon on earth, corresponding to 2.512^3.4 times the luminosity. This is equivalent to a dark night with 23 full moons in the sky. Way more than enough to see in, as one can see (although slightly clumsily) on a clear full moon night.  .  .  **Therefore,** if you were up close to the Voyager 1 probe at its current location, you will be able to see the probe using weak sunlight. HOWEVER, because light is only coming from the sun (ignoring star light for being too weak to properly light up the probe), only the side facing the sun can be seen.", "human_ref_B": "voyagers current location", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2618.0, "score_ratio": 5.8378378378, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hh9vvv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Where do seeds get all the extra matter to grow? And how does the seed transfer the matter into bark, leaves, ect?", "c_root_id_A": "fwbxlj1", "c_root_id_B": "fwbyc38", "created_at_utc_A": 1593399891, "created_at_utc_B": 1593400366, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "The seed has enough mass and nutrients to generally sprout a lead stem and partial root system.  All of the \"building blocks\" required to grow past that come from respiration and the soil matrix they are planted in.  This is why they need water and over usage of land leads to soil depletion.  Furthermore, the ability to uptake nutrients is proportional to the size of the root system and plant matter which is why the first few months can seem very slow for many plants that are not annuals with the fastest growing plants usually being fruit bearing annuals.", "human_ref_B": "The process of photosynthesis converts sunlight, water, carbon dioxide and nutrients into chemical energy. Some of this energy is used by the plant for respiration to survive, but any additional sugar (i.e glucose) molecules are used to form the bark, leaves and other structures we see and eat. Most of the mass comes from carbon received via carbon dioxide uptake.  I don\u2019t have a great answer to your second question, but plants have complex networks to transport water and other materials, including the xylem, phloem and veins. This is analogous the human circulatory system, digestive system etc.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 475.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ip9kz9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are things that rhyme easier to remember? What is it about our brain that can remember rhymes easier than random collection of sounds?", "c_root_id_A": "g4jyiws", "c_root_id_B": "g4jyu80", "created_at_utc_A": 1599665187, "created_at_utc_B": 1599665346, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Your brain works through a serious of relationships. Think of it like Velcro a series of links with a series of hooks. The more hooks and links the more likely you are to remember it. Therefore memories with imagery, sound, emotional attachments, etc are all more likely to be remembered. Rhymes that have a melody linking words, and words similar sounding to each other all make memorising easier.   There\u2019s a 20 word memory game (in a Derren Brown book I think) where you can memorise 20 random words by creating 20 relating stories between each. So it\u2019s easier to remember 20 narratives than just the 20 words.   Another great book on this thats easier for a non psychology student is Made to Stick. Kind of the corporate version of memory in psychology.", "human_ref_B": "From a pure data standpoint, rhyming words require fewer additional connections to remember than words which don't rhyme.  Memory is a complex thing,  requiring the brain to form many connections, so anything that decreases the number of required connections makes it easier to associate those words.  This is my layman's understanding, no doubt there's an expert who can better explain or correct me lol", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 159.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ip9kz9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are things that rhyme easier to remember? What is it about our brain that can remember rhymes easier than random collection of sounds?", "c_root_id_A": "g4l3ud1", "c_root_id_B": "g4lngtt", "created_at_utc_A": 1599685510, "created_at_utc_B": 1599695419, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It is because rhyme-based mnemonics aid us to recall information. The famous saying \"in 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean blue\" helps us remember a particular fact using associations with rhyming because it is easier for our brains to do so. There are also different techniques like this, such as peg-words (association with numbers) , method of loci (association with location), and chunking (grouping stimuli together to related meaning).", "human_ref_B": "Here's a good lay science article about it", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9909.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "se2hup", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "How does the body 'learn' from immunosuppressants to keep an autoimmune condition in remission? For autoimmune conditions where the treatment is immunosuppresants to get the condition into remission, it would seem intuitive that the moment you stop taking the immunosuppresants the condition would return/flare up. But in some cases remission is maintained even when you stop taking the immunosuppresants, which seems counter-intuitive. How does the body 'learn' to stay in remission without the drugs?", "c_root_id_A": "huh8jc4", "c_root_id_B": "hugypji", "created_at_utc_A": 1643311248, "created_at_utc_B": 1643307722, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "For the sake of clarity this is may be a little oversimplified. In the normal immune system, your body essentially has two broad ways of avoiding autoimmunity and eliciting immune responses to harmless substances. The first is central tolerance, in which developing lymphocytes that turn out self-reactive are killed, made anergic (inactive), or induced to become central T regs (which inhibit immune responses rather than activating them). Lymphocytes that make it through development without recognizing self-antigens are able to go out into the body and carry out their functions. However central tolerance isn\u2019t perfect and numerous harmless substances, particularly those that come from the environment, can still be recognized by our immune system. Therefore we have a mechanism of peripheral tolerance in which our already developed and functional lymphocytes can be removed. The oversimplified explanation of how this works is that if a lymphocyte recognizes a substance in the absence of \u201cdanger\u201d signals that come from pathogens or tissue damage, it will be killed, made anergic, or induced to become a Treg similar as in central tolerance.  So going back to your question, it is speculated that SOME immunosuppressants (depending on their mechanism of action) may be able to allow SOME people to build peripheral tolerance to SOME graft/self antigens because the antigen is present for long periods of time without any danger signal.  Edit: it\u2019s also worth mentioning that autoimmune/host-vs-graft responses pretty much inherently lead to release of \u201cdanger\u201d signals via the tissue damage they cause. So it\u2019s a bit of a self-perpetuating cycle that immunosuppressants help interrupt, as mentioned by another user. By turning off the immune response, you reduce the presence of danger signals, which may be more conducive for peripheral tolerance induction", "human_ref_B": "It doesn't learn anything the over reactive immune system is what is causing the symptoms of the disease state suppressing the immune systems can make the symptoms subside and appear as if the \"autoimmune\" is under control but its only suppressing the symptoms it's not fixing whatever the problem is that causing the immune system to ovary act.  Edit: and when you stop taking the immuno suppressing drugs and the symptoms do not come back what has happened is there was an issue that cause the immune system to get into a cyclic disease state the issue got resolved but left the immune system in a reinforcing cyclical state that's basically self amplifying taking immuno suppressants broke the cyclic loop hence total remission of all underlying symptoms.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3526.0, "score_ratio": 5.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1h7ja4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "If an animal is born mutated with 2 heads, is it possible for it to drown if one head stays underwater and one is above the surface? I was browsing /r/all and came across this post with the turtle that had 2 heads, and a thought struck me: If a turtle(or other creature) that was born with a mutation like this, if held in a way where one head was underwater and the other above, what would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "carr6oo", "c_root_id_B": "carqcih", "created_at_utc_A": 1372390336, "created_at_utc_B": 1372387807, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "You can't just breathe out of one nostril on command. When the lungs and chest expand both heads would suck in air or water. So no, one couldn't hold their breath while the other breathes. Since both share the organ one can not do something different than the other.", "human_ref_B": "It would depend on the rest of the internal structure. For example, if the two heads came together and then shared a trachea leading to a single pair of lungs, i don't see why one head couldn't remain above the water and do all the breathing for both of them.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2529.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5nraac", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are bats the reservoir for so many zoonotic diseases? I've been reading David Quammen's Spillover, and it seems that for a lot of deadly zoonotic diseases - Hendra, Ebola, SARS, etc. - the natural reservoir is bats. This is kind of surprising to me, given that humans are not particularly closely related to bats, and we don't spend all that much time in close proximity to them (unlike, say, rats or pigeons). Is it just a coincidence that these three diseases all came from bats, or is there something about bats' immune system or lifecycle that makes them particularly apt to act as reservoirs of this kind of disease?", "c_root_id_A": "dce5ptz", "c_root_id_B": "dcdtth5", "created_at_utc_A": 1484342758, "created_at_utc_B": 1484329383, "score_A": 35, "score_B": -11, "human_ref_A": "I just took a class in wildlife disease and we had a presentation on this topic, but i cannot find the source paper.  I will look for it but in a brief summary- as flying mammals, bats have a crazy fast metabolism (compared to other mammals) and exist in a hyperthermic state.  Many viruses cannot survive these temperatures (a fever is a systemic immune response to slow down or kill some viral, bacterial, fungal, etc. antigen).  Since the virus is not very effective in the hyperthermic environment of the bat, the bat remains subclinical, but the virus can survive and be spread by the bat through whatever mechanism.  This might also explain why diseases spread by bats are often times so virulent and destructive. This is a terrible explanation. Sorry. I'll look for the source  edit: found it https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/20/5/13-0539_article", "human_ref_B": "After apes and monkeys, the next closest relative to humans is bats.  They got tits on their chest, they are highly social, pelvic structure is similar to us and they have a brain that had been demonstrated to make decisions during flying that are faster than the speed of electrons, just like how neurologists have remarked that limb movement occurs before the brain decides to move the limb.  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213012001", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13375.0, "score_ratio": -3.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5nraac", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are bats the reservoir for so many zoonotic diseases? I've been reading David Quammen's Spillover, and it seems that for a lot of deadly zoonotic diseases - Hendra, Ebola, SARS, etc. - the natural reservoir is bats. This is kind of surprising to me, given that humans are not particularly closely related to bats, and we don't spend all that much time in close proximity to them (unlike, say, rats or pigeons). Is it just a coincidence that these three diseases all came from bats, or is there something about bats' immune system or lifecycle that makes them particularly apt to act as reservoirs of this kind of disease?", "c_root_id_A": "dcdtth5", "c_root_id_B": "dcedz41", "created_at_utc_A": 1484329383, "created_at_utc_B": 1484353706, "score_A": -11, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "After apes and monkeys, the next closest relative to humans is bats.  They got tits on their chest, they are highly social, pelvic structure is similar to us and they have a brain that had been demonstrated to make decisions during flying that are faster than the speed of electrons, just like how neurologists have remarked that limb movement occurs before the brain decides to move the limb.  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213012001", "human_ref_B": "Viruses spread in high population environments. Most bat species are highly social, sleeping in colonies that can number in the hundreds of thousands. They also can be migratory and can travel very large distances. Both of these contribute to why bats can have so many diseases.  Bats also have a very long lifespan (>25 years), meaning that they can be infected and transmit a virus for many years if possible. Bats were also one of the first mammal groups to evolve, so they could have more time to evolve a immune system.  Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1539106/  It's worth noting that A LOT of animals contain viruses and parasites that a non-wildlife/biologist wouldn't know about. Making it seem like they have more.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24323.0, "score_ratio": -0.8181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5nraac", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why are bats the reservoir for so many zoonotic diseases? I've been reading David Quammen's Spillover, and it seems that for a lot of deadly zoonotic diseases - Hendra, Ebola, SARS, etc. - the natural reservoir is bats. This is kind of surprising to me, given that humans are not particularly closely related to bats, and we don't spend all that much time in close proximity to them (unlike, say, rats or pigeons). Is it just a coincidence that these three diseases all came from bats, or is there something about bats' immune system or lifecycle that makes them particularly apt to act as reservoirs of this kind of disease?", "c_root_id_A": "dcdtth5", "c_root_id_B": "dcesl4w", "created_at_utc_A": 1484329383, "created_at_utc_B": 1484379656, "score_A": -11, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "After apes and monkeys, the next closest relative to humans is bats.  They got tits on their chest, they are highly social, pelvic structure is similar to us and they have a brain that had been demonstrated to make decisions during flying that are faster than the speed of electrons, just like how neurologists have remarked that limb movement occurs before the brain decides to move the limb.  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213012001", "human_ref_B": "We've done a few posts about this on /r/batfacts. Bats are incredibly important creatures, but like all wildlife they are present certain risks and should never be handled without gloves or really at all if possible.  There are a few important reasons:  * Bats represent about a fifth of all mammal species with 1300+ species recognized. If each species has its own unique pathogens, that's a lot of potential viruses! Only rodents are known to carry more total zoonotic diseases, but they also have more species. Rodents are roughly a quarter of mammal species.  * Bats are able to fly, have higher body temperatures (like they are running a fever), and live in fission-fusion societies. This presents some unique conditions where they may be asymptomatic and dispersing pathogens over long distances and with many individuals.   * Bats and humans come into more frequent contact as other habitats for them are lost or we create opportunities for them. This is a common conflict in Australia, particular for farmers who persecute them. In some cases, viruses found in bats can reach humans through an intermediary like pigs or horses which are more likely to come into contact with bats or their excrement than humans themselves.   * We recognize bats as potential virus reservoirs so that's one of the places a lot of research has been focused. In many locations, bats are consumed as bushmeat, which provides additional transmission routes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 50273.0, "score_ratio": -0.3636363636, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2jt2in", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What traits make certain animals (rock pigeons, house sparrows, squirrels, rats, cockroaches, etc.) so successful in city life, and what are the main challenges city-dwellers face? Some possibilities I'm imagining are disease resistance, ability to function in a stimulation-heavy environment, and opportunistic feeding.", "c_root_id_A": "clfi8h6", "c_root_id_B": "clfooa0", "created_at_utc_A": 1413896390, "created_at_utc_B": 1413910016, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The opportunistic feeding is close to the main reason. Creatures that thrive in cities are not specifically adapted to a particular environment or food source. It might help to look at the question from the other direction what animals can't adapt to city life, hummingbirds for example would find life in a city impossible.", "human_ref_B": "This is actually a fairly recent question that biologists are only starting to answer. I'm not aware of any thorough reviews of urban ecology (hopefully this changes soon), but there are few interesting studies that indicate there are particular traits relevant to living in cities.  Here are a few:  Cheptou et al 2008 found that urban environments favored particular modes of dispersal in hawk's-beard (a common plant).  Whitehead et al 2010 found increased tolerance to PCBs near some heavily trafficked estuaries.  South and Kharchenko 2010 found rapid evolution in New York City mice, though they didn't look at traits specifically.  Partecke and Gwinner 2007 did a very interesting study where they hand-raised European Blackbirds from cities and forests. They found that city blackbirds were less likely to migrate than their forest counterparts, and developed their gonads earlier in the season.  Great question.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13626.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18sxnr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "If  photosynthesis creates 6O2., and cellular respiration uses 6O2, then how is any oxygen being released for us to use.", "c_root_id_A": "c8hp3hv", "c_root_id_B": "c8hor73", "created_at_utc_A": 1361255704, "created_at_utc_B": 1361254271, "score_A": 4, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "Not all of the glucose produced in photosynthesis is used for respiration. Some is used to make cellulose, some to make starch. There's a lot of oxygen left over then.", "human_ref_B": "Photosynthesis takes in CO2 and spits out O2 as exhaust. Respiration turns O2 into CO2. I don't know what the 6O2 stuff is, where did you get that from?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1433.0, "score_ratio": -0.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mljfk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is there a correlation between a creature's size and its lifespan?  It seems that small creatures (fly, mice) live considerably less than larger animals (cats, dogs, elephants). If so, why is that?", "c_root_id_A": "c31vz7n", "c_root_id_B": "c31wu2j", "created_at_utc_A": 1321979485, "created_at_utc_B": 1321985005, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Timothy, a turtle (Testudo graeca) 160 years old. Mascot of the british Marine. Elefants around 60 Jahre (individuum 86 years) Horses around 20 years. Chinchilla 20 years too.  So no, there is not really a \"rule\" but I agree, that mice live shorter than a wale", "human_ref_B": "Yes, there is a positive correlation. Assuming that animals have an expected number of heartbeats (which also scales with body size weakly - larger animals have more heart beats but not by much. A bigger player is the fact that bigger animals have relatively lower heart rates.  To understand why we have to think about metabolic rate. Metabolic rate scales positively across organisms, but not in a one-to-one fashion -- large animals have lower metabolic and heart rates *per unit body weight (so gram-to-gram comparison)* than smaller.  To understand this we have to look at the way length, area, and volume scale with body size. If you think back to geometry class, consider a cube: it's perimeter will scale 1:1 with its length. But the surface area of that cube is length^2, and the volume (mass) is proportional to length^3. So as the cube gets larger, it's volume will get larger at 3x the rate of the length. animals are the same way.  So, a lot of physiological mechanisms rely on interactions between these different types of measures. For example, oxygen transfer is going to rely on the surface area of the gas-exchange site (the lungs), which scales with length^2.   There are obviously exceptions, and animals are not as neatly proportioned as cubes, so this is just a correlation.  The mechanisms behind these effects are a big debate in the physiology world, if you're interested check out  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allometry and Jim Brown's publications to get a feel for things: http://biology.unm.edu/jhbrown/Research/Scaling.html and the book \"Scaling\" by Schmidt-Nielson", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5520.0, "score_ratio": -6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mljfk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is there a correlation between a creature's size and its lifespan?  It seems that small creatures (fly, mice) live considerably less than larger animals (cats, dogs, elephants). If so, why is that?", "c_root_id_A": "c31vz7n", "c_root_id_B": "c31w3op", "created_at_utc_A": 1321979485, "created_at_utc_B": 1321980299, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Timothy, a turtle (Testudo graeca) 160 years old. Mascot of the british Marine. Elefants around 60 Jahre (individuum 86 years) Horses around 20 years. Chinchilla 20 years too.  So no, there is not really a \"rule\" but I agree, that mice live shorter than a wale", "human_ref_B": "I remember reading there is a correlation between heart rate and a creature's average life span. Smaller creatures tend to have a faster heart rate which I believe can be put down to having smaller lungs. Basically I believe size and life span are connected however it may be through a 3rd factor which I am missing.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 814.0, "score_ratio": -6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1j0bh1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why do I feel the effects of a roller coaster when lying down after riding them all day? Was at Canada's Wonderland today doing all the rides. Now I'm trying to sleep and I can feel the motions of jolting up, down, left and right. If I try hard enough I can visualize some rides in their entirety. Can this be explained?", "c_root_id_A": "cbabu3a", "c_root_id_B": "cb9ukkf", "created_at_utc_A": 1374791821, "created_at_utc_B": 1374734278, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "My sister would often have problems with vertigo-like spells when she was a cheerleader and it is usually due to the fluid in your ear canal is still moving although you are stationary due to inertia.  She got her adenoids removed (also had chronic ear infections) and it corrected the problem.  It's not common for it to last that long but I believe that would lend to the illusion of self-motion article that /u/Trigger1221 posted.", "human_ref_B": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal_de_debarquement", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 57543.0, "score_ratio": -0.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12o5ak", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How were nuclear scientists able to determine the reason for the unexpectedly enormous yield of the B41 \"Castle Bravo\" bomb? This is where I originally encountered the statement, and it piqued my curiosity. Further reading in here indicate exactly what happened, but I'm not sure how they could determine what/how/why everything happened post-D-time. Does fallout and debris have that kind of chemical information?  PS: For anyone with any psychological backgrounds, how would you describe someone with a weird fascination with nuclear weapons?", "c_root_id_A": "c6wtxun", "c_root_id_B": "c6wvo3y", "created_at_utc_A": 1352142466, "created_at_utc_B": 1352148439, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "An enormous amount of information can be inferred from the fallout and debris of nuclear detonations. There is an entire field known as \"nuclear forensics\" where the \"composition, physical condition, age, provenance, [and] history\" of nuclear material is characterized post-detonation. The basis for these analyses is the predictable and orderly nature of nuclear reactions--unexpected concentrations of isotopes don't happen \"randomly\".   In the case of Castle Bravo, Los Alamos probably reverse-engineered what actually happened in the detonation when they observed more tritium and less lithium-7 than their original calculations had predicted. A big \"whoops\" that cost dozens of lives.", "human_ref_B": "Rhodes talks about this in *Black Sun*. The cause was that the physicists overlooked that Lithium-7 will capture a neutron and emit two, thereby converting to Lithium-6, which was one of the primary contributors to the energy output of the Castle Bravo device (ironically called \"Shrimp\"). In effect, the bomb bred Lithium-6, the addition of which resulted in a much greater yield.  How was this discovered? As dmahr notes, you can determine much from forensics. There are about a half-dozen (primary) reactions that generate energy in a hydrogen bomb, each of which is described by an equation that looks like A + B -> C + D + ... + energy. Each reaction has a characteristic energy, which leaves a fingerprint either in the fallout or in the data collected during the shot.  For example, one of those reactions is   Li-6 + n -> He-4 + He-3 + 4.78 MeV  In the analysis of the data (and I don't claim to understand the details of this - probably: something something spectroscopy) there was a big peak at 4.78 MeV that shouldn't have been there. This tipped them off to an excess of Li-6. Working backward, they then discovered the Li-7 -> Li-6 breeding mechanism.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5973.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pn89z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "How many senses do we have, I have heard there is more than the five children get taught I know there is more because if I spin in a chair and try to stand up one of my senses is screwed up but it ain't one of the main five.  EDIT: Dammit bad grammar in the title, pls don't be too cruel", "c_root_id_A": "c3qqvyf", "c_root_id_B": "c3qrigg", "created_at_utc_A": 1329139996, "created_at_utc_B": 1329145586, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Here.  Second result.", "human_ref_B": "Another sense is the \"proprioception\" which has nothing to do with \"touch\" because it is only made by information from muscles and tendons. With the propriception, the brain can build internal representations of the body (relative position of each segment with each other). I don't know the word \"equilibrioception\" but I think it can be replaced by \"graviception\". The brain has to know the direction of the gravity vector. This information can comes from the visual system, but also by the vestibular system (otoliths). Some studies have shown that there is graviceptors within big arteries and in the trunk (I don't remember where exactly).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5590.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pn89z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "How many senses do we have, I have heard there is more than the five children get taught I know there is more because if I spin in a chair and try to stand up one of my senses is screwed up but it ain't one of the main five.  EDIT: Dammit bad grammar in the title, pls don't be too cruel", "c_root_id_A": "c3qsyw4", "c_root_id_B": "c3qqvyf", "created_at_utc_A": 1329154621, "created_at_utc_B": 1329139996, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Not directly related, but just about everything children are taught about science is either untrue or greatly simplified and rarely the full picture (by which I mean our full understanding of the subject). Apart from the \"five senses\" concept, some other things that are untrue or greatly simplified for children are:  * That there are four basic flavours and specific areas of the tongue that detect them. In fact, there are five flavours and taste buds for them are all fairly evenly distributed over the whole tongue.  * That the primary colours are red, yellow and blue. This is true only for opaque pigments, and actually they are cyan, magenta and yellow; for lights, the primaries are red, green and blue.  * That the Coriolis force makes water spiral a particular way down drains. Its effect is only noticeable in large systems like cyclones; it has a minuscule effect on water in basins and toilets, but the principal decider of the rotation is the way the water comes in and the cumulative effect of any eddies in the water.  EDIT: fixed typo", "human_ref_B": "Here.  Second result.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14625.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "irbnd7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How do we know that the axial tilt of Venus is 177\u00b0 instead of its inverted north and south poles as well as unique clockwise rotation just being the way they are?", "c_root_id_A": "g4zduzr", "c_root_id_B": "g4z7c9y", "created_at_utc_A": 1599945938, "created_at_utc_B": 1599943823, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "This is merely a matter of *definition*.  One definition is to define the north pole of the planet as the one on the same \"side\" of the solar system as Earth's north pole. By that definition, we say Venus's axial tilt is 3 degrees, and we need to say it rotates retrograde.  Another definition is to define the north pole using the right hand rule. By *that* definition, Venus's axial tilt is 177 degrees, and we don't need to separately specify the rotation direction, that's indicated by the >90 tilt.  It's just two ways to report the same measurement.", "human_ref_B": "The retrograde rotation of Venus was observed in the 1960s and it didnt take long for atmospheric tides to be proposed as the cause Gold and Soter 1969. Since then there has been a LOT of work in exploring this: Dobrovolskis 1980, Correia and Laskara 2003, Correia and Laskara 2001, Pechmann and Ingersoll 1984, and many more.  Basically we are pretty sure it is in retrograde motion because we have a lot of research which points towards atmospheric tides as being the cause. Interested amateurs still often say it is is because of an impact despite the research towards atmospheric tides having a 60 year history!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2115.0, "score_ratio": 1.8888888889, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8t1jpu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Do certain languages have higher percentage of people who stutter? I believe (as layman) that some sounds 'trigger' a stutter. Different languages have different sounds, so maybe there are languages that trigger stuttering more than other languages. And if so, which languages has the most people who stutter?", "c_root_id_A": "e13zuel", "c_root_id_B": "e15hdn1", "created_at_utc_A": 1529678949, "created_at_utc_B": 1529735876, "score_A": 1143, "score_B": 1264, "human_ref_A": "We don't know for sure. There are some theories that certain languages have lower rates (and there's some epidemiological data showing that it might be different in certain countries) but there's a lack of good data to back these theories up.  See here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3687212/", "human_ref_B": "There's another aspect to this. I came across what I thought was a stutter in Zulu speakers when I visited South Africa. Zulu people, speaking English, would sometimes say the beginning of a word over and over several times before continuing. I assumed it was a stutter, but nearly everyone did it. Then I noticed they did the same thing in their native tongue. Eventually I figured out that it wasn't a stutter, per se, but the Zulu version of \"ummm\" or \"uhhh\", the common English sounds for \"I'm still formulating my next thought\". Zulu speakers never used those \"ummm\" or \"uhhh\" sounds, but instead would just repeat the first syllable of the next word they were saying until they were ready to proceed. Served the same function, but sounded quite different.  I learned later that different languages have very different means of expressing that they're still formulating the next thought. It's not a word, but it conveys meaning nonetheless.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 56927.0, "score_ratio": 1.1058617673, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8t1jpu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Do certain languages have higher percentage of people who stutter? I believe (as layman) that some sounds 'trigger' a stutter. Different languages have different sounds, so maybe there are languages that trigger stuttering more than other languages. And if so, which languages has the most people who stutter?", "c_root_id_A": "e157vtp", "c_root_id_B": "e15hdn1", "created_at_utc_A": 1529721375, "created_at_utc_B": 1529735876, "score_A": 209, "score_B": 1264, "human_ref_A": "Not sure about stuttering specifically, but there is evidence that other linguistic difficulties are language dependent.  For example, dyslexia in Chinese speakers is a result of a process in a different part of the brain than it is in English speakers, Nature 2008.  People who are dyslexic in one language may be perfectly fine in another language.  It seems reasonable that there would be differences in stuttering and other language difficulties in different languages, especially those that are very different from each other.  - Wai Ting Siok 2008 *A structural\u2013functional basis for dyslexia in the cortex of Chinese readers*  - Wai Ting Siok 2004 *Biological abnormality of impaired reading is constrained by culture*  A case report on bilingual stuttering in English/Spanish indicated there there were some differences in stuttering rates in the two languages.  - Ardila Alfredo 2010 *Patterns of stuttering in a Spanish/English bilingual: A case report*", "human_ref_B": "There's another aspect to this. I came across what I thought was a stutter in Zulu speakers when I visited South Africa. Zulu people, speaking English, would sometimes say the beginning of a word over and over several times before continuing. I assumed it was a stutter, but nearly everyone did it. Then I noticed they did the same thing in their native tongue. Eventually I figured out that it wasn't a stutter, per se, but the Zulu version of \"ummm\" or \"uhhh\", the common English sounds for \"I'm still formulating my next thought\". Zulu speakers never used those \"ummm\" or \"uhhh\" sounds, but instead would just repeat the first syllable of the next word they were saying until they were ready to proceed. Served the same function, but sounded quite different.  I learned later that different languages have very different means of expressing that they're still formulating the next thought. It's not a word, but it conveys meaning nonetheless.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14501.0, "score_ratio": 6.04784689, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8t1jpu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Do certain languages have higher percentage of people who stutter? I believe (as layman) that some sounds 'trigger' a stutter. Different languages have different sounds, so maybe there are languages that trigger stuttering more than other languages. And if so, which languages has the most people who stutter?", "c_root_id_A": "e15hdn1", "c_root_id_B": "e15f22j", "created_at_utc_A": 1529735876, "created_at_utc_B": 1529731528, "score_A": 1264, "score_B": 55, "human_ref_A": "There's another aspect to this. I came across what I thought was a stutter in Zulu speakers when I visited South Africa. Zulu people, speaking English, would sometimes say the beginning of a word over and over several times before continuing. I assumed it was a stutter, but nearly everyone did it. Then I noticed they did the same thing in their native tongue. Eventually I figured out that it wasn't a stutter, per se, but the Zulu version of \"ummm\" or \"uhhh\", the common English sounds for \"I'm still formulating my next thought\". Zulu speakers never used those \"ummm\" or \"uhhh\" sounds, but instead would just repeat the first syllable of the next word they were saying until they were ready to proceed. Served the same function, but sounded quite different.  I learned later that different languages have very different means of expressing that they're still formulating the next thought. It's not a word, but it conveys meaning nonetheless.", "human_ref_B": "I'm a Canadian currently doing my masters in Speech-Language Pathology in South Korea, and I can tell you that while there is not a scientific consensus on this, the perception is that, yes, certain languages have more stuttering.  It comes up a fair bit in discussions on stuttering in class, because it seems that English speakers are more prone to stuttering than Korean speakers.  The thought is that because English has a lot of consonant clusters, it is just more difficult to pronounce than Korean, which for the most part doesn't allow consonant clusters (at least, not in one syllable, you can have them occur between syllables though).    But... the clarification on this is that well, are you talking about people with a stuttering pathology, like an actual disorder?  or just people stuttering in general, because that is different.  Koreans are astounded when I, a native English speaker, occasionally stutter when speaking English.  It happens a fair bit when I'm tired, nervous or stressed.  But I do not have a fluency disorder (the technical term for stuttering).  I just stutter under stress.  And this is common in Engish.  But apparently, it is not common in Korean.  The prevalence of actual fluency disorders across languages is a different question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4348.0, "score_ratio": 22.9818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "396qf1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "After exercising do all proteins (meat, vegetable) have the same effect on muscle development?", "c_root_id_A": "cs0w00m", "c_root_id_B": "cs0vqaj", "created_at_utc_A": 1433876275, "created_at_utc_B": 1433875875, "score_A": 273, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Here's a 2010 review paper on protein supplementation and muscle protein synthesis.  http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/7/1/51  Muscle development can be sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar. Both have different stimuli for induction. So exercise type and specific routine (particularly for strength training) matters quite a bit.  So there's a lot of 'it depends' embedded in the answer to your question.", "human_ref_B": "Muscle development, as in muscle hypertrophy? No.   The higher the protein quality, the greater effect (i.e. hypertrophy after resistance training) of the protein.  As I understand it:  Meat/whey>Soy>other plant proteins  If you're interested in gaining muscle with minimal fat gain or losing weight with minimal muscle loss, I highly recommend this article] (https://www.utoledo.edu/med/depts/medicine/endocrinology/pdfs/macronutrient_considerations_f.pdf) for nutritional considerations  If you're interested in how to *time* your meals check [this out", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 400.0, "score_ratio": 9.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "396qf1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "After exercising do all proteins (meat, vegetable) have the same effect on muscle development?", "c_root_id_A": "cs0vqaj", "c_root_id_B": "cs17h1g", "created_at_utc_A": 1433875875, "created_at_utc_B": 1433894928, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "Muscle development, as in muscle hypertrophy? No.   The higher the protein quality, the greater effect (i.e. hypertrophy after resistance training) of the protein.  As I understand it:  Meat/whey>Soy>other plant proteins  If you're interested in gaining muscle with minimal fat gain or losing weight with minimal muscle loss, I highly recommend this article] (https://www.utoledo.edu/med/depts/medicine/endocrinology/pdfs/macronutrient_considerations_f.pdf) for nutritional considerations  If you're interested in how to *time* your meals check [this out", "human_ref_B": "If by muscle development you mean hypertrophy, a [recent study] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24586775) challenged the link between myofibrillar protein synthesis and hypertrophy. See also this [layman version] (http://evidencebasedfitness.net/protein-synthesis-muscle-hypertrophy-no-proxies/) if you prefer.   So most of the comments here may be wrong, keep in mind a lot of the fitness and diet studies are poorly conceived, with small sample size, proxy measures and a lot of what is published in that field is... crap.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19053.0, "score_ratio": 1.6071428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "396qf1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "After exercising do all proteins (meat, vegetable) have the same effect on muscle development?", "c_root_id_A": "cs11pcg", "c_root_id_B": "cs17h1g", "created_at_utc_A": 1433884951, "created_at_utc_B": 1433894928, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "You need to consume all 9 essential amino acids for your body to do it's thing, whether it's building cells or anything else.  If it's animal based protein or soy protein, it's complete and has all 9.  If it's plant based, you need to complement the proteins by consuming grains alongside nuts, seeds, or legumes.  If you consume them together like this you'll get all 9.  Either way, you're getting your protein and your body will use it.", "human_ref_B": "If by muscle development you mean hypertrophy, a [recent study] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24586775) challenged the link between myofibrillar protein synthesis and hypertrophy. See also this [layman version] (http://evidencebasedfitness.net/protein-synthesis-muscle-hypertrophy-no-proxies/) if you prefer.   So most of the comments here may be wrong, keep in mind a lot of the fitness and diet studies are poorly conceived, with small sample size, proxy measures and a lot of what is published in that field is... crap.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9977.0, "score_ratio": 4.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "396qf1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "After exercising do all proteins (meat, vegetable) have the same effect on muscle development?", "c_root_id_A": "cs1hfwq", "c_root_id_B": "cs11pcg", "created_at_utc_A": 1433912859, "created_at_utc_B": 1433884951, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Aside from the speed of digestion (absorbtion) there is no proof that any protein is superior BUT there are incredible differences in the amino acid profiles.   High Glutamine is essential if you wish to repair or build quick. High Arginine helps with no2 production (basiclly helps stuff move around the body easier) and it also increases the strength and flexibility of your veins.   Note: If you have herpes (aka cold sores) DO NOT suppliment arginine unless you are taking lysine seperately. Herpes is a simple equation, if your body has an overly large ratio of Arginine/Lysine then you get outbreaks.", "human_ref_B": "You need to consume all 9 essential amino acids for your body to do it's thing, whether it's building cells or anything else.  If it's animal based protein or soy protein, it's complete and has all 9.  If it's plant based, you need to complement the proteins by consuming grains alongside nuts, seeds, or legumes.  If you consume them together like this you'll get all 9.  Either way, you're getting your protein and your body will use it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27908.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "396qf1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "After exercising do all proteins (meat, vegetable) have the same effect on muscle development?", "c_root_id_A": "cs1h7qc", "c_root_id_B": "cs1hfwq", "created_at_utc_A": 1433912320, "created_at_utc_B": 1433912859, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "I'm currently working on a study that is looking at the effect of soy protein vs animal protein in basic muscle development (without exercise). Considering studies of this sort are currently being done on rodents, there is not a lot that we actually know.  Plenty of people insist that those who don't eat animal based protein can't possibly gain muscle or even consume enough protein to be healthy. But if none of the individuals with PhD's in Nutrition and Exercise Physiology know the exact answer, I think it is safe to say that the scientific community doesn't have solid evidence to support any theory yet.", "human_ref_B": "Aside from the speed of digestion (absorbtion) there is no proof that any protein is superior BUT there are incredible differences in the amino acid profiles.   High Glutamine is essential if you wish to repair or build quick. High Arginine helps with no2 production (basiclly helps stuff move around the body easier) and it also increases the strength and flexibility of your veins.   Note: If you have herpes (aka cold sores) DO NOT suppliment arginine unless you are taking lysine seperately. Herpes is a simple equation, if your body has an overly large ratio of Arginine/Lysine then you get outbreaks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 539.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "396qf1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "After exercising do all proteins (meat, vegetable) have the same effect on muscle development?", "c_root_id_A": "cs1hul4", "c_root_id_B": "cs1h7qc", "created_at_utc_A": 1433913861, "created_at_utc_B": 1433912320, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "No. Different proteins have different amino acid profiles, and different amino acids have different effects on the body. Complete proteins are those that have all the essential aminos. But even among complete proteins there are differences in the amount off non-essential and conditionaly-essential amino acids.  And then there are differences in bioavailability, with albumin and soy being two examples of the most bioavailable complete proteins.", "human_ref_B": "I'm currently working on a study that is looking at the effect of soy protein vs animal protein in basic muscle development (without exercise). Considering studies of this sort are currently being done on rodents, there is not a lot that we actually know.  Plenty of people insist that those who don't eat animal based protein can't possibly gain muscle or even consume enough protein to be healthy. But if none of the individuals with PhD's in Nutrition and Exercise Physiology know the exact answer, I think it is safe to say that the scientific community doesn't have solid evidence to support any theory yet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1541.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3upy0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Is it possible to chemically reproduce the effects of love? I'm under the impression that the feeling of love has been scientifically explained as a certain balance of chemicals in the human brain. Does this mean a 'love drug' could be created that would artificially induce the feeling of love? Has anyone ever created one?", "c_root_id_A": "cxhyn1n", "c_root_id_B": "cxgvmru", "created_at_utc_A": 1448897807, "created_at_utc_B": 1448817454, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "NO.   The brain, like a computer, is made of circuits. The popular idea that events in the brain happen nectar if the release of a particular set of chemicals is largely incorrect.  The truth is that events in the brain happen because a particular circuit is active / inactive / active in a particular way. Most circuits include neurons of many types, and no neurotransmitter is specific to only one circuit. Dopamine, for example, is used in some circuits that help control movement initiation, some circuits that control lactation, others that help control attention, others that are involved in memory, others that are involved in identifying stimuli that might signal future positive or negative consequences... The list goes on.  The idea that love, or happiness, or sadness happens because of the amount of serotonin / dopamine, etc. in your brain makes about as much sense as saying \"Firefox crashed on my laptop because the electron levels on the CPU were too high/low.\" The problem is in the program, the operating system, and so on...  Things you can't detect by measuring \"electron levels\" on your CPU.  Phenomena like love almost certainly happen as a result of the activity of multiple brain circuits in multiple brain areas. We can detect the activity of brain areas (e.g. dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, etc.) , but any given brain area may contain thousands of circuits. So right now, we can't really say what is happening when someone feels love.", "human_ref_B": "Some women with depression following their pregnancy can be given an oxytocin supplement - oxytocin is essentially the \"love hormone\" that makes parents love their children and it plays a role in romantic love as well. For example, it is released in your brain after an orgasm. Thus, it's sort of like a love drug.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 80353.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3upy0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Is it possible to chemically reproduce the effects of love? I'm under the impression that the feeling of love has been scientifically explained as a certain balance of chemicals in the human brain. Does this mean a 'love drug' could be created that would artificially induce the feeling of love? Has anyone ever created one?", "c_root_id_A": "cxhiyqb", "c_root_id_B": "cxhyn1n", "created_at_utc_A": 1448854589, "created_at_utc_B": 1448897807, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Love is used for a pretty broad range of emotions--most notably for \"crush\" style infatuation and long term pair-bonding.  Those almost certainly have somewhat different underpinnings.  The other side of this is delivery.  You could get _some_ kind of impact just dousing the whole brain with a chemical but to truly mimic what's going on you'd need to target certain areas of the brain.  Otherwise you'll have \"love+ side effects\", just like most neurochemistry altering drugs currently have side effects.  And even then, while there's certainly a big chemical component the concept/memory of _who_ you love is stored in neural connections, so just giving someone the chemical by itself probably wouldn't give a very targeted response.", "human_ref_B": "NO.   The brain, like a computer, is made of circuits. The popular idea that events in the brain happen nectar if the release of a particular set of chemicals is largely incorrect.  The truth is that events in the brain happen because a particular circuit is active / inactive / active in a particular way. Most circuits include neurons of many types, and no neurotransmitter is specific to only one circuit. Dopamine, for example, is used in some circuits that help control movement initiation, some circuits that control lactation, others that help control attention, others that are involved in memory, others that are involved in identifying stimuli that might signal future positive or negative consequences... The list goes on.  The idea that love, or happiness, or sadness happens because of the amount of serotonin / dopamine, etc. in your brain makes about as much sense as saying \"Firefox crashed on my laptop because the electron levels on the CPU were too high/low.\" The problem is in the program, the operating system, and so on...  Things you can't detect by measuring \"electron levels\" on your CPU.  Phenomena like love almost certainly happen as a result of the activity of multiple brain circuits in multiple brain areas. We can detect the activity of brain areas (e.g. dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, etc.) , but any given brain area may contain thousands of circuits. So right now, we can't really say what is happening when someone feels love.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 43218.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3upy0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Is it possible to chemically reproduce the effects of love? I'm under the impression that the feeling of love has been scientifically explained as a certain balance of chemicals in the human brain. Does this mean a 'love drug' could be created that would artificially induce the feeling of love? Has anyone ever created one?", "c_root_id_A": "cxh4hw2", "c_root_id_B": "cxhyn1n", "created_at_utc_A": 1448831340, "created_at_utc_B": 1448897807, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I'm just going to throw this right here.      http://www.pnas.org/content/109/3/959.short", "human_ref_B": "NO.   The brain, like a computer, is made of circuits. The popular idea that events in the brain happen nectar if the release of a particular set of chemicals is largely incorrect.  The truth is that events in the brain happen because a particular circuit is active / inactive / active in a particular way. Most circuits include neurons of many types, and no neurotransmitter is specific to only one circuit. Dopamine, for example, is used in some circuits that help control movement initiation, some circuits that control lactation, others that help control attention, others that are involved in memory, others that are involved in identifying stimuli that might signal future positive or negative consequences... The list goes on.  The idea that love, or happiness, or sadness happens because of the amount of serotonin / dopamine, etc. in your brain makes about as much sense as saying \"Firefox crashed on my laptop because the electron levels on the CPU were too high/low.\" The problem is in the program, the operating system, and so on...  Things you can't detect by measuring \"electron levels\" on your CPU.  Phenomena like love almost certainly happen as a result of the activity of multiple brain circuits in multiple brain areas. We can detect the activity of brain areas (e.g. dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, etc.) , but any given brain area may contain thousands of circuits. So right now, we can't really say what is happening when someone feels love.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 66467.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3upy0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Is it possible to chemically reproduce the effects of love? I'm under the impression that the feeling of love has been scientifically explained as a certain balance of chemicals in the human brain. Does this mean a 'love drug' could be created that would artificially induce the feeling of love? Has anyone ever created one?", "c_root_id_A": "cxh4hw2", "c_root_id_B": "cxhiyqb", "created_at_utc_A": 1448831340, "created_at_utc_B": 1448854589, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I'm just going to throw this right here.      http://www.pnas.org/content/109/3/959.short", "human_ref_B": "Love is used for a pretty broad range of emotions--most notably for \"crush\" style infatuation and long term pair-bonding.  Those almost certainly have somewhat different underpinnings.  The other side of this is delivery.  You could get _some_ kind of impact just dousing the whole brain with a chemical but to truly mimic what's going on you'd need to target certain areas of the brain.  Otherwise you'll have \"love+ side effects\", just like most neurochemistry altering drugs currently have side effects.  And even then, while there's certainly a big chemical component the concept/memory of _who_ you love is stored in neural connections, so just giving someone the chemical by itself probably wouldn't give a very targeted response.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23249.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ptsno7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why is the dark matter halo spherical? Dilettante scientist here, so be gentle. As I understand it, galaxies are disc shaped due to the conservation of angular momentum, but the all the data I\u2019ve seen about dark matter says that it is a roughly spherical distribution around the galaxy. Are there any theories as to why this is? Or is this evidence that dark matter doesn\u2019t even interact with itself?", "c_root_id_A": "hdyfesr", "c_root_id_B": "hdyib7i", "created_at_utc_A": 1632399976, "created_at_utc_B": 1632401557, "score_A": 213, "score_B": 259, "human_ref_A": "Accorrding to this paper: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/808/1/40  \"In the paradigm of cosmological structure formation gravitationally bound halos form at the peaks of the primordial density field as dark matter and baryons \\[i.e. regular matter\\] undergo nonlinear gravitational collapse. Dark matter, because it is collisionless and dissipationless, conserves its orbital energy, remaining in an extended dispersion-supported profile with overlapping inward- and outward-moving orbits. In contrast, gas collides, shocks, mixes, and eventually dissipates energy via radiative cooling, causing it to collapse to the minimum of a halo's potential well and seed the formation of stars and galaxies.\"  \r   So the answer to your question is \"we think yes\", but...  \"Within this paradigm, debate persists about the most physically meaningful ways to describe the physical extent of a halo, the rate of cosmic accretion into a halo, and the amount of mass growth within a halo, including how these compare for dark matter versus baryons. These are important questions because measurements of cosmic accretion and mass growth depend sensitively on how and where one measures them. Thus, understanding the evolution of halos requires a detailed understanding of the relevant physical scales across cosmic time, including the physical meaning (if any) of a choice for a halo's virial boundary/edge. Furthermore, because cosmic accretion into a halo feeds the growth of the galaxy inside, understanding the physics of all of these scales is necessary for developing a physical picture of galaxy evolution in a cosmological context.\"  i.e. we still don't fully understand.", "human_ref_B": "A cloud of matter that *does* collide with itself eventually settles to a disc with the same (net) angular momentum, be it planetary rings, stellar formation discs, or galaxies. That's just a simple result of probability of collisions. In the *absence* of such collisions, a spherical distribution would be the default assumption.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1581.0, "score_ratio": 1.2159624413, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzatanx", "c_root_id_B": "hzate0t", "created_at_utc_A": 1646388579, "created_at_utc_B": 1646388657, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "With DC motors, a higher torque requires a higher current in the magnetic coils that drive the motor. This increased current corresponds with increased resistive losses in the coils (because they scale with I^2 ) and therefore lower efficiency.", "human_ref_B": "Gear ratio itself is independent of efficiency (aside from higher ratios tending to be less efficient due to tooth geometry factors). The trick is to ensure that all of your load cases are at acceptable efficiency, if that\u2019s what you care about.  Also, though, think about what you actually want. Top speed, low end torque (as long as you have grippy wheels), etc.  Finally, as to why the efficiency of DC looks the way it does: think about what\u2019s actually going on in the motor. At zero speed, zero power can be delivered because no rotation can be delivered, but you\u2019re burning power from Joule heating (I^2 x impedance) so efficiency is zero - though note that this is not necessarily useless, if you\u2019re in a pushing contest or something. At the highest speed, the back-EMF is just about equal to the input voltage and the remainder is I x impedance to keep the motor spinning against bearing friction / etc., so again, zero power can be delivered because no torque can be delivered and efficiency is again 0.  As far as finding the location of the peak:  1. First, always check the motor data sheet  2. Barring that out, plot it out. Lift different weights with a pulley system or something, calculate your torque * speed vs input power for the different points, and generate the curve. Note that you always want to have speed-check gates away from the ends of travel, and watch out for side loads on unsupported shafts and bearings, harmonic/resonance issues, thermal issues, and such.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 78.0, "score_ratio": 1.7307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzbeicl", "c_root_id_B": "hzdfsu5", "created_at_utc_A": 1646402181, "created_at_utc_B": 1646431296, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It depends on the duty cycle that the motor is expected to operate in and the particular motor technology that is best suited for the application. Normally the core issue with motors is heat management for any motor that has a duty cycle more than single digit percent and intermittent operation. If the motor runs for minutes every hour, and you force cool it, then you can run it close to maximum torque output. But run it for 24/7 for a month, and it needs to operate at the MFG's rated torque range.  (note: Motors are best thought of as \"torque / force development devices\" rather than speed / RPM devices. i.e., when specifying the motor, torque is often the main consideration, not speed. )  What that means is that the best operating range is around peak efficiency of the motor.  Induction Motor:  https://electricalacademia.com/induction-motor/three-phase-induction-motor-performance/  DC Motor:  https://www.johnsonelectric.com/en/resources-for-engineers/ec-motors/performance-curve  That is normally around the \"rated operating point\" or roughly around \\~40-60% of rated loads (which can vary widely based on the motor technology). But as with most things, it's all a trade off.  https://www.groschopp.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Basics-of-Motor-Selection-Whitepaper.pdf  Source: I've run dozens of engineering projects in the consumer appliance and industrial product space over a \\~20 year engineering leadership career.  I also mentor FRC and FTC robotics teams. The back-handed way to figure this out:  \"If the motor is hot, something is wrong.\"", "human_ref_B": "In a robotics application, you are typically driving the motor with some electronic speed or torque control.  Performance curves that have a hump-shaped curve for efficiency as you describe, such as this one that someone else linked, are plotted based on applying a constant voltage to the motor, not using the full range of possible voltages that a controller could provide.  The result is just a plot of the efficiency along the edge of the possible operation range in the 2D space of torque and speed.  Ideally you would want to obtain an efficiency map like this one that shows the full range of possible operating points and the efficiency over that range.   If the motors you are considering don't have that sort of plot available, you have a few options.  1. You can observe in the map I linked that the low-efficiency range is the low-speed range.  If you get the speed reasonably high, you'll stay away from that range and it will have high efficiency.  That means that an effective design strategy is to start with the maximum speed that you want your wheel (or other output) to spin, and then choose the gearing to get that maximum speed at your maximum motor speed.  That gearing will give you the highest possible motor speed while meeting your specs, and thus  will typically give you the highest efficiency possible over the range of operating points you use in practice.  2. Use the parameters that you have for the motor you are interested in to develop a model, and use that model to plot an efficiency map like that.  The page I got that plot from walks through that.  3. Measure the relevant motor parameters--with a simple model, you don't need many parameters to fully characterize it.  I'd be happy to outline that or point you to references if that is of interest.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 29115.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzdfsu5", "c_root_id_B": "hzcbfmf", "created_at_utc_A": 1646431296, "created_at_utc_B": 1646415750, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "In a robotics application, you are typically driving the motor with some electronic speed or torque control.  Performance curves that have a hump-shaped curve for efficiency as you describe, such as this one that someone else linked, are plotted based on applying a constant voltage to the motor, not using the full range of possible voltages that a controller could provide.  The result is just a plot of the efficiency along the edge of the possible operation range in the 2D space of torque and speed.  Ideally you would want to obtain an efficiency map like this one that shows the full range of possible operating points and the efficiency over that range.   If the motors you are considering don't have that sort of plot available, you have a few options.  1. You can observe in the map I linked that the low-efficiency range is the low-speed range.  If you get the speed reasonably high, you'll stay away from that range and it will have high efficiency.  That means that an effective design strategy is to start with the maximum speed that you want your wheel (or other output) to spin, and then choose the gearing to get that maximum speed at your maximum motor speed.  That gearing will give you the highest possible motor speed while meeting your specs, and thus  will typically give you the highest efficiency possible over the range of operating points you use in practice.  2. Use the parameters that you have for the motor you are interested in to develop a model, and use that model to plot an efficiency map like that.  The page I got that plot from walks through that.  3. Measure the relevant motor parameters--with a simple model, you don't need many parameters to fully characterize it.  I'd be happy to outline that or point you to references if that is of interest.", "human_ref_B": "When you say most efficient gear ratio, I think what you mean is most effective gear ratio. Your vehicle has a desired force-speed curve, and you need to translate that into a torque-speed curve for your drive train. The wheels, gearbox, and motor winding ratio kv all act as torque-speed adjustments.  To find your operating point, you need to start with a mass estimate for your whole vehicle. Then you need a spec on acceleration and speed needs. For an electric motor max torque is at zero speed, so luckily this is easy to do and you don't need a 6 speed gearbox here. For example, you may want a very snappy vehicle that can do 0.5g horizontally and reach a max speed of 3m/s.  Now that you have mass and acceleration you can get linear force. Take a reasonable guess at wheel size, and now you have torque. Check the required max torque against the stall torque of the motor.  For speed, use the same wheels to turn your max linear speed into max rotation speed. Check the rotation speed against the max rotation speed of the motor.  Now you iterate. If your motor speed and torque are too low, pick a more powerful motor. If your torque is too high and your speed is too low, try a speed increasing gearbox. If your torque is too low and your speed too high, add a speed reducing gearbox. In most cases you will need a speed reducing gearbox, unless you have a multi-pole motor, which is basically using a transformer inside the motor to achieve the same effect.  Once you have an operating point, get the appropriate motor driver and batteries for your motor. Check all your ratings, torque and speed and current and voltage. Output torque of the gearbox is often a sticking point. Now revise your mass estimate and start over again.  Good luck!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15546.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzdfsu5", "c_root_id_B": "hzcikdl", "created_at_utc_A": 1646431296, "created_at_utc_B": 1646418559, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "In a robotics application, you are typically driving the motor with some electronic speed or torque control.  Performance curves that have a hump-shaped curve for efficiency as you describe, such as this one that someone else linked, are plotted based on applying a constant voltage to the motor, not using the full range of possible voltages that a controller could provide.  The result is just a plot of the efficiency along the edge of the possible operation range in the 2D space of torque and speed.  Ideally you would want to obtain an efficiency map like this one that shows the full range of possible operating points and the efficiency over that range.   If the motors you are considering don't have that sort of plot available, you have a few options.  1. You can observe in the map I linked that the low-efficiency range is the low-speed range.  If you get the speed reasonably high, you'll stay away from that range and it will have high efficiency.  That means that an effective design strategy is to start with the maximum speed that you want your wheel (or other output) to spin, and then choose the gearing to get that maximum speed at your maximum motor speed.  That gearing will give you the highest possible motor speed while meeting your specs, and thus  will typically give you the highest efficiency possible over the range of operating points you use in practice.  2. Use the parameters that you have for the motor you are interested in to develop a model, and use that model to plot an efficiency map like that.  The page I got that plot from walks through that.  3. Measure the relevant motor parameters--with a simple model, you don't need many parameters to fully characterize it.  I'd be happy to outline that or point you to references if that is of interest.", "human_ref_B": "see it like voltage and intensity in electrics. in mechanics when a gear box gives a high speed, it will gives low torque and vice versa.  the torque is just a rotating force. like pushing somethin which would be linear.  1st gear of your car gives a lot of torque to move the car but little speed, last gear little torque but high speed. when you'll  climb a hill, the car will slow down because it needs more force to be pushed, hence you will change gear to have more torque.  what you need to find is : what will be your motor payload and what speed do you want it to rotate.  if you already have the motor, then you'll need to choose if your prefer speed or torque, and make sure you'll be able to have enaugh torque to handle the payload.  now for the mechanics and explanations. torque = distance x force (in the correct coordinate system)  for this basic exemple you have the torque required to maintain a pole in place, with no movement. its the minimum torque required to maintain the pole.  now, i have to tell you this is purposely inexact for explanation purposes. the distance is taken on the inertia center of the part. so should be like this if the part is just a pole.  as a remember, this is the torque required to MAINTAIN in position your part.  now, i was inexact again, d is not the real value to be used. we need now to take gravity into consiretations. the distance - for gravity- is the horizontal distance. lets take different angles on the first drawing, torque value is lower than the previous image, on second its equal to zero. you can see all of this by trying to lift horizontal a pole from one side, from the middle, or getting it vertical and balanced on your hand.  know lets say you're pushin the oposite side lets make a proper drawing of the compositions got this situation of you helping the mechanism.  for torque, outside of gravity, we calculate it with the tangent of the force with the axis. this is an exemple of you pushing incorrectly at the extremity of the pole. you can see that a part of your effort is useless if you got the inccorrect angle.  (and you need for the equation to put everything in the correct coordinate system)   so for your project, you need to know and determine the right motor / gear box. i know it was your question, but i hope i gave you enaugh basic mechanics help to solve it. id be glad to answer you and have more info", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12737.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzdfsu5", "c_root_id_B": "hzcve01", "created_at_utc_A": 1646431296, "created_at_utc_B": 1646423496, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "In a robotics application, you are typically driving the motor with some electronic speed or torque control.  Performance curves that have a hump-shaped curve for efficiency as you describe, such as this one that someone else linked, are plotted based on applying a constant voltage to the motor, not using the full range of possible voltages that a controller could provide.  The result is just a plot of the efficiency along the edge of the possible operation range in the 2D space of torque and speed.  Ideally you would want to obtain an efficiency map like this one that shows the full range of possible operating points and the efficiency over that range.   If the motors you are considering don't have that sort of plot available, you have a few options.  1. You can observe in the map I linked that the low-efficiency range is the low-speed range.  If you get the speed reasonably high, you'll stay away from that range and it will have high efficiency.  That means that an effective design strategy is to start with the maximum speed that you want your wheel (or other output) to spin, and then choose the gearing to get that maximum speed at your maximum motor speed.  That gearing will give you the highest possible motor speed while meeting your specs, and thus  will typically give you the highest efficiency possible over the range of operating points you use in practice.  2. Use the parameters that you have for the motor you are interested in to develop a model, and use that model to plot an efficiency map like that.  The page I got that plot from walks through that.  3. Measure the relevant motor parameters--with a simple model, you don't need many parameters to fully characterize it.  I'd be happy to outline that or point you to references if that is of interest.", "human_ref_B": "Depends what your load and application are.  Do you wanna spin something heavy real slow, or spin something light real fast? Your gear ratio will vary between these 2 scenarios.  You'll probably have to do it yourself experimentally. If you can, get some kind of data logging device to log voltage & current to the motor, as well as a tachometer.  That way you can have visibility into power consumption vs motor speed", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7800.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzbeicl", "c_root_id_B": "hzftdb2", "created_at_utc_A": 1646402181, "created_at_utc_B": 1646477295, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It depends on the duty cycle that the motor is expected to operate in and the particular motor technology that is best suited for the application. Normally the core issue with motors is heat management for any motor that has a duty cycle more than single digit percent and intermittent operation. If the motor runs for minutes every hour, and you force cool it, then you can run it close to maximum torque output. But run it for 24/7 for a month, and it needs to operate at the MFG's rated torque range.  (note: Motors are best thought of as \"torque / force development devices\" rather than speed / RPM devices. i.e., when specifying the motor, torque is often the main consideration, not speed. )  What that means is that the best operating range is around peak efficiency of the motor.  Induction Motor:  https://electricalacademia.com/induction-motor/three-phase-induction-motor-performance/  DC Motor:  https://www.johnsonelectric.com/en/resources-for-engineers/ec-motors/performance-curve  That is normally around the \"rated operating point\" or roughly around \\~40-60% of rated loads (which can vary widely based on the motor technology). But as with most things, it's all a trade off.  https://www.groschopp.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Basics-of-Motor-Selection-Whitepaper.pdf  Source: I've run dozens of engineering projects in the consumer appliance and industrial product space over a \\~20 year engineering leadership career.  I also mentor FRC and FTC robotics teams. The back-handed way to figure this out:  \"If the motor is hot, something is wrong.\"", "human_ref_B": "I'm guessing you mean efficiency on the motor, and not the gearbox itself.  Let's take an example motor - the Falcon 500 is a high-end motor used in the FIRST Robotics Competition: https://motors.vex.com/vexpro-motors/falcon#mcx3pnx  As you can see, there are a bunch of properties of the motor over the RPM range.   There's also this efficiency chart on a different page: https://www.vexrobotics.com/pro/falcon-500  So in order to size your gearbox, you need to first set requirements on either speed or torque, work backwards to find the gear ratio that would run your motor closest to the peak power value(\\~3100 on the Falcon 500 motor).  In electric motors, efficiency isn't really something you can optimize for, as the conditions your motor is operating in is continuously changing.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 75114.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzftdb2", "c_root_id_B": "hzcbfmf", "created_at_utc_A": 1646477295, "created_at_utc_B": 1646415750, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm guessing you mean efficiency on the motor, and not the gearbox itself.  Let's take an example motor - the Falcon 500 is a high-end motor used in the FIRST Robotics Competition: https://motors.vex.com/vexpro-motors/falcon#mcx3pnx  As you can see, there are a bunch of properties of the motor over the RPM range.   There's also this efficiency chart on a different page: https://www.vexrobotics.com/pro/falcon-500  So in order to size your gearbox, you need to first set requirements on either speed or torque, work backwards to find the gear ratio that would run your motor closest to the peak power value(\\~3100 on the Falcon 500 motor).  In electric motors, efficiency isn't really something you can optimize for, as the conditions your motor is operating in is continuously changing.", "human_ref_B": "When you say most efficient gear ratio, I think what you mean is most effective gear ratio. Your vehicle has a desired force-speed curve, and you need to translate that into a torque-speed curve for your drive train. The wheels, gearbox, and motor winding ratio kv all act as torque-speed adjustments.  To find your operating point, you need to start with a mass estimate for your whole vehicle. Then you need a spec on acceleration and speed needs. For an electric motor max torque is at zero speed, so luckily this is easy to do and you don't need a 6 speed gearbox here. For example, you may want a very snappy vehicle that can do 0.5g horizontally and reach a max speed of 3m/s.  Now that you have mass and acceleration you can get linear force. Take a reasonable guess at wheel size, and now you have torque. Check the required max torque against the stall torque of the motor.  For speed, use the same wheels to turn your max linear speed into max rotation speed. Check the rotation speed against the max rotation speed of the motor.  Now you iterate. If your motor speed and torque are too low, pick a more powerful motor. If your torque is too high and your speed is too low, try a speed increasing gearbox. If your torque is too low and your speed too high, add a speed reducing gearbox. In most cases you will need a speed reducing gearbox, unless you have a multi-pole motor, which is basically using a transformer inside the motor to achieve the same effect.  Once you have an operating point, get the appropriate motor driver and batteries for your motor. Check all your ratings, torque and speed and current and voltage. Output torque of the gearbox is often a sticking point. Now revise your mass estimate and start over again.  Good luck!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 61545.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzftdb2", "c_root_id_B": "hzcikdl", "created_at_utc_A": 1646477295, "created_at_utc_B": 1646418559, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm guessing you mean efficiency on the motor, and not the gearbox itself.  Let's take an example motor - the Falcon 500 is a high-end motor used in the FIRST Robotics Competition: https://motors.vex.com/vexpro-motors/falcon#mcx3pnx  As you can see, there are a bunch of properties of the motor over the RPM range.   There's also this efficiency chart on a different page: https://www.vexrobotics.com/pro/falcon-500  So in order to size your gearbox, you need to first set requirements on either speed or torque, work backwards to find the gear ratio that would run your motor closest to the peak power value(\\~3100 on the Falcon 500 motor).  In electric motors, efficiency isn't really something you can optimize for, as the conditions your motor is operating in is continuously changing.", "human_ref_B": "see it like voltage and intensity in electrics. in mechanics when a gear box gives a high speed, it will gives low torque and vice versa.  the torque is just a rotating force. like pushing somethin which would be linear.  1st gear of your car gives a lot of torque to move the car but little speed, last gear little torque but high speed. when you'll  climb a hill, the car will slow down because it needs more force to be pushed, hence you will change gear to have more torque.  what you need to find is : what will be your motor payload and what speed do you want it to rotate.  if you already have the motor, then you'll need to choose if your prefer speed or torque, and make sure you'll be able to have enaugh torque to handle the payload.  now for the mechanics and explanations. torque = distance x force (in the correct coordinate system)  for this basic exemple you have the torque required to maintain a pole in place, with no movement. its the minimum torque required to maintain the pole.  now, i have to tell you this is purposely inexact for explanation purposes. the distance is taken on the inertia center of the part. so should be like this if the part is just a pole.  as a remember, this is the torque required to MAINTAIN in position your part.  now, i was inexact again, d is not the real value to be used. we need now to take gravity into consiretations. the distance - for gravity- is the horizontal distance. lets take different angles on the first drawing, torque value is lower than the previous image, on second its equal to zero. you can see all of this by trying to lift horizontal a pole from one side, from the middle, or getting it vertical and balanced on your hand.  know lets say you're pushin the oposite side lets make a proper drawing of the compositions got this situation of you helping the mechanism.  for torque, outside of gravity, we calculate it with the tangent of the force with the axis. this is an exemple of you pushing incorrectly at the extremity of the pole. you can see that a part of your effort is useless if you got the inccorrect angle.  (and you need for the equation to put everything in the correct coordinate system)   so for your project, you need to know and determine the right motor / gear box. i know it was your question, but i hope i gave you enaugh basic mechanics help to solve it. id be glad to answer you and have more info", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 58736.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t69jth", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How can you determine the most efficient gear ratio for an electric motor? I am part of a robotics team and thought that it would be useful to find the relationship between gear ratio and the efficiency of a DC motor. When I looked it up I found plenty of graphs that represent the efficiency as a parabola, increasing as RPM increases and torque decreases, then dropping after a 'peak' efficiency is reached.   However, I couldn't find any explanations of why it takes this shape, or what determines the location of this peak.   My understanding was that speed is, well, speed, while torque is the ability of a motor to start moving in the first place. So I thought that the efficiency would continuously increase with speed, until the torque is too low to move the load and the motor stalls, dropping efficiency straight to 0 rather than a gradual decrease. Is there something that I am missing?", "c_root_id_A": "hzcve01", "c_root_id_B": "hzftdb2", "created_at_utc_A": 1646423496, "created_at_utc_B": 1646477295, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Depends what your load and application are.  Do you wanna spin something heavy real slow, or spin something light real fast? Your gear ratio will vary between these 2 scenarios.  You'll probably have to do it yourself experimentally. If you can, get some kind of data logging device to log voltage & current to the motor, as well as a tachometer.  That way you can have visibility into power consumption vs motor speed", "human_ref_B": "I'm guessing you mean efficiency on the motor, and not the gearbox itself.  Let's take an example motor - the Falcon 500 is a high-end motor used in the FIRST Robotics Competition: https://motors.vex.com/vexpro-motors/falcon#mcx3pnx  As you can see, there are a bunch of properties of the motor over the RPM range.   There's also this efficiency chart on a different page: https://www.vexrobotics.com/pro/falcon-500  So in order to size your gearbox, you need to first set requirements on either speed or torque, work backwards to find the gear ratio that would run your motor closest to the peak power value(\\~3100 on the Falcon 500 motor).  In electric motors, efficiency isn't really something you can optimize for, as the conditions your motor is operating in is continuously changing.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 53799.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jbg5n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Can someone explain the theory of abiogenesis in layman terms? I've tried reading articles on the subject but my head always ends up hurting with all the talk of amino acids and peptides... What little I think I know is that it deals with how the most basic proteins and subsequently the first \"living things\" came to be. I need someone to elaborate. Not in complete Dum-Dum terms, but in words a reasonably smart person would be able to comprehend. Thanks in advance.", "c_root_id_A": "c2aqb00", "c_root_id_B": "c2aqsqa", "created_at_utc_A": 1312714792, "created_at_utc_B": 1312726178, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Evolution tells us how the first life became what it is now but abiogenesis is the theory of where life came from in the first place. I can't recommend any sources on the different theories but if you are having trouble understanding what they are saying in terms of cell biology etc. I cannot recommend [this link](/http://www.nature.com/scitable/ebooks/essentials-of-cell-biology-14749010) enough. It's a free textbook on cell biology that will quickly take you through the basics and then work its way up to more advanced concepts. It should make understanding abiogenesis a lot easier, but I'll leave that concept itself to someone else.", "human_ref_B": "The idea is that life arose on Earth from non-life. The amino acids and peptides\u2014that's all mechanism. What's key is that cellular life as we know it can arise in stages.  At the very simplest level, you have relatively simple molecules that can replicate themselves. On a chemically rich early Earth just _bathing_ in solar energy, full of water, these molecules will arise independently.  One of the next things you need is a separated environment. A cell is useful because it allows a life-form to keep its internal environment relatively constant no matter what it's like outside. In its most rudimentary form, a cell membrane is just a double film-layer of something greasy. Small empty compartments with double film-layers like this can occur spontaneously.  So now you've got replicating molecules. There will be only so much stuff in a local environment to get used up in this molecules. There will be a certain amount of sloppines in the replication. But successfully replicating molecules will also tend to make a lot more very similar molecules, and poorly replicating molecules will tend to get outnumbered. These are the primary initial conditions for natural selection.  So replicating molecules evolving within segregated environments. Much of the specifics leading up to prokaryotic (read: bacterial) life as we know it are just being hashed out. One proposal is an RNA World, where RNA is the information-carrying molecule, and the do-something molecule. (You and I and _E. coli_ all use DNA to carry information, RNA to translate it, and proteins to do stuff.)  But the key idea is that simple replicating molecules can develop spontaneously thanks to chemical diversity and the influx of solar energy on the early Earth. And once they do, they can evolve until they've developed mechanisms that can maintain an internal environment, adapt and react the organism to changing conditions, grow and reproduce, etc. Life. And the richness of life develops from there.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11386.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tkyuo", "c_root_id_B": "f3tljzk", "created_at_utc_A": 1571138388, "created_at_utc_B": 1571138986, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "How applicable is this to non-songbirds? Could the same songs be taught to other types of bird?", "human_ref_B": "Last spring we got a puppy.  About the same time a bird nest nearby (unable to ID the type) had hatchlings.  The dog has a repetitive high pitch whine when she wants in the back door.  One day whilst sitting on the porch I hear the same whining noise only to realize that the dog \"Molly\" isn't outside and the noise is actually coming from the hatchlings as their mother was feeding them.  The birds were replicating the same whine noise as my dog in perfect pitch.  This continued until the birds left the nest.  I keep a bird feeder in my yard and every so often I hear the noise again from the grown hatchlings my wife and I have dubbed the Molly birds.  The sound is unmistakable and sounds nothing like the other birds.  Is this common?  Is the noise used for communication with other family members now?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 598.0, "score_ratio": 4.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tnd65", "c_root_id_B": "f3to1rm", "created_at_utc_A": 1571140716, "created_at_utc_B": 1571141333, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "That is such a fascinating topic, congrats on finishing the paper!  If this means that certain neural pathways are essentially preloaded into the chicks brain to make learning easier, does this mean higher order processes could also feasibly be affected by beliefs of the parent? Talking music preferences or political beliefs etc. A far stretch but could it relate at all to your study?  Also you mention \"overrode learning from live tutors\" does this mean that the tutor bird has trouble teaching the chicks a song that is close but not the same as the preloaded tune? They will assume they know the rest and sing the \"wrong\" tune to what the tutor is teaching?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any parallels between songbirds learning to sing and humans learning to talk?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 617.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpn94", "c_root_id_B": "f3tnd65", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142712, "created_at_utc_B": 1571140716, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What does a bird have to gain by mimicking something irrelevant to their species, such as a car alarm?", "human_ref_B": "That is such a fascinating topic, congrats on finishing the paper!  If this means that certain neural pathways are essentially preloaded into the chicks brain to make learning easier, does this mean higher order processes could also feasibly be affected by beliefs of the parent? Talking music preferences or political beliefs etc. A far stretch but could it relate at all to your study?  Also you mention \"overrode learning from live tutors\" does this mean that the tutor bird has trouble teaching the chicks a song that is close but not the same as the preloaded tune? They will assume they know the rest and sing the \"wrong\" tune to what the tutor is teaching?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1996.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tohoh", "c_root_id_B": "f3tpn94", "created_at_utc_A": 1571141722, "created_at_utc_B": 1571142712, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Hello! First of all thank you for doing this and for your work! This is a very interesting topic!  So my question is very general, when I studied entomology we were told that some birds show the same singing pattern of their species even if kept in isolation, my question are   Is that the same for all the species? If not what difference between a specie and another could there be to allow innate patterns (if those information they told me is true at all)?  Do we know what in some birds permits to be more prone to learn new patterns better than other species?  Lastly, if this is even relevant to your studies, do some more intelligent kinds of birds, like the crow family have different \"singing\" patterns to communicate different things?  Thank you again!", "human_ref_B": "What does a bird have to gain by mimicking something irrelevant to their species, such as a car alarm?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 990.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpn94", "c_root_id_B": "f3toqyf", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142712, "created_at_utc_B": 1571141947, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What does a bird have to gain by mimicking something irrelevant to their species, such as a car alarm?", "human_ref_B": "Given the hint into the study birds learning a song through memory, could you hypothetically teach species specialty zound related skills? I jokingly suggest \"9 o'clock, all is well\" but important alerts such as \"fox\" in a native human language would help near farmland.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 765.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tnd65", "c_root_id_B": "f3tpnwh", "created_at_utc_A": 1571140716, "created_at_utc_B": 1571142727, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "That is such a fascinating topic, congrats on finishing the paper!  If this means that certain neural pathways are essentially preloaded into the chicks brain to make learning easier, does this mean higher order processes could also feasibly be affected by beliefs of the parent? Talking music preferences or political beliefs etc. A far stretch but could it relate at all to your study?  Also you mention \"overrode learning from live tutors\" does this mean that the tutor bird has trouble teaching the chicks a song that is close but not the same as the preloaded tune? They will assume they know the rest and sing the \"wrong\" tune to what the tutor is teaching?", "human_ref_B": "So evolutionarily speaking, what do you guys think the benefit of having learning encoded this way is?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2011.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tnd65", "c_root_id_B": "f3tq4az", "created_at_utc_A": 1571140716, "created_at_utc_B": 1571143105, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "That is such a fascinating topic, congrats on finishing the paper!  If this means that certain neural pathways are essentially preloaded into the chicks brain to make learning easier, does this mean higher order processes could also feasibly be affected by beliefs of the parent? Talking music preferences or political beliefs etc. A far stretch but could it relate at all to your study?  Also you mention \"overrode learning from live tutors\" does this mean that the tutor bird has trouble teaching the chicks a song that is close but not the same as the preloaded tune? They will assume they know the rest and sing the \"wrong\" tune to what the tutor is teaching?", "human_ref_B": "Is there potential for optogenetics to one day be used to implant fake memories into humans?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2389.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tnd65", "c_root_id_B": "f3ttslt", "created_at_utc_A": 1571140716, "created_at_utc_B": 1571145912, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "That is such a fascinating topic, congrats on finishing the paper!  If this means that certain neural pathways are essentially preloaded into the chicks brain to make learning easier, does this mean higher order processes could also feasibly be affected by beliefs of the parent? Talking music preferences or political beliefs etc. A far stretch but could it relate at all to your study?  Also you mention \"overrode learning from live tutors\" does this mean that the tutor bird has trouble teaching the chicks a song that is close but not the same as the preloaded tune? They will assume they know the rest and sing the \"wrong\" tune to what the tutor is teaching?", "human_ref_B": "Do birds have regional accents?  Has anyone compared old recordings, say old birdsong recordings made on wax cylinders, to birdsong of today to see if the songs have changed?  Have birds learned to mimic machines or adapted their birdsong because of cities?  Do predator birds use or track birdsongs of their prey in any way?  Do birds of other species use the birdsong of others to any advantage?  Are you waiting for a Hawkman super-hero movie?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5196.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpnwh", "c_root_id_B": "f3tq4az", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142727, "created_at_utc_B": 1571143105, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "So evolutionarily speaking, what do you guys think the benefit of having learning encoded this way is?", "human_ref_B": "Is there potential for optogenetics to one day be used to implant fake memories into humans?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 378.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpnwh", "c_root_id_B": "f3tohoh", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142727, "created_at_utc_B": 1571141722, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "So evolutionarily speaking, what do you guys think the benefit of having learning encoded this way is?", "human_ref_B": "Hello! First of all thank you for doing this and for your work! This is a very interesting topic!  So my question is very general, when I studied entomology we were told that some birds show the same singing pattern of their species even if kept in isolation, my question are   Is that the same for all the species? If not what difference between a specie and another could there be to allow innate patterns (if those information they told me is true at all)?  Do we know what in some birds permits to be more prone to learn new patterns better than other species?  Lastly, if this is even relevant to your studies, do some more intelligent kinds of birds, like the crow family have different \"singing\" patterns to communicate different things?  Thank you again!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1005.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3toqyf", "c_root_id_B": "f3tpnwh", "created_at_utc_A": 1571141947, "created_at_utc_B": 1571142727, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Given the hint into the study birds learning a song through memory, could you hypothetically teach species specialty zound related skills? I jokingly suggest \"9 o'clock, all is well\" but important alerts such as \"fox\" in a native human language would help near farmland.", "human_ref_B": "So evolutionarily speaking, what do you guys think the benefit of having learning encoded this way is?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 780.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tq4az", "c_root_id_B": "f3tohoh", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143105, "created_at_utc_B": 1571141722, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is there potential for optogenetics to one day be used to implant fake memories into humans?", "human_ref_B": "Hello! First of all thank you for doing this and for your work! This is a very interesting topic!  So my question is very general, when I studied entomology we were told that some birds show the same singing pattern of their species even if kept in isolation, my question are   Is that the same for all the species? If not what difference between a specie and another could there be to allow innate patterns (if those information they told me is true at all)?  Do we know what in some birds permits to be more prone to learn new patterns better than other species?  Lastly, if this is even relevant to your studies, do some more intelligent kinds of birds, like the crow family have different \"singing\" patterns to communicate different things?  Thank you again!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1383.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tq4az", "c_root_id_B": "f3toqyf", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143105, "created_at_utc_B": 1571141947, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is there potential for optogenetics to one day be used to implant fake memories into humans?", "human_ref_B": "Given the hint into the study birds learning a song through memory, could you hypothetically teach species specialty zound related skills? I jokingly suggest \"9 o'clock, all is well\" but important alerts such as \"fox\" in a native human language would help near farmland.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1158.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tq4az", "c_root_id_B": "f3tpuu0", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143105, "created_at_utc_B": 1571142889, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is there potential for optogenetics to one day be used to implant fake memories into humans?", "human_ref_B": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 216.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tohoh", "c_root_id_B": "f3ttslt", "created_at_utc_A": 1571141722, "created_at_utc_B": 1571145912, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Hello! First of all thank you for doing this and for your work! This is a very interesting topic!  So my question is very general, when I studied entomology we were told that some birds show the same singing pattern of their species even if kept in isolation, my question are   Is that the same for all the species? If not what difference between a specie and another could there be to allow innate patterns (if those information they told me is true at all)?  Do we know what in some birds permits to be more prone to learn new patterns better than other species?  Lastly, if this is even relevant to your studies, do some more intelligent kinds of birds, like the crow family have different \"singing\" patterns to communicate different things?  Thank you again!", "human_ref_B": "Do birds have regional accents?  Has anyone compared old recordings, say old birdsong recordings made on wax cylinders, to birdsong of today to see if the songs have changed?  Have birds learned to mimic machines or adapted their birdsong because of cities?  Do predator birds use or track birdsongs of their prey in any way?  Do birds of other species use the birdsong of others to any advantage?  Are you waiting for a Hawkman super-hero movie?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4190.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tqxrf", "c_root_id_B": "f3ttslt", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143766, "created_at_utc_B": 1571145912, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "What portion of bird song is in the ultrasound range? Does this differ substantially between species and was this a factor in your study?", "human_ref_B": "Do birds have regional accents?  Has anyone compared old recordings, say old birdsong recordings made on wax cylinders, to birdsong of today to see if the songs have changed?  Have birds learned to mimic machines or adapted their birdsong because of cities?  Do predator birds use or track birdsongs of their prey in any way?  Do birds of other species use the birdsong of others to any advantage?  Are you waiting for a Hawkman super-hero movie?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2146.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3toqyf", "c_root_id_B": "f3ttslt", "created_at_utc_A": 1571141947, "created_at_utc_B": 1571145912, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Given the hint into the study birds learning a song through memory, could you hypothetically teach species specialty zound related skills? I jokingly suggest \"9 o'clock, all is well\" but important alerts such as \"fox\" in a native human language would help near farmland.", "human_ref_B": "Do birds have regional accents?  Has anyone compared old recordings, say old birdsong recordings made on wax cylinders, to birdsong of today to see if the songs have changed?  Have birds learned to mimic machines or adapted their birdsong because of cities?  Do predator birds use or track birdsongs of their prey in any way?  Do birds of other species use the birdsong of others to any advantage?  Are you waiting for a Hawkman super-hero movie?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3965.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3ttslt", "c_root_id_B": "f3tq57g", "created_at_utc_A": 1571145912, "created_at_utc_B": 1571143126, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Do birds have regional accents?  Has anyone compared old recordings, say old birdsong recordings made on wax cylinders, to birdsong of today to see if the songs have changed?  Have birds learned to mimic machines or adapted their birdsong because of cities?  Do predator birds use or track birdsongs of their prey in any way?  Do birds of other species use the birdsong of others to any advantage?  Are you waiting for a Hawkman super-hero movie?", "human_ref_B": "Mockingbirds have songs that are naturally quite varied and they often sing at night. Have you studied mockingbirds ?  Do they have ability other birds do not possess? Why do they sing at night?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2786.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tq7vg", "c_root_id_B": "f3ttslt", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143187, "created_at_utc_B": 1571145912, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Blue Jays mimic hawk calls I've always wondered why.", "human_ref_B": "Do birds have regional accents?  Has anyone compared old recordings, say old birdsong recordings made on wax cylinders, to birdsong of today to see if the songs have changed?  Have birds learned to mimic machines or adapted their birdsong because of cities?  Do predator birds use or track birdsongs of their prey in any way?  Do birds of other species use the birdsong of others to any advantage?  Are you waiting for a Hawkman super-hero movie?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2725.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpuu0", "c_root_id_B": "f3ttslt", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142889, "created_at_utc_B": 1571145912, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "human_ref_B": "Do birds have regional accents?  Has anyone compared old recordings, say old birdsong recordings made on wax cylinders, to birdsong of today to see if the songs have changed?  Have birds learned to mimic machines or adapted their birdsong because of cities?  Do predator birds use or track birdsongs of their prey in any way?  Do birds of other species use the birdsong of others to any advantage?  Are you waiting for a Hawkman super-hero movie?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3023.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tqxrf", "c_root_id_B": "f3toqyf", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143766, "created_at_utc_B": 1571141947, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What portion of bird song is in the ultrasound range? Does this differ substantially between species and was this a factor in your study?", "human_ref_B": "Given the hint into the study birds learning a song through memory, could you hypothetically teach species specialty zound related skills? I jokingly suggest \"9 o'clock, all is well\" but important alerts such as \"fox\" in a native human language would help near farmland.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1819.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tq57g", "c_root_id_B": "f3tqxrf", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143126, "created_at_utc_B": 1571143766, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Mockingbirds have songs that are naturally quite varied and they often sing at night. Have you studied mockingbirds ?  Do they have ability other birds do not possess? Why do they sing at night?", "human_ref_B": "What portion of bird song is in the ultrasound range? Does this differ substantially between species and was this a factor in your study?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 640.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tqxrf", "c_root_id_B": "f3tq7vg", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143766, "created_at_utc_B": 1571143187, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What portion of bird song is in the ultrasound range? Does this differ substantially between species and was this a factor in your study?", "human_ref_B": "Blue Jays mimic hawk calls I've always wondered why.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 579.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tqxrf", "c_root_id_B": "f3tpuu0", "created_at_utc_A": 1571143766, "created_at_utc_B": 1571142889, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What portion of bird song is in the ultrasound range? Does this differ substantially between species and was this a factor in your study?", "human_ref_B": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 877.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpuu0", "c_root_id_B": "f3tq57g", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142889, "created_at_utc_B": 1571143126, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "human_ref_B": "Mockingbirds have songs that are naturally quite varied and they often sing at night. Have you studied mockingbirds ?  Do they have ability other birds do not possess? Why do they sing at night?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 237.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpuu0", "c_root_id_B": "f3tq7vg", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142889, "created_at_utc_B": 1571143187, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "human_ref_B": "Blue Jays mimic hawk calls I've always wondered why.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 298.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpuu0", "c_root_id_B": "f3ty7v0", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142889, "created_at_utc_B": 1571148898, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "human_ref_B": "Smithsonian Magazine published an article on how birds sing to their eggs, implanting song cues to offspring before they\u2019ve even hatched. Have you considered attempting to modify songbird songs by playing different patterns to eggs then observing what the hatchlings sing? Follow-up study, what might be the earliest point in egg development that songs could be implanted? This could suggest that other developing embryos, humans even, may pick up information during development, don\u2019t you suppose?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6009.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3twxu2", "c_root_id_B": "f3ty7v0", "created_at_utc_A": 1571148066, "created_at_utc_B": 1571148898, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Will optogenetics help speed human learning as well? How likely is this to be the first step to humans downloading semantic knowledge skills or experiences straight to our brains?", "human_ref_B": "Smithsonian Magazine published an article on how birds sing to their eggs, implanting song cues to offspring before they\u2019ve even hatched. Have you considered attempting to modify songbird songs by playing different patterns to eggs then observing what the hatchlings sing? Follow-up study, what might be the earliest point in egg development that songs could be implanted? This could suggest that other developing embryos, humans even, may pick up information during development, don\u2019t you suppose?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 832.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpuu0", "c_root_id_B": "f3tz9fq", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142889, "created_at_utc_B": 1571149557, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "human_ref_B": "How is noise pollution and having a generally louder environment affecting bird calls?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6668.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3twxu2", "c_root_id_B": "f3tz9fq", "created_at_utc_A": 1571148066, "created_at_utc_B": 1571149557, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Will optogenetics help speed human learning as well? How likely is this to be the first step to humans downloading semantic knowledge skills or experiences straight to our brains?", "human_ref_B": "How is noise pollution and having a generally louder environment affecting bird calls?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1491.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3u0225", "c_root_id_B": "f3tpuu0", "created_at_utc_A": 1571150048, "created_at_utc_B": 1571142889, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What does it mean for the songbirds to be communicating with songs?  Are they trying to call out to other birds, or are they actually making music?  When they play this learned song, what is their intended result from doing so?", "human_ref_B": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7159.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3twxu2", "c_root_id_B": "f3u0225", "created_at_utc_A": 1571148066, "created_at_utc_B": 1571150048, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Will optogenetics help speed human learning as well? How likely is this to be the first step to humans downloading semantic knowledge skills or experiences straight to our brains?", "human_ref_B": "What does it mean for the songbirds to be communicating with songs?  Are they trying to call out to other birds, or are they actually making music?  When they play this learned song, what is their intended result from doing so?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1982.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3u0z7o", "c_root_id_B": "f3tpuu0", "created_at_utc_A": 1571150613, "created_at_utc_B": 1571142889, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Could a Stellar's Jay have learned to make the sounds of pebbles falling?  I live near the edge of a basalt cliff and heard the sound and there was my neighbor in all his stellar glory. Bsure it was him.  We were a ways from the cliff so it wasn't a real pebble.", "human_ref_B": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7724.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3twxu2", "c_root_id_B": "f3u0z7o", "created_at_utc_A": 1571148066, "created_at_utc_B": 1571150613, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Will optogenetics help speed human learning as well? How likely is this to be the first step to humans downloading semantic knowledge skills or experiences straight to our brains?", "human_ref_B": "Could a Stellar's Jay have learned to make the sounds of pebbles falling?  I live near the edge of a basalt cliff and heard the sound and there was my neighbor in all his stellar glory. Bsure it was him.  We were a ways from the cliff so it wasn't a real pebble.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2547.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpuu0", "c_root_id_B": "f3u2fcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142889, "created_at_utc_B": 1571151488, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "human_ref_B": "Do songbirds learn to sing from their mother singing repeatedly?Do they have diffrent genre of what they sing?Do their singing changes every once in a while in a generation,Because you never know if some hatchlings didn't hear it quite and misheard a few tones and it get past generation to generation due to some hatchlings mishearing some tones?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8599.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3u2fcc", "c_root_id_B": "f3twxu2", "created_at_utc_A": 1571151488, "created_at_utc_B": 1571148066, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Do songbirds learn to sing from their mother singing repeatedly?Do they have diffrent genre of what they sing?Do their singing changes every once in a while in a generation,Because you never know if some hatchlings didn't hear it quite and misheard a few tones and it get past generation to generation due to some hatchlings mishearing some tones?", "human_ref_B": "Will optogenetics help speed human learning as well? How likely is this to be the first step to humans downloading semantic knowledge skills or experiences straight to our brains?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3422.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3tpuu0", "c_root_id_B": "f3u4d97", "created_at_utc_A": 1571142889, "created_at_utc_B": 1571152663, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are there different \"genres\" of songbird songs? That is, do they all sound mostly alike (chirp chirp in different variations) - or are some birds able to sing their \"songs\" in other types of sounds?", "human_ref_B": "Is it true that they learn from me?  I serenade each and every songbird like Pavarotti right before they fall asleep at night.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9774.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3u4d97", "c_root_id_B": "f3twxu2", "created_at_utc_A": 1571152663, "created_at_utc_B": 1571148066, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is it true that they learn from me?  I serenade each and every songbird like Pavarotti right before they fall asleep at night.", "human_ref_B": "Will optogenetics help speed human learning as well? How likely is this to be the first step to humans downloading semantic knowledge skills or experiences straight to our brains?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4597.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3u2qx2", "c_root_id_B": "f3u4d97", "created_at_utc_A": 1571151680, "created_at_utc_B": 1571152663, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "You mention that songbirds learn from memory from the more 'experienced' of their species. Is there a way to imprint different 'songs' to young learning birds that they do not receive from elders but from music of your choosing?", "human_ref_B": "Is it true that they learn from me?  I serenade each and every songbird like Pavarotti right before they fall asleep at night.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 983.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3u4d97", "c_root_id_B": "f3u2skb", "created_at_utc_A": 1571152663, "created_at_utc_B": 1571151707, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is it true that they learn from me?  I serenade each and every songbird like Pavarotti right before they fall asleep at night.", "human_ref_B": "Over one summer I was outside almost everyday to take care of my animals for a 4-H project in rural Michigan. I would whistle very loud because I had nothing better to do and I whistled the same tune most days. Later that summer I noticed that I started hearing the opening 3 or 4 notes from the tune I would whistle. Did my repetitive gesture cause this in your opinion or did itchange for another reason? Was it a coincidental move in from another birdie? Thanks you!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 956.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di69jp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, ask us anything! We are scientists who study how songbirds learn to sing, and we recently published a study in which we incepted memories of songs into birds using a technique called optogenetics. This led the birds to learn a song that we programmed but that they never actually heard. This paper has been receiving quite a lot of attention and we would love to address people's questions about this technique and the paper's implications. Here is the paper: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/366/6461/83.  Joining us today are Dr. Maaya Ikeda, Therese Koch, Harshida Pancholi, and Dr. Massimo Trusel. They will be available from 3:00-5:00pm CDT (4-6 ET, 20-22 UT), ask them anything!", "c_root_id_A": "f3u436j", "c_root_id_B": "f3u4d97", "created_at_utc_A": 1571152493, "created_at_utc_B": 1571152663, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Does a songbird just listen and reproduce or does it have to practice?", "human_ref_B": "Is it true that they learn from me?  I serenade each and every songbird like Pavarotti right before they fall asleep at night.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 170.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pztg4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How do scientists determine the age of a star? I was reading this article, and it mentions that the stars are \"nearly 12 billion years old.\" How do they know?", "c_root_id_A": "c3tjxwl", "c_root_id_B": "c3tjh3d", "created_at_utc_A": 1329859827, "created_at_utc_B": 1329857627, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "While I agree with the other responses that composition can tell a lot about the age of the star, one needs to be careful.  For example, in the Large Magellanic Cloud, the metallicity is 1/3 that of the solar metallicity, meaning that a star in the LMC may appear to be \"older\" than those in the Milky Way, though they very often aren't.  30 Doradus is a mecca of starburst activity, generating new stars that have lowish metallicity.  A cute way to figure out a star's position in its life is by comparing it with an evolutionary track on what's called an H-R diagram.  Evolutionary tracks are generated with theoretical models from modern and somewhat older (Salpeter IMF) astronomy, and can be plotted on the H-R diagram to compare with the stars.  These models are called isochrones.  This is one of the most common research approach to figuring out stellar ages.", "human_ref_B": "They observe its spectrum and brightness. This lets them know its temperature, size, and composition. This is used to determine its age, because over time composition changes in a predictable manner.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2200.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pztg4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How do scientists determine the age of a star? I was reading this article, and it mentions that the stars are \"nearly 12 billion years old.\" How do they know?", "c_root_id_A": "c3tjlcs", "c_root_id_B": "c3tjxwl", "created_at_utc_A": 1329858206, "created_at_utc_B": 1329859827, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "After the big bang, the elements in the universe were about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium.  So let's assume that a star starts out with that composition, 75% hydrogen and 25% helium.  As it burns, it turns hydrogen into helium.  Now we can tell the relative composition of the two elements by spectral analysis.  So we know how much hydrogen and helium the star has now.  We also know the current output of energy, so we can see how fast hydrogen is turning into helium currently today.    A simple model could assume a constant energy output and calculate how long it would take to reach that composition.  More advanced models could attempt to determine how that rate has changed over the stars lifetime.  There's yet another factor.  The star could be far away, so if the star was 1 billion light years away, we're seeing the light from it 1 billion years ago.   Assuming the star they're looking at is in the milky way, this shouldn't affect the answer too much as it'll be at most 100,000 light years away.", "human_ref_B": "While I agree with the other responses that composition can tell a lot about the age of the star, one needs to be careful.  For example, in the Large Magellanic Cloud, the metallicity is 1/3 that of the solar metallicity, meaning that a star in the LMC may appear to be \"older\" than those in the Milky Way, though they very often aren't.  30 Doradus is a mecca of starburst activity, generating new stars that have lowish metallicity.  A cute way to figure out a star's position in its life is by comparing it with an evolutionary track on what's called an H-R diagram.  Evolutionary tracks are generated with theoretical models from modern and somewhat older (Salpeter IMF) astronomy, and can be plotted on the H-R diagram to compare with the stars.  These models are called isochrones.  This is one of the most common research approach to figuring out stellar ages.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1621.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pztg4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How do scientists determine the age of a star? I was reading this article, and it mentions that the stars are \"nearly 12 billion years old.\" How do they know?", "c_root_id_A": "c3tks40", "c_root_id_B": "c3tjlcs", "created_at_utc_A": 1329863816, "created_at_utc_B": 1329858206, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What others mentioned are methods that are not really precise (abundance of metals and isochrones). The usual errors on these are higher than 50%.   The most reliable method is gyrochronology with errors around 15-20%.   Stars rotate, and their rotational periods are measured with photometry. Most of their lives they also produce stellar winds. This wind slows the rotation over time. If we measure rotational period and the color of a star, we can calculate its age. All we need is some  reference, which is our Sun. This method works for most of the stars, but requires extensive observations. It fails for really old stars (red giants) and for hot stars.", "human_ref_B": "After the big bang, the elements in the universe were about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium.  So let's assume that a star starts out with that composition, 75% hydrogen and 25% helium.  As it burns, it turns hydrogen into helium.  Now we can tell the relative composition of the two elements by spectral analysis.  So we know how much hydrogen and helium the star has now.  We also know the current output of energy, so we can see how fast hydrogen is turning into helium currently today.    A simple model could assume a constant energy output and calculate how long it would take to reach that composition.  More advanced models could attempt to determine how that rate has changed over the stars lifetime.  There's yet another factor.  The star could be far away, so if the star was 1 billion light years away, we're seeing the light from it 1 billion years ago.   Assuming the star they're looking at is in the milky way, this shouldn't affect the answer too much as it'll be at most 100,000 light years away.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5610.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yx71bm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Where do mitochondrial protons come from? I know the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation but I still do not get where do protons come from. They are going between matrix and IMS but how did they end up in matrix? Are they from some cell reactions or something else?", "c_root_id_A": "iwnij6r", "c_root_id_B": "iwnjjwf", "created_at_utc_A": 1668640277, "created_at_utc_B": 1668640733, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "From what I remember the H+ used in chemical/biochemical reactions is shorthand for a \"solvated\" proton. Nekkid protons don't really occur under normal conditions. For example, take two H20 molecules. One can donate a proton to the other. The first water then becomes an OH- ion and the latter a H3O+ \"solvated\" species, i.e. water with an extra proton. This species can then donate a free proton into reactions where you see an H+. See  https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9m11233k#page-1  for an in depth discussion.  Edit: wrong charge.", "human_ref_B": "From what I understand, they come from the NADH and FADH2. They give electrons to the chain and get tranformed into NAD+ and FAD respectively. The hydrogen atoms get released and stay in the matrix before getting pumped out.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 456.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yx71bm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Where do mitochondrial protons come from? I know the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation but I still do not get where do protons come from. They are going between matrix and IMS but how did they end up in matrix? Are they from some cell reactions or something else?", "c_root_id_A": "iwo8azb", "c_root_id_B": "iwnij6r", "created_at_utc_A": 1668652288, "created_at_utc_B": 1668640277, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Like nearly everything in biology, water exists in a dynamic equilibrium. Constantly shifting between H2O and H+ & OH-. The mitochondrial matrix is an aqueous environment (IE watery) so there is a constant supply of H+ and OH-. The electron transport chain scoops these protons and sends them across the inner mitochondrial membrane to create the proton gradient.   Additional protons are also provided by the oxidation of NADH to NAD+ & H+.", "human_ref_B": "From what I remember the H+ used in chemical/biochemical reactions is shorthand for a \"solvated\" proton. Nekkid protons don't really occur under normal conditions. For example, take two H20 molecules. One can donate a proton to the other. The first water then becomes an OH- ion and the latter a H3O+ \"solvated\" species, i.e. water with an extra proton. This species can then donate a free proton into reactions where you see an H+. See  https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9m11233k#page-1  for an in depth discussion.  Edit: wrong charge.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12011.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yx71bm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Where do mitochondrial protons come from? I know the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation but I still do not get where do protons come from. They are going between matrix and IMS but how did they end up in matrix? Are they from some cell reactions or something else?", "c_root_id_A": "iwnij6r", "c_root_id_B": "iwp059l", "created_at_utc_A": 1668640277, "created_at_utc_B": 1668668754, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "From what I remember the H+ used in chemical/biochemical reactions is shorthand for a \"solvated\" proton. Nekkid protons don't really occur under normal conditions. For example, take two H20 molecules. One can donate a proton to the other. The first water then becomes an OH- ion and the latter a H3O+ \"solvated\" species, i.e. water with an extra proton. This species can then donate a free proton into reactions where you see an H+. See  https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9m11233k#page-1  for an in depth discussion.  Edit: wrong charge.", "human_ref_B": "People are confusing electrons with protons here. The redox reaction between different complexes, which involves exchange of electron, generates energy to move protons in complex 1,2 and 4. That\u2019s where the gradients are generated. As for where the protons are from, your bodies are full of water. Water is ionizable", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28477.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yx71bm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Where do mitochondrial protons come from? I know the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation but I still do not get where do protons come from. They are going between matrix and IMS but how did they end up in matrix? Are they from some cell reactions or something else?", "c_root_id_A": "iwoagvy", "c_root_id_B": "iwp059l", "created_at_utc_A": 1668653332, "created_at_utc_B": 1668668754, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Just like the electrons getting passed down the chain, they come from energy source molecules, like fats and sugars, and wind up getting passed on to oxygen at the end of the transport chain to form water.   The protons get passed through different chemical intermediates after they\u2019ve been taken into the cell, but the overall equation C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O gives the idea. The H\u2019s leave sugars and wind up in water.", "human_ref_B": "People are confusing electrons with protons here. The redox reaction between different complexes, which involves exchange of electron, generates energy to move protons in complex 1,2 and 4. That\u2019s where the gradients are generated. As for where the protons are from, your bodies are full of water. Water is ionizable", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15422.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "25ontw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why do we only inherit maternal mitochondrial DNA? Assuming that everyone, both male and female, has mitochondrial DNA, why is it that mitochondrial DNA is only passed down maternally?", "c_root_id_A": "chj8x44", "c_root_id_B": "chj8srg", "created_at_utc_A": 1400212495, "created_at_utc_B": 1400212194, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "A spermatozoon only carries nuclear DNA to the ovum. It has mitochodria at the head of the tail, to run its outboard motor, but that stays outside the ovum. Meanwhile, the ovum is a complete cell, and is fully equipped with the cytoplasm that will be duplicated for each cell in the developing creature.", "human_ref_B": "Conception involves an egg and sperm fusing into one organism, but the sperm doesn't contain any mitochondria that it can donate, only DNA from your father. As such, the mitochondria come solely from the egg cell, which comes from your mother.  That's why mitochondrial DNA is only inherited maternally.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 301.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "25ontw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why do we only inherit maternal mitochondrial DNA? Assuming that everyone, both male and female, has mitochondrial DNA, why is it that mitochondrial DNA is only passed down maternally?", "c_root_id_A": "chj8x44", "c_root_id_B": "chj8u7r", "created_at_utc_A": 1400212495, "created_at_utc_B": 1400212295, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "A spermatozoon only carries nuclear DNA to the ovum. It has mitochodria at the head of the tail, to run its outboard motor, but that stays outside the ovum. Meanwhile, the ovum is a complete cell, and is fully equipped with the cytoplasm that will be duplicated for each cell in the developing creature.", "human_ref_B": "It has to do with how the process of fertilization occurs. A sperm cell contains half of the genetic information to form a human, and the egg contains the other half. During copulation, a sperm cell may find its way to an egg cell and essentially eject its DNA into the egg, which then becomes an embryo. The DNA that's transferred into the egg is chromosomal DNA, which is why mtDNA is only passed through the maternal line.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 200.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "22ocm5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Hunter-gatherer types smearing delicious venom on their bows and arrows for hunting. Why is it that these super dangerous toxins don't contaminate the meat and kill everyone eating it? Is it that eating venom does not harm you? Because I heard something or another about how the stomach neutralizes certain poisons, though this sounds really dumb to me.", "c_root_id_A": "cgow951", "c_root_id_B": "cgowmqk", "created_at_utc_A": 1397133988, "created_at_utc_B": 1397135246, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 50, "human_ref_A": "I remember watching a Ray Mears documentary many years ago in which a group of tribal African hunters actually cut out the wound area on a dead animal as it had a high concentration of the substance they coated their arrows with. So, at least in some instances the hunters apparently do work around it.    Also, as has been mentioned, the substances that are dangerous when introduced to the blood stream are not necessarily dangerous when eaten.   Another thought - it might be that the hunted animal in question is far more sensitive to the substance than humans are.", "human_ref_B": "Venom is simply a protein that can be digested with no ill effects.  It only causes system damage when it is introduced into the muscle or bloodstream.  I know a guy that professionally educates the public about snakes.  During his show, he will let a rattlesnake strike his snake-proof boot and then he will put some of the venom on his finger and lick it to demonstrate that venom can indeed be ingested with no ill effects.  For more information on the differences between poison and venom, check out this excellent page on the subject.  Regarding hunting with poisoned arrows, it simply comes down to a dilution factor.  You use enough poison to kill the animal but not so much to kill you when you eat a portion of the animal killed with the poison. Here is a great explanation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1258.0, "score_ratio": 7.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f4pbvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why do substances melt when heated while others solidify? Eggs solidify when heated, cheese melts. Butter melts. Some substances can reliquify or resolidify but e.g. a solidified egg will stay solid.  Why is that?", "c_root_id_A": "fht37ln", "c_root_id_B": "fht9mnw", "created_at_utc_A": 1581869428, "created_at_utc_B": 1581872123, "score_A": 134, "score_B": 323, "human_ref_A": "When you cook an egg, you're breaking down and forming new bonds within the yolk. It's not *just heat*; the heat creates a chemical reaction within the yolk.   When you melt cheese or butter, it is just heat. You're just increasing entropy so the molecules want to move around faster, but the molecules don't change fundamentally. They don't have anything to react with.   So answer the general question of why some substances melt or solidify: it has to do with whether the contents are chemically reactive or stable.", "human_ref_B": "**Physical change** vs **Chemical change**  Most **pure substances** like water, oxygen, iron, etc. will go through **physical** changes when heat is changed.  At low temps they will be solid, and high temps they will be a gas.  This process is reversible as well, as seen with the water cycle of rain and snow.  **Mixtures**, like the complex fats and proteins of an egg, or sugar being cooked with air in the kitchen, will react at high temps and **chemically change** to form a new compound.  These will usually reduce to more stable states, so typically the end result will be a gas escaping and a solid that is more dense and stays solid at higher temps, but not always.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2695.0, "score_ratio": 2.4104477612, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f4pbvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why do substances melt when heated while others solidify? Eggs solidify when heated, cheese melts. Butter melts. Some substances can reliquify or resolidify but e.g. a solidified egg will stay solid.  Why is that?", "c_root_id_A": "fht5voh", "c_root_id_B": "fht9mnw", "created_at_utc_A": 1581870568, "created_at_utc_B": 1581872123, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 323, "human_ref_A": "All right I guess I\u2019ll have to comment because no one here has given a really clear explanation as to what is going on.   So basically you have the right idea that as thing a get hotter they melt, and as things get colder they freeze. It\u2019s a good rule of thumb to go by, but when it comes to living in a world where everything is basically a complex mix of chemicals things get complicated.  The whole cold=freeze and hot=melt thing pretty much only holds true 100% of the time for pure elements like hydrogen, helium, iron etc   In your day to day life you rarely are dealing with pure elements. This holds especially true for things like food that are basically just huge collections of thousands of different chemicals and molecules interacting with each other all in different ways.   Now we can get to your egg question. Basically if there was some magical \u201cegg\u201d element then yes, you could heat it to melt, and then cool it to make solid egg whites. But there is no egg element. Eggs are just a shit ton of proteins and like other people have stated before if you hear a protein it basically unfolds. Egg whites turn white because the proteins in there unfold and get all tangled with each other. You could almost think of getting a bunch of ropes, putting them in a dryer, letting them all get knotted up in there, and then me handing them to you and tell you to undo all the knots just by pulling on the clump. More complicated than that but get the gist.   Because different things are made of different collections of molecules they will behave different when heated or cooled based not only on the molecules that make up the thing you\u2019re cooking, but also the purity of said substance. Aka is the thing you\u2019re cooking made of almost entirely one type or kind of molecule? Or are there other things mixed in and how much? These things can change how the material or substance will behave under different temperatures.   Let me know if you have any questions.", "human_ref_B": "**Physical change** vs **Chemical change**  Most **pure substances** like water, oxygen, iron, etc. will go through **physical** changes when heat is changed.  At low temps they will be solid, and high temps they will be a gas.  This process is reversible as well, as seen with the water cycle of rain and snow.  **Mixtures**, like the complex fats and proteins of an egg, or sugar being cooked with air in the kitchen, will react at high temps and **chemically change** to form a new compound.  These will usually reduce to more stable states, so typically the end result will be a gas escaping and a solid that is more dense and stays solid at higher temps, but not always.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1555.0, "score_ratio": 8.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f4pbvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why do substances melt when heated while others solidify? Eggs solidify when heated, cheese melts. Butter melts. Some substances can reliquify or resolidify but e.g. a solidified egg will stay solid.  Why is that?", "c_root_id_A": "fhuhbvy", "c_root_id_B": "fhvgf54", "created_at_utc_A": 1581886410, "created_at_utc_B": 1581897044, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Eggs are a very complex collection of liquids and solids(mostly amino acids and fat). This is an emulsion. It's neither entirely liquid or entirely solid but both, a semi solid. Consider how little flour or starch it takes to thicken a lot of liquid. Very similar chemical reaction.  When an egg is cooked the proteins get denatured. Think popcorn, but more stringy. The tightly rolled up proteins unroll and form dense interconnected webs, think latticing or scaffolding. This process is called coagulation. And it's not reversible by cooling. That's like trying to unpop corn.  So there's really no phase change occurring. Perhaps some water boils off, but this is minor.", "human_ref_B": "Yea hi middle schooler here lol, simply put it\u2019s just the difference between physical and chemical changes that you learn about in chemistry. Physical changes can be undone and don\u2019t change the chemical compositions of the object: you can change which state of matter it\u2019s in, the volume, color, shape, etc. Adding heat to an ice cube makes it water. Taking heat from it makes it ice again. A chemical change however is the result of a chemical reaction and can\u2019t be undone. You make cake batter and you heat it and it becomes cake. You can\u2019t freeze the cake and get batter again. In the cake batter is different substances with different chemical properties that react in a certain way when mixed together making it into a cake when heat is added. I imagine that this is the same concept you would apply to why boiling an egg makes it solidify. If you want to know what specifically makes the egg solidify, as in what specific chemicals and reactions are present, I would recommend reading other redditors\u2019 comments because this is just a basic explanation for an overarching concept. Hope this makes sense...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10634.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f4pbvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why do substances melt when heated while others solidify? Eggs solidify when heated, cheese melts. Butter melts. Some substances can reliquify or resolidify but e.g. a solidified egg will stay solid.  Why is that?", "c_root_id_A": "fhvgf54", "c_root_id_B": "fhtqkqg", "created_at_utc_A": 1581897044, "created_at_utc_B": 1581877073, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Yea hi middle schooler here lol, simply put it\u2019s just the difference between physical and chemical changes that you learn about in chemistry. Physical changes can be undone and don\u2019t change the chemical compositions of the object: you can change which state of matter it\u2019s in, the volume, color, shape, etc. Adding heat to an ice cube makes it water. Taking heat from it makes it ice again. A chemical change however is the result of a chemical reaction and can\u2019t be undone. You make cake batter and you heat it and it becomes cake. You can\u2019t freeze the cake and get batter again. In the cake batter is different substances with different chemical properties that react in a certain way when mixed together making it into a cake when heat is added. I imagine that this is the same concept you would apply to why boiling an egg makes it solidify. If you want to know what specifically makes the egg solidify, as in what specific chemicals and reactions are present, I would recommend reading other redditors\u2019 comments because this is just a basic explanation for an overarching concept. Hope this makes sense...", "human_ref_B": "Just for perspective.  Both Butter and Cheese will solidify when heated long enough, they just melt first.  Once the moisture is gone, they will both begin to quickly solidify and burn.    Not going to go over all the molecular bonds and such, seems to be a lot of good responses here.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19971.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f4pbvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why do substances melt when heated while others solidify? Eggs solidify when heated, cheese melts. Butter melts. Some substances can reliquify or resolidify but e.g. a solidified egg will stay solid.  Why is that?", "c_root_id_A": "fhtqkqg", "c_root_id_B": "fhtrom5", "created_at_utc_A": 1581877073, "created_at_utc_B": 1581877368, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Just for perspective.  Both Butter and Cheese will solidify when heated long enough, they just melt first.  Once the moisture is gone, they will both begin to quickly solidify and burn.    Not going to go over all the molecular bonds and such, seems to be a lot of good responses here.", "human_ref_B": "Because you're confusing melting point with a physical reaction.   /u/zensunni82 gave a really good example with the eggs.    If you heat a piece of metal, it will melt, then cool, and then finally solidify back into that metal, right? Same with cheese.   When you heat an egg, both chemical and physical reactions are happening. The properties of the item itself are changing. You're not melting the egg, you're cooking it.   When you're done, the cooked egg isn't the same item it was before because its properties have been changed by the heat. Whereas the metal retained all the original properties it had.  Here's the best part. Eggs DO melt!!!  If you freeze an egg and then warm it up, it \"melts\" back into a liquid form.   If you stick the egg back in the freezer, it hardens again.   The only difference is you're not heating it up so much that it changes the physical properties of the egg.    So, your original statement is ultimately faulty. Eggs can \"melt\" just like cheese and metal.   They all just happen at different temps.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 295.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f4pbvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why do substances melt when heated while others solidify? Eggs solidify when heated, cheese melts. Butter melts. Some substances can reliquify or resolidify but e.g. a solidified egg will stay solid.  Why is that?", "c_root_id_A": "fhtqkqg", "c_root_id_B": "fhuhbvy", "created_at_utc_A": 1581877073, "created_at_utc_B": 1581886410, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Just for perspective.  Both Butter and Cheese will solidify when heated long enough, they just melt first.  Once the moisture is gone, they will both begin to quickly solidify and burn.    Not going to go over all the molecular bonds and such, seems to be a lot of good responses here.", "human_ref_B": "Eggs are a very complex collection of liquids and solids(mostly amino acids and fat). This is an emulsion. It's neither entirely liquid or entirely solid but both, a semi solid. Consider how little flour or starch it takes to thicken a lot of liquid. Very similar chemical reaction.  When an egg is cooked the proteins get denatured. Think popcorn, but more stringy. The tightly rolled up proteins unroll and form dense interconnected webs, think latticing or scaffolding. This process is called coagulation. And it's not reversible by cooling. That's like trying to unpop corn.  So there's really no phase change occurring. Perhaps some water boils off, but this is minor.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9337.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "juur2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Why does it hurt in another, seemingly unrelated location when I scratch/pick at certain parts of my skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fcqsp", "c_root_id_B": "c2fbxy0", "created_at_utc_A": 1314369443, "created_at_utc_B": 1314360058, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I get this as well. Scratch an itch in one place and sometimes get a associated sort of 'pinch' at some other location. I cant reliably reproduce it though.", "human_ref_B": "Interesting.. I have a few very specific spots that make the exact same other, unrelated spot hurt without fail.  I'm interested in this answer as well.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9385.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "juur2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Why does it hurt in another, seemingly unrelated location when I scratch/pick at certain parts of my skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fc0x3", "c_root_id_B": "c2fcqsp", "created_at_utc_A": 1314361471, "created_at_utc_B": 1314369443, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I'm not sure I understand what you're describing.  Perhaps you could provide a *hypothetical example* to elaborate on this phenomenon without necessarily making this about *you* so as to avoid this seeming as medical advice.", "human_ref_B": "I get this as well. Scratch an itch in one place and sometimes get a associated sort of 'pinch' at some other location. I cant reliably reproduce it though.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7972.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sdkrm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is it genetically possible for a mutation to occur that would give us superhuman properties? (i.e. something like Spider-man or the X-Men)", "c_root_id_A": "c4d6a7q", "c_root_id_B": "c4d6hpq", "created_at_utc_A": 1334635979, "created_at_utc_B": 1334637097, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Well, I know that there are some people who have a mutation that gives them the ability to discern four colours instead of three (the fourth colour is inside the already existing \"field\" of discernible colours - around 500 nm).  Of course, being able to tell apart two colours that look identical to us, solely based on the mix of pigments is hardly a superpower, but if that fourth type of cone was sensitive to light outside of the visual spectrum, they would, under optimal circumstances, be able to see in the dark.  How's that for a superpower?", "human_ref_B": "ApoA-1 Milano offers resistance to cardiovascular disease. Many people are lactose tolerant through adulthood.  Odd to call either of these traits 'superhuman' -- imagine some comic book character visiting Dr. Xavier, because, behold!, their awe-inspiring power to digest sugars in milk -- but it broadly fits what you're asking: When only a few people had these traits, they would really have been quite odd for a human to possess, but also beneficial.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1118.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sdkrm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is it genetically possible for a mutation to occur that would give us superhuman properties? (i.e. something like Spider-man or the X-Men)", "c_root_id_A": "c4d6hpq", "c_root_id_B": "c4d67wq", "created_at_utc_A": 1334637097, "created_at_utc_B": 1334635647, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "ApoA-1 Milano offers resistance to cardiovascular disease. Many people are lactose tolerant through adulthood.  Odd to call either of these traits 'superhuman' -- imagine some comic book character visiting Dr. Xavier, because, behold!, their awe-inspiring power to digest sugars in milk -- but it broadly fits what you're asking: When only a few people had these traits, they would really have been quite odd for a human to possess, but also beneficial.", "human_ref_B": "Within the human genome(s*), there is an immense array of probabilistic variables that have been observed, portrayed in the phenotype, yet, certainly, there must be more than what we've come to know as 'human attributes'. I view those humans of this earth, that exist, as indicatively human, until proven otherwise; Surely, this species would conceptualize its' 'genetic diversity' (and other organisms) quite abstractly under the circumstance every human was subjected to a complete DNA sequence & analysis. Without knowing these informations, we cannot, precisely, dictate a personnel as 'superhuman' until proven by a genetic anomaly and or some proof of 'unexplainable power(s)'.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1450.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sdkrm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is it genetically possible for a mutation to occur that would give us superhuman properties? (i.e. something like Spider-man or the X-Men)", "c_root_id_A": "c4d67wq", "c_root_id_B": "c4d6a7q", "created_at_utc_A": 1334635647, "created_at_utc_B": 1334635979, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Within the human genome(s*), there is an immense array of probabilistic variables that have been observed, portrayed in the phenotype, yet, certainly, there must be more than what we've come to know as 'human attributes'. I view those humans of this earth, that exist, as indicatively human, until proven otherwise; Surely, this species would conceptualize its' 'genetic diversity' (and other organisms) quite abstractly under the circumstance every human was subjected to a complete DNA sequence & analysis. Without knowing these informations, we cannot, precisely, dictate a personnel as 'superhuman' until proven by a genetic anomaly and or some proof of 'unexplainable power(s)'.", "human_ref_B": "Well, I know that there are some people who have a mutation that gives them the ability to discern four colours instead of three (the fourth colour is inside the already existing \"field\" of discernible colours - around 500 nm).  Of course, being able to tell apart two colours that look identical to us, solely based on the mix of pigments is hardly a superpower, but if that fourth type of cone was sensitive to light outside of the visual spectrum, they would, under optimal circumstances, be able to see in the dark.  How's that for a superpower?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 332.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sdkrm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is it genetically possible for a mutation to occur that would give us superhuman properties? (i.e. something like Spider-man or the X-Men)", "c_root_id_A": "c4d67wq", "c_root_id_B": "c4d7d4n", "created_at_utc_A": 1334635647, "created_at_utc_B": 1334642201, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Within the human genome(s*), there is an immense array of probabilistic variables that have been observed, portrayed in the phenotype, yet, certainly, there must be more than what we've come to know as 'human attributes'. I view those humans of this earth, that exist, as indicatively human, until proven otherwise; Surely, this species would conceptualize its' 'genetic diversity' (and other organisms) quite abstractly under the circumstance every human was subjected to a complete DNA sequence & analysis. Without knowing these informations, we cannot, precisely, dictate a personnel as 'superhuman' until proven by a genetic anomaly and or some proof of 'unexplainable power(s)'.", "human_ref_B": "For any one of those macroscopic properties to take place (ex: for a human to spin spider webs), several complementary mutations must randomly happen with each other. The chance of that happening is infinitesimal. You'd need to evolve all those things that a spider has randomly which can either happen by a very weird selection pressure over many generations, or randomly. Again, chance is next to zero. But not impossible.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6554.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sdkrm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is it genetically possible for a mutation to occur that would give us superhuman properties? (i.e. something like Spider-man or the X-Men)", "c_root_id_A": "c4dh20r", "c_root_id_B": "c4d7l7b", "created_at_utc_A": 1334701134, "created_at_utc_B": 1334643799, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "One thing you can not get around is basic energy requirements.  If they have the ability to shoot energy waves or move super fast / strong, those strengths will never be beyond what they can metabolize, meaning they would be eating constantly, and in the cases of energy beams wouldn't be able to generate the energy without fusion / fission happening internally.", "human_ref_B": "If we started investing strongly into controlled mutation, in a few hundred years time I would not be surprised if we saw humans who went mad/depressed from their superior brain power. People who would be able to lift cars if we gave them the muscles of ants, and have bones that no longer resemble a hard sponge, but be completely filled in with hard bone. Or people whos hearing/smell/taste is only paralleled to certain animals found around the world. It is certainly plausible with the proper research equipment and investment.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 57335.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "974fx7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Why do some drugs and medications (even in generic form) come in specific shapes, like diamonds, squares and circles?", "c_root_id_A": "e468lq1", "c_root_id_B": "e464qxq", "created_at_utc_A": 1534255381, "created_at_utc_B": 1534251369, "score_A": -4, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "I used to have a dog that needed about 7 pills per day. I dispensed them a week at a time, so I could just pop open that morning's container and give her the meds.   Because there were shapes and colours involved, I could easily make sure it was all the right meds - one blue circle, one red square, one white circle cut in half....", "human_ref_B": "It has to do with patent laws that govern brand name medications. They\u2019re not allowed to copy brand-name pill looks in terms of its shape, its color and its size. Additionally, generic drug manufacturers can also take it a step further by producing generic pills that look different from another manufacturer's generics pills.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4012.0, "score_ratio": 0.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4t6qo1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why isn't the mosquito an intermediate host for HIV/AIDS? Can it be? I am reading *In Praise of Wolves* by R.D. Lawrence and I just learned mosquitos are an intermediate host for *Dirofilaria imitis* (common dog heartworm) as well as malaria and encephalitis. How does the mosquito transfer the disease? Is it through blood contact? If so, is it theoretically possible to contract HIV/AIDS from a mosquito bite if he is carrying the pathogen?", "c_root_id_A": "d5f9cu7", "c_root_id_B": "d5f8vbk", "created_at_utc_A": 1468725768, "created_at_utc_B": 1468724771, "score_A": 47, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "HIV is an extremely fragile virus and it cannot use intermediate hosts -- it doesn't infect anything other than humans.  Some viruses, for instance influenza, can survive outside a host for extended periods of time (hours, days, or even weeks in the case of influenza, if the conditions are favorable).  Some viruses, again like influenza, infect more than one type of organism (e.g. humans, chickens, pigs).  HIV isn't like that.  Once it leaves the host's body it last for mere minutes before it breaks apart.  Tweak the conditions even a little bit, like adding some saliva (HIV can't even be transmitted human to human via saliva) and it doesn't last for any amount of time at all.", "human_ref_B": "I'm not entirely sure there's a definite answer but most likely because malaria and other afflictions mosquitos spread can live on  the exterior of the mosquitos stinger. HIV cannot. In a syringe the virus is inside a protected environment unlike a mosquito where it would reside on the exterior.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 997.0, "score_ratio": -7.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4t6qo1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why isn't the mosquito an intermediate host for HIV/AIDS? Can it be? I am reading *In Praise of Wolves* by R.D. Lawrence and I just learned mosquitos are an intermediate host for *Dirofilaria imitis* (common dog heartworm) as well as malaria and encephalitis. How does the mosquito transfer the disease? Is it through blood contact? If so, is it theoretically possible to contract HIV/AIDS from a mosquito bite if he is carrying the pathogen?", "c_root_id_A": "d5f8vbk", "c_root_id_B": "d5f9eeq", "created_at_utc_A": 1468724771, "created_at_utc_B": 1468725861, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I'm not entirely sure there's a definite answer but most likely because malaria and other afflictions mosquitos spread can live on  the exterior of the mosquitos stinger. HIV cannot. In a syringe the virus is inside a protected environment unlike a mosquito where it would reside on the exterior.", "human_ref_B": "HIV is an intracellular human virus which can't enter the cells of a mosquito so it can't survive and replicate. Even if a mosquito with HIV positive blood in its butt-sack bit another human before the viral particles were broken down, blood that the mosquito has already ingested does not go back into the bite wound so it's unlikely to spread. HIV also can't survive on the on the outside of the mouthparts so viral particles stuck there wouldn't be infectious. Or at least that's my reasoning.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1090.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4t6qo1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why isn't the mosquito an intermediate host for HIV/AIDS? Can it be? I am reading *In Praise of Wolves* by R.D. Lawrence and I just learned mosquitos are an intermediate host for *Dirofilaria imitis* (common dog heartworm) as well as malaria and encephalitis. How does the mosquito transfer the disease? Is it through blood contact? If so, is it theoretically possible to contract HIV/AIDS from a mosquito bite if he is carrying the pathogen?", "c_root_id_A": "d5f8vbk", "c_root_id_B": "d5fj356", "created_at_utc_A": 1468724771, "created_at_utc_B": 1468755311, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm not entirely sure there's a definite answer but most likely because malaria and other afflictions mosquitos spread can live on  the exterior of the mosquitos stinger. HIV cannot. In a syringe the virus is inside a protected environment unlike a mosquito where it would reside on the exterior.", "human_ref_B": "Just to point one thing out regarding your question. I know that, in the case of Malaria, going through the mosquito is an **obligate part of its life cycle**.  It's pretty weird, but that's how Malaria has evolved: to be dependent on both hosts to complete a life cycle.  So, again in the case of Malaria, the only reason it can shuttle 'between' humans is because it has specifically evolved to do *exactly* that. It's also not a virus, but a living organism. A parasite, yes, but its still alive, which (arguably) can't be said of viruses.  In fact, I *think* that all three of your examples could be considered 'living' and potentially also things that have evolved to use the mosquito as a vector, thus have adaptations to facilitate that process.  edit: Mosquito life cycle", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30540.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4t6qo1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why isn't the mosquito an intermediate host for HIV/AIDS? Can it be? I am reading *In Praise of Wolves* by R.D. Lawrence and I just learned mosquitos are an intermediate host for *Dirofilaria imitis* (common dog heartworm) as well as malaria and encephalitis. How does the mosquito transfer the disease? Is it through blood contact? If so, is it theoretically possible to contract HIV/AIDS from a mosquito bite if he is carrying the pathogen?", "c_root_id_A": "d5fm04x", "c_root_id_B": "d5f8vbk", "created_at_utc_A": 1468763932, "created_at_utc_B": 1468724771, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "@quintus_horatius   If that is the case, and the virus cannot survive outside of the human body, how do people contract the virus via needles?? Isnt that one of the big scares when dealing with heroine addicts and the such? Sharing needles or even just accidentally getting pricked by one of there needles?", "human_ref_B": "I'm not entirely sure there's a definite answer but most likely because malaria and other afflictions mosquitos spread can live on  the exterior of the mosquitos stinger. HIV cannot. In a syringe the virus is inside a protected environment unlike a mosquito where it would reside on the exterior.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 39161.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4t6qo1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why isn't the mosquito an intermediate host for HIV/AIDS? Can it be? I am reading *In Praise of Wolves* by R.D. Lawrence and I just learned mosquitos are an intermediate host for *Dirofilaria imitis* (common dog heartworm) as well as malaria and encephalitis. How does the mosquito transfer the disease? Is it through blood contact? If so, is it theoretically possible to contract HIV/AIDS from a mosquito bite if he is carrying the pathogen?", "c_root_id_A": "d5fqyde", "c_root_id_B": "d5f8vbk", "created_at_utc_A": 1468773324, "created_at_utc_B": 1468724771, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Different organisms evolved differently and therefore have different life cycles. Mosquitos don't actually transfer these diseases per se. Rather, the mosquito transfers the organism responsible for the disease. A typical mosquito bite cannot cause any of these diseases.   When you think about malaria, the mosquito is actually transferring the organism belonging to the genus *Plasmodium*. This is a protozoa whose lifecycle involves humans and mosquitos. What it does is it divides in humans. Eventually, a mosquito will bite the infected human and pick up the male/female gametocytes. Once in the mosquito, the gametocytes sexually reproduce and the newly formed protozoa can infect more humans when a mosquito bites them.   Encephalitis is just a catch all term for inflammation of the brain. When you think of mosquitos causing encephalitis, it is actually because they are transferring the organism known as West Nile Virus. The virus itself causes encephalitis along with a host of other problems.   These organisms have evolved to have mosquitos as a vector of transmission into humans. HIV didn't evolve that way and only infects humans.", "human_ref_B": "I'm not entirely sure there's a definite answer but most likely because malaria and other afflictions mosquitos spread can live on  the exterior of the mosquitos stinger. HIV cannot. In a syringe the virus is inside a protected environment unlike a mosquito where it would reside on the exterior.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 48553.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqfcgw1", "c_root_id_B": "iqfgx5z", "created_at_utc_A": 1664490476, "created_at_utc_B": 1664492521, "score_A": 539, "score_B": 1095, "human_ref_A": "Running a PC in a thermostat heated room is NOT free if you have a modern heat pump.  While the electricity to heat is 100% efficient in a 500W PC and does function just as well as a 500W space heater, a heat pump is 200-300% efficient. Heat pumps do not work by only heating the air. Instead they move heat from outside to inside, and the amount of energy it takes to move that heat is actually significantly less than the amount of energy moved in the form of heat. Technology Connections has a few videos on why modern heat pumps are amazing and efficient even in colder climates, and if this is at all interesting to you, you should check out his channel.  Another item that can throw a wrench into the price calculations is if you have a natural gas furnace as your heater. The cost of energy when delivered via natural gas is usually much cheaper than energy delivered via electricity. While the electric option will be more \"efficient\" in terms of energy, the gas can still work out to be cheaper just due to economics.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, assuming it's actually drawing X watts. All of the energy that comes out of the wall has to go somewhere, and heat is the overwhelming majority of it (you'll probably lose some tiny amount of it through light out of the window and such).   > Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  Yes, *assuming that your heating is all electroresistive*. If you have gas heating, or a heat pump, then this will not be the case, because in the former case gas is cheaper per unit energy than electricity, and in the latter a heat pump can be considerably more than 100% efficient.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2045.0, "score_ratio": 2.0315398887, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqfgx5z", "c_root_id_B": "iqf1iaw", "created_at_utc_A": 1664492521, "created_at_utc_B": 1664485768, "score_A": 1095, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "Yes, assuming it's actually drawing X watts. All of the energy that comes out of the wall has to go somewhere, and heat is the overwhelming majority of it (you'll probably lose some tiny amount of it through light out of the window and such).   > Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  Yes, *assuming that your heating is all electroresistive*. If you have gas heating, or a heat pump, then this will not be the case, because in the former case gas is cheaper per unit energy than electricity, and in the latter a heat pump can be considerably more than 100% efficient.", "human_ref_B": "If that appliance is a space heater that's cranked all the way up, sure. The wattage rating of an appliance is the peak amount of power it is expected to draw. That doesn't mean that it always uses that much power. Clothes irons use more power when the heat is turned up, and they cycle from heating (more power) to standby (less power); microwaves, computers, and even lamps may have different power levels depending on what they're doing / the settings, etc.  Even then, it doesn't necessarily follow that all that power is turned into heat - at least right away. Some appliances convert much of the power into mechanical power or visible light, for instance. If you put in 1000W of power, it does not follow that the appliance will produce 1000W of heat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6753.0, "score_ratio": 34.21875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqf27e0", "c_root_id_B": "iqfgx5z", "created_at_utc_A": 1664486061, "created_at_utc_B": 1664492521, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 1095, "human_ref_A": "Yes. Every single watt of power consumed by your PC is converted into heat in your room. It is 100% efficient at converting the power from your outlet into heat in your room. Just like a resistive electric heater.  It just converts it in multiple ways.  Heat is essentially vibrations and cold is the lack of vibrations.  All the wires, CPU, GPU and other circuitry create heat the same way as an standard resistive electrical heater. By running current through an electrical circuit with resistance.  The mechanical motion of your fans create an airflow. That airflow is slowed down by friction with the rest of the air and other parts. And I'm sure you already know that friction creates heat.   The same goes for your hard drives mechanical motion and your speakers  Everything is absorbed by materials in your room as friction and is thereby becoming heat in your room  The only power consumed by your system that doesn't heat your room is your monitor and RGB lights. Because the light that shines out through your window is energy lost to the outside. But it is such a minute part of your systems power draw.   And that is assuming you don't have blackout curtains. Like a real pro gamer!", "human_ref_B": "Yes, assuming it's actually drawing X watts. All of the energy that comes out of the wall has to go somewhere, and heat is the overwhelming majority of it (you'll probably lose some tiny amount of it through light out of the window and such).   > Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  Yes, *assuming that your heating is all electroresistive*. If you have gas heating, or a heat pump, then this will not be the case, because in the former case gas is cheaper per unit energy than electricity, and in the latter a heat pump can be considerably more than 100% efficient.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6460.0, "score_ratio": 42.1153846154, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqf1iaw", "c_root_id_B": "iqfcgw1", "created_at_utc_A": 1664485768, "created_at_utc_B": 1664490476, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 539, "human_ref_A": "If that appliance is a space heater that's cranked all the way up, sure. The wattage rating of an appliance is the peak amount of power it is expected to draw. That doesn't mean that it always uses that much power. Clothes irons use more power when the heat is turned up, and they cycle from heating (more power) to standby (less power); microwaves, computers, and even lamps may have different power levels depending on what they're doing / the settings, etc.  Even then, it doesn't necessarily follow that all that power is turned into heat - at least right away. Some appliances convert much of the power into mechanical power or visible light, for instance. If you put in 1000W of power, it does not follow that the appliance will produce 1000W of heat.", "human_ref_B": "Running a PC in a thermostat heated room is NOT free if you have a modern heat pump.  While the electricity to heat is 100% efficient in a 500W PC and does function just as well as a 500W space heater, a heat pump is 200-300% efficient. Heat pumps do not work by only heating the air. Instead they move heat from outside to inside, and the amount of energy it takes to move that heat is actually significantly less than the amount of energy moved in the form of heat. Technology Connections has a few videos on why modern heat pumps are amazing and efficient even in colder climates, and if this is at all interesting to you, you should check out his channel.  Another item that can throw a wrench into the price calculations is if you have a natural gas furnace as your heater. The cost of energy when delivered via natural gas is usually much cheaper than energy delivered via electricity. While the electric option will be more \"efficient\" in terms of energy, the gas can still work out to be cheaper just due to economics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4708.0, "score_ratio": 16.84375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqf27e0", "c_root_id_B": "iqfcgw1", "created_at_utc_A": 1664486061, "created_at_utc_B": 1664490476, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 539, "human_ref_A": "Yes. Every single watt of power consumed by your PC is converted into heat in your room. It is 100% efficient at converting the power from your outlet into heat in your room. Just like a resistive electric heater.  It just converts it in multiple ways.  Heat is essentially vibrations and cold is the lack of vibrations.  All the wires, CPU, GPU and other circuitry create heat the same way as an standard resistive electrical heater. By running current through an electrical circuit with resistance.  The mechanical motion of your fans create an airflow. That airflow is slowed down by friction with the rest of the air and other parts. And I'm sure you already know that friction creates heat.   The same goes for your hard drives mechanical motion and your speakers  Everything is absorbed by materials in your room as friction and is thereby becoming heat in your room  The only power consumed by your system that doesn't heat your room is your monitor and RGB lights. Because the light that shines out through your window is energy lost to the outside. But it is such a minute part of your systems power draw.   And that is assuming you don't have blackout curtains. Like a real pro gamer!", "human_ref_B": "Running a PC in a thermostat heated room is NOT free if you have a modern heat pump.  While the electricity to heat is 100% efficient in a 500W PC and does function just as well as a 500W space heater, a heat pump is 200-300% efficient. Heat pumps do not work by only heating the air. Instead they move heat from outside to inside, and the amount of energy it takes to move that heat is actually significantly less than the amount of energy moved in the form of heat. Technology Connections has a few videos on why modern heat pumps are amazing and efficient even in colder climates, and if this is at all interesting to you, you should check out his channel.  Another item that can throw a wrench into the price calculations is if you have a natural gas furnace as your heater. The cost of energy when delivered via natural gas is usually much cheaper than energy delivered via electricity. While the electric option will be more \"efficient\" in terms of energy, the gas can still work out to be cheaper just due to economics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4415.0, "score_ratio": 20.7307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqgvl9a", "c_root_id_B": "iqfowa2", "created_at_utc_A": 1664518677, "created_at_utc_B": 1664496241, "score_A": 140, "score_B": 76, "human_ref_A": "Mostly,yes, but with a few qualifiers.  1) Many X watt devices don't continuously use X watts of power,  So even if the device was an X watt heater, unless it is set to full power it won't deliver x watts of heat.  2) Some devices actually convert that energy into other forms of energy/ work.  e.g.  motors. In those cases the input energy is converted into other forms -e.g. kinetic energy or potential energy. In those cases the heating produced will be less than the energy input..   3) Some devices move heat around( e.g. ACs, heat pumps), or produce energy that can escape the area ( e.g. a light bulb near a window) in those cases the heating to the total environment will be X watts,( minus any conversion to other forms of energy per proviso 2). But the actual heat provided to the room that they are within  may vary from their rated wattage.", "human_ref_B": ">To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light  That's not true for all appliances.  Some energy is always lost as heat but it's not true that all energy becomes heat.  If you have a motor, for example, the majority of the energy going in the motor will be used to produce actual work, and only a very small part is lost as heat. Modern electric motors are up to 98% efficient meaning only 2% is lost as heat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22436.0, "score_ratio": 1.8421052632, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqf1iaw", "c_root_id_B": "iqgvl9a", "created_at_utc_A": 1664485768, "created_at_utc_B": 1664518677, "score_A": 32, "score_B": 140, "human_ref_A": "If that appliance is a space heater that's cranked all the way up, sure. The wattage rating of an appliance is the peak amount of power it is expected to draw. That doesn't mean that it always uses that much power. Clothes irons use more power when the heat is turned up, and they cycle from heating (more power) to standby (less power); microwaves, computers, and even lamps may have different power levels depending on what they're doing / the settings, etc.  Even then, it doesn't necessarily follow that all that power is turned into heat - at least right away. Some appliances convert much of the power into mechanical power or visible light, for instance. If you put in 1000W of power, it does not follow that the appliance will produce 1000W of heat.", "human_ref_B": "Mostly,yes, but with a few qualifiers.  1) Many X watt devices don't continuously use X watts of power,  So even if the device was an X watt heater, unless it is set to full power it won't deliver x watts of heat.  2) Some devices actually convert that energy into other forms of energy/ work.  e.g.  motors. In those cases the input energy is converted into other forms -e.g. kinetic energy or potential energy. In those cases the heating produced will be less than the energy input..   3) Some devices move heat around( e.g. ACs, heat pumps), or produce energy that can escape the area ( e.g. a light bulb near a window) in those cases the heating to the total environment will be X watts,( minus any conversion to other forms of energy per proviso 2). But the actual heat provided to the room that they are within  may vary from their rated wattage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32909.0, "score_ratio": 4.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqf27e0", "c_root_id_B": "iqgvl9a", "created_at_utc_A": 1664486061, "created_at_utc_B": 1664518677, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 140, "human_ref_A": "Yes. Every single watt of power consumed by your PC is converted into heat in your room. It is 100% efficient at converting the power from your outlet into heat in your room. Just like a resistive electric heater.  It just converts it in multiple ways.  Heat is essentially vibrations and cold is the lack of vibrations.  All the wires, CPU, GPU and other circuitry create heat the same way as an standard resistive electrical heater. By running current through an electrical circuit with resistance.  The mechanical motion of your fans create an airflow. That airflow is slowed down by friction with the rest of the air and other parts. And I'm sure you already know that friction creates heat.   The same goes for your hard drives mechanical motion and your speakers  Everything is absorbed by materials in your room as friction and is thereby becoming heat in your room  The only power consumed by your system that doesn't heat your room is your monitor and RGB lights. Because the light that shines out through your window is energy lost to the outside. But it is such a minute part of your systems power draw.   And that is assuming you don't have blackout curtains. Like a real pro gamer!", "human_ref_B": "Mostly,yes, but with a few qualifiers.  1) Many X watt devices don't continuously use X watts of power,  So even if the device was an X watt heater, unless it is set to full power it won't deliver x watts of heat.  2) Some devices actually convert that energy into other forms of energy/ work.  e.g.  motors. In those cases the input energy is converted into other forms -e.g. kinetic energy or potential energy. In those cases the heating produced will be less than the energy input..   3) Some devices move heat around( e.g. ACs, heat pumps), or produce energy that can escape the area ( e.g. a light bulb near a window) in those cases the heating to the total environment will be X watts,( minus any conversion to other forms of energy per proviso 2). But the actual heat provided to the room that they are within  may vary from their rated wattage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32616.0, "score_ratio": 5.3846153846, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqfowa2", "c_root_id_B": "iqf1iaw", "created_at_utc_A": 1664496241, "created_at_utc_B": 1664485768, "score_A": 76, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": ">To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light  That's not true for all appliances.  Some energy is always lost as heat but it's not true that all energy becomes heat.  If you have a motor, for example, the majority of the energy going in the motor will be used to produce actual work, and only a very small part is lost as heat. Modern electric motors are up to 98% efficient meaning only 2% is lost as heat.", "human_ref_B": "If that appliance is a space heater that's cranked all the way up, sure. The wattage rating of an appliance is the peak amount of power it is expected to draw. That doesn't mean that it always uses that much power. Clothes irons use more power when the heat is turned up, and they cycle from heating (more power) to standby (less power); microwaves, computers, and even lamps may have different power levels depending on what they're doing / the settings, etc.  Even then, it doesn't necessarily follow that all that power is turned into heat - at least right away. Some appliances convert much of the power into mechanical power or visible light, for instance. If you put in 1000W of power, it does not follow that the appliance will produce 1000W of heat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10473.0, "score_ratio": 2.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqf27e0", "c_root_id_B": "iqfowa2", "created_at_utc_A": 1664486061, "created_at_utc_B": 1664496241, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 76, "human_ref_A": "Yes. Every single watt of power consumed by your PC is converted into heat in your room. It is 100% efficient at converting the power from your outlet into heat in your room. Just like a resistive electric heater.  It just converts it in multiple ways.  Heat is essentially vibrations and cold is the lack of vibrations.  All the wires, CPU, GPU and other circuitry create heat the same way as an standard resistive electrical heater. By running current through an electrical circuit with resistance.  The mechanical motion of your fans create an airflow. That airflow is slowed down by friction with the rest of the air and other parts. And I'm sure you already know that friction creates heat.   The same goes for your hard drives mechanical motion and your speakers  Everything is absorbed by materials in your room as friction and is thereby becoming heat in your room  The only power consumed by your system that doesn't heat your room is your monitor and RGB lights. Because the light that shines out through your window is energy lost to the outside. But it is such a minute part of your systems power draw.   And that is assuming you don't have blackout curtains. Like a real pro gamer!", "human_ref_B": ">To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light  That's not true for all appliances.  Some energy is always lost as heat but it's not true that all energy becomes heat.  If you have a motor, for example, the majority of the energy going in the motor will be used to produce actual work, and only a very small part is lost as heat. Modern electric motors are up to 98% efficient meaning only 2% is lost as heat.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10180.0, "score_ratio": 2.9230769231, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xrh717", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Does an X watt appliance also act as an X watt heater? To my understanding the energy that goes into an appliance plugged into your wall is lost in the form of heat and light (which eventually bounces around your room enough times to also become heat).  Does this mean that any appliance that produces heat as a byproduct is equally efficient as an electric space heater?  Does this mean running a PC in a thermostat heated room is essentially free, on account of the heat from the PC meaning the space heater has to run less?  If this isn't the case, then where does the excess energy from the appliance go, if not into the room the appliance is in?  This dumb question brought to you by, me fussing about energy bills this winter! Also a bit of natural curiosity since no answer feels obvious in an intuitive sense to me.", "c_root_id_A": "iqgxi7f", "c_root_id_B": "iqf27e0", "created_at_utc_A": 1664520147, "created_at_utc_B": 1664486061, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "According to informally observed data, the answer to your question is a \"mostly yes.\"  We had moved into a new medical laboratory space, and insulated it well.  I know because I placed most of the insulation.  We had air conditioning, and adequate ventilation.  Soon after bringing all of the equipment in, the room began to get uncomfortably warm.  The problem was our Liquid-Chromatography Mass Spectrometers.  They produced 3.5 kW of waste heat each on a constant basis.  There were also some other analyzers and lab equipment in the room.  It was very well insulated.  I remember the total heat load from just the equipment came out to something like 15 kW or more.  Air conditioner effectiveness is rated on the ability of an air conditioning unit to remove or transport heat.  My employers, being cost-conscious, were relying on just a 3 \"ton\" heat pump to regulate the temperature of that room plus the hallway.  Our previous location had had at least 10 tons of cooling in capacity.  Tonnage refers to the ability of an air conditioner to remove heat, and 1 \"ton\" is roughly equivalent to 3.5 kW of heat removal.  The new location had only 3 tons.  No matter how well insulated the room was, the cooling capacity would not keep up with the heat load.  The solution was to add another HVAC unit to the space, which brought the temperature down to an acceptable level.  Now, since you asked about heating, in the 2021 deep freeze, it got cold in the south.  So cold in fact, that our electric heat pump units couldn't keep the temperature above 10C indoors (metal building).    At the office however, the lab remained nice and cozy thanks to the power consumption of science.", "human_ref_B": "Yes. Every single watt of power consumed by your PC is converted into heat in your room. It is 100% efficient at converting the power from your outlet into heat in your room. Just like a resistive electric heater.  It just converts it in multiple ways.  Heat is essentially vibrations and cold is the lack of vibrations.  All the wires, CPU, GPU and other circuitry create heat the same way as an standard resistive electrical heater. By running current through an electrical circuit with resistance.  The mechanical motion of your fans create an airflow. That airflow is slowed down by friction with the rest of the air and other parts. And I'm sure you already know that friction creates heat.   The same goes for your hard drives mechanical motion and your speakers  Everything is absorbed by materials in your room as friction and is thereby becoming heat in your room  The only power consumed by your system that doesn't heat your room is your monitor and RGB lights. Because the light that shines out through your window is energy lost to the outside. But it is such a minute part of your systems power draw.   And that is assuming you don't have blackout curtains. Like a real pro gamer!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 34086.0, "score_ratio": 1.1923076923, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15pux4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why were deer not domesticated like other animals were?", "c_root_id_A": "c7oqukl", "c_root_id_B": "c7opvts", "created_at_utc_A": 1356961323, "created_at_utc_B": 1356951285, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Reindeer have in fact been domesticated for thousands of years by the Sami people of Lapland (northern Finland/Sweden).", "human_ref_B": "There are a lot of animals that haven't been domesticated. In fact, potentially domesticable species measure in the thousands, but the ones that were actually domesticated number around a dozen or two.  The reason is that most domesticated species go back to ancient times, and back then it took a enormously long period of time to domesticate a species. Often thousands of years. You could do it faster today, and there are in fact a few farms that domesticate deer. Pretty much all the venison you can buy at the supermarket comes from domesticated deer. They're not as domesticated as cattle, but there's no particular need to domesticate them that far. Venison isn't a popular enough meat to warrant spending a lot more money or resources into improving.  Deer weren't such a great species for domestication to begin with. Most deer aren't big or strong enough to be draft animals like cattle or horses. They're pretty skittish and hard to control, though of course, those traits could be bred out of them if someone persisted long enough.  Generally, it comes down to economics. Once some culture makes the long effort to domesticate a species, it's easy to just spread it everywhere, rather than to start from scratch again with a new species. Most of the domestic species we have today are pretty hardy and can exist across many climate zones.  It would make more sense to domesticate deer in places where other species can't thrive as well. Reindeer were domesticated in the far north. But given today's methods and means for growing animals feeds, it's probably not that hard to transplant cattle or sheep to the far north either.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10038.0, "score_ratio": 1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6sy8vt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "You're in orbit around the Earth in a spaceship. You point the pointy end of your spaceship exactly at the center of the earth and fire your engines for 10 sec. What happens to your orbit? I understand the basics of orbits (falling around the earth and all), but I've been pondering this for a while now.  Assume a circular orbit, never mind the atmosphere.  Your control system is nimble and keeps your rocket always pointed at the center of (mass of) the earth.    My (wrong?) thinking is that since your thrust is perpendicular to your direction of motion, your orbital velocity does not change.  Physics says your orbital altitude depends on your orbital velocity.  So, when you have your burn, do you dip towards the earth and then...pop back up to the same orbital altitude?", "c_root_id_A": "dlglb8e", "c_root_id_B": "dlgjmyd", "created_at_utc_A": 1502424533, "created_at_utc_B": 1502422000, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Assuming you started in a circular orbit, you will decrease your perigee because you now have some inward radial velocity. You will also now have a higher speed because you added a radial speed while the tangential speed remains constant. This means your new orbit has a larger semi-major axis than the old one because the new orbit has a higher specific mechanical energy. This means that while the perigee decreases, the apogee increases more than the perigee decreases to account for the energy increase. However, if the perigee is within the atmosphere or Earth, the spacecraft will re-enter.  When you perform your burn, you dip toward the Earth and pop back up beyond your original altitude. Your orbit is now elliptical with the perigee below the original altitude, and the apogee above the original altitude.  If you started in an elliptical orbit, it depends where you are in the orbit. If you are moving away from Earth, it will become more circular and smaller, and the opposite for when you are moving towards the Earth.  Edit: fixed spelling", "human_ref_B": "Motion in a circular orbit accelerates toward the centre at a same magnitude at each point of the orbit. If you were to accelerate towards the centre a little more,  the orbit would be smaller, however the orbital velocity does not change, meaning that the circular orbit is disturbed as the acceleration is uneven. This resulted in an elliptic orbit.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2533.0, "score_ratio": 2.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1kix0d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.59, "history": "The Earth revolves around the sun but does the sun revolve around anything? Is the sun a stationary object or is there a bigger class of star our sun revolves around?", "c_root_id_A": "cbpe7i5", "c_root_id_B": "cbpe7zb", "created_at_utc_A": 1376702419, "created_at_utc_B": 1376702460, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "The sun, as well as the entire solar system, revolves around the center of the galaxy - takes about 25 million years (or is it 250 million?).", "human_ref_B": "The Sun revolves around the core of the Milky Way Galaxy, each orbit takes over 200 million years to complete.   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 41.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1kix0d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.59, "history": "The Earth revolves around the sun but does the sun revolve around anything? Is the sun a stationary object or is there a bigger class of star our sun revolves around?", "c_root_id_A": "cbpe7i5", "c_root_id_B": "cbpgcru", "created_at_utc_A": 1376702419, "created_at_utc_B": 1376709349, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The sun, as well as the entire solar system, revolves around the center of the galaxy - takes about 25 million years (or is it 250 million?).", "human_ref_B": "The Earth is one planet in a solar system, of which all planets revolve around our sun. Our sun revolves around the center of the Galaxy which it is a part of, the Milky Way. The Milky way is a mostly flat (relative to its size) galaxy which has arms and spirals. Notice this picture of a spiral galaxy. This is what it looks like, and there are billions of galaxies in the universe all containing billions of stars, which have planets, which have moons. It is very vast and mindblowing.   TL;DR: The sun orbits the center of our galaxy which is very dense and is home to a super large black hole.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6930.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1uhp8o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Is it a coincidence that the moon eclipses the sun perfectly? I suspect that there's more to this than a mere coincidence. If it isn't, what is it that caused the moon to be at that distance as opposed to closer or farther away? What principle is at play here?", "c_root_id_A": "ceig0hr", "c_root_id_B": "ceicb3p", "created_at_utc_A": 1388982274, "created_at_utc_B": 1388974065, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "It's pure chance that the Moon is at the right distance to eclipse the Sun perfectly while we're around to observe it.   When the Moon formed, it somewhere between 19-30,000km away, well within the orbit of geostationary satellites. At that distance, it would have appeared over 10 times as large as it does today.  However, it is slowly spiraling outwards due to the effects of tidal forces. The Moon raises a slight bulge on the Earth's surface. Because the Earth rotates faster than the Moon makes an orbit, it pulls that bulge out slightly from directly underneath the Moon. As a result, there is a slight tug in the direction that the Moon is orbiting, which accelerates it into a higher orbit. In the process, the Moon is also pulling back on that bulge, slowing the Earth's rotation down.  When the Earth was young and the Moon was close, this tidal acceleration was much stronger because both the Earth rotated faster and the Moon raised higher tides. As the Moon drifts further and further from Earth, this force gets weaker. Currently, the Moon is drifting away from the Earth at about 4mm/year. Eventually, it will theoretically reach a distance when the Earth's rotation and the Moon's orbit will be the same period, but this is so far in the future that the Sun will have swallowed the Earth and Moon when it swells into a red giant about 4.5 billion years from now.  Really, it all boils down to luck. If we were here about 600 million years ago, we'd be looking at a Moon that was larger than the Sun, and 600 million years from now the Moon will be too far away to completely cover the Sun's disk.", "human_ref_B": "It is, in fact, mere coincidence that the apparent size of the Sun and of the Moon are about the same.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8209.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3euxke", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Do any other solid mass planets have tectonics or anything similar? Planets like Mercury or Mars?", "c_root_id_A": "ctiu26j", "c_root_id_B": "ctirnxs", "created_at_utc_A": 1438079675, "created_at_utc_B": 1438069812, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Plate tectonics require a combination of the right composition (water helps) and the right size, and Earth is on the lower end of the range, so Mercury, Venus and Mars have different (but very cool) geological processes shaping them. Rocky planets similar to Earth around other stars may or may not have plate tectonics.", "human_ref_B": "I realize you said planets, but the only other body in our solar system to have tectonics, that i know of, is Europa, one of Jupiter's moons. It appears to have a form of plate tectonics involving  its icy \"shell\".the surface ice moves, cracks etc as it interacts with Jupiter and its other moons. Underneath its ice is thought to be a large and deep ocean.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9863.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sq0jav", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Could a sensitive gyroscope be used to measure the rotation of the galaxy? I've read that modern fiber-laser gyroscopes are sensitive enough to be used to measure the Earth's rotation. Could they be used to measure other rotating systems that the Earth is a part of? e.g. rotation around the sun, rotation of the solar system, rotation of the galaxy?", "c_root_id_A": "hwjv74i", "c_root_id_B": "hwjy2co", "created_at_utc_A": 1644611086, "created_at_utc_B": 1644612138, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 155, "human_ref_A": "Maybe I'm missing something here. But I don't think that is even theoretically possible.  What I mean is there is no rotation to measure. The earth is rotating so could measure that with a gyroscope. But we are not exactly rotating around the sun, we are falling around it. And the same goes for the solar system around our galactic center.   Imagine you are in a spacesuit in orbit around the earth. At the moment you are facing the earth and not rotating at all. Then after half an orbit you are on the other side of earth. Now you would be facing AWAY from the earth, because you are not rotating.", "human_ref_B": "No, and it's not even a question of sensitivity.  A gyroscope can only measure it's *own* rotation, so you need to make sure the gyro is rotating at the same speed as the thing you want to measure. You can measure the rotation of the Earth just by resting the gyro on the ground.  But how would measure the Earth's rotation around the Sun?  You can't measure an orbital period using a gyro because the rotation of an object doesn't have anything to do with its orbital period, unless it's tidally locked.  The best way to find Earth's orbital period around the Sun is to measure the Sun's apparent movement against the background stars. Over the course of the year, the Sun appears to travel once around the sky (except, really, it's us going around the Sun).  Similarly, you could measure the movement of the galactic centre against distant galaxies. This should be about 6 milliarcseconds a year, based on an orbital period of 200 million years, which is exactly what these researchers measured.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1052.0, "score_ratio": 5.9615384615, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sq0jav", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Could a sensitive gyroscope be used to measure the rotation of the galaxy? I've read that modern fiber-laser gyroscopes are sensitive enough to be used to measure the Earth's rotation. Could they be used to measure other rotating systems that the Earth is a part of? e.g. rotation around the sun, rotation of the solar system, rotation of the galaxy?", "c_root_id_A": "hwjy2co", "c_root_id_B": "hwjelt2", "created_at_utc_A": 1644612138, "created_at_utc_B": 1644604981, "score_A": 155, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "No, and it's not even a question of sensitivity.  A gyroscope can only measure it's *own* rotation, so you need to make sure the gyro is rotating at the same speed as the thing you want to measure. You can measure the rotation of the Earth just by resting the gyro on the ground.  But how would measure the Earth's rotation around the Sun?  You can't measure an orbital period using a gyro because the rotation of an object doesn't have anything to do with its orbital period, unless it's tidally locked.  The best way to find Earth's orbital period around the Sun is to measure the Sun's apparent movement against the background stars. Over the course of the year, the Sun appears to travel once around the sky (except, really, it's us going around the Sun).  Similarly, you could measure the movement of the galactic centre against distant galaxies. This should be about 6 milliarcseconds a year, based on an orbital period of 200 million years, which is exactly what these researchers measured.", "human_ref_B": "One sensitive enough would almost certainly get buried in the \"noise\" of other movement, including the earth's rotation and our orbit around the sun.  Theoretically you could *maybe* come up with a software solution that would remove that noise but it certainly wouldn't be able to do it on its own without such a solution and even if so, it would be purely theoretical because we likely don't have anywhere near close enough to the computing power to do that even if we did manage to come up with an algorithm that helped us clean the data up.   The thing is we just have better ways to do it.  Doppler shifting is fantastic at measuring speeds, so we can generally measure a bunch of stars at known different points and calculate their movement in both speed and direction to figure out fast they're moving, and thus how fast the galaxy is rotating.  That said... an interesting but important side note is that the galaxy is not all spinning at one rotational speed.   Most of it seems to be moving at roughly 210km/s, but that actually means that the closer inward a star is the higher its angular velocity, and the lower its orbital to the galactic center. In the areas very far or very close to the center though, speeds seem to vary from that and from what our models would generally predict, which is generally seen as one of the pieces evidence for the existence of dark matter.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7157.0, "score_ratio": 5.7407407407, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sq0jav", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Could a sensitive gyroscope be used to measure the rotation of the galaxy? I've read that modern fiber-laser gyroscopes are sensitive enough to be used to measure the Earth's rotation. Could they be used to measure other rotating systems that the Earth is a part of? e.g. rotation around the sun, rotation of the solar system, rotation of the galaxy?", "c_root_id_A": "hwjy2co", "c_root_id_B": "hwjmh4f", "created_at_utc_A": 1644612138, "created_at_utc_B": 1644607858, "score_A": 155, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "No, and it's not even a question of sensitivity.  A gyroscope can only measure it's *own* rotation, so you need to make sure the gyro is rotating at the same speed as the thing you want to measure. You can measure the rotation of the Earth just by resting the gyro on the ground.  But how would measure the Earth's rotation around the Sun?  You can't measure an orbital period using a gyro because the rotation of an object doesn't have anything to do with its orbital period, unless it's tidally locked.  The best way to find Earth's orbital period around the Sun is to measure the Sun's apparent movement against the background stars. Over the course of the year, the Sun appears to travel once around the sky (except, really, it's us going around the Sun).  Similarly, you could measure the movement of the galactic centre against distant galaxies. This should be about 6 milliarcseconds a year, based on an orbital period of 200 million years, which is exactly what these researchers measured.", "human_ref_B": "Twenty years ago, I would say no, but with how CRAZY good laser interferometry has gotten, I disagree with the other commenters and say yes. LIGO's sensitivity is so mind-blowing, I don't think anyone on earth can really appreciate the absurd scale of its precision. A next generation LIGO-esque gyroscope designed for the purpose could probably measure galactic rotation. That said, it would be a massive waste of money for something we already know.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4280.0, "score_ratio": 10.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sq0jav", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Could a sensitive gyroscope be used to measure the rotation of the galaxy? I've read that modern fiber-laser gyroscopes are sensitive enough to be used to measure the Earth's rotation. Could they be used to measure other rotating systems that the Earth is a part of? e.g. rotation around the sun, rotation of the solar system, rotation of the galaxy?", "c_root_id_A": "hwjy2co", "c_root_id_B": "hwjtpa1", "created_at_utc_A": 1644612138, "created_at_utc_B": 1644610520, "score_A": 155, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "No, and it's not even a question of sensitivity.  A gyroscope can only measure it's *own* rotation, so you need to make sure the gyro is rotating at the same speed as the thing you want to measure. You can measure the rotation of the Earth just by resting the gyro on the ground.  But how would measure the Earth's rotation around the Sun?  You can't measure an orbital period using a gyro because the rotation of an object doesn't have anything to do with its orbital period, unless it's tidally locked.  The best way to find Earth's orbital period around the Sun is to measure the Sun's apparent movement against the background stars. Over the course of the year, the Sun appears to travel once around the sky (except, really, it's us going around the Sun).  Similarly, you could measure the movement of the galactic centre against distant galaxies. This should be about 6 milliarcseconds a year, based on an orbital period of 200 million years, which is exactly what these researchers measured.", "human_ref_B": "Tldr: probably not.  I'm on phone in a car (not driving) so the chain of math is a bit crude...  The earth is about 8000 parsecs from galactic center.  A parsec is about 3e13km.   So about 2e16km radius or about 1e17 km diameter.   The sun is rotating around the galactic center at about 200 km/sec.  So one rotation every 1e17/200 =. 5e14 seconds.  So thats 2pi radians every 5e14sec = 1e-14 radians/second.  1 radian is 2e8 milliarcseconds   so that's 2e-6 milliarcseconds per second.   There's about 9e4 seconds in a day.  So that's 0.2 milliarcseconds per day.  Or about  70 milliarcseconds/year.   I found a 2004 article about a sensor on gravity probe B that was designed to measure relativistic effects at about 7e3 milliarcseconds per year.  Which is about 100 time larger   So:. Maybe but probably not.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1618.0, "score_ratio": 25.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sq0jav", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Could a sensitive gyroscope be used to measure the rotation of the galaxy? I've read that modern fiber-laser gyroscopes are sensitive enough to be used to measure the Earth's rotation. Could they be used to measure other rotating systems that the Earth is a part of? e.g. rotation around the sun, rotation of the solar system, rotation of the galaxy?", "c_root_id_A": "hwjmh4f", "c_root_id_B": "hwjv74i", "created_at_utc_A": 1644607858, "created_at_utc_B": 1644611086, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Twenty years ago, I would say no, but with how CRAZY good laser interferometry has gotten, I disagree with the other commenters and say yes. LIGO's sensitivity is so mind-blowing, I don't think anyone on earth can really appreciate the absurd scale of its precision. A next generation LIGO-esque gyroscope designed for the purpose could probably measure galactic rotation. That said, it would be a massive waste of money for something we already know.", "human_ref_B": "Maybe I'm missing something here. But I don't think that is even theoretically possible.  What I mean is there is no rotation to measure. The earth is rotating so could measure that with a gyroscope. But we are not exactly rotating around the sun, we are falling around it. And the same goes for the solar system around our galactic center.   Imagine you are in a spacesuit in orbit around the earth. At the moment you are facing the earth and not rotating at all. Then after half an orbit you are on the other side of earth. Now you would be facing AWAY from the earth, because you are not rotating.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3228.0, "score_ratio": 1.7333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sq0jav", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Could a sensitive gyroscope be used to measure the rotation of the galaxy? I've read that modern fiber-laser gyroscopes are sensitive enough to be used to measure the Earth's rotation. Could they be used to measure other rotating systems that the Earth is a part of? e.g. rotation around the sun, rotation of the solar system, rotation of the galaxy?", "c_root_id_A": "hwjv74i", "c_root_id_B": "hwjtpa1", "created_at_utc_A": 1644611086, "created_at_utc_B": 1644610520, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Maybe I'm missing something here. But I don't think that is even theoretically possible.  What I mean is there is no rotation to measure. The earth is rotating so could measure that with a gyroscope. But we are not exactly rotating around the sun, we are falling around it. And the same goes for the solar system around our galactic center.   Imagine you are in a spacesuit in orbit around the earth. At the moment you are facing the earth and not rotating at all. Then after half an orbit you are on the other side of earth. Now you would be facing AWAY from the earth, because you are not rotating.", "human_ref_B": "Tldr: probably not.  I'm on phone in a car (not driving) so the chain of math is a bit crude...  The earth is about 8000 parsecs from galactic center.  A parsec is about 3e13km.   So about 2e16km radius or about 1e17 km diameter.   The sun is rotating around the galactic center at about 200 km/sec.  So one rotation every 1e17/200 =. 5e14 seconds.  So thats 2pi radians every 5e14sec = 1e-14 radians/second.  1 radian is 2e8 milliarcseconds   so that's 2e-6 milliarcseconds per second.   There's about 9e4 seconds in a day.  So that's 0.2 milliarcseconds per day.  Or about  70 milliarcseconds/year.   I found a 2004 article about a sensor on gravity probe B that was designed to measure relativistic effects at about 7e3 milliarcseconds per year.  Which is about 100 time larger   So:. Maybe but probably not.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 566.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "95mj8y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "Do wildfires mitigate the potential for future wildfires in the same area? If so, for how long? We've been told that in the past the policy of snuffing out wildfires immediately has increased the chances and severity of future wildfires.  Wildfires are a natural part of the ecology and they clear out underbrush and other fuels making them less dangerous.  In recent years there have been so many huge wildfires that it seems eventually we will get back to a state of nature and then these wildfires will will return to less intense but regular occurrences.  Is this merely a phase we need to go through in order to return to the old normal?", "c_root_id_A": "e3tsm0s", "c_root_id_B": "e3tsi8t", "created_at_utc_A": 1533739956, "created_at_utc_B": 1533739868, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Wildfires mitigate the potential size of new wildfires in the same area.   If there isnt a huge layer of dry flamable material, forrest fires are less intense and large.  In a way, our current efford to stop the fires is also \"saving\" fuel for the next fire.  A change of pollicy is reducing risks for the future, but global warming is also a factor, that is countering this.  I personaly expect things to get worse before they get better.", "human_ref_B": "Well, once a tree is burned, it can't burn again, so letting a wildfire burn will stop it from happening again next year, also, when we indeed put out wildfires asap, there is in fact more left to burn the next years. However I believe that the cause of increase of wildfires in the past years is climate change and extended periods of droughts, and not us putting wildfires out immediately", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 88.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "95mj8y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "Do wildfires mitigate the potential for future wildfires in the same area? If so, for how long? We've been told that in the past the policy of snuffing out wildfires immediately has increased the chances and severity of future wildfires.  Wildfires are a natural part of the ecology and they clear out underbrush and other fuels making them less dangerous.  In recent years there have been so many huge wildfires that it seems eventually we will get back to a state of nature and then these wildfires will will return to less intense but regular occurrences.  Is this merely a phase we need to go through in order to return to the old normal?", "c_root_id_A": "e3tsi8t", "c_root_id_B": "e3ueso5", "created_at_utc_A": 1533739868, "created_at_utc_B": 1533757973, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Well, once a tree is burned, it can't burn again, so letting a wildfire burn will stop it from happening again next year, also, when we indeed put out wildfires asap, there is in fact more left to burn the next years. However I believe that the cause of increase of wildfires in the past years is climate change and extended periods of droughts, and not us putting wildfires out immediately", "human_ref_B": "\\> We've been told that in the past the policy of snuffing out wildfires immediately has increased the chances and severity of future wildfires  Yes.  A normal fire cycle burns small trees and shrubs, but larger trees are largely unaffected.  When the fire cycle is interrupted, not only is there a higher density of those smaller trees and shrubs, but the density is such that it allows flames to reach into the larger trees, resulting in a fast-moving canopy fire.  In the short term, a catastrophic fire will reduce the likelihood of a fire in the same area - there's just nothing that can burn.  However, in the medium-to-long term, it increases the risk of another catastrophic fire because all the vegetation is at the same level (IE all the vegetation will be roughly the same height, which means a fire will wipe everything out again).  \\>  Is this merely a phase we need to go through in order to return to the old normal?  Unlikely.  The normal fire cycle kind of depends on there being a mixture of small trees and shrubs and large trees.  However, when a fire goes through an area that hasn't been burnt in decades, it winds up burning not just the small trees and shurbs but the large trees as well.  The result is that all the vegetation in the area then becomes 'synced' - The trees which would normally be large are still small - they tend to grow slowly, so they might even be outpaced by vegetation with a smaller maximum size, if that makes sense.  What I'm trying to get across that, instead of there being multiple 'levels' in the vegetation, everything is basically on the same plane.  This means that if a fire goes through again, everything will be burned to the ground again because the 'tall' trees haven't been given the time they need to \\*grow\\* tall and be above the fire.  An area that has suffered a fire which burns basically everything is not going to be healthy enough to resist another fire for a long time, decades.  In that intervening period the risk of another catastrophic fire is probably increased without maintenance of the land - removal of smaller trees and shrubs without fire (for two reasons: 1) To prevent the buildup of low-level fuel, the situation which started the whole problem in the first place and 2) decrease competition for the slower-growing, ultimately-larger vegetation)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18105.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "95mj8y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "Do wildfires mitigate the potential for future wildfires in the same area? If so, for how long? We've been told that in the past the policy of snuffing out wildfires immediately has increased the chances and severity of future wildfires.  Wildfires are a natural part of the ecology and they clear out underbrush and other fuels making them less dangerous.  In recent years there have been so many huge wildfires that it seems eventually we will get back to a state of nature and then these wildfires will will return to less intense but regular occurrences.  Is this merely a phase we need to go through in order to return to the old normal?", "c_root_id_A": "e3vg4d1", "c_root_id_B": "e3tsi8t", "created_at_utc_A": 1533796265, "created_at_utc_B": 1533739868, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "In the forests that I'm most familiar with (The North Cascades in Washington State) wildfires usually come in pairs. The first fire, the killing fire, burns through a forest and kills a significant portion of the trees. Notably these fires do not significantly consume the trees, just burn off their needles and otherwise kill the trees, leaving the trunks and larger branches intact.  The forest recovers for the next 7 to 10 years or so, with new grasses, smaller trees, and so forth, all of which are \"fast fuels\". At the same time, the trees that were killed in the first fire dry out, some fall over, and generally add more fuel. At some point, a second \"Cleaning fire\" burns through. This one is usually far more intense than the killing fire, as it has much more fast fuel, and is sustained by all the dead trees from the first fire.", "human_ref_B": "Well, once a tree is burned, it can't burn again, so letting a wildfire burn will stop it from happening again next year, also, when we indeed put out wildfires asap, there is in fact more left to burn the next years. However I believe that the cause of increase of wildfires in the past years is climate change and extended periods of droughts, and not us putting wildfires out immediately", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 56397.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1j20bi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Does your skin type (specifically ability to tan) effect your chances of getting skin cancer or aged looking skin? Also does well tanned skin offer protection from UV radiation and if so what SPF is it equivalent to? I ask because I spend all day working outside and every summer get a very heavy tan. I usually don't bother with sun cream once I have a tan unless I'm somewhere with more intense sun. I live in southern England and the unusual recent glut of sunshine have left my arms darker than 10 weeks in India did.", "c_root_id_A": "cbagoht", "c_root_id_B": "cbajkxk", "created_at_utc_A": 1374806137, "created_at_utc_B": 1374815351, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "The connection between UV exposure, skin cancer, and pigmentation are all extremely poorly understood.  There is an amazing paucity of any experimentally verified mechanistic connection, though a ton of epidemiological associations.  It is probably true that people with darker complexions are safer, but observations such as the preponderance of skin cancers appearing in areas typically covered by clothing, and areas typically more heavily pigmented, give serious doubts to that statement.", "human_ref_B": "Regarding \"safe\" tanning:  I can't find a specific paper studying this, but the answer is fairly clear from a practicing dermatological perspective; [there is no such thing as a \"safe\" amount of tanning.]( http://consults.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/06/03/is-there-such-a-thing-as-a-healthy-tan/)  Simply in terms of absolute UV exposure over time, frequent tanning results in higher UV exposure compared to infrequent sunburns. Every time you are exposed to UV radiation you are playing a probabilistic game about whether your skin cells will be able to survive the electromagnetic bombardment their DNA is receiving, both of UV-A and UV-B. [Tanning **does not** fully protect against oxidative stress on skin cells due to UV-A radiation and **provides no significant protection** against UV-B radiation.]( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20979596)   As long as the total UV exposure of the tanned person exceeds the total UV exposure of the sunburnt person over time, then the tanner will most likely have a higher risk of developing skin cancer at some point in their life.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9214.0, "score_ratio": 17.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1j20bi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Does your skin type (specifically ability to tan) effect your chances of getting skin cancer or aged looking skin? Also does well tanned skin offer protection from UV radiation and if so what SPF is it equivalent to? I ask because I spend all day working outside and every summer get a very heavy tan. I usually don't bother with sun cream once I have a tan unless I'm somewhere with more intense sun. I live in southern England and the unusual recent glut of sunshine have left my arms darker than 10 weeks in India did.", "c_root_id_A": "cbajkxk", "c_root_id_B": "cbagslt", "created_at_utc_A": 1374815351, "created_at_utc_B": 1374806479, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Regarding \"safe\" tanning:  I can't find a specific paper studying this, but the answer is fairly clear from a practicing dermatological perspective; [there is no such thing as a \"safe\" amount of tanning.]( http://consults.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/06/03/is-there-such-a-thing-as-a-healthy-tan/)  Simply in terms of absolute UV exposure over time, frequent tanning results in higher UV exposure compared to infrequent sunburns. Every time you are exposed to UV radiation you are playing a probabilistic game about whether your skin cells will be able to survive the electromagnetic bombardment their DNA is receiving, both of UV-A and UV-B. [Tanning **does not** fully protect against oxidative stress on skin cells due to UV-A radiation and **provides no significant protection** against UV-B radiation.]( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20979596)   As long as the total UV exposure of the tanned person exceeds the total UV exposure of the sunburnt person over time, then the tanner will most likely have a higher risk of developing skin cancer at some point in their life.", "human_ref_B": "Basically: Our skin produces a few pigments that absorb strongly the common frequencies likely to cause damage to our genes. The pigment molecules, such as melanin, then take that electromagnetic energy that \"is absorbed\" when an electron is physically pushed into a higher energy orbital. The electrons in ideal sunscreen pigments would then \"bleed off\" the energy as heat through a process called \"fast non-radiative energy transfer\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8872.0, "score_ratio": 5.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1j20bi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Does your skin type (specifically ability to tan) effect your chances of getting skin cancer or aged looking skin? Also does well tanned skin offer protection from UV radiation and if so what SPF is it equivalent to? I ask because I spend all day working outside and every summer get a very heavy tan. I usually don't bother with sun cream once I have a tan unless I'm somewhere with more intense sun. I live in southern England and the unusual recent glut of sunshine have left my arms darker than 10 weeks in India did.", "c_root_id_A": "cbahciy", "c_root_id_B": "cbajkxk", "created_at_utc_A": 1374808136, "created_at_utc_B": 1374815351, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Tanned skin does provide protection against sunburn.  This can be shown with a simple experiment/observation (that happens regularly to most people, especially cyclists and farmers).  When a person get a well defined \"farmer's tan\" or bike shorts tan and then they spend time in the sun with the whiter side of the tan line exposed as well only the untanned side will get sunburned (or as badly sunburned) to the point that when skin starts peeling it will peel in a perfectly straight line across the tan line.  As far as the SPF I don't know, but I do know that SPF isn't especially relevant, duration of effect is.  In other words, for most people who live below 7,000 feet or outside of Australia SPF 20-30 is plenty effective for as long as it stays on and active.  So I don't know what the intensity protection of a tan is, but since it's providing protection through a repeatable chemical reaction I imagine the most benefit is the duration of protection.", "human_ref_B": "Regarding \"safe\" tanning:  I can't find a specific paper studying this, but the answer is fairly clear from a practicing dermatological perspective; [there is no such thing as a \"safe\" amount of tanning.]( http://consults.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/06/03/is-there-such-a-thing-as-a-healthy-tan/)  Simply in terms of absolute UV exposure over time, frequent tanning results in higher UV exposure compared to infrequent sunburns. Every time you are exposed to UV radiation you are playing a probabilistic game about whether your skin cells will be able to survive the electromagnetic bombardment their DNA is receiving, both of UV-A and UV-B. [Tanning **does not** fully protect against oxidative stress on skin cells due to UV-A radiation and **provides no significant protection** against UV-B radiation.]( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20979596)   As long as the total UV exposure of the tanned person exceeds the total UV exposure of the sunburnt person over time, then the tanner will most likely have a higher risk of developing skin cancer at some point in their life.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7215.0, "score_ratio": 17.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1j20bi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Does your skin type (specifically ability to tan) effect your chances of getting skin cancer or aged looking skin? Also does well tanned skin offer protection from UV radiation and if so what SPF is it equivalent to? I ask because I spend all day working outside and every summer get a very heavy tan. I usually don't bother with sun cream once I have a tan unless I'm somewhere with more intense sun. I live in southern England and the unusual recent glut of sunshine have left my arms darker than 10 weeks in India did.", "c_root_id_A": "cbagslt", "c_root_id_B": "cbagoht", "created_at_utc_A": 1374806479, "created_at_utc_B": 1374806137, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Basically: Our skin produces a few pigments that absorb strongly the common frequencies likely to cause damage to our genes. The pigment molecules, such as melanin, then take that electromagnetic energy that \"is absorbed\" when an electron is physically pushed into a higher energy orbital. The electrons in ideal sunscreen pigments would then \"bleed off\" the energy as heat through a process called \"fast non-radiative energy transfer\"", "human_ref_B": "The connection between UV exposure, skin cancer, and pigmentation are all extremely poorly understood.  There is an amazing paucity of any experimentally verified mechanistic connection, though a ton of epidemiological associations.  It is probably true that people with darker complexions are safer, but observations such as the preponderance of skin cancers appearing in areas typically covered by clothing, and areas typically more heavily pigmented, give serious doubts to that statement.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 342.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pg7yw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Apollo 13 - Why did it get so cold, isn't being in space like being in a thermos ?? Saw the movie Apollo 13 again the other day.  Was wondering why did it get so cold in the Lunar Module with 3 astronauts and a bunch of running electronics ??  I know that they had to shut down the electronics to save energy but prior to that the astronauts were at a comfortable temperature and presumably the electronics were running and generating heat. With so few molecules for the craft to transfer its thermal energy to in space it seems to me that the only way to dissipate thermal energy is by emitting electromagnetic radiation I guess predominantly in the IR range.  On earth you don't think of losing heat by radiating it all away, usually you pass it on to air, water or some other thermally conductive medium.  TLDR - Wouldn't it be hard to dissipate heat in space? Is EM radiation how the Apollo 13 crew was losing heat in the Lunar Module ??", "c_root_id_A": "c3p3pkz", "c_root_id_B": "c3p5hkv", "created_at_utc_A": 1328710010, "created_at_utc_B": 1328720745, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "I think it was skylab that needed a replacement heat shade to prevent over heating.", "human_ref_B": "> isn't being in space like being in a thermos ??  Not really -- the background temperature of space is 2.7 kelvins, or about -270 degrees Celsius. The astronauts were able to use the available sunlight to increase the temperature of their crippled craft, but this didn't prevent the average temperature from being quite cold, and while they were in the moon's shadow, they were very cold indeed.  Just remember how cold space is, in the absence of a local source of heat like the sun. Imagine standing on the moon, in the shadow of a mountain, or during that part of each lunar month when your location is fully in shadow -- the temperature of your environment is scarcely above the background temperature of space, 2.7 kelvins.  > Wouldn't it be hard to dissipate heat in space?   As a NASA design engineer, I had to deal with this issue regularly. In a vacuum, heat is only dissipated as radiation, one of three common ways to dissipate heat. Also, in a free-fall, zero-g environment, heat doesn't rise through any available atmosphere, instead it pools around the source of heat, reducing the efficiency of \"heat-sinks\", devices used to move heat away from a heat-sensitive electronic component.  But in general, because in a vacuum heat will radiate away as electromagnetic radiation, one can usually design a way to get rid of unwanted heat energy.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10735.0, "score_ratio": 8.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2y7bu0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Could we/do we use the radiation in space to power spaceships in any way?", "c_root_id_A": "cp6ziac", "c_root_id_B": "cp7jamq", "created_at_utc_A": 1425701803, "created_at_utc_B": 1425761361, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Maybe in the form of solar sails, but I doubt we would be a leader to harness radiation. Radiation isn't the source of nuclear power,  the decay of the material is what drives it.", "human_ref_B": "\"Radiation\" is a very broad term. Other responses have already described electromagnetic radiation and solar sails, so I'll focus on particle radiation.  The electric sail is a concept to use an electric field to reject protons from the solar wind, getting thrust. From time to time there could be solar particle events that would give it a nice boost. It hasn't flown yet, but the concept is very well defined.  When we talk about \"radiation in space\" we normally mean particle radiation, which is the one that has the most meaningful effects on human health. Solar particle events, in extreme cases, can cause people to absorb a lethal dose in a few hours (though death would occur after a few days), but that's not the biggest concern since it's relatively easy to protect astronauts from it.  Cosmic rays, on the other hand, arrive from every direction, so I don't think we'll ever be able to use them to power a spaceship. Unlike solar particles, these can't be lethal in the short term, but they are almost impossible to shield due to the high energy of particles, and can cause cancer in the long term.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 59558.0, "score_ratio": 9000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2y7bu0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Could we/do we use the radiation in space to power spaceships in any way?", "c_root_id_A": "cp7s2kg", "c_root_id_B": "cp6ziac", "created_at_utc_A": 1425780366, "created_at_utc_B": 1425701803, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Yes, we use electromagnetic radiation (sunlight) to run all sorts of things.  However, that doesn't help us move spaceships around because that requires reaction mass. Applying force to a spaceship requires applying equal and opposite force to something, and sunlight doesn't quite do it. Photons do have momentum, but it is so tiny that it can't really provide the thrust you need if you want to get anywhere interesting inside a human lifetime.  Another option is to carry some reaction mass, and use the energy from the solar panels to ionize it and then shoot it out of the thruster at extreme speeds. The faster the particles leave the thruster, the more efficient the propulsion.  For most things though, we burn chemicals, often hydrogen, often other things.  I'm not aware of any other types of radiation being used, except in RTGs, which brings radioactive material from earth to power rovers.", "human_ref_B": "Maybe in the form of solar sails, but I doubt we would be a leader to harness radiation. Radiation isn't the source of nuclear power,  the decay of the material is what drives it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 78563.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2y7bu0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Could we/do we use the radiation in space to power spaceships in any way?", "c_root_id_A": "cp6ziac", "c_root_id_B": "cp83v6k", "created_at_utc_A": 1425701803, "created_at_utc_B": 1425820414, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Maybe in the form of solar sails, but I doubt we would be a leader to harness radiation. Radiation isn't the source of nuclear power,  the decay of the material is what drives it.", "human_ref_B": "I'm a layman but would like to add another perspective. I think the original question is more about the radiation we hear about that we need to be shielded from. As far as I know the actual energy and mass density of interstellar space tends to be very low. The energy may also come in a number of forms. Although we here about a lot of high energy radiation out there what this really means is that you have lots of instances where a normal amount of energy is compact into a very small form. I think it is really this that makes it dangerous rather than it being a lot of energy in total. It's like the difference between being hit by a bullet with X amount of energy and a potato with the same amount of energy.  While many people talk of standard solar radiation and solar sails there are other ideas. Another is the Bussard collector. In it's simplest form this is just a scoop at the front of a hypothetical ship that might collect charged energetic particles, hydrogen, etc. Although not very effective on a slow ship, on a fast ship it might collect a lot of mass. Though it also becomes a brake of sorts and you have to think about how to use the incoming matter which might be of several types. This could be hypothetically be improved with magnetic fields, etc (attractors) to collect matter from a large area. If it is possible, this could be a huge area and would probably leave tracks through interstellar space that we would be able to detect for alien life. There are some serious questions if this is possible about the long term viability of it as it could deplete \"shipping lanes\" of fuel very quickly. If you imagine an alien race sending many of these out from their planet, they may end up trapped for a long time until the particle and energy density around their solar system picks up again. Basically, you may end up being limited to using this for very small ships if it can work at all. However, someone with more scientific knowledge will have to chip in to clarify what it really possible on this front.  I suspect we could draw some energy from cosmic radiation in interstellar space but that it would not be much and would be hard to collect. It might be just enough for a very long lived computerised probe, perhaps using an ion drive and spending most of its time in sleep mode. The most likely setup would be that it's shield components would be able to in some fashion utilitise the energy particularly if they absorb it rather than reflect it.  A break down of the matter and energy composition of interstellar space would help a lot I think (for example, the top ten to a hundred forms that energy exists in, basic characteristics, ease of exploitation, etc).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 118611.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3q0fs7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How do you get cold in space without a transference medium? I'd imagine it wouldn't at all be like getting cold on earth, where the heat transfers into the air.", "c_root_id_A": "cwbd5yq", "c_root_id_B": "cwb5xsd", "created_at_utc_A": 1445710650, "created_at_utc_B": 1445697547, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "> I'd imagine it wouldn't at all be like getting cold on earth, where the heat transfers into the air.  That's right. As others pointed out, radiation is the main cooling method. However this method is terribly inefficient when compared to conduction or convection, so excessively large radiators are needed. Another important difference is that Earth-bound radiators can have several parallel plates; as long as air can flow between them cooling will still be effective. This is not possible with radiative cooling - plates must not even point to each other if you don't want them to absorb the heat that each other emits. The white plates in this picture of the ISS are the radiators.  An important detail that has been overlooked so far in this thread is the effect of different wavelengths in the radiation environment. The Sun will emit mostly in the visible spectrum^1. Planetary bodies (including Earth itself) will reflect a part of it (albedo), but what they absorb will be emitted in the far infrared.  External surfaces are designed to avoid absorbing much heat. White surfaces like beta cloth are good at reflecting visible light, and they are usually covering multi-layer insulation. White paints are also common, they have the advantage of emitting infrared efficiently even if they don't absorb visible.  Infrared is easy to reflect using metallic surfaces such as aluminium. The cons is that these cannot be exposed to direct sunlight; even if they reflect a good part of it, they still absorb a tiny bit more than the infrared they can emit, so they heat up to insane temperatures.  Therefore, orbiting a planet like Earth, which reflects visible *and* emits far infrared is kind of a problem. Radiators must be designed to point at deep space to work efficiently. In a satellite in a purely equatorial orbit this would be fairly easy, but on different orbits the radiators must be able to rotate, or be excessively large and massive => high cost.  ^1 Treating the near infrared as visible. This is an oversimplification but it's not wrong from a thermal control point of view.", "human_ref_B": "Because radiation. However, if the direct sunlight is strong enough, you can cook as well.  You get heat transfer by radiation in everyday life, but the effect is usually masked by the air temperature and draughts/wind. With underfloor heating (large radiant heat emitter) you can usually have the air-temperature sensor/thermostat set lower because people feel comfortable at the lower air temperature. In fact, air temperature is a poor indicator of how hot/cold people feel. A much better indicator is [Mean Radiant Temperature]( https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_radiant_temperature), measured with a black_globe thermometer, which takes account of radiant heat losses or gains.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13103.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3q0fs7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How do you get cold in space without a transference medium? I'd imagine it wouldn't at all be like getting cold on earth, where the heat transfers into the air.", "c_root_id_A": "cwbihyh", "c_root_id_B": "cwbj2z7", "created_at_utc_A": 1445720415, "created_at_utc_B": 1445721503, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Very slowly, as the only outlet for your heat is heat as electromagnetic waves. There are two kinds of heat: heat as molecules bouncing around, and heat as radiation. Radiated heat is much less efficient on human scales.", "human_ref_B": "No one seems to have mentioned that \"you\" as a human, would also lose quite a bit of heat from evaporation. Any fluids exposed would instantly boil and dissipate taking quite a bit of energy with them wouldn't they?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1088.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3q0fs7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How do you get cold in space without a transference medium? I'd imagine it wouldn't at all be like getting cold on earth, where the heat transfers into the air.", "c_root_id_A": "cwb5xsd", "c_root_id_B": "cwbj2z7", "created_at_utc_A": 1445697547, "created_at_utc_B": 1445721503, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Because radiation. However, if the direct sunlight is strong enough, you can cook as well.  You get heat transfer by radiation in everyday life, but the effect is usually masked by the air temperature and draughts/wind. With underfloor heating (large radiant heat emitter) you can usually have the air-temperature sensor/thermostat set lower because people feel comfortable at the lower air temperature. In fact, air temperature is a poor indicator of how hot/cold people feel. A much better indicator is [Mean Radiant Temperature]( https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_radiant_temperature), measured with a black_globe thermometer, which takes account of radiant heat losses or gains.", "human_ref_B": "No one seems to have mentioned that \"you\" as a human, would also lose quite a bit of heat from evaporation. Any fluids exposed would instantly boil and dissipate taking quite a bit of energy with them wouldn't they?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23956.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3q0fs7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How do you get cold in space without a transference medium? I'd imagine it wouldn't at all be like getting cold on earth, where the heat transfers into the air.", "c_root_id_A": "cwb5xsd", "c_root_id_B": "cwbihyh", "created_at_utc_A": 1445697547, "created_at_utc_B": 1445720415, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Because radiation. However, if the direct sunlight is strong enough, you can cook as well.  You get heat transfer by radiation in everyday life, but the effect is usually masked by the air temperature and draughts/wind. With underfloor heating (large radiant heat emitter) you can usually have the air-temperature sensor/thermostat set lower because people feel comfortable at the lower air temperature. In fact, air temperature is a poor indicator of how hot/cold people feel. A much better indicator is [Mean Radiant Temperature]( https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_radiant_temperature), measured with a black_globe thermometer, which takes account of radiant heat losses or gains.", "human_ref_B": "Very slowly, as the only outlet for your heat is heat as electromagnetic waves. There are two kinds of heat: heat as molecules bouncing around, and heat as radiation. Radiated heat is much less efficient on human scales.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22868.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e1fh44", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Can sleeping on a part of your body (i.e. your arm) actually cause tissue damage by cutting off circulation? Holding a limb in an odd position or sleeping on it often causes pins and needles. If maintained long enough, would gravity/your own weight be enough to cut off circulation and cause local hypoxia/necrosis/any damage besides pain when circulation is restored? And if so, how long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "f8rcnya", "c_root_id_B": "f8ren31", "created_at_utc_A": 1574737173, "created_at_utc_B": 1574738501, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Former ER RN here. This is a big issue with alcoholics and drug abusers. You can cut off circulation, feel paresthesias (pins and needles sensation), and will consciously it unconsciously move. People who are under the influence may not. It's called \"compartment syndrome\" when they cut off circulation to a part like that. Then we may cut off the part.", "human_ref_B": "The pins and needles feeling is actually not caused by cutting off blood supply, but by compressing the nerves. You can damage your nerves to some degree this way, I know two people who had their arm go numb for an entire day or two from sleeping strangely, but it should heal and return to normal. Constant, excessive strain can cause permanent damage, like tennis elbow, that can need surgery, though some people are more or less genetically prone to this.   As far as circulation, no, you're not going to cut it off to a dangerous degree from sleeping or sitting weirdly, there's lots of blood vessels in your limbs and it's hard to accidentally cut off all of the major ones, and you'd have to stay asleep or sitting weirdly for many hours straight or even days to form a blood clot in the compressed vessels, it would become painful very quickly. Individuals who are in comas, sedated or otherwise immobile need to be rotated around to prevent bedsores, but not really for circulation issues, though their circulation and O2 saturation likely isn't going to be great anyways from laying down and being immobile so long. Immobility does cause blood clots in the legs, partly from the pressure of sitting, partly from gravity. They are very dangerous, and it is why its recommended to do leg exercises if you're immobile, and there are these need contraptions attached to some SICU hospital beds that squeeze the legs rhythmically every 10 minutes or so to break up clots that feel very cool lol.  If something is constricting the limb, like a rope, you can accidentally tourniquet yourself which can cause a blood clot or eventual death of the tissue. I tell people, if you're ever practicing bondage, if any part of your body becomes cold feeling, tingly, or numb, take off the ropes, you're causing nerve damage. Extremely tight clothing, like the chest binders men with breasts wear can sometimes cause nerve damage to the arms if they're the wrong size as well.   Source: Mom's a cardiac nursing director, and I spent a lot of time visiting the SICU earlier this year", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1328.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e1fh44", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Can sleeping on a part of your body (i.e. your arm) actually cause tissue damage by cutting off circulation? Holding a limb in an odd position or sleeping on it often causes pins and needles. If maintained long enough, would gravity/your own weight be enough to cut off circulation and cause local hypoxia/necrosis/any damage besides pain when circulation is restored? And if so, how long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "f8rc8yg", "c_root_id_B": "f8ren31", "created_at_utc_A": 1574736915, "created_at_utc_B": 1574738501, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Well you don\u2019t remain in one position when you sleep, you move around during sleep  But if you did just remain on your arm for the entire night maybe possible but I doubt it mainly just typically numbness you\u2019d get", "human_ref_B": "The pins and needles feeling is actually not caused by cutting off blood supply, but by compressing the nerves. You can damage your nerves to some degree this way, I know two people who had their arm go numb for an entire day or two from sleeping strangely, but it should heal and return to normal. Constant, excessive strain can cause permanent damage, like tennis elbow, that can need surgery, though some people are more or less genetically prone to this.   As far as circulation, no, you're not going to cut it off to a dangerous degree from sleeping or sitting weirdly, there's lots of blood vessels in your limbs and it's hard to accidentally cut off all of the major ones, and you'd have to stay asleep or sitting weirdly for many hours straight or even days to form a blood clot in the compressed vessels, it would become painful very quickly. Individuals who are in comas, sedated or otherwise immobile need to be rotated around to prevent bedsores, but not really for circulation issues, though their circulation and O2 saturation likely isn't going to be great anyways from laying down and being immobile so long. Immobility does cause blood clots in the legs, partly from the pressure of sitting, partly from gravity. They are very dangerous, and it is why its recommended to do leg exercises if you're immobile, and there are these need contraptions attached to some SICU hospital beds that squeeze the legs rhythmically every 10 minutes or so to break up clots that feel very cool lol.  If something is constricting the limb, like a rope, you can accidentally tourniquet yourself which can cause a blood clot or eventual death of the tissue. I tell people, if you're ever practicing bondage, if any part of your body becomes cold feeling, tingly, or numb, take off the ropes, you're causing nerve damage. Extremely tight clothing, like the chest binders men with breasts wear can sometimes cause nerve damage to the arms if they're the wrong size as well.   Source: Mom's a cardiac nursing director, and I spent a lot of time visiting the SICU earlier this year", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1586.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e1fh44", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Can sleeping on a part of your body (i.e. your arm) actually cause tissue damage by cutting off circulation? Holding a limb in an odd position or sleeping on it often causes pins and needles. If maintained long enough, would gravity/your own weight be enough to cut off circulation and cause local hypoxia/necrosis/any damage besides pain when circulation is restored? And if so, how long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "f8rcnya", "c_root_id_B": "f8rc8yg", "created_at_utc_A": 1574737173, "created_at_utc_B": 1574736915, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Former ER RN here. This is a big issue with alcoholics and drug abusers. You can cut off circulation, feel paresthesias (pins and needles sensation), and will consciously it unconsciously move. People who are under the influence may not. It's called \"compartment syndrome\" when they cut off circulation to a part like that. Then we may cut off the part.", "human_ref_B": "Well you don\u2019t remain in one position when you sleep, you move around during sleep  But if you did just remain on your arm for the entire night maybe possible but I doubt it mainly just typically numbness you\u2019d get", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 258.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e1fh44", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Can sleeping on a part of your body (i.e. your arm) actually cause tissue damage by cutting off circulation? Holding a limb in an odd position or sleeping on it often causes pins and needles. If maintained long enough, would gravity/your own weight be enough to cut off circulation and cause local hypoxia/necrosis/any damage besides pain when circulation is restored? And if so, how long would it take?", "c_root_id_A": "f8rfee5", "c_root_id_B": "f8rc8yg", "created_at_utc_A": 1574739018, "created_at_utc_B": 1574736915, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Over time if you don\u2019t move around enough when in bed, you could wind up with bed sores. That\u2019s damage to your skin, but eventually can become non-healing wounds that go all the way to bone, and actually become fatal (not to mention quite painful).", "human_ref_B": "Well you don\u2019t remain in one position when you sleep, you move around during sleep  But if you did just remain on your arm for the entire night maybe possible but I doubt it mainly just typically numbness you\u2019d get", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2103.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tl7fe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "How comes the sand of most beaches is yellow and very few beaches have either white or black/gray sand? Aren't white/black/gray rocks way more common ?", "c_root_id_A": "c4nkbpa", "c_root_id_B": "c4nkc49", "created_at_utc_A": 1336933066, "created_at_utc_B": 1336933134, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "Black sand, such as on our beaches here in Hawaii - are broken down lava - usually from a'a clinkers or lava benches that have collapsed and broken apart - these are brand new flows that haven't aged much nor mixed with other rocks and sands (some beaches can be minutes old - but may not last more than days or weeks due to active lava flows - other beaches have persisted for many many years).    Grey sand beaches - like in Waipio valley, are older black sand that has mixed with other rocks and sands.  Green sand, which we also have on the Big Island, is also lava but with a high amount of peridot (olivine) in it.  Our red sand beaches are due to high iron content in those particular flows.  Our yellow, yellow-white sand beaches are only on the sides that are shallower and have coral life - and is mostly ground up corals and quartz.  Maui has pink sand beaches which I believe, if memory serves me correctly, are a specific type of coral.", "human_ref_B": "Most beaches are made of one of two things: quartz or carbonate.  When you take those black/gray rocks and start eroding them and breaking them down, the quartz (which is nominally clear, but when in a big pile ends up being sort of yellow) is the last thing to survive that is sand-sized. Most of the darker minerals break down into clay (which floats away from beaches) or into dissolved minerals. They will often have a few percent of dark grains - they will actually be concentrated in lags by wave actions. Look at the last dribbles of water in an outgoing wave and you will see dark grains being the last ones to be deposited. This is density sorting just like you would use to pan for gold - except the least dense minerals are deposited last.  Places where you get dark sand beaches will have a source of igneous rock nearby; that is why you get black sand beaches on Hawaii. The dark volcanic material gets to the beach and hasn't had time to break down yet.   Carbonate accumulates when organisms that produce it die. These organisms include most things with shells like clams and corals, even though most of what you will find on a beach is the remnants of carbonate forming plants. Carbonate beaches are common at low latitudes - think the Bahamas and Florida.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 68.0, "score_ratio": 8.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tl7fe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "How comes the sand of most beaches is yellow and very few beaches have either white or black/gray sand? Aren't white/black/gray rocks way more common ?", "c_root_id_A": "c4nk9dc", "c_root_id_B": "c4nkc49", "created_at_utc_A": 1336932717, "created_at_utc_B": 1336933134, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "Sand often has large amounts of animal material in it, like seashells,   calciferous algaes, corals and the waste of coral eating fish, which tend to be a lighter color.  I believe quartz is also a common component, especially in extremely white beaches such as those found on the northern gulf coast of Florida.", "human_ref_B": "Most beaches are made of one of two things: quartz or carbonate.  When you take those black/gray rocks and start eroding them and breaking them down, the quartz (which is nominally clear, but when in a big pile ends up being sort of yellow) is the last thing to survive that is sand-sized. Most of the darker minerals break down into clay (which floats away from beaches) or into dissolved minerals. They will often have a few percent of dark grains - they will actually be concentrated in lags by wave actions. Look at the last dribbles of water in an outgoing wave and you will see dark grains being the last ones to be deposited. This is density sorting just like you would use to pan for gold - except the least dense minerals are deposited last.  Places where you get dark sand beaches will have a source of igneous rock nearby; that is why you get black sand beaches on Hawaii. The dark volcanic material gets to the beach and hasn't had time to break down yet.   Carbonate accumulates when organisms that produce it die. These organisms include most things with shells like clams and corals, even though most of what you will find on a beach is the remnants of carbonate forming plants. Carbonate beaches are common at low latitudes - think the Bahamas and Florida.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 417.0, "score_ratio": 7.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "154l3a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "After hearing the news about the \"habitable\" planet 12 light years away, I'm curious to know how long it would take us to get there given today's technology. I'm referring to this report: http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/dec/19/habitable-planet-discovered-tau-ceti  If we were to send some kind of probe or satellite or even a lander of some kind, how long would it take us to   1) get something there  2) begin receiving data on that objects findings  Obviously it would take 12 years at the speed of light, and we're no where near capable of reaching those speeds (right?).", "c_root_id_A": "c7jdth1", "c_root_id_B": "c7jaf18", "created_at_utc_A": 1355969065, "created_at_utc_B": 1355956664, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "Stupid question, but it's obviously not stationary to us, right? Relative to  us, what direction/speed is it traveling? Is this great enough to have an impact?", "human_ref_B": "While historic spacecraft data is important, its also important to note that we've never designed for this kind of  speed and distance before.  Project Orion could, in theory, do 8-10% the speed of light.  So lets round that up to 0.1c for easy math. So 12 ly could be only 120 years of flight time.  That's without a large national (worldwide?) effort to get a project like this going.  Maybe we'll figure out how to produce and store anti-matter in quantities for space travel. Maybe there are other solutions. There's no use launching with outdated technology when a 50 year investment in this goal could save a large percentages of that travel time, but I suspect 10% of c is going to be a hard target to reach even with large quantities of cash and effort spent. Still 120 years is nothing for distances like this. It also would make more sense in figuring out human longevity so we aren't limited by these short lifespans.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12401.0, "score_ratio": 1.45, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "154l3a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "After hearing the news about the \"habitable\" planet 12 light years away, I'm curious to know how long it would take us to get there given today's technology. I'm referring to this report: http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/dec/19/habitable-planet-discovered-tau-ceti  If we were to send some kind of probe or satellite or even a lander of some kind, how long would it take us to   1) get something there  2) begin receiving data on that objects findings  Obviously it would take 12 years at the speed of light, and we're no where near capable of reaching those speeds (right?).", "c_root_id_A": "c7jdth1", "c_root_id_B": "c7jczhm", "created_at_utc_A": 1355969065, "created_at_utc_B": 1355965839, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Stupid question, but it's obviously not stationary to us, right? Relative to  us, what direction/speed is it traveling? Is this great enough to have an impact?", "human_ref_B": "I calculated it at 240,000 years using Voyager's current 15 kilometers/sec", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3226.0, "score_ratio": 2.4166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "154l3a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "After hearing the news about the \"habitable\" planet 12 light years away, I'm curious to know how long it would take us to get there given today's technology. I'm referring to this report: http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/dec/19/habitable-planet-discovered-tau-ceti  If we were to send some kind of probe or satellite or even a lander of some kind, how long would it take us to   1) get something there  2) begin receiving data on that objects findings  Obviously it would take 12 years at the speed of light, and we're no where near capable of reaching those speeds (right?).", "c_root_id_A": "c7jaf18", "c_root_id_B": "c7jehmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1355956664, "created_at_utc_B": 1355971651, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "While historic spacecraft data is important, its also important to note that we've never designed for this kind of  speed and distance before.  Project Orion could, in theory, do 8-10% the speed of light.  So lets round that up to 0.1c for easy math. So 12 ly could be only 120 years of flight time.  That's without a large national (worldwide?) effort to get a project like this going.  Maybe we'll figure out how to produce and store anti-matter in quantities for space travel. Maybe there are other solutions. There's no use launching with outdated technology when a 50 year investment in this goal could save a large percentages of that travel time, but I suspect 10% of c is going to be a hard target to reach even with large quantities of cash and effort spent. Still 120 years is nothing for distances like this. It also would make more sense in figuring out human longevity so we aren't limited by these short lifespans.", "human_ref_B": "I believe a Starwisp is the most exciting idea I've heard.  TL;DR: Use microwaves from our solar system to propel a large and very light camera to another solar system, achieving 10% of the speed of light.  Get very close-up pictures, much sooner than any manned flight possibly could.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14987.0, "score_ratio": 1.05, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "154l3a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "After hearing the news about the \"habitable\" planet 12 light years away, I'm curious to know how long it would take us to get there given today's technology. I'm referring to this report: http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/dec/19/habitable-planet-discovered-tau-ceti  If we were to send some kind of probe or satellite or even a lander of some kind, how long would it take us to   1) get something there  2) begin receiving data on that objects findings  Obviously it would take 12 years at the speed of light, and we're no where near capable of reaching those speeds (right?).", "c_root_id_A": "c7jczhm", "c_root_id_B": "c7jehmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1355965839, "created_at_utc_B": 1355971651, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "I calculated it at 240,000 years using Voyager's current 15 kilometers/sec", "human_ref_B": "I believe a Starwisp is the most exciting idea I've heard.  TL;DR: Use microwaves from our solar system to propel a large and very light camera to another solar system, achieving 10% of the speed of light.  Get very close-up pictures, much sooner than any manned flight possibly could.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5812.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "58dedc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "I just learned about the sinoatrial node. Why does the heart stop in cases like fatal brain aneurisms if the heart has its own pacemaker? If I understand correctly, the sinoatrial node is sort of like a natural pacemaker that generates an electrical impulse and stimulates the heartbeat. I read that even if you separate the heart from the brain, the heart can keep on beating because of the SA node. What is the reason that, for example, in the case of a fatal brain aneurism the heart stops working? Or a broken neck, traumatic head injury, or any number of other things that can kill someone without physically damaging the heart or causing huge amounts of blood loss. Why does the SA node stop stimulating heartbeat in these cases? Am I just misunderstanding the concept?", "c_root_id_A": "d900jr9", "c_root_id_B": "d8zzf8z", "created_at_utc_A": 1476946412, "created_at_utc_B": 1476943483, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Not a pathologist, but I think it goes something like this:  In a brain aneurysm, the leaking blood is pumped into the space between the brain the skull. This puts pressure on the brain and the vessels delivering blood to the brain, reducing blood flow to the brain. This causes the brain cells to die. If the medulla oblongata dies, your brain stops telling your abdominal muscles to breath. Once that happens, it's only a matter of time before your heart stops due to lack of oxygen.  Basically the brain controls breathing, and if breathing stops the heart runs out of oxygen to continue pumping.", "human_ref_B": "Because the heart also needs other things to function, such as nutrients, and getting adequate quantities of nutrients into your body requires a complex system of actions that involve your brain and digestive system. Similarly, elimination of waste products requires a functioning brain, liver, and kidneys.  If you bypass it all with machines, we can maintain a human in a vegetative state for years.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2929.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "58dedc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "I just learned about the sinoatrial node. Why does the heart stop in cases like fatal brain aneurisms if the heart has its own pacemaker? If I understand correctly, the sinoatrial node is sort of like a natural pacemaker that generates an electrical impulse and stimulates the heartbeat. I read that even if you separate the heart from the brain, the heart can keep on beating because of the SA node. What is the reason that, for example, in the case of a fatal brain aneurism the heart stops working? Or a broken neck, traumatic head injury, or any number of other things that can kill someone without physically damaging the heart or causing huge amounts of blood loss. Why does the SA node stop stimulating heartbeat in these cases? Am I just misunderstanding the concept?", "c_root_id_A": "d8zzf8z", "c_root_id_B": "d91mpgn", "created_at_utc_A": 1476943483, "created_at_utc_B": 1477050994, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Because the heart also needs other things to function, such as nutrients, and getting adequate quantities of nutrients into your body requires a complex system of actions that involve your brain and digestive system. Similarly, elimination of waste products requires a functioning brain, liver, and kidneys.  If you bypass it all with machines, we can maintain a human in a vegetative state for years.", "human_ref_B": "In cases of *brain death* as with (in your example) massive aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, trauma, or other causes, the heart loses its greatest ally in the cause of controlling cardiovascular system function.  Normally a combination of sympathetic and parasympathetic inputs to the heart and to the circulatory system along with neuronal and hormonal inputs elsewhere help regulate cardiac output, systemic resistance, and volume. Antidiuretic hormone levels set by the posterior pituitary help regulate volume and ionic balance. Thyroid hormone released secondarily due to TSH secretion from the anterior pituitary can help regulate heart contractility and energy use.  Without pituitary hormone release, inotropic action on the heart is depressed, fluid volume decreases due to diabetes insipidus, and systemic resistance decreases from loss of autonomic innervation. The heart is left in a state in which it certainly *can* continue to beat regularly with an intact SA node, but in which its ability to intrinsically regulate circulation is low. Starling's law continues to operate but otherwise the heart is at risk of succumbing from a vasodilatory and hypovolaemic circulation and metabolic abnormalities.  This is not to even mention the transient bradyarrhythmias from Cushing's response during the onset of brainstem herniation, nor the transient tachyarrhythmias resulting from catecholamine release during destruction of the medulla oblongata.  ### References 1. Pathophysiologic Changes after Brain Death 1. Irwin and Rippe's Intensive Care Medicine", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 107511.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1lgtol", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Do stars ever cool down and become solid bodies?", "c_root_id_A": "cbz4djh", "c_root_id_B": "cbzfo7n", "created_at_utc_A": 1377971272, "created_at_utc_B": 1378009819, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I would predict that they don't. This is mostly because stars are described as huge spheres of gas and plasma, the sun for example is mostly hydrogen and helium, the latter because of the fusion of hydrogen-atoms. After the Hydrogen-Fusion, the sun becomes a red giant and then there's Helium-Burning and after being a white dwarf it becomes a black dwarf, where it is supposed to still have a mass but as no scientist proofed yet that there are those black dwarfs in the obversable universe, no one could say if what remains of a star could be a planet or sth like that.", "human_ref_B": "Black dwarfs but before we can reach that age, galaxies and stellar remnants would have coalesced into their supermassive black holes and so forth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 38547.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cozub", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What would happen if you stepped onto the Martian surface without a spacesuit? How quickly would you die, and what symptoms would you experience?", "c_root_id_A": "d9yb8vh", "c_root_id_B": "d9yb5lt", "created_at_utc_A": 1479033070, "created_at_utc_B": 1479032718, "score_A": 31, "score_B": -14, "human_ref_A": "The current atmospheric pressure is about 1% of that of Earth, so for all intents and purposes this can be treated as a vacuum for the effects on the human body.  Air will briefly rush out of your orifices, mostly your throat. If you'd been holding your breath this will damage your throat. You'd feel bloated, and your ears might start bleeding.  The small amount of atmosphere might make you feel very cold, depending on your clothing.  Within about 10 seconds you'd lose consciousness because your brains shuts down most higher thought processes due to lack of oxygen.  Within a few minutes irreversible brain damage would occur, and not much later you'd be dead.  TL;DR: You should not walk on Mars without a suit, it's lethal.", "human_ref_B": "Well first of all you can look up what happens to pilots when they eject out of planes on a too high altitude. Next thing is, there is little to no magnetic field on mars, which means radiation will just hit you unobstructed (which doesn't actually kill you in the time the low pressure and oxygen shortage do that). But my best guess is: it's much less than 2 minutes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 352.0, "score_ratio": -2.2142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1430u1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Are the currents of magma inside the planet affected by the sun and moon in a similar fashion to the tides?", "c_root_id_A": "c79jpv2", "c_root_id_B": "c79kwju", "created_at_utc_A": 1354356226, "created_at_utc_B": 1354369738, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "the currents in the mantle are driven by thermal energy from the core/outer core. The gravitational energy from the moon has no affect on the mantle (and the sun even less so, as it even has an effect on the oceans of the world).", "human_ref_B": "Tidal forces do affect the earth itself, causing it to bulge slightly toward the sun and moon. Measuring this bulge and how it is influenced by tidal forces can actually help us to determine physical properties of the mantle without actually directly measuring them.  It should be clear that the mantle is influenced by tidal forces, and ultimately gaining kinetic energy from them (friction due to the compression/distortion of the mantle). This energy is a very small part of the geothermal gradient which causes convection currents in the mantle.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13512.0, "score_ratio": 6000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1430u1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Are the currents of magma inside the planet affected by the sun and moon in a similar fashion to the tides?", "c_root_id_A": "c79l4fx", "c_root_id_B": "c79jpv2", "created_at_utc_A": 1354371613, "created_at_utc_B": 1354356226, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "First, you may be harboring a common misconception that the earth's interior is composed of magma. The vast majority of the crust and mantle is solid - magma in the mantle exists in small quantities (a few volume percent) and migrates by porous flow (like groundwater through soil/rocks). Only closer to the surface, can magma collect in larger amounts, forming magma chambers before erupting. The outer core, however, IS liquid. So, to sum up: mostly solid from 0 to 2900 km deep, all liquid from 2900 to 5150 km and all solid from 5150 to 6371 km.        So, back to your question... what you're interested in are called \"Earth tides.\" Here's the wiki (which isn't very well written...) and a PDF on Earth tides (a bit heavy on the math). Some effects of earth tides include triggering of low magnitude earthquake as well as volcanic eruptions. In both these cases, tides are not the dominant source of motion, just a small nudge superimposed on existing forces that can trigger an earthquake or eruption that was already close to happening.         In terms of convective currents in the mantle, earth tides will not have a strong effect. This is because the time scale for forcing is so much shorter than the time scale of flow - it takes thousands of years for magma to flow by porous flow and millions of years for solid mantle to \"flow,\" so the driving force must be long-lived and the daily variations due to typical tides are quickly averaged out.         The outer core, is a different story though. As it is trully liquid it flows on time scales short enough to be affected by daily tides. Here's a discussion on the effect of tides on flow and magnetic field generation in the outer core.        *edited for formatting", "human_ref_B": "the currents in the mantle are driven by thermal energy from the core/outer core. The gravitational energy from the moon has no affect on the mantle (and the sun even less so, as it even has an effect on the oceans of the world).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15387.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "hume7l0", "c_root_id_B": "hum9fe2", "created_at_utc_A": 1643397768, "created_at_utc_B": 1643395976, "score_A": 378, "score_B": 287, "human_ref_A": "the Black Robin in the Chatham Islands (NZ offshore islands) was down to five individuals with a single breeding pair in 1980, but the Department of Conservation took a really hands-on approach to get eggs fostered by a different bird species and got the population back up to around 250. there's a book about \"Old Blue\", who was the breeding female and lived to 14 years! all currently living black robins are her descendants.", "human_ref_B": "California condor was down to around 10 individuals in 1985. Linky to a nice article about why vultures are great and the story of the effort to restore the condor.      It's an incredible story of last-ditch conservation in action. If you don't know about the California Condor Recovery Program it's worth reading about.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1792.0, "score_ratio": 1.3170731707, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "hume7l0", "c_root_id_B": "humacl5", "created_at_utc_A": 1643397768, "created_at_utc_B": 1643396318, "score_A": 378, "score_B": 201, "human_ref_A": "the Black Robin in the Chatham Islands (NZ offshore islands) was down to five individuals with a single breeding pair in 1980, but the Department of Conservation took a really hands-on approach to get eggs fostered by a different bird species and got the population back up to around 250. there's a book about \"Old Blue\", who was the breeding female and lived to 14 years! all currently living black robins are her descendants.", "human_ref_B": "Black footed ferrets were thought to have gone extinct due to habitat loss and disease.  A small population was found in the 80's and collected.  They have carefully bred the species from the 7 or 8 breeding individuals they got from that last wild population.  Currently they are working to reintroduce them into their old range to some success.  Just last year they successfully cloned one of the older individuals which opens an opportunity of using those methods for conservation.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1450.0, "score_ratio": 1.8805970149, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humihlz", "c_root_id_B": "hum9fe2", "created_at_utc_A": 1643399377, "created_at_utc_B": 1643395976, "score_A": 329, "score_B": 287, "human_ref_A": "The American Bison has to be up there as a success story I'd imagine. They didn't end up with as low numbers as that but they crashed from 30 million bison down to something like 350 bison, and now there are over half a million around. Given the amount of pressure settlers were putting on them it's a borderline miracle they were able to turn it around.", "human_ref_B": "California condor was down to around 10 individuals in 1985. Linky to a nice article about why vultures are great and the story of the effort to restore the condor.      It's an incredible story of last-ditch conservation in action. If you don't know about the California Condor Recovery Program it's worth reading about.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3401.0, "score_ratio": 1.1463414634, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humacl5", "c_root_id_B": "humihlz", "created_at_utc_A": 1643396318, "created_at_utc_B": 1643399377, "score_A": 201, "score_B": 329, "human_ref_A": "Black footed ferrets were thought to have gone extinct due to habitat loss and disease.  A small population was found in the 80's and collected.  They have carefully bred the species from the 7 or 8 breeding individuals they got from that last wild population.  Currently they are working to reintroduce them into their old range to some success.  Just last year they successfully cloned one of the older individuals which opens an opportunity of using those methods for conservation.", "human_ref_B": "The American Bison has to be up there as a success story I'd imagine. They didn't end up with as low numbers as that but they crashed from 30 million bison down to something like 350 bison, and now there are over half a million around. Given the amount of pressure settlers were putting on them it's a borderline miracle they were able to turn it around.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3059.0, "score_ratio": 1.6368159204, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humi0pl", "c_root_id_B": "humihlz", "created_at_utc_A": 1643399200, "created_at_utc_B": 1643399377, "score_A": 114, "score_B": 329, "human_ref_A": "European Bison - they became completely extinct in the wild in 1927 when fewer than 50 individuals remained alive in zoos. Either in 1951 or 1952 the reintroduction into the wild begun. Currently there are over 7500 individuals, with the majority of the wild population concentrated in the Bia\u0142owie\u017ca forest on the border of Poland and Belarus.", "human_ref_B": "The American Bison has to be up there as a success story I'd imagine. They didn't end up with as low numbers as that but they crashed from 30 million bison down to something like 350 bison, and now there are over half a million around. Given the amount of pressure settlers were putting on them it's a borderline miracle they were able to turn it around.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 177.0, "score_ratio": 2.8859649123, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humihlz", "c_root_id_B": "humg14g", "created_at_utc_A": 1643399377, "created_at_utc_B": 1643398448, "score_A": 329, "score_B": 98, "human_ref_A": "The American Bison has to be up there as a success story I'd imagine. They didn't end up with as low numbers as that but they crashed from 30 million bison down to something like 350 bison, and now there are over half a million around. Given the amount of pressure settlers were putting on them it's a borderline miracle they were able to turn it around.", "human_ref_B": "The Kakapo A flightless, nocturnal parrot from New Zealand was thought to be extinct in the 1980's a handful were found in the extremely remote mountainous area of Fiordland and were transferred to a predator-free island for a breeding programme. There are now around 200, so still critically endagered, but there's optimism for the future.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 929.0, "score_ratio": 3.3571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humg14g", "c_root_id_B": "humi0pl", "created_at_utc_A": 1643398448, "created_at_utc_B": 1643399200, "score_A": 98, "score_B": 114, "human_ref_A": "The Kakapo A flightless, nocturnal parrot from New Zealand was thought to be extinct in the 1980's a handful were found in the extremely remote mountainous area of Fiordland and were transferred to a predator-free island for a breeding programme. There are now around 200, so still critically endagered, but there's optimism for the future.", "human_ref_B": "European Bison - they became completely extinct in the wild in 1927 when fewer than 50 individuals remained alive in zoos. Either in 1951 or 1952 the reintroduction into the wild begun. Currently there are over 7500 individuals, with the majority of the wild population concentrated in the Bia\u0142owie\u017ca forest on the border of Poland and Belarus.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 752.0, "score_ratio": 1.1632653061, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humg14g", "c_root_id_B": "humvhch", "created_at_utc_A": 1643398448, "created_at_utc_B": 1643404353, "score_A": 98, "score_B": 104, "human_ref_A": "The Kakapo A flightless, nocturnal parrot from New Zealand was thought to be extinct in the 1980's a handful were found in the extremely remote mountainous area of Fiordland and were transferred to a predator-free island for a breeding programme. There are now around 200, so still critically endagered, but there's optimism for the future.", "human_ref_B": "Humans - According to the genetic bottleneck theory, between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago, human populations sharply decreased to 3,000\u201310,000 surviving individuals. It is supported by some genetic evidence suggesting that today's humans are descended from a very small population of between 1,000 and 10,000 breeding pairs that existed about 70,000 years ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5905.0, "score_ratio": 1.0612244898, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humvhch", "c_root_id_B": "humrv9x", "created_at_utc_A": 1643404353, "created_at_utc_B": 1643402957, "score_A": 104, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "Humans - According to the genetic bottleneck theory, between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago, human populations sharply decreased to 3,000\u201310,000 surviving individuals. It is supported by some genetic evidence suggesting that today's humans are descended from a very small population of between 1,000 and 10,000 breeding pairs that existed about 70,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "The California Condor population was reduced to just 27 individuals during the DDT epidemic in the 80s.  In 1987, all 27 condors were captured and placed in a breeding program, their children released into a world free (not really but we're getting there) of DDT.  The population has since bounced back in a big way with their population rising to over 400 as of 2016.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1396.0, "score_ratio": 5.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humvhch", "c_root_id_B": "humns6f", "created_at_utc_A": 1643404353, "created_at_utc_B": 1643401392, "score_A": 104, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Humans - According to the genetic bottleneck theory, between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago, human populations sharply decreased to 3,000\u201310,000 surviving individuals. It is supported by some genetic evidence suggesting that today's humans are descended from a very small population of between 1,000 and 10,000 breeding pairs that existed about 70,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "The cahow or Bermuda petrel! It was thought to have been extinct since the 1620s and 18 breeding pairs were discovered (on this date no less! ) in 1951. It\u2019s been slowly recovering with about 350 or so individual birds now.  Edit to fix population numbers.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2961.0, "score_ratio": 5.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humvhch", "c_root_id_B": "humqsmp", "created_at_utc_A": 1643404353, "created_at_utc_B": 1643402544, "score_A": 104, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Humans - According to the genetic bottleneck theory, between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago, human populations sharply decreased to 3,000\u201310,000 surviving individuals. It is supported by some genetic evidence suggesting that today's humans are descended from a very small population of between 1,000 and 10,000 breeding pairs that existed about 70,000 years ago.", "human_ref_B": "Black-footed ferrets were thought to be extinct, after the last *known* wild population disappeared, and the last captive individual died. They're still super critically endangered, but have made a small rebound due to conservation efforts that attempt to establish reintroduction zones, mainly by relocating and protecting prairie dogs, their main food source. Prairie dogs have had a rough go of it due to farmers killing them as pests, and the fact that they're affected by the same bacteria that caused the Black Plague.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1809.0, "score_ratio": 6.9333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humns6f", "c_root_id_B": "humrv9x", "created_at_utc_A": 1643401392, "created_at_utc_B": 1643402957, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "The cahow or Bermuda petrel! It was thought to have been extinct since the 1620s and 18 breeding pairs were discovered (on this date no less! ) in 1951. It\u2019s been slowly recovering with about 350 or so individual birds now.  Edit to fix population numbers.", "human_ref_B": "The California Condor population was reduced to just 27 individuals during the DDT epidemic in the 80s.  In 1987, all 27 condors were captured and placed in a breeding program, their children released into a world free (not really but we're getting there) of DDT.  The population has since bounced back in a big way with their population rising to over 400 as of 2016.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1565.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "setbxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Which animal species came the closest to going extinct and then successfully recovered? Based on what I could find, the species that came the closest to extinction is the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) which reached an all-time-low population of 12 Individuals and then rebounded to several hundred according to the IUCN. I\u2019m curious if there are any species that came closer to going extinct than this one.", "c_root_id_A": "humrv9x", "c_root_id_B": "humqsmp", "created_at_utc_A": 1643402957, "created_at_utc_B": 1643402544, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "The California Condor population was reduced to just 27 individuals during the DDT epidemic in the 80s.  In 1987, all 27 condors were captured and placed in a breeding program, their children released into a world free (not really but we're getting there) of DDT.  The population has since bounced back in a big way with their population rising to over 400 as of 2016.", "human_ref_B": "Black-footed ferrets were thought to be extinct, after the last *known* wild population disappeared, and the last captive individual died. They're still super critically endangered, but have made a small rebound due to conservation efforts that attempt to establish reintroduction zones, mainly by relocating and protecting prairie dogs, their main food source. Prairie dogs have had a rough go of it due to farmers killing them as pests, and the fact that they're affected by the same bacteria that caused the Black Plague.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 413.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ynhrl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Can any Earth-based telescopes see the Curiosity rover on Mars? Are Earth-based telescopes powerful enough, and is it possible to find and track the rover from here when the correct sides of each planet are facing each other? I'd love to see pictures or video if they exist!", "c_root_id_A": "c5x5qlg", "c_root_id_B": "c5x5whd", "created_at_utc_A": 1345662986, "created_at_utc_B": 1345663540, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Oh goodness, no. We don't even have Earth-based telescopes powerful enough to resolve Apollo equipment on the Moon.", "human_ref_B": "The theoretical resolution limit of a telescope is given by the Rayleigh criterion.  sin(theta) = 1.220 * wavelength / diameter of aperture.  The world's largest ground telescope (the GTC) is about 10 meters.  Visible light is about 500 nm.  This gives a resolution limit of theta = inverse_sin(1.22 * 500nm / 10m) = 6.1E-8 radians, or about 3.5E-6 degrees, or 0.012 arcseconds.  Now we want to know angular size of curiosity on mars.  The rover is about 3m on a side.  The distance to mars varies a lot. Let's be conservative and assume closest approach (5.46E7 km).  The angualr size is given by delta = length / disatance (for small angles).  The largest curiosity will ever appear is 3m / 5.45E7 km = 5.5E-11 rad or 3.15E-9 degrees, or 0.0000114 arcseconds.  No, the largest telescope could not resolve curiosity.  You would need a telescope 11 kilometers in size.  And even that assumes no atmosphere.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 554.0, "score_ratio": 1.6875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l6pd9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "How did the notion of 3 meals per day come about?  How do we know that it's good for us?  This entire 3 meals a day things seems a bit arbitrary -- how did it come about and how was it determined that it's the optimal for human health?", "c_root_id_A": "c2qc6ur", "c_root_id_B": "c2q8i51", "created_at_utc_A": 1318267950, "created_at_utc_B": 1318224241, "score_A": 125, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "We know that at least as far back as the Romans, three meals a day was the standard (this is in Adamson's *Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe*, and in others).  Their three meals were the same as ours: breakfast, lunch and dinner.  It's hard to say what the eating habits were before that - it's a question that can really only be answered by historical records.  Archaeological evidence won't tell you.  I'm not an Egyptologist, but I recall that some of their texts suggest the common people were eating three meals a day, with the nobility eating more frequently.  The Sumerians were also eating three meals a day, at least if their epic poem *Enmerkar and Ensuhgirana* is to be believed.  So while I can't speak to its nutritional quality, we've been eating three meals a day for as long as we know.  Edit: I thought it might be interesting to people to see what the Sumerians said in particular, so here it is.  > Wise Woman Sa\u011dburu answered to him: \"You have caused distress in the animal pen and the byre; you have made the butter and milk scarce there. You have removed the lunch-table, the morning- and evening-table.  \"Lunch-table, the morning- and evening-table\" is pretty clearly a reference to lunch, breakfast, and dinner.  And if you're further curious about the context, the sorcerer Urgirinuna has sabotaged the livestock in the city of Eresh.  This pisses off a local sorceress (Sagburu), and she defeats Urgirinuna in a competition... and then drowns him in the Euphrates.  Urgirinuna was working for Ensuhgirana (who was the lord of a land called Aratta).  Ensuhgirana was fighting Enmerkar (who was the builder of Uruk, and whose successor was Gilgamesh's dad).  When his sorcerer is defeated, Ensuhgirana surrenders to Enmerkar.  And now you know far more than you wanted to about that poem.", "human_ref_B": "It is based on culture, climate, enviroment, type of food available, etc. Many different cultures and even time periods have/had vastly different meal numbers or times.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 43709.0, "score_ratio": 5.4347826087, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d54wym", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How far back in time would a modern English speaker have to travel before not being able to understand anyone? What about other modern language speakers? So, I'm from the US and I speak English natively. While English was different here 100 years ago, I could probably understand what was being said if I were transported there. Same with 200 years ago. Maybe even 300 years.  But if I were transported to England 500 years ago, could I understand what was being said? 1000 years ago? At what point was English/Old English so distinct from Modern English that it would be incomprehensible to my ears?  How does that number compare to that of modern Spanish, or modern French, or modern Arabic, or modern Mandarin, or modern Hindi? etc.  (For this thought experiment, the time traveler can be sent anywhere on Earth. If I could understand Medieval German better than Medieval English, that counts).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "f0l8olw", "c_root_id_B": "f0ldy12", "created_at_utc_A": 1568704024, "created_at_utc_B": 1568712977, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "With regards to Hindi  although it's origin can be dated back to 7^(th) Century CE...it will be pretty difficult for a normal Hindi speaker to understand even something which was said 500 years ago(ignoring the fact that there are so any different dialects in Hindi).  Although I would like to mention that Sanskrit which is kind of like the mother language to Hindi and is one of the oldest documented language, it has remained the same...one could go back 3500 years and still will be able to converse properly in Sanskrit(assuming he knows Sanskrit properly which is not very common in present Indian society).", "human_ref_B": "The Icelandic language has changed very slowly compared to both its relatives in the Norse language family and other languages in general, and would be intelligible to a speaker transported 1000 years back.  >The conservatism of the Icelandic language and its resultant near-isomorphism to Old Norse (which is equivalently termed Old Icelandic by linguists) means that modern Icelanders can easily read the Eddas, sagas, and other classic Old Norse literary works created in the tenth through thirteenth centuries.   If a modern Icleander and Dane were transported to *Denmark* 1000 years ago, then the Icelander would not have much trouble understanding the Old Norse spoken there, while the Dane would find it completely unintelligible.  Here's a video discussing how the speed of change varies from language to language, and includes examples from both Icelandic and Dyirbal, which became almost unintelligible in a few generations.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8953.0, "score_ratio": 1.2608695652, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d54wym", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How far back in time would a modern English speaker have to travel before not being able to understand anyone? What about other modern language speakers? So, I'm from the US and I speak English natively. While English was different here 100 years ago, I could probably understand what was being said if I were transported there. Same with 200 years ago. Maybe even 300 years.  But if I were transported to England 500 years ago, could I understand what was being said? 1000 years ago? At what point was English/Old English so distinct from Modern English that it would be incomprehensible to my ears?  How does that number compare to that of modern Spanish, or modern French, or modern Arabic, or modern Mandarin, or modern Hindi? etc.  (For this thought experiment, the time traveler can be sent anywhere on Earth. If I could understand Medieval German better than Medieval English, that counts).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "f0l9c3i", "c_root_id_B": "f0ldy12", "created_at_utc_A": 1568705046, "created_at_utc_B": 1568712977, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "The oldest surviving text in spanish is called \"Nodicia de kesos\" meaning \"cheese inventory\" it was written around 974-980 CE. If you don't speak spanish don't worry, I do and I don't understand it anyway:    (Christus) Nodicia de / kesos que / 3 espisit frater / Semeno: In Labore / de fratres In ilo ba- / 6 celare / de cirka Sancte Ius- / te, kesos U; In ilo / 9 alio de apate, / II kesos; en que\\[e\\] / puseron ogano, / 12 kesos IIII; In ilo / de Kastrelo, I; / In Ila uinia maIore, / 15 II;    / que lebaron en fosado, / II, ad ila tore; / 18 que baron a Cegia, / II, quando la talia- / ron Ila mesa; II que / 21 lebaron LeIone; II / ...s...en / u...re... / 24...que.... / ...c... / ...e...u... / 27 ...alio (?) ... / ... / ... / g...Uane Ece; alio ke le- / 30 ba de sopbrino de Gomi / de do...a...; IIII que espi- / seron quando llo rege / 33 uenit ad Rocola; / I qua Salbatore Ibi / uenit.", "human_ref_B": "The Icelandic language has changed very slowly compared to both its relatives in the Norse language family and other languages in general, and would be intelligible to a speaker transported 1000 years back.  >The conservatism of the Icelandic language and its resultant near-isomorphism to Old Norse (which is equivalently termed Old Icelandic by linguists) means that modern Icelanders can easily read the Eddas, sagas, and other classic Old Norse literary works created in the tenth through thirteenth centuries.   If a modern Icleander and Dane were transported to *Denmark* 1000 years ago, then the Icelander would not have much trouble understanding the Old Norse spoken there, while the Dane would find it completely unintelligible.  Here's a video discussing how the speed of change varies from language to language, and includes examples from both Icelandic and Dyirbal, which became almost unintelligible in a few generations.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7931.0, "score_ratio": 1.7058823529, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d54wym", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How far back in time would a modern English speaker have to travel before not being able to understand anyone? What about other modern language speakers? So, I'm from the US and I speak English natively. While English was different here 100 years ago, I could probably understand what was being said if I were transported there. Same with 200 years ago. Maybe even 300 years.  But if I were transported to England 500 years ago, could I understand what was being said? 1000 years ago? At what point was English/Old English so distinct from Modern English that it would be incomprehensible to my ears?  How does that number compare to that of modern Spanish, or modern French, or modern Arabic, or modern Mandarin, or modern Hindi? etc.  (For this thought experiment, the time traveler can be sent anywhere on Earth. If I could understand Medieval German better than Medieval English, that counts).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "f0l81ze", "c_root_id_B": "f0ldy12", "created_at_utc_A": 1568703074, "created_at_utc_B": 1568712977, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "I have known a classics teacher who claimed he did get along in Greece with speaking ancient Greek. But in Greek museums, ancient Greek inscriptions are translated into modern Greek, and they don't look too similar to my unlearned eyes.     Also, while Latin is a good basis for learning Italian, don't expect anyone to understand you.", "human_ref_B": "The Icelandic language has changed very slowly compared to both its relatives in the Norse language family and other languages in general, and would be intelligible to a speaker transported 1000 years back.  >The conservatism of the Icelandic language and its resultant near-isomorphism to Old Norse (which is equivalently termed Old Icelandic by linguists) means that modern Icelanders can easily read the Eddas, sagas, and other classic Old Norse literary works created in the tenth through thirteenth centuries.   If a modern Icleander and Dane were transported to *Denmark* 1000 years ago, then the Icelander would not have much trouble understanding the Old Norse spoken there, while the Dane would find it completely unintelligible.  Here's a video discussing how the speed of change varies from language to language, and includes examples from both Icelandic and Dyirbal, which became almost unintelligible in a few generations.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9903.0, "score_ratio": 2.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d54wym", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How far back in time would a modern English speaker have to travel before not being able to understand anyone? What about other modern language speakers? So, I'm from the US and I speak English natively. While English was different here 100 years ago, I could probably understand what was being said if I were transported there. Same with 200 years ago. Maybe even 300 years.  But if I were transported to England 500 years ago, could I understand what was being said? 1000 years ago? At what point was English/Old English so distinct from Modern English that it would be incomprehensible to my ears?  How does that number compare to that of modern Spanish, or modern French, or modern Arabic, or modern Mandarin, or modern Hindi? etc.  (For this thought experiment, the time traveler can be sent anywhere on Earth. If I could understand Medieval German better than Medieval English, that counts).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "f0ld2lj", "c_root_id_B": "f0ldy12", "created_at_utc_A": 1568711470, "created_at_utc_B": 1568712977, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "You would have no chance of understanding anyone before 1066. Anglo-Saxon / Old English is essentially a completely different language and far more closely resembles Old Norse. (As a fan of Norse mythology, and this type of language I'm a little sad that the Normans invaded our little Island.  This conquest brought along Old French langauge which birthed Anglo-Norman. This period of time it would be classed as Middle English. **This** is probably the earliest you could go and still have at least a little chance of knowing what was going on, but it would still be incredibly difficult.   As middle English progressed the similarities to modern English would become more and more apparent. You look at Chaucer's _The Canterbury Tales_ and, while tricky, understanding it is very doable.  TL;DR: No chance before 1066, the Norman Conquest, but some possibility around the early 1100s, though a bit later is probably more plausible (we can read Chaucer from late the late 1300s and even that can be a ball ache.)", "human_ref_B": "The Icelandic language has changed very slowly compared to both its relatives in the Norse language family and other languages in general, and would be intelligible to a speaker transported 1000 years back.  >The conservatism of the Icelandic language and its resultant near-isomorphism to Old Norse (which is equivalently termed Old Icelandic by linguists) means that modern Icelanders can easily read the Eddas, sagas, and other classic Old Norse literary works created in the tenth through thirteenth centuries.   If a modern Icleander and Dane were transported to *Denmark* 1000 years ago, then the Icelander would not have much trouble understanding the Old Norse spoken there, while the Dane would find it completely unintelligible.  Here's a video discussing how the speed of change varies from language to language, and includes examples from both Icelandic and Dyirbal, which became almost unintelligible in a few generations.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1507.0, "score_ratio": 5.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d54wym", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How far back in time would a modern English speaker have to travel before not being able to understand anyone? What about other modern language speakers? So, I'm from the US and I speak English natively. While English was different here 100 years ago, I could probably understand what was being said if I were transported there. Same with 200 years ago. Maybe even 300 years.  But if I were transported to England 500 years ago, could I understand what was being said? 1000 years ago? At what point was English/Old English so distinct from Modern English that it would be incomprehensible to my ears?  How does that number compare to that of modern Spanish, or modern French, or modern Arabic, or modern Mandarin, or modern Hindi? etc.  (For this thought experiment, the time traveler can be sent anywhere on Earth. If I could understand Medieval German better than Medieval English, that counts).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "f0l8olw", "c_root_id_B": "f0l81ze", "created_at_utc_A": 1568704024, "created_at_utc_B": 1568703074, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "With regards to Hindi  although it's origin can be dated back to 7^(th) Century CE...it will be pretty difficult for a normal Hindi speaker to understand even something which was said 500 years ago(ignoring the fact that there are so any different dialects in Hindi).  Although I would like to mention that Sanskrit which is kind of like the mother language to Hindi and is one of the oldest documented language, it has remained the same...one could go back 3500 years and still will be able to converse properly in Sanskrit(assuming he knows Sanskrit properly which is not very common in present Indian society).", "human_ref_B": "I have known a classics teacher who claimed he did get along in Greece with speaking ancient Greek. But in Greek museums, ancient Greek inscriptions are translated into modern Greek, and they don't look too similar to my unlearned eyes.     Also, while Latin is a good basis for learning Italian, don't expect anyone to understand you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 950.0, "score_ratio": 2.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d54wym", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How far back in time would a modern English speaker have to travel before not being able to understand anyone? What about other modern language speakers? So, I'm from the US and I speak English natively. While English was different here 100 years ago, I could probably understand what was being said if I were transported there. Same with 200 years ago. Maybe even 300 years.  But if I were transported to England 500 years ago, could I understand what was being said? 1000 years ago? At what point was English/Old English so distinct from Modern English that it would be incomprehensible to my ears?  How does that number compare to that of modern Spanish, or modern French, or modern Arabic, or modern Mandarin, or modern Hindi? etc.  (For this thought experiment, the time traveler can be sent anywhere on Earth. If I could understand Medieval German better than Medieval English, that counts).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "f0l9c3i", "c_root_id_B": "f0l81ze", "created_at_utc_A": 1568705046, "created_at_utc_B": 1568703074, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The oldest surviving text in spanish is called \"Nodicia de kesos\" meaning \"cheese inventory\" it was written around 974-980 CE. If you don't speak spanish don't worry, I do and I don't understand it anyway:    (Christus) Nodicia de / kesos que / 3 espisit frater / Semeno: In Labore / de fratres In ilo ba- / 6 celare / de cirka Sancte Ius- / te, kesos U; In ilo / 9 alio de apate, / II kesos; en que\\[e\\] / puseron ogano, / 12 kesos IIII; In ilo / de Kastrelo, I; / In Ila uinia maIore, / 15 II;    / que lebaron en fosado, / II, ad ila tore; / 18 que baron a Cegia, / II, quando la talia- / ron Ila mesa; II que / 21 lebaron LeIone; II / ...s...en / u...re... / 24...que.... / ...c... / ...e...u... / 27 ...alio (?) ... / ... / ... / g...Uane Ece; alio ke le- / 30 ba de sopbrino de Gomi / de do...a...; IIII que espi- / seron quando llo rege / 33 uenit ad Rocola; / I qua Salbatore Ibi / uenit.", "human_ref_B": "I have known a classics teacher who claimed he did get along in Greece with speaking ancient Greek. But in Greek museums, ancient Greek inscriptions are translated into modern Greek, and they don't look too similar to my unlearned eyes.     Also, while Latin is a good basis for learning Italian, don't expect anyone to understand you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1972.0, "score_ratio": 1.5454545455, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d54wym", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How far back in time would a modern English speaker have to travel before not being able to understand anyone? What about other modern language speakers? So, I'm from the US and I speak English natively. While English was different here 100 years ago, I could probably understand what was being said if I were transported there. Same with 200 years ago. Maybe even 300 years.  But if I were transported to England 500 years ago, could I understand what was being said? 1000 years ago? At what point was English/Old English so distinct from Modern English that it would be incomprehensible to my ears?  How does that number compare to that of modern Spanish, or modern French, or modern Arabic, or modern Mandarin, or modern Hindi? etc.  (For this thought experiment, the time traveler can be sent anywhere on Earth. If I could understand Medieval German better than Medieval English, that counts).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "f0lh8e4", "c_root_id_B": "f0ld2lj", "created_at_utc_A": 1568717884, "created_at_utc_B": 1568711470, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "There is a wonderful podcast, History of English, that goes into depth on this topic including how pronunciations changed. According to the podcast, it takes about 1,000 years for a language to become unrecognizable.", "human_ref_B": "You would have no chance of understanding anyone before 1066. Anglo-Saxon / Old English is essentially a completely different language and far more closely resembles Old Norse. (As a fan of Norse mythology, and this type of language I'm a little sad that the Normans invaded our little Island.  This conquest brought along Old French langauge which birthed Anglo-Norman. This period of time it would be classed as Middle English. **This** is probably the earliest you could go and still have at least a little chance of knowing what was going on, but it would still be incredibly difficult.   As middle English progressed the similarities to modern English would become more and more apparent. You look at Chaucer's _The Canterbury Tales_ and, while tricky, understanding it is very doable.  TL;DR: No chance before 1066, the Norman Conquest, but some possibility around the early 1100s, though a bit later is probably more plausible (we can read Chaucer from late the late 1300s and even that can be a ball ache.)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6414.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l21py", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "What is the maximum height an adult human could fall from and safely land oh their feet? I've heard stories about people jumping off of single story houses and breaking a leg but I've also heard that an average roof isn't tall enough to cause serious injury. None of this is ever documented truth; it's merely word of mouth and opinions. Let's assume the subject is a 20 something year old adult. What is the maximum height from which one could fall, land on their feet, and not receive and broken bones or prolonged injury?", "c_root_id_A": "c2p7e4k", "c_root_id_B": "c2p6ul5", "created_at_utc_A": 1317858874, "created_at_utc_B": 1317855266, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "how about this?", "human_ref_B": "Emt rule: three times the persons height is a critical fall.  Also, it changes if the person ment to fall and is trained to redirect the energy at the end of the fall.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3608.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l21py", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "What is the maximum height an adult human could fall from and safely land oh their feet? I've heard stories about people jumping off of single story houses and breaking a leg but I've also heard that an average roof isn't tall enough to cause serious injury. None of this is ever documented truth; it's merely word of mouth and opinions. Let's assume the subject is a 20 something year old adult. What is the maximum height from which one could fall, land on their feet, and not receive and broken bones or prolonged injury?", "c_root_id_A": "c2p6ul5", "c_root_id_B": "c2p5ljq", "created_at_utc_A": 1317855266, "created_at_utc_B": 1317847220, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Emt rule: three times the persons height is a critical fall.  Also, it changes if the person ment to fall and is trained to redirect the energy at the end of the fall.", "human_ref_B": "What kind of landing surface are we looking at?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8046.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l21py", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "What is the maximum height an adult human could fall from and safely land oh their feet? I've heard stories about people jumping off of single story houses and breaking a leg but I've also heard that an average roof isn't tall enough to cause serious injury. None of this is ever documented truth; it's merely word of mouth and opinions. Let's assume the subject is a 20 something year old adult. What is the maximum height from which one could fall, land on their feet, and not receive and broken bones or prolonged injury?", "c_root_id_A": "c2p7e4k", "c_root_id_B": "c2p5ljq", "created_at_utc_A": 1317858874, "created_at_utc_B": 1317847220, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "how about this?", "human_ref_B": "What kind of landing surface are we looking at?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11654.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l21py", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "What is the maximum height an adult human could fall from and safely land oh their feet? I've heard stories about people jumping off of single story houses and breaking a leg but I've also heard that an average roof isn't tall enough to cause serious injury. None of this is ever documented truth; it's merely word of mouth and opinions. Let's assume the subject is a 20 something year old adult. What is the maximum height from which one could fall, land on their feet, and not receive and broken bones or prolonged injury?", "c_root_id_A": "c2p7ifz", "c_root_id_B": "c2p8cml", "created_at_utc_A": 1317859566, "created_at_utc_B": 1317865260, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I think the parkour guys have it at 21' with a roll. Maximum height? From what scale, 'The falling off shit Olympics'. \"Come see people from all over the world fall of different types of shit.\" The falling would be cool, the shit they fell off would be covered in advertising.   Or are we talking an random selection of a population? Who, everybody, kids, trained fallers, the fit. Everyday people don't fare so well. Typically, we tend not to fall onto our feet. Most people fall from trips or bumps, and without experience, out goes the hand. FOOSH injury it gets called - Fall On OutStretched Hand. BAM Hand through to shoulder to neck get a wallop.   You describe a drop. Safety would vary greatly for the individual.", "human_ref_B": "Professional ski patroller.  I've dropped 30 footers on my skis.  Pros routinely get into the 80 foot plus range.  Assuming your premise of landing on one's feet isn't voided by the addition of skis the record would be 351 feet.  I don't see why adding skis wouldn't really void your question.  The addition of soft snow and a steep landing slope simply serve to increase the probability that the individual will survive by creating next-to-optimal jumping conditions.  Even if the individual in question were on foot, instead of skiing, the conditions of cliff hucking in power (provided he could keep good body condition) would still likely indicate a maximum jumping height higher than than a parkour devotee could land.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5694.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l21py", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "What is the maximum height an adult human could fall from and safely land oh their feet? I've heard stories about people jumping off of single story houses and breaking a leg but I've also heard that an average roof isn't tall enough to cause serious injury. None of this is ever documented truth; it's merely word of mouth and opinions. Let's assume the subject is a 20 something year old adult. What is the maximum height from which one could fall, land on their feet, and not receive and broken bones or prolonged injury?", "c_root_id_A": "c2p8cml", "c_root_id_B": "c2p7o4m", "created_at_utc_A": 1317865260, "created_at_utc_B": 1317860581, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Professional ski patroller.  I've dropped 30 footers on my skis.  Pros routinely get into the 80 foot plus range.  Assuming your premise of landing on one's feet isn't voided by the addition of skis the record would be 351 feet.  I don't see why adding skis wouldn't really void your question.  The addition of soft snow and a steep landing slope simply serve to increase the probability that the individual will survive by creating next-to-optimal jumping conditions.  Even if the individual in question were on foot, instead of skiing, the conditions of cliff hucking in power (provided he could keep good body condition) would still likely indicate a maximum jumping height higher than than a parkour devotee could land.", "human_ref_B": "I've jumped or of an airplane at 1250 feet with a t-10d parachute. Executing a proper parachute landing fall, I could do it all day long. I've always wondered how much force that would be, especially to equate to jumping off a particular height.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4679.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf7bh", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfbua", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904741, "created_at_utc_B": 1319905967, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Not an expert (a mere student) - but if you had an alternating current in the coil, that would induce an alternating magnetic field for a small distance (as No-Coast-Punk said, it would therefore have to be a very high current in the induction coil itself, and with inefficiencies it would end up being masses more than the electricity you would actually be able to use) but it seems plausible \u2013 so long as the items you want to power aren\u2019t parallel with the field.", "human_ref_B": "Yes.  Tesla had a similar setup in his lab powering wireless work lights.  However the entire setup would be horribly inefficient, terribly expensive to build (copper isn't cheap), and would interfere with some electronics.  Not to mention pots and pans may stick to your walls.  Oh wait, that would actually be really cool.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1226.0, "score_ratio": 7.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfbua", "c_root_id_B": "c2vf99q", "created_at_utc_A": 1319905967, "created_at_utc_B": 1319905274, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Yes.  Tesla had a similar setup in his lab powering wireless work lights.  However the entire setup would be horribly inefficient, terribly expensive to build (copper isn't cheap), and would interfere with some electronics.  Not to mention pots and pans may stick to your walls.  Oh wait, that would actually be really cool.", "human_ref_B": "It would be kind of awkward. Your appliances power cords would need to be replaced with coils to have current induced in them to dominate the janky currents that would appear on the circuit boards and stuff. A", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 693.0, "score_ratio": 37.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf5a3", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfbua", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904172, "created_at_utc_B": 1319905967, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "As long as you lived in a magneto style acrylic prison with no other metallic bits.  The field strength on the coils would have to be INSANELY strong. Magnetic fields fall of very very quickly.", "human_ref_B": "Yes.  Tesla had a similar setup in his lab powering wireless work lights.  However the entire setup would be horribly inefficient, terribly expensive to build (copper isn't cheap), and would interfere with some electronics.  Not to mention pots and pans may stick to your walls.  Oh wait, that would actually be really cool.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1795.0, "score_ratio": -18.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf7rl", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfbua", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904861, "created_at_utc_B": 1319905967, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Only with HUGE energy losses (and who knows what side effects). There's a reason nobody does this.", "human_ref_B": "Yes.  Tesla had a similar setup in his lab powering wireless work lights.  However the entire setup would be horribly inefficient, terribly expensive to build (copper isn't cheap), and would interfere with some electronics.  Not to mention pots and pans may stick to your walls.  Oh wait, that would actually be really cool.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1106.0, "score_ratio": -6.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf7bh", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfsy4", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904741, "created_at_utc_B": 1319910197, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Not an expert (a mere student) - but if you had an alternating current in the coil, that would induce an alternating magnetic field for a small distance (as No-Coast-Punk said, it would therefore have to be a very high current in the induction coil itself, and with inefficiencies it would end up being masses more than the electricity you would actually be able to use) but it seems plausible \u2013 so long as the items you want to power aren\u2019t parallel with the field.", "human_ref_B": "I'm currently a graduate student doing some research in this field, so perhaps I can shed a bit of light on it.   The most obvious issue is efficiency. At the most basic level, your efficiency is proportional to the area of the field coupling. That is to say, the area of the pickup coil to the area of the transmitter coil. If your entire house were one large coil, the devices inside of it would only couple with a very small portion of this giant coil and result in poor efficiency.   Another concern for efficiency is the distance from the coil. As you move farther and farther away fom the coil, your efficiency drops off rather quickly. However, by increasing the size of the coil you can couple more efficiently at farther distances. I believe this effect would be comparably less to the first.   Now for the safety issue. When you're supplying large AC magnetic fields, metal objects will pick these up and generate Eddie currents. If you want to learn more on that just do a quick google search (the magnet down a copper pipe is my favorite!). Suffice it to say, a changing magnetic field can produce a current loop inside a metal. The metal has an internal resistance, so as the current flows through it heat will be generated. This heat can get very dangerous if left unchecked and provided the magnetic field is strong enough. Present inductive power controllers (like the Qi standard controllers) take this into account. Using a one way communication with the device it's charging, if it sees that the power being received is too far below the power being transmitted it will cut off the power transfer. Early generations of this technology had issues with people placing their keys on the power mat with their device and burning themselves when picking up the keys.   So the takeaway here isn't just that the efficiency would be terrible, but it would be impossible to do it safely if you had metal objects in the house that you didn't want to heat up.  Edit: wording and grammar", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5456.0, "score_ratio": 4.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfsy4", "c_root_id_B": "c2vf99q", "created_at_utc_A": 1319910197, "created_at_utc_B": 1319905274, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm currently a graduate student doing some research in this field, so perhaps I can shed a bit of light on it.   The most obvious issue is efficiency. At the most basic level, your efficiency is proportional to the area of the field coupling. That is to say, the area of the pickup coil to the area of the transmitter coil. If your entire house were one large coil, the devices inside of it would only couple with a very small portion of this giant coil and result in poor efficiency.   Another concern for efficiency is the distance from the coil. As you move farther and farther away fom the coil, your efficiency drops off rather quickly. However, by increasing the size of the coil you can couple more efficiently at farther distances. I believe this effect would be comparably less to the first.   Now for the safety issue. When you're supplying large AC magnetic fields, metal objects will pick these up and generate Eddie currents. If you want to learn more on that just do a quick google search (the magnet down a copper pipe is my favorite!). Suffice it to say, a changing magnetic field can produce a current loop inside a metal. The metal has an internal resistance, so as the current flows through it heat will be generated. This heat can get very dangerous if left unchecked and provided the magnetic field is strong enough. Present inductive power controllers (like the Qi standard controllers) take this into account. Using a one way communication with the device it's charging, if it sees that the power being received is too far below the power being transmitted it will cut off the power transfer. Early generations of this technology had issues with people placing their keys on the power mat with their device and burning themselves when picking up the keys.   So the takeaway here isn't just that the efficiency would be terrible, but it would be impossible to do it safely if you had metal objects in the house that you didn't want to heat up.  Edit: wording and grammar", "human_ref_B": "It would be kind of awkward. Your appliances power cords would need to be replaced with coils to have current induced in them to dominate the janky currents that would appear on the circuit boards and stuff. A", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4923.0, "score_ratio": 23.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfmvx", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfsy4", "created_at_utc_A": 1319908730, "created_at_utc_B": 1319910197, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "I always wondered why they do not place an induction coil at the openings of high traffic tunnels. They could use the daily traffickers to generate a lot of \"free\" electricity. Of course, the drivers would in fact be paying for this \"free\" electricity as they would feel the resistance as they entered or exited the tunnel and it would affect their mpg.", "human_ref_B": "I'm currently a graduate student doing some research in this field, so perhaps I can shed a bit of light on it.   The most obvious issue is efficiency. At the most basic level, your efficiency is proportional to the area of the field coupling. That is to say, the area of the pickup coil to the area of the transmitter coil. If your entire house were one large coil, the devices inside of it would only couple with a very small portion of this giant coil and result in poor efficiency.   Another concern for efficiency is the distance from the coil. As you move farther and farther away fom the coil, your efficiency drops off rather quickly. However, by increasing the size of the coil you can couple more efficiently at farther distances. I believe this effect would be comparably less to the first.   Now for the safety issue. When you're supplying large AC magnetic fields, metal objects will pick these up and generate Eddie currents. If you want to learn more on that just do a quick google search (the magnet down a copper pipe is my favorite!). Suffice it to say, a changing magnetic field can produce a current loop inside a metal. The metal has an internal resistance, so as the current flows through it heat will be generated. This heat can get very dangerous if left unchecked and provided the magnetic field is strong enough. Present inductive power controllers (like the Qi standard controllers) take this into account. Using a one way communication with the device it's charging, if it sees that the power being received is too far below the power being transmitted it will cut off the power transfer. Early generations of this technology had issues with people placing their keys on the power mat with their device and burning themselves when picking up the keys.   So the takeaway here isn't just that the efficiency would be terrible, but it would be impossible to do it safely if you had metal objects in the house that you didn't want to heat up.  Edit: wording and grammar", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1467.0, "score_ratio": -23.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf5a3", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfsy4", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904172, "created_at_utc_B": 1319910197, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "As long as you lived in a magneto style acrylic prison with no other metallic bits.  The field strength on the coils would have to be INSANELY strong. Magnetic fields fall of very very quickly.", "human_ref_B": "I'm currently a graduate student doing some research in this field, so perhaps I can shed a bit of light on it.   The most obvious issue is efficiency. At the most basic level, your efficiency is proportional to the area of the field coupling. That is to say, the area of the pickup coil to the area of the transmitter coil. If your entire house were one large coil, the devices inside of it would only couple with a very small portion of this giant coil and result in poor efficiency.   Another concern for efficiency is the distance from the coil. As you move farther and farther away fom the coil, your efficiency drops off rather quickly. However, by increasing the size of the coil you can couple more efficiently at farther distances. I believe this effect would be comparably less to the first.   Now for the safety issue. When you're supplying large AC magnetic fields, metal objects will pick these up and generate Eddie currents. If you want to learn more on that just do a quick google search (the magnet down a copper pipe is my favorite!). Suffice it to say, a changing magnetic field can produce a current loop inside a metal. The metal has an internal resistance, so as the current flows through it heat will be generated. This heat can get very dangerous if left unchecked and provided the magnetic field is strong enough. Present inductive power controllers (like the Qi standard controllers) take this into account. Using a one way communication with the device it's charging, if it sees that the power being received is too far below the power being transmitted it will cut off the power transfer. Early generations of this technology had issues with people placing their keys on the power mat with their device and burning themselves when picking up the keys.   So the takeaway here isn't just that the efficiency would be terrible, but it would be impossible to do it safely if you had metal objects in the house that you didn't want to heat up.  Edit: wording and grammar", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6025.0, "score_ratio": -11.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf7rl", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfsy4", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904861, "created_at_utc_B": 1319910197, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Only with HUGE energy losses (and who knows what side effects). There's a reason nobody does this.", "human_ref_B": "I'm currently a graduate student doing some research in this field, so perhaps I can shed a bit of light on it.   The most obvious issue is efficiency. At the most basic level, your efficiency is proportional to the area of the field coupling. That is to say, the area of the pickup coil to the area of the transmitter coil. If your entire house were one large coil, the devices inside of it would only couple with a very small portion of this giant coil and result in poor efficiency.   Another concern for efficiency is the distance from the coil. As you move farther and farther away fom the coil, your efficiency drops off rather quickly. However, by increasing the size of the coil you can couple more efficiently at farther distances. I believe this effect would be comparably less to the first.   Now for the safety issue. When you're supplying large AC magnetic fields, metal objects will pick these up and generate Eddie currents. If you want to learn more on that just do a quick google search (the magnet down a copper pipe is my favorite!). Suffice it to say, a changing magnetic field can produce a current loop inside a metal. The metal has an internal resistance, so as the current flows through it heat will be generated. This heat can get very dangerous if left unchecked and provided the magnetic field is strong enough. Present inductive power controllers (like the Qi standard controllers) take this into account. Using a one way communication with the device it's charging, if it sees that the power being received is too far below the power being transmitted it will cut off the power transfer. Early generations of this technology had issues with people placing their keys on the power mat with their device and burning themselves when picking up the keys.   So the takeaway here isn't just that the efficiency would be terrible, but it would be impossible to do it safely if you had metal objects in the house that you didn't want to heat up.  Edit: wording and grammar", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5336.0, "score_ratio": -3.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfsy4", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfcup", "created_at_utc_A": 1319910197, "created_at_utc_B": 1319906239, "score_A": 23, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "I'm currently a graduate student doing some research in this field, so perhaps I can shed a bit of light on it.   The most obvious issue is efficiency. At the most basic level, your efficiency is proportional to the area of the field coupling. That is to say, the area of the pickup coil to the area of the transmitter coil. If your entire house were one large coil, the devices inside of it would only couple with a very small portion of this giant coil and result in poor efficiency.   Another concern for efficiency is the distance from the coil. As you move farther and farther away fom the coil, your efficiency drops off rather quickly. However, by increasing the size of the coil you can couple more efficiently at farther distances. I believe this effect would be comparably less to the first.   Now for the safety issue. When you're supplying large AC magnetic fields, metal objects will pick these up and generate Eddie currents. If you want to learn more on that just do a quick google search (the magnet down a copper pipe is my favorite!). Suffice it to say, a changing magnetic field can produce a current loop inside a metal. The metal has an internal resistance, so as the current flows through it heat will be generated. This heat can get very dangerous if left unchecked and provided the magnetic field is strong enough. Present inductive power controllers (like the Qi standard controllers) take this into account. Using a one way communication with the device it's charging, if it sees that the power being received is too far below the power being transmitted it will cut off the power transfer. Early generations of this technology had issues with people placing their keys on the power mat with their device and burning themselves when picking up the keys.   So the takeaway here isn't just that the efficiency would be terrible, but it would be impossible to do it safely if you had metal objects in the house that you didn't want to heat up.  Edit: wording and grammar", "human_ref_B": "I would think this would be fatal the moment you tried to take a shower in the house. With such high currents jumping around, the minute you touch the knob in the tub, you'd become grounded through the plumbing and certainly get fried.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3958.0, "score_ratio": -4.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfhfq", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfsy4", "created_at_utc_A": 1319907387, "created_at_utc_B": 1319910197, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Yea, but it would suck...  edit:  Rules, rules, rules.  OK FINE, this question should really be in /r/ECE.  Basically, it's doable, especially at close ranges (like your toothbrush charger), you CAN get around some of the efficiency issues by using resonant circuits (what tesla was doing), but it's never really any more practical than running a pair of wires to your device.", "human_ref_B": "I'm currently a graduate student doing some research in this field, so perhaps I can shed a bit of light on it.   The most obvious issue is efficiency. At the most basic level, your efficiency is proportional to the area of the field coupling. That is to say, the area of the pickup coil to the area of the transmitter coil. If your entire house were one large coil, the devices inside of it would only couple with a very small portion of this giant coil and result in poor efficiency.   Another concern for efficiency is the distance from the coil. As you move farther and farther away fom the coil, your efficiency drops off rather quickly. However, by increasing the size of the coil you can couple more efficiently at farther distances. I believe this effect would be comparably less to the first.   Now for the safety issue. When you're supplying large AC magnetic fields, metal objects will pick these up and generate Eddie currents. If you want to learn more on that just do a quick google search (the magnet down a copper pipe is my favorite!). Suffice it to say, a changing magnetic field can produce a current loop inside a metal. The metal has an internal resistance, so as the current flows through it heat will be generated. This heat can get very dangerous if left unchecked and provided the magnetic field is strong enough. Present inductive power controllers (like the Qi standard controllers) take this into account. Using a one way communication with the device it's charging, if it sees that the power being received is too far below the power being transmitted it will cut off the power transfer. Early generations of this technology had issues with people placing their keys on the power mat with their device and burning themselves when picking up the keys.   So the takeaway here isn't just that the efficiency would be terrible, but it would be impossible to do it safely if you had metal objects in the house that you didn't want to heat up.  Edit: wording and grammar", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2810.0, "score_ratio": -3.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfsy4", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfpru", "created_at_utc_A": 1319910197, "created_at_utc_B": 1319909440, "score_A": 23, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "I'm currently a graduate student doing some research in this field, so perhaps I can shed a bit of light on it.   The most obvious issue is efficiency. At the most basic level, your efficiency is proportional to the area of the field coupling. That is to say, the area of the pickup coil to the area of the transmitter coil. If your entire house were one large coil, the devices inside of it would only couple with a very small portion of this giant coil and result in poor efficiency.   Another concern for efficiency is the distance from the coil. As you move farther and farther away fom the coil, your efficiency drops off rather quickly. However, by increasing the size of the coil you can couple more efficiently at farther distances. I believe this effect would be comparably less to the first.   Now for the safety issue. When you're supplying large AC magnetic fields, metal objects will pick these up and generate Eddie currents. If you want to learn more on that just do a quick google search (the magnet down a copper pipe is my favorite!). Suffice it to say, a changing magnetic field can produce a current loop inside a metal. The metal has an internal resistance, so as the current flows through it heat will be generated. This heat can get very dangerous if left unchecked and provided the magnetic field is strong enough. Present inductive power controllers (like the Qi standard controllers) take this into account. Using a one way communication with the device it's charging, if it sees that the power being received is too far below the power being transmitted it will cut off the power transfer. Early generations of this technology had issues with people placing their keys on the power mat with their device and burning themselves when picking up the keys.   So the takeaway here isn't just that the efficiency would be terrible, but it would be impossible to do it safely if you had metal objects in the house that you didn't want to heat up.  Edit: wording and grammar", "human_ref_B": "You would also have cancer.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 757.0, "score_ratio": -2.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf5a3", "c_root_id_B": "c2vf7bh", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904172, "created_at_utc_B": 1319904741, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "As long as you lived in a magneto style acrylic prison with no other metallic bits.  The field strength on the coils would have to be INSANELY strong. Magnetic fields fall of very very quickly.", "human_ref_B": "Not an expert (a mere student) - but if you had an alternating current in the coil, that would induce an alternating magnetic field for a small distance (as No-Coast-Punk said, it would therefore have to be a very high current in the induction coil itself, and with inefficiencies it would end up being masses more than the electricity you would actually be able to use) but it seems plausible \u2013 so long as the items you want to power aren\u2019t parallel with the field.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 569.0, "score_ratio": -2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf99q", "c_root_id_B": "c2vgu47", "created_at_utc_A": 1319905274, "created_at_utc_B": 1319919164, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It would be kind of awkward. Your appliances power cords would need to be replaced with coils to have current induced in them to dominate the janky currents that would appear on the circuit boards and stuff. A", "human_ref_B": "There is a Volkswagen plant in Germany, where all of the mobile tools are powered by induction: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nd5WGLWNllA", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13890.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vgu47", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfmvx", "created_at_utc_A": 1319919164, "created_at_utc_B": 1319908730, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "There is a Volkswagen plant in Germany, where all of the mobile tools are powered by induction: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nd5WGLWNllA", "human_ref_B": "I always wondered why they do not place an induction coil at the openings of high traffic tunnels. They could use the daily traffickers to generate a lot of \"free\" electricity. Of course, the drivers would in fact be paying for this \"free\" electricity as they would feel the resistance as they entered or exited the tunnel and it would affect their mpg.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10434.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf5a3", "c_root_id_B": "c2vgu47", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904172, "created_at_utc_B": 1319919164, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As long as you lived in a magneto style acrylic prison with no other metallic bits.  The field strength on the coils would have to be INSANELY strong. Magnetic fields fall of very very quickly.", "human_ref_B": "There is a Volkswagen plant in Germany, where all of the mobile tools are powered by induction: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nd5WGLWNllA", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14992.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vgu47", "c_root_id_B": "c2vf7rl", "created_at_utc_A": 1319919164, "created_at_utc_B": 1319904861, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "There is a Volkswagen plant in Germany, where all of the mobile tools are powered by induction: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nd5WGLWNllA", "human_ref_B": "Only with HUGE energy losses (and who knows what side effects). There's a reason nobody does this.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14303.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vgu47", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfcup", "created_at_utc_A": 1319919164, "created_at_utc_B": 1319906239, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "There is a Volkswagen plant in Germany, where all of the mobile tools are powered by induction: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nd5WGLWNllA", "human_ref_B": "I would think this would be fatal the moment you tried to take a shower in the house. With such high currents jumping around, the minute you touch the knob in the tub, you'd become grounded through the plumbing and certainly get fried.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12925.0, "score_ratio": -0.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vgu47", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfhfq", "created_at_utc_A": 1319919164, "created_at_utc_B": 1319907387, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "There is a Volkswagen plant in Germany, where all of the mobile tools are powered by induction: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nd5WGLWNllA", "human_ref_B": "Yea, but it would suck...  edit:  Rules, rules, rules.  OK FINE, this question should really be in /r/ECE.  Basically, it's doable, especially at close ranges (like your toothbrush charger), you CAN get around some of the efficiency issues by using resonant circuits (what tesla was doing), but it's never really any more practical than running a pair of wires to your device.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11777.0, "score_ratio": -0.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfpru", "c_root_id_B": "c2vgu47", "created_at_utc_A": 1319909440, "created_at_utc_B": 1319919164, "score_A": -9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "You would also have cancer.", "human_ref_B": "There is a Volkswagen plant in Germany, where all of the mobile tools are powered by induction: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nd5WGLWNllA", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9724.0, "score_ratio": -0.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf5a3", "c_root_id_B": "c2vf99q", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904172, "created_at_utc_B": 1319905274, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "As long as you lived in a magneto style acrylic prison with no other metallic bits.  The field strength on the coils would have to be INSANELY strong. Magnetic fields fall of very very quickly.", "human_ref_B": "It would be kind of awkward. Your appliances power cords would need to be replaced with coils to have current induced in them to dominate the janky currents that would appear on the circuit boards and stuff. A", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1102.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf7rl", "c_root_id_B": "c2vf99q", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904861, "created_at_utc_B": 1319905274, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Only with HUGE energy losses (and who knows what side effects). There's a reason nobody does this.", "human_ref_B": "It would be kind of awkward. Your appliances power cords would need to be replaced with coils to have current induced in them to dominate the janky currents that would appear on the circuit boards and stuff. A", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 413.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf5a3", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfmvx", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904172, "created_at_utc_B": 1319908730, "score_A": -2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "As long as you lived in a magneto style acrylic prison with no other metallic bits.  The field strength on the coils would have to be INSANELY strong. Magnetic fields fall of very very quickly.", "human_ref_B": "I always wondered why they do not place an induction coil at the openings of high traffic tunnels. They could use the daily traffickers to generate a lot of \"free\" electricity. Of course, the drivers would in fact be paying for this \"free\" electricity as they would feel the resistance as they entered or exited the tunnel and it would affect their mpg.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4558.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfmvx", "c_root_id_B": "c2vf7rl", "created_at_utc_A": 1319908730, "created_at_utc_B": 1319904861, "score_A": -1, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "I always wondered why they do not place an induction coil at the openings of high traffic tunnels. They could use the daily traffickers to generate a lot of \"free\" electricity. Of course, the drivers would in fact be paying for this \"free\" electricity as they would feel the resistance as they entered or exited the tunnel and it would affect their mpg.", "human_ref_B": "Only with HUGE energy losses (and who knows what side effects). There's a reason nobody does this.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3869.0, "score_ratio": 0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfmvx", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfcup", "created_at_utc_A": 1319908730, "created_at_utc_B": 1319906239, "score_A": -1, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "I always wondered why they do not place an induction coil at the openings of high traffic tunnels. They could use the daily traffickers to generate a lot of \"free\" electricity. Of course, the drivers would in fact be paying for this \"free\" electricity as they would feel the resistance as they entered or exited the tunnel and it would affect their mpg.", "human_ref_B": "I would think this would be fatal the moment you tried to take a shower in the house. With such high currents jumping around, the minute you touch the knob in the tub, you'd become grounded through the plumbing and certainly get fried.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2491.0, "score_ratio": 0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vfhfq", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfmvx", "created_at_utc_A": 1319907387, "created_at_utc_B": 1319908730, "score_A": -7, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Yea, but it would suck...  edit:  Rules, rules, rules.  OK FINE, this question should really be in /r/ECE.  Basically, it's doable, especially at close ranges (like your toothbrush charger), you CAN get around some of the efficiency issues by using resonant circuits (what tesla was doing), but it's never really any more practical than running a pair of wires to your device.", "human_ref_B": "I always wondered why they do not place an induction coil at the openings of high traffic tunnels. They could use the daily traffickers to generate a lot of \"free\" electricity. Of course, the drivers would in fact be paying for this \"free\" electricity as they would feel the resistance as they entered or exited the tunnel and it would affect their mpg.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1343.0, "score_ratio": 0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lt5zm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Could I have wireless electricity if my whole house was wrapped in an induction coil? and my electronics had a coil too?   I.e., couldn't I turn my house into a giant wireless electronic toothbrush?", "c_root_id_A": "c2vf7rl", "c_root_id_B": "c2vfcup", "created_at_utc_A": 1319904861, "created_at_utc_B": 1319906239, "score_A": -6, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "Only with HUGE energy losses (and who knows what side effects). There's a reason nobody does this.", "human_ref_B": "I would think this would be fatal the moment you tried to take a shower in the house. With such high currents jumping around, the minute you touch the knob in the tub, you'd become grounded through the plumbing and certainly get fried.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1378.0, "score_ratio": 0.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vdmmsc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can you spray paint in space? I like painting scifi/fantasy miniatures and for one of my projects I was thinking about how road/construction workers here on Earth often tag asphalt surfaces with markings where they believe pipes/cables or other utilities are.  I was thinking of incorporating that into the design of the base of one of my miniatures (where I think it has an Apollo-retro meets Space-Roughneck kinda vibe) but then I wasn't entirely sure whether that's even physically plausible...  Obviously cans pressurised for use here on Earth would probably explode or be dangerous in a vacuum - but could you make a canned spray paint for use in space, using less or a different propellant, or would it evaporate too quickly to be controllable?", "c_root_id_A": "icm0sj5", "c_root_id_B": "iclhnm6", "created_at_utc_A": 1655403615, "created_at_utc_B": 1655395765, "score_A": 586, "score_B": 99, "human_ref_A": "Those are 2 different questions and I'll try to answer each then both.   1 ) Spray paint in a vaccum.  Yes, the paint can actually holds usually 10 atm so holding 11 won't be THAT much of a problem.  however the lack of air and potentially freezing temp will mess with the paint so you would need a special mix, however since this is a sci fi setting you can safely assume they fix THAT problem.  It will also spray  in a different pattern than you see with air changing the pattern, mostly spots.   2) Spray paint in 0G  Yup, no problem. Very dangerous in a closed environment with a LOT of filtering but totally doable.  The paint will fly straight but that's the opposite of a problem.   The lack of gravity will also mean the \"Clouds\" of paint will lay down strangely further than a few feet.   0G AND vaccum will have whole new problems but mostly the Vaccum ones with the added issue of how it's sprayed out from the can though again with a sci fi setting you can assume they fix that.", "human_ref_B": "I don\u2019t see why not. Spray cans usually rest at about 10x atmospheric pressure on their inside, so missing 1 atmosphere of pressure on the outside probably won\u2019t affect it.   The paint itself would still act fine I think, it would just offgas it\u2019s VOC\u2019s faster, so it would dry quickly. The only thing that might change is how messy it gets. The atmosphere on earth slows down the high velocity particles, so that outside of a few feet, any particle is mostly carried by the wind. In a vacuum, it would keep going until it hit something.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7850.0, "score_ratio": 5.9191919192, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vdmmsc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can you spray paint in space? I like painting scifi/fantasy miniatures and for one of my projects I was thinking about how road/construction workers here on Earth often tag asphalt surfaces with markings where they believe pipes/cables or other utilities are.  I was thinking of incorporating that into the design of the base of one of my miniatures (where I think it has an Apollo-retro meets Space-Roughneck kinda vibe) but then I wasn't entirely sure whether that's even physically plausible...  Obviously cans pressurised for use here on Earth would probably explode or be dangerous in a vacuum - but could you make a canned spray paint for use in space, using less or a different propellant, or would it evaporate too quickly to be controllable?", "c_root_id_A": "iclizwf", "c_root_id_B": "icm0sj5", "created_at_utc_A": 1655396318, "created_at_utc_B": 1655403615, "score_A": 88, "score_B": 586, "human_ref_A": "It would be somewhat viable - the paint would need to be formulated to avoid drying out immediately due to the solvent evaporating before reaching the surface to be painted, and the spray nozzle would need to be designed to control the 'exhaust' in vacuum rather than air (a consideration that rocket nozzle designers also have to account for) and to avoid clogging, but it doesn't seem inherently impossible, it would just have some engineering challenges. Recoil would be measurable but pretty insignificant, especially assuming the user is already equipped for working in zero-g.", "human_ref_B": "Those are 2 different questions and I'll try to answer each then both.   1 ) Spray paint in a vaccum.  Yes, the paint can actually holds usually 10 atm so holding 11 won't be THAT much of a problem.  however the lack of air and potentially freezing temp will mess with the paint so you would need a special mix, however since this is a sci fi setting you can safely assume they fix THAT problem.  It will also spray  in a different pattern than you see with air changing the pattern, mostly spots.   2) Spray paint in 0G  Yup, no problem. Very dangerous in a closed environment with a LOT of filtering but totally doable.  The paint will fly straight but that's the opposite of a problem.   The lack of gravity will also mean the \"Clouds\" of paint will lay down strangely further than a few feet.   0G AND vaccum will have whole new problems but mostly the Vaccum ones with the added issue of how it's sprayed out from the can though again with a sci fi setting you can assume they fix that.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7297.0, "score_ratio": 6.6590909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vdmmsc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can you spray paint in space? I like painting scifi/fantasy miniatures and for one of my projects I was thinking about how road/construction workers here on Earth often tag asphalt surfaces with markings where they believe pipes/cables or other utilities are.  I was thinking of incorporating that into the design of the base of one of my miniatures (where I think it has an Apollo-retro meets Space-Roughneck kinda vibe) but then I wasn't entirely sure whether that's even physically plausible...  Obviously cans pressurised for use here on Earth would probably explode or be dangerous in a vacuum - but could you make a canned spray paint for use in space, using less or a different propellant, or would it evaporate too quickly to be controllable?", "c_root_id_A": "icm0sj5", "c_root_id_B": "iclv7gs", "created_at_utc_A": 1655403615, "created_at_utc_B": 1655401312, "score_A": 586, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Those are 2 different questions and I'll try to answer each then both.   1 ) Spray paint in a vaccum.  Yes, the paint can actually holds usually 10 atm so holding 11 won't be THAT much of a problem.  however the lack of air and potentially freezing temp will mess with the paint so you would need a special mix, however since this is a sci fi setting you can safely assume they fix THAT problem.  It will also spray  in a different pattern than you see with air changing the pattern, mostly spots.   2) Spray paint in 0G  Yup, no problem. Very dangerous in a closed environment with a LOT of filtering but totally doable.  The paint will fly straight but that's the opposite of a problem.   The lack of gravity will also mean the \"Clouds\" of paint will lay down strangely further than a few feet.   0G AND vaccum will have whole new problems but mostly the Vaccum ones with the added issue of how it's sprayed out from the can though again with a sci fi setting you can assume they fix that.", "human_ref_B": "For paint you'd have to use a solvent thick enough that it didn't evaporate immediately and stayed liquid even at extremely cold temps.  It is unlikely you'd find a material suitable for this.  You'd likely need a sticky powder (electrostatic?) instead then maybe apply heat to fix it.  You can spray things in a vacuum, in fact this is how metal deposition works and I've personally done it.  Put the object to be coated in a vacuum chamber, put a metal filament across from it and heat the filament.  The metal atoms will jump off of it and land on the object creating layers that can be only angstroms thick.  So thin that metal layers are semitransparent or iridescent.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2303.0, "score_ratio": 22.5384615385, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10hz42", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "2 yolks, 1 egg. Any explanation why an entire batch of eggs would have two yolks each? I recently bought a batch of eggs from a produce stand in Poland. The odd thing about the eggs is their size (15 cm in circumference, 7 cm tall, and they won't fit in a standard egg carton) and the fact that each one has two yolks. There's no number printed on the shells, so they're probably from some small chicken farm. Wikipedia says that this occurs when ovulation takes place too rapidly, and that some hybrid hens tend to lay double-yolk eggs more frequently. Any idea which is more probable in this case? Is there any reason to avoid eating such eggs?  http://i.imgur.com/LQFJY.jpg", "c_root_id_A": "c6dms57", "c_root_id_B": "c6dn466", "created_at_utc_A": 1348652467, "created_at_utc_B": 1348656769, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "No reason not to eat them. The wikipedia article sums up why it happens.  Eggs are graded by size and the eggs with double yolks are larger hence there will be multiple double yolk eggs in a carton of large sized eggs.", "human_ref_B": "I once had a housekeeper who showed me how to go to the supermarket and select the double-yolk eggs and put them all in one carton. The double-yolks are kind of pointed at both ends. With practice you can get pretty good at it.  It was pretty conspicuous activity though and my conscience wouldn't let me take advantage of this inside information.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4302.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10hz42", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "2 yolks, 1 egg. Any explanation why an entire batch of eggs would have two yolks each? I recently bought a batch of eggs from a produce stand in Poland. The odd thing about the eggs is their size (15 cm in circumference, 7 cm tall, and they won't fit in a standard egg carton) and the fact that each one has two yolks. There's no number printed on the shells, so they're probably from some small chicken farm. Wikipedia says that this occurs when ovulation takes place too rapidly, and that some hybrid hens tend to lay double-yolk eggs more frequently. Any idea which is more probable in this case? Is there any reason to avoid eating such eggs?  http://i.imgur.com/LQFJY.jpg", "c_root_id_A": "c6dq5s8", "c_root_id_B": "c6dpr7o", "created_at_utc_A": 1348674572, "created_at_utc_B": 1348673013, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Question: If these were fertilized, would two chicks hatch from one egg, or would one out compete the other and absorb it?", "human_ref_B": "Once, I had some nine month old hens that weren't laying eggs, and an old farmer sold me a dozen double yolked eggs, and told me to show them to my hens and threaten to slaughter them if they didn't start laying eggs.  They started producing eggs the next day.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1559.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10hz42", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "2 yolks, 1 egg. Any explanation why an entire batch of eggs would have two yolks each? I recently bought a batch of eggs from a produce stand in Poland. The odd thing about the eggs is their size (15 cm in circumference, 7 cm tall, and they won't fit in a standard egg carton) and the fact that each one has two yolks. There's no number printed on the shells, so they're probably from some small chicken farm. Wikipedia says that this occurs when ovulation takes place too rapidly, and that some hybrid hens tend to lay double-yolk eggs more frequently. Any idea which is more probable in this case? Is there any reason to avoid eating such eggs?  http://i.imgur.com/LQFJY.jpg", "c_root_id_A": "c6dq3nz", "c_root_id_B": "c6dq5s8", "created_at_utc_A": 1348674343, "created_at_utc_B": 1348674572, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "They could be turkey eggs. Those are always double yolk and tend to be a little larger than normal eggs.  Edit: OK so I may have been misinformed. I was told by a farmer that his turkeys always laid double yolked eggs.", "human_ref_B": "Question: If these were fertilized, would two chicks hatch from one egg, or would one out compete the other and absorb it?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 229.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10hz42", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "2 yolks, 1 egg. Any explanation why an entire batch of eggs would have two yolks each? I recently bought a batch of eggs from a produce stand in Poland. The odd thing about the eggs is their size (15 cm in circumference, 7 cm tall, and they won't fit in a standard egg carton) and the fact that each one has two yolks. There's no number printed on the shells, so they're probably from some small chicken farm. Wikipedia says that this occurs when ovulation takes place too rapidly, and that some hybrid hens tend to lay double-yolk eggs more frequently. Any idea which is more probable in this case? Is there any reason to avoid eating such eggs?  http://i.imgur.com/LQFJY.jpg", "c_root_id_A": "c6dpr7o", "c_root_id_B": "c6dqmen", "created_at_utc_A": 1348673013, "created_at_utc_B": 1348676325, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Once, I had some nine month old hens that weren't laying eggs, and an old farmer sold me a dozen double yolked eggs, and told me to show them to my hens and threaten to slaughter them if they didn't start laying eggs.  They started producing eggs the next day.", "human_ref_B": "The surprisingly interesting statistics podcast \"More or Less\" covered this in their show: http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/moreorless/all", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3312.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10hz42", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "2 yolks, 1 egg. Any explanation why an entire batch of eggs would have two yolks each? I recently bought a batch of eggs from a produce stand in Poland. The odd thing about the eggs is their size (15 cm in circumference, 7 cm tall, and they won't fit in a standard egg carton) and the fact that each one has two yolks. There's no number printed on the shells, so they're probably from some small chicken farm. Wikipedia says that this occurs when ovulation takes place too rapidly, and that some hybrid hens tend to lay double-yolk eggs more frequently. Any idea which is more probable in this case? Is there any reason to avoid eating such eggs?  http://i.imgur.com/LQFJY.jpg", "c_root_id_A": "c6dqmen", "c_root_id_B": "c6dq3nz", "created_at_utc_A": 1348676325, "created_at_utc_B": 1348674343, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "The surprisingly interesting statistics podcast \"More or Less\" covered this in their show: http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/moreorless/all", "human_ref_B": "They could be turkey eggs. Those are always double yolk and tend to be a little larger than normal eggs.  Edit: OK so I may have been misinformed. I was told by a farmer that his turkeys always laid double yolked eggs.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1982.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o9aalo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Are birds today descended from a single dinosaur species or multiple dinosaur species? Basically the title. Do we know? If not, will we ever know?   Or is my understanding of evolution so poor that this question makes no sense?", "c_root_id_A": "h3afg2v", "c_root_id_B": "h3bc7nq", "created_at_utc_A": 1624856196, "created_at_utc_B": 1624884165, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 55, "human_ref_A": "Now here is a question I never thought I need answered but now I'm happy that it did. Thank you OP and StringOfLights.", "human_ref_B": "The answer to this question is kind of.  Birds can all trace a single lineage back through the dinosaurs. This lineage is the same for all birds and taxinomically we'd say that all modern birds are part of the parent species which is some protobird dinosaur. But this lineage would include multiple different species of dinosaur that went from being quite reptilian to quite birdlike and eventually became the species aves which diversified into the modern order aves.  It's easier to think of this from the level of a modern bird back through time rather than dinosaur forward. As you go back you start with modern aves, then you have the other orders of birds (typically toothed as a main difference from modern aves), then bird like dinosaurs, then non bird like theropods, then ancestral dinosaurs even less like birds. Each of these steps would contain multiple species that are direct ancestors to each other. There's one lineage, but that lineage contains many species.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27969.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o9aalo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Are birds today descended from a single dinosaur species or multiple dinosaur species? Basically the title. Do we know? If not, will we ever know?   Or is my understanding of evolution so poor that this question makes no sense?", "c_root_id_A": "h3b6rjj", "c_root_id_B": "h3bc7nq", "created_at_utc_A": 1624880432, "created_at_utc_B": 1624884165, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 55, "human_ref_A": "Wow. This thread is the most riveting thread I've read in a long time. It makes my general knowledge so minuscule in comparison. Thanks guys (in a good way).", "human_ref_B": "The answer to this question is kind of.  Birds can all trace a single lineage back through the dinosaurs. This lineage is the same for all birds and taxinomically we'd say that all modern birds are part of the parent species which is some protobird dinosaur. But this lineage would include multiple different species of dinosaur that went from being quite reptilian to quite birdlike and eventually became the species aves which diversified into the modern order aves.  It's easier to think of this from the level of a modern bird back through time rather than dinosaur forward. As you go back you start with modern aves, then you have the other orders of birds (typically toothed as a main difference from modern aves), then bird like dinosaurs, then non bird like theropods, then ancestral dinosaurs even less like birds. Each of these steps would contain multiple species that are direct ancestors to each other. There's one lineage, but that lineage contains many species.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3733.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o9aalo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Are birds today descended from a single dinosaur species or multiple dinosaur species? Basically the title. Do we know? If not, will we ever know?   Or is my understanding of evolution so poor that this question makes no sense?", "c_root_id_A": "h3afg2v", "c_root_id_B": "h3c4v70", "created_at_utc_A": 1624856196, "created_at_utc_B": 1624898163, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "Now here is a question I never thought I need answered but now I'm happy that it did. Thank you OP and StringOfLights.", "human_ref_B": "From a National Geographic magazine which was all about bird lineages, I learned that there were likely three lineages of birds which survived the Cretaceous extinction event, and they are:   Ratites: large flightless birds, including the ostrich, emu, and (not very large) kiwi.   Galliformes: various types of fowl, such as chickens, turkeys, and ducks and geese.   Neoaves: all other birds.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 41967.0, "score_ratio": 1.2424242424, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o9aalo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "Are birds today descended from a single dinosaur species or multiple dinosaur species? Basically the title. Do we know? If not, will we ever know?   Or is my understanding of evolution so poor that this question makes no sense?", "c_root_id_A": "h3c4v70", "c_root_id_B": "h3b6rjj", "created_at_utc_A": 1624898163, "created_at_utc_B": 1624880432, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "From a National Geographic magazine which was all about bird lineages, I learned that there were likely three lineages of birds which survived the Cretaceous extinction event, and they are:   Ratites: large flightless birds, including the ostrich, emu, and (not very large) kiwi.   Galliformes: various types of fowl, such as chickens, turkeys, and ducks and geese.   Neoaves: all other birds.", "human_ref_B": "Wow. This thread is the most riveting thread I've read in a long time. It makes my general knowledge so minuscule in comparison. Thanks guys (in a good way).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17731.0, "score_ratio": 1.8636363636, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "437bbe", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "As I understand it, heat is just vibrating particles. Absolute Zero is stationary particles. Is there a theoretical maximum temperature where particles are vibrating at the speed of light?", "c_root_id_A": "czg8gr8", "c_root_id_B": "czg6hlt", "created_at_utc_A": 1454061835, "created_at_utc_B": 1454054387, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Think about it the other way around.  How much energy (heat) have you to give to something (particle) to move  (vibrate) at speed of light?  The answer is you can't reach speed of light because of the infinite amount of energy needed.", "human_ref_B": "Temperature is defined as the amount of energy needed to create a marginal increase in entropy. If a system can only allow a maximum amount of energy, then there's only one possible state where it's at the maximum, meaning that there is no entropy. The state where entropy is maximized has an infinite temperature, since neither increasing nor decreasing energy will increase entropy, so you're dividing by zero. When entropy increases above that, the temperature is negative. And as it approaches the hottest possible state, the temperature approaches absolute zero from below.  Also, absolute zero does not have stationary particles. They're at the lowest energy state, but if there's anything restricting their motion at all, the by the uncertainty principle their momentum can't be completely restricted, so they must be vibrating a little.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7448.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m0qjd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Can animals understand or \"feel\" music like humans do?", "c_root_id_A": "c2x803j", "c_root_id_B": "c2x5itg", "created_at_utc_A": 1320469381, "created_at_utc_B": 1320448072, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/kznbd/does_our_music_have_any_effect_on_other_animals/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/kbtdg/why_do_cows_respond_to_music/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/jmyjk/why_do_humans_like_music_does_any_other_species/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/is0g1/does_dissonant_music_sound_dissonant_to_other/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/i5uht/does_music_affect_animal_behavior/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ht8no/do_animals_react_to_music_the_way_humans_do/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/hp60v/are_animals_as_affected_by_music_emotionally_as/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/hhhiq/do_dogs_likedislike_or_even_perceive_music/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gtt6q/does_music_evoke_a_emotional_response_to_animals/  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/er5sy/can_animals_enjoy_music/", "human_ref_B": "*shrugs...links to YouTube video of cockatoos dancing to pop music*  (If you're still not convinced, click on this one...then wait for the music to change.  I think that's your answer.)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21309.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgt7k4l", "c_root_id_B": "cgt8i5f", "created_at_utc_A": 1397587136, "created_at_utc_B": 1397588915, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Saying something is traveling at 99% of the speed of light is ONLY meaningful within a reference frame that is considered \"at rest\". If no reference frame is given, it is usually implied.  When you say you are traveling down the road at 70 miles per hour, it is implied that your \"rest frame\" is the ground. When we talk about the speeds of cosmic rays, we use the Earth as a rest frame. When an experiment is done on the International Space Station, the space station is used as the rest frame.", "human_ref_B": "> how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?  It's not meaningful, put that way, because the frame of reference is not indicated. Once you specify a frame of reference, all is good.  Seriously, when you're learning special relativity, it helps if you get zapped by a cattle prod every time you forget to specify your frame of reference. It's extremely important in relativity, but we keep forgetting it in casual speech.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1779.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgt8i5f", "c_root_id_B": "cgt4f9g", "created_at_utc_A": 1397588915, "created_at_utc_B": 1397581033, "score_A": 8, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "> how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?  It's not meaningful, put that way, because the frame of reference is not indicated. Once you specify a frame of reference, all is good.  Seriously, when you're learning special relativity, it helps if you get zapped by a cattle prod every time you forget to specify your frame of reference. It's extremely important in relativity, but we keep forgetting it in casual speech.", "human_ref_B": "The use of the word speed denotes a reference frame of some forms being used, so it would be redundant. When discussing light, the general assumed reference frame is the vacuum of space, as the speed light travels changes depending on the medium it is traveling through.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7882.0, "score_ratio": -2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgt7k4l", "c_root_id_B": "cgtrt9f", "created_at_utc_A": 1397587136, "created_at_utc_B": 1397638345, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Saying something is traveling at 99% of the speed of light is ONLY meaningful within a reference frame that is considered \"at rest\". If no reference frame is given, it is usually implied.  When you say you are traveling down the road at 70 miles per hour, it is implied that your \"rest frame\" is the ground. When we talk about the speeds of cosmic rays, we use the Earth as a rest frame. When an experiment is done on the International Space Station, the space station is used as the rest frame.", "human_ref_B": "It's true that you should specify what the speed is in relation to. But if you're talking about speeds like 99% speed of light, or even just 10% speed of light, then it's not really all that important. That's way faster than any of the obvious reference frames move relative to each other. So regardless of which one of them you pick, you're not going to change the situation much. So one can just assume that you mean one of those obvious choices and it doesn't really matter which one of them. The obvious choices would be, the reference frame of the Earth, the Sun, the galactic centre, any of the neighbouring galaxies, the cosmic microwave background, these all move at most a few hundred km/s relative to each other, while 10% speed of light is 30,000 km/s.  If you really do mean something less obvious, like in relation to another fast moving space craft, then yes, you absolutely have to specify the reference frame. Or if you're talking about things in the solar system and speeds of tens of km/s, then it makes a massive difference what reference frame you measure it against.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 51209.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgtah2z", "c_root_id_B": "cgtrt9f", "created_at_utc_A": 1397592693, "created_at_utc_B": 1397638345, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I have a question: Say I travel from A to B at 0.25C and it makes me 100 seconds.  Now say I travel again from A to B at 0.5C, would it take me 50 seconds or 25?", "human_ref_B": "It's true that you should specify what the speed is in relation to. But if you're talking about speeds like 99% speed of light, or even just 10% speed of light, then it's not really all that important. That's way faster than any of the obvious reference frames move relative to each other. So regardless of which one of them you pick, you're not going to change the situation much. So one can just assume that you mean one of those obvious choices and it doesn't really matter which one of them. The obvious choices would be, the reference frame of the Earth, the Sun, the galactic centre, any of the neighbouring galaxies, the cosmic microwave background, these all move at most a few hundred km/s relative to each other, while 10% speed of light is 30,000 km/s.  If you really do mean something less obvious, like in relation to another fast moving space craft, then yes, you absolutely have to specify the reference frame. Or if you're talking about things in the solar system and speeds of tens of km/s, then it makes a massive difference what reference frame you measure it against.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 45652.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgtrt9f", "c_root_id_B": "cgtnkpz", "created_at_utc_A": 1397638345, "created_at_utc_B": 1397621587, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It's true that you should specify what the speed is in relation to. But if you're talking about speeds like 99% speed of light, or even just 10% speed of light, then it's not really all that important. That's way faster than any of the obvious reference frames move relative to each other. So regardless of which one of them you pick, you're not going to change the situation much. So one can just assume that you mean one of those obvious choices and it doesn't really matter which one of them. The obvious choices would be, the reference frame of the Earth, the Sun, the galactic centre, any of the neighbouring galaxies, the cosmic microwave background, these all move at most a few hundred km/s relative to each other, while 10% speed of light is 30,000 km/s.  If you really do mean something less obvious, like in relation to another fast moving space craft, then yes, you absolutely have to specify the reference frame. Or if you're talking about things in the solar system and speeds of tens of km/s, then it makes a massive difference what reference frame you measure it against.", "human_ref_B": "What I've come to think is that the faster you go from point a to point b,the faster you'll get there at a decreasing linear rate. The speed of light is the speed that would simply get you they're at the same time you've arrived. Since the trend is ever decreasing with more and more speed, after you pass the speed of light, you'll take less time than no time at all. Arriving before you even left. \rEdit:horrendous grammar, and lack of examples, but hey! I'm lazy!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16758.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgt4f9g", "c_root_id_B": "cgtrt9f", "created_at_utc_A": 1397581033, "created_at_utc_B": 1397638345, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The use of the word speed denotes a reference frame of some forms being used, so it would be redundant. When discussing light, the general assumed reference frame is the vacuum of space, as the speed light travels changes depending on the medium it is traveling through.", "human_ref_B": "It's true that you should specify what the speed is in relation to. But if you're talking about speeds like 99% speed of light, or even just 10% speed of light, then it's not really all that important. That's way faster than any of the obvious reference frames move relative to each other. So regardless of which one of them you pick, you're not going to change the situation much. So one can just assume that you mean one of those obvious choices and it doesn't really matter which one of them. The obvious choices would be, the reference frame of the Earth, the Sun, the galactic centre, any of the neighbouring galaxies, the cosmic microwave background, these all move at most a few hundred km/s relative to each other, while 10% speed of light is 30,000 km/s.  If you really do mean something less obvious, like in relation to another fast moving space craft, then yes, you absolutely have to specify the reference frame. Or if you're talking about things in the solar system and speeds of tens of km/s, then it makes a massive difference what reference frame you measure it against.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 57312.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgt4f9g", "c_root_id_B": "cgt7k4l", "created_at_utc_A": 1397581033, "created_at_utc_B": 1397587136, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The use of the word speed denotes a reference frame of some forms being used, so it would be redundant. When discussing light, the general assumed reference frame is the vacuum of space, as the speed light travels changes depending on the medium it is traveling through.", "human_ref_B": "Saying something is traveling at 99% of the speed of light is ONLY meaningful within a reference frame that is considered \"at rest\". If no reference frame is given, it is usually implied.  When you say you are traveling down the road at 70 miles per hour, it is implied that your \"rest frame\" is the ground. When we talk about the speeds of cosmic rays, we use the Earth as a rest frame. When an experiment is done on the International Space Station, the space station is used as the rest frame.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6103.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgt4f9g", "c_root_id_B": "cgtah2z", "created_at_utc_A": 1397581033, "created_at_utc_B": 1397592693, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The use of the word speed denotes a reference frame of some forms being used, so it would be redundant. When discussing light, the general assumed reference frame is the vacuum of space, as the speed light travels changes depending on the medium it is traveling through.", "human_ref_B": "I have a question: Say I travel from A to B at 0.25C and it makes me 100 seconds.  Now say I travel again from A to B at 0.5C, would it take me 50 seconds or 25?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11660.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "233or2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If my speed is relative, not absolute, and the speed of light always appears the same no matter my reference frame, how is a statement like \"I am travelling at 99% of the speed of light\" meaningful?", "c_root_id_A": "cgt4f9g", "c_root_id_B": "cgtnkpz", "created_at_utc_A": 1397581033, "created_at_utc_B": 1397621587, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The use of the word speed denotes a reference frame of some forms being used, so it would be redundant. When discussing light, the general assumed reference frame is the vacuum of space, as the speed light travels changes depending on the medium it is traveling through.", "human_ref_B": "What I've come to think is that the faster you go from point a to point b,the faster you'll get there at a decreasing linear rate. The speed of light is the speed that would simply get you they're at the same time you've arrived. Since the trend is ever decreasing with more and more speed, after you pass the speed of light, you'll take less time than no time at all. Arriving before you even left. \rEdit:horrendous grammar, and lack of examples, but hey! I'm lazy!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 40554.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ihb33", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How far away from earth would you have to be in order for constellations to look noticeably different or downright unrecognizable? I was reading about how astronomers measure the distance to stars by looking at the same star six months apart and triangulating based on the amount of change in relative position. Given that there's a (slightly) visible difference over the course of Earth's orbit, at what point would the difference become significant? If I was standing on Mars? Pluto? midway between here and Proxima Centauri?", "c_root_id_A": "c23r4yw", "c_root_id_B": "c23r32z", "created_at_utc_A": 1309887921, "created_at_utc_B": 1309887491, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "http://www.shatters.net/celestia/  I think it's best for you to find out for yourself.", "human_ref_B": "Much farther away. This is what Cassopeia looks like from Proxima Centauri (the next closest star). This is what it looks like from Earth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 430.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ihb33", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How far away from earth would you have to be in order for constellations to look noticeably different or downright unrecognizable? I was reading about how astronomers measure the distance to stars by looking at the same star six months apart and triangulating based on the amount of change in relative position. Given that there's a (slightly) visible difference over the course of Earth's orbit, at what point would the difference become significant? If I was standing on Mars? Pluto? midway between here and Proxima Centauri?", "c_root_id_A": "c23r32z", "c_root_id_B": "c23r7hg", "created_at_utc_A": 1309887491, "created_at_utc_B": 1309888472, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Much farther away. This is what Cassopeia looks like from Proxima Centauri (the next closest star). This is what it looks like from Earth.", "human_ref_B": "Even though the stars in many constellations are nowhere near each other, they are so far away to begin with that you have to travel a long way to distort the view.  Alpha and Beta Centauri is one of the first pairs to distort. They are about 4.5\u00b0 apart and Beta is about 100 times further away. If you could travel about 0.75 light years sideways then they would be coincident. For most constellations, you're talking at least 10 light years for noticeable distortion.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 981.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ksxa5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is it that some surfaces colder than others at room temperature? *Why is it that some surfaces feel colder than others at room temperature? I apologise for the typo.  For example, it's a warm day yet my marble counter is very cold to touch. Yet my wooden coffee table isn't cold at all.", "c_root_id_A": "cbs9irq", "c_root_id_B": "cbscmav", "created_at_utc_A": 1377092674, "created_at_utc_B": 1377102437, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Some surfaces feel colder than others even if they're the same temperature because their specific heat is higher (it takes more energy to raise their temperature) and/or their thermal conductivity is greater (they can wick heat out of your body faster).  This has the effect of more quickly lowering the temperature of the body part in contact with the material, thus it feels colder.", "human_ref_B": "Here is an awesome video that answers the question. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqDbMEdLiCs", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9763.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ksxa5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is it that some surfaces colder than others at room temperature? *Why is it that some surfaces feel colder than others at room temperature? I apologise for the typo.  For example, it's a warm day yet my marble counter is very cold to touch. Yet my wooden coffee table isn't cold at all.", "c_root_id_A": "cbsc50v", "c_root_id_B": "cbscmav", "created_at_utc_A": 1377101235, "created_at_utc_B": 1377102437, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "A cool experiment -Have 2 surfaces, wood and marble. Obviously the marble will feel colder to the touch due to the transfer properties. Put an ice cube on both surfaces and see which one melts faster; the warm to touch surface or cool to touch surface.", "human_ref_B": "Here is an awesome video that answers the question. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqDbMEdLiCs", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1202.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ksxa5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is it that some surfaces colder than others at room temperature? *Why is it that some surfaces feel colder than others at room temperature? I apologise for the typo.  For example, it's a warm day yet my marble counter is very cold to touch. Yet my wooden coffee table isn't cold at all.", "c_root_id_A": "cbscgrp", "c_root_id_B": "cbscmav", "created_at_utc_A": 1377102064, "created_at_utc_B": 1377102437, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Interestingly double glazing in windows is a good insulator but yet is cool to the touch. This is because the glass is a bad insulator but the air gap between the layers is a good insulator.", "human_ref_B": "Here is an awesome video that answers the question. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqDbMEdLiCs", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 373.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ksxa5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is it that some surfaces colder than others at room temperature? *Why is it that some surfaces feel colder than others at room temperature? I apologise for the typo.  For example, it's a warm day yet my marble counter is very cold to touch. Yet my wooden coffee table isn't cold at all.", "c_root_id_A": "cbs9irq", "c_root_id_B": "cbs9zfc", "created_at_utc_A": 1377092674, "created_at_utc_B": 1377094510, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Some surfaces feel colder than others even if they're the same temperature because their specific heat is higher (it takes more energy to raise their temperature) and/or their thermal conductivity is greater (they can wick heat out of your body faster).  This has the effect of more quickly lowering the temperature of the body part in contact with the material, thus it feels colder.", "human_ref_B": "It's because your skin/body temperature is higher then the temperature of the surface. When you touch it, you are warming up the surface whilst the surface is cooling you down.  How cold it feels will depend on factors such as the surface's specific heat capacity (how much energy is required per kilogram of material per kelvin increase in temperature), how good of a heat conductor it is (when you touch it, you heat just a top layer of the material, so the better it can conduct this heat to the rest of it, the colder it will feel).  Conversely, if the surfaces were at a higher temperature than your skin the the marble would feel warmer than the wood.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1836.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ksxa5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is it that some surfaces colder than others at room temperature? *Why is it that some surfaces feel colder than others at room temperature? I apologise for the typo.  For example, it's a warm day yet my marble counter is very cold to touch. Yet my wooden coffee table isn't cold at all.", "c_root_id_A": "cbscr33", "c_root_id_B": "cbscgrp", "created_at_utc_A": 1377102762, "created_at_utc_B": 1377102064, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "IIRC, certain materials are better conductors. For the same reason metals are used in wires to transmit electricity, metal will feel cooler when you touch it. Metal's electrons move about more freely than say, rubber. This means metal will take/absorb your body heat faster than rubber. That's what makes it feel cool for a while, and also why a metal ball will warm up in your hand a lot faster than a rubber ball.", "human_ref_B": "Interestingly double glazing in windows is a good insulator but yet is cool to the touch. This is because the glass is a bad insulator but the air gap between the layers is a good insulator.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 698.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ksxa5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why is it that some surfaces colder than others at room temperature? *Why is it that some surfaces feel colder than others at room temperature? I apologise for the typo.  For example, it's a warm day yet my marble counter is very cold to touch. Yet my wooden coffee table isn't cold at all.", "c_root_id_A": "cbscr33", "c_root_id_B": "cbscqjt", "created_at_utc_A": 1377102762, "created_at_utc_B": 1377102724, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "IIRC, certain materials are better conductors. For the same reason metals are used in wires to transmit electricity, metal will feel cooler when you touch it. Metal's electrons move about more freely than say, rubber. This means metal will take/absorb your body heat faster than rubber. That's what makes it feel cool for a while, and also why a metal ball will warm up in your hand a lot faster than a rubber ball.", "human_ref_B": "Essentially, nothing is \"cold,\" it just has an absence of heat.  When you touch a marble surface, it has a higher conductivity of heat, which pulls that heat from your hands.  It gives you a cold sensation, more than wood, that isnt very conductive, because your hand now has a small absence of heat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 38.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "osvpha", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "At what temperature is an object considered \"too hot\" by tactile nerves under the skin, and an \"immediately retract the limb!\" reflex is issued? Does such sensitivity vary across different skin regions?", "c_root_id_A": "h6rheg3", "c_root_id_B": "h6sek2y", "created_at_utc_A": 1627426167, "created_at_utc_B": 1627442670, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It varies with the equivalent of dynamic range as well. Some museums have exhibits where you can touch something that has various warm and cold sections closely interspersed across it. The difference in temperature tricks your nerves into feeling an immediate burning sensation.", "human_ref_B": "Sensitivity does indeed vary by the area of skin that's in contact with the object. The fingertips are notoriously sensitive, as an example. This is based on the density of thermorecptors - the higher the concentration of thermorecptors the more sensitive the skin is to the sensation of heat.   But it also depends on the thermal conductivity of the object in question. A piece of metal will be too hot to touch at much lower temperatures than a paperback book. The Veritasium video Misconceptions About Heat is relevant here. (Though the video uses the sensation of cold to make its point. But the principle is the same.)  Another example is seeing people pick up red hot tiles from the Space Shuttle's thermal protection system. It's obvious that another material that hot would instantly burn you. But the very low thermal conductivity of the tiles makes them safe to handle.  ***Edit:*** u/BitOBear already covered this so my explanation is superfluous. But it is cool seeing someone casually pick up objects that are glowing red hot!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16503.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hr7shf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Why do people make definitive statements about the R0 of a virus? Is it not a relative term? I see people say that covid's R0 is 'x', or the flu has an R0 of 'y', but is the R0 not a variable that can change depending on how people, governments, etc treat the spread of a virus?", "c_root_id_A": "fy2xp56", "c_root_id_B": "fy2q2qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1594763354, "created_at_utc_B": 1594759633, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Strictly speaking when you hear reports of the R of the current Coronavirus being this figure or that figure in different locations or at different times the number being reported is the *effective* reproduction number, Re, i.e. the average number of people an infected person will infect *in that location, at that time and with that location's level of immunity.*  The R0 is something different, being the average number of people an infected person will infect in a completely naive population where there is no immunity, no social distancing, no special measures in place.  See this article for a deeper explanation.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, it can vary depending on circumstances, as noted in a recent NY Times article.  A quote and the URL below.  See the sentence in bold for a direct answer to your question.  \"When the virus first emerged in China, epidemiologists scrambled to understand how it spread from person to person. One of their first tasks was to estimate the average number of people each sick person infected, or what epidemiologists call the reproductive number.  \"The new coronavirus turned out to have a reproductive number somewhere between two and three. ***It\u2019s impossible to pin down an exact figure, since people\u2019s behavior can make it easier or harder for the virus to spread.*** *By going into lockdown, for instance, Massachusetts* *drove its reproductive number* *down from 2.2 at the beginning of March to 1 by the end of the month; it\u2019s now at .74.  \\emphasis added\\]*  \"This averaged figure can also be misleading because it masks the variability of spread from one person to the next. If nine out of 10 people don\u2019t pass on a virus at all, while the 10th passes it to 20 people, the average would still be two.\"  From:  [https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/30/science/how-coronavirus-spreads.html?searchResultPosition=3   From:", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3721.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "26p468", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "When the Sun inevitably expands, what will happen to each planet as they are consumed? With each of the planets having different atmospheric compositions, when the Sun expands into their orbit the process of their destruction will (presumably) be different in some way.  Also, depending on each planets' size, the time taken for the Sun to annihilate each planet will be different.   Based on the dominant elements of each planet's atmosphere; Mercury = molecular oxygen, Venus and Mars = carbon dioxide, Earth = nitrogen with a considerable amount of oxygen, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune = hydrogen and some helium, what happens when each one is ignited by the Sun?   And what of each planets' moons? Will anything notable happen when Io is ignited?  This article states that the planets will \"spiral outwards\". Will any planets successfully escape impending doom?", "c_root_id_A": "cht71ig", "c_root_id_B": "cht4klo", "created_at_utc_A": 1401293408, "created_at_utc_B": 1401288085, "score_A": 585, "score_B": 187, "human_ref_A": "\"Earth will end up in the sun, vaporizing and blending its material with that of the sun,\" said Iowa State University's Lee Anne Willson. \"That part of the sun then blows away into space, so one might say Earth is cremated and the ashes are scattered into interstellar space.\" http://www.livescience.com/32879-what-happens-to-earth-when-sun-dies.html", "human_ref_B": "About to head to work, but the current consensus is that the suns Red Giant phase will consume Mercury, Venus, and Earth, with Mars as part of the margin of error. It will be a nice, balmy couple of million years for the moons of Jupiter and Saturn, and I would love to see what happens when Titan is raised a few hundred degrees. Apologies for brevity, I would have liked to say more.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5323.0, "score_ratio": 3.128342246, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "26p468", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "When the Sun inevitably expands, what will happen to each planet as they are consumed? With each of the planets having different atmospheric compositions, when the Sun expands into their orbit the process of their destruction will (presumably) be different in some way.  Also, depending on each planets' size, the time taken for the Sun to annihilate each planet will be different.   Based on the dominant elements of each planet's atmosphere; Mercury = molecular oxygen, Venus and Mars = carbon dioxide, Earth = nitrogen with a considerable amount of oxygen, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune = hydrogen and some helium, what happens when each one is ignited by the Sun?   And what of each planets' moons? Will anything notable happen when Io is ignited?  This article states that the planets will \"spiral outwards\". Will any planets successfully escape impending doom?", "c_root_id_A": "chtbdyf", "c_root_id_B": "cht9sht", "created_at_utc_A": 1401302244, "created_at_utc_B": 1401299016, "score_A": 147, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "I'm an astrophysicist and have studied the sun for years.  To be quite honest we don't know what will happen to Earth.  We can be sure that Mercury and Venus will be consumed by the sun.  However, there has been a paper within the last year that shows a planet near the same distance from its host star as Earth is from the Sun has survived the red giant phase.  I am on mobile at this time but I can link to the journal article as soon as I get to my computer.   Just wanted to mention this possibility as most people are saying the Earth will without a doubt be gone.       **Edit**: I apologize for the late response.  I am observing all night so needed to rest up for that.  Here is a link to one paper on the topic I found.  Guess it was a little more than one year ago.  Time flies, I suppose.  Also, I might add that I never promised Earth would be in a favorable condition. Just mentioned it may survive as a rocky orbiting body.    http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v480/n7378/full/nature10631.html", "human_ref_B": "\"The three inner planets of our solar system -- Mercury, Venus, and Earth -- will suffer catastrophic changes due to direct interaction with the Sun's outer layers in its future evolution to a red giant star, but the outer planets will be affected in a more quiescent sense. The orbit of Jupiter, for example, is five times farther from the Sun than that of Earth. Although extremely massive supergiant stars can grow to radii that are larger than the distance between the Sun and Jupiter, the outer layers of lower-mass stars like the Sun will not reach this scale. Therefore, Jupiter  and the other outer planets will escape any direct interaction with the Sun's tenuous atmosphere in its giant phase.   Fundamental changes in the Sun's properties, however, still will affect these planets. The sun will lose 46 percent of its mass in its late evolution, and that material will eventually escape the solar system. As a result, the gravitational influence of the Sun's remnant white dwarf on the giant planets will decrease. As our star's mass is lost, the orbits of the giant planets will quickly expand and resettle to those appropriate for a .54 solar mass star. In this eventual scenario, the influence of the planet Jupiter's gravity on other small bodies -- such as the asteroid belt, which today floats between Mars and Jupiter -- will grow.  What about the Red Planet? Will it fry, or will it survive? We're not sure. Mars will be caught in a race between the Sun's tenuous surface layers quickly expanding outward and the planet's orbit expanding to greater distances because of our star's mass loss. The balance between these two competitors will dictate whether the Sun's layers catch up to mars, and knowing the details of that calculation depend on knowing specifically the timing of the mass loss. Unfortunately, we don't we have resolution in our computational models to predict that today. Ask me again in seven billion years.\"  -- Jason Kalirai, Space Telescope Science Institute, Boston.  Quoted from the June 2014 (current) issue of *Astronomy* magazine.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3228.0, "score_ratio": 3.2666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bimt6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If our sun were a white dwarf, would it still be the brightest in our night sky? If not, where would it rank?", "c_root_id_A": "c971qvr", "c_root_id_B": "c9710zz", "created_at_utc_A": 1364922464, "created_at_utc_B": 1364920541, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "If it were a white dwarf, it wouldn't appear in our night sky. Night time is when you're facing away from the sun.  Source: any dictionary ever written.", "human_ref_B": "A typical white dwarf has absolute magnitude between 10 and 15 (where a higher number, counterintuitively, means a lower brightness), so the apparent magnitude of a white dwarf at the distance from the Earth to the Sun ranges from about -16 to -21. The Sun has an apparent magnitude of about -26, so a white dwarf would be 100 to 10,000 times dimmer than the Sun.  However, that's still pretty darn bright - as you can see here the next brightest object in our night sky, the Moon, has an apparent magnitude of only about -13 at full brightness, which is 100 to 10,000 times dimmer than a white dwarf.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1923.0, "score_ratio": 2.1578947368, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9wedqu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Does the recent Vitamin D study published in the NEJM show significant results of reduction in risk of death from cancer? The recent study on Vitamin D Supplements and Prevention of Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease published in the NEJM didn't show a lower incidence of cancer than placebo. However, it did show a reduction in death from cancer, especially, as noted in the results of the study, when the first two years of the study are excluded. Are these significant results? Is there any additional context/interpretation of these results that could help a layperson make some useful inferences here?", "c_root_id_A": "e9k70b3", "c_root_id_B": "e9k7uqb", "created_at_utc_A": 1542040454, "created_at_utc_B": 1542041133, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "> However, it did show a reduction in death from cancer, especially, as noted in the results of the study, when the first two years of the study are excluded. Are these significant results?  Yes, the (unadjusted\\*) 95% confidence interval (0.59-0.96) for the result you mention does not include 1 and is therefore considered statistically significant at a significance level of 0.05. This analysis, however, was not specified in the protocol and must therefore be interpreted with caution as it is exploratory in nature.  \\* Unadjusted for multiple comparisons.", "human_ref_B": "I just read through the paper quickly. From what I understand, overall cancer mortality is not significant when all checkpoints are included. However, when you exclude the deaths from one and two years of follow-up (not part of the approved protocol, just a data analysis they did when they noticed something) then there is a significant reduction in cancer mortality in the vitamin d group. I believe what they are referring to can be seen on supplemental figure 2d. If you look at the inset graph beginning on year 3, you see the treatment group dotted line below the placebo group. Please correct me if I'm wrong if I misinterpreted this.   Now for the question of significance. Let's look at the bottom of table 2 giving you the number of cancer deaths between the groups. That difference is 37 people. What does this mean? The obvious argument is that the vitamin d helped improve survival in patients that didn't die from more aggressive cancer in the first few years. Why? Maybe they were slightly healthier due to supplementation.   Now, this is a pretty small group of people, and I think there are smaller variables at play that could cause this result. The study only mentions the invasive cancer types they were interested in, but that only accounts for a fraction of total cancer incidence. It could be that the vitamin d group just so happened to have slightly fewer cancer types that were lethal in the later years.   So for the layperson. Does vitamin d lower your risk of cancer when you're over 60? No. Does vitamin d lower your risk of dying from cancer when you're over 60? No. Does vitamin d lower your risk of dying after the first two years of your cancer when you're over 60? Maybe... Should you use vitamin d as an alternative to cancer therapy? Absolutley not (just making this clear for everyone).  Should you take vitamin d at all? Sure, why not? Getting enough vitamin d is important to your overall health.   Edit: after the first two years.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 679.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9wedqu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Does the recent Vitamin D study published in the NEJM show significant results of reduction in risk of death from cancer? The recent study on Vitamin D Supplements and Prevention of Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease published in the NEJM didn't show a lower incidence of cancer than placebo. However, it did show a reduction in death from cancer, especially, as noted in the results of the study, when the first two years of the study are excluded. Are these significant results? Is there any additional context/interpretation of these results that could help a layperson make some useful inferences here?", "c_root_id_A": "e9k7uqb", "c_root_id_B": "e9k5rl4", "created_at_utc_A": 1542041133, "created_at_utc_B": 1542039428, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I just read through the paper quickly. From what I understand, overall cancer mortality is not significant when all checkpoints are included. However, when you exclude the deaths from one and two years of follow-up (not part of the approved protocol, just a data analysis they did when they noticed something) then there is a significant reduction in cancer mortality in the vitamin d group. I believe what they are referring to can be seen on supplemental figure 2d. If you look at the inset graph beginning on year 3, you see the treatment group dotted line below the placebo group. Please correct me if I'm wrong if I misinterpreted this.   Now for the question of significance. Let's look at the bottom of table 2 giving you the number of cancer deaths between the groups. That difference is 37 people. What does this mean? The obvious argument is that the vitamin d helped improve survival in patients that didn't die from more aggressive cancer in the first few years. Why? Maybe they were slightly healthier due to supplementation.   Now, this is a pretty small group of people, and I think there are smaller variables at play that could cause this result. The study only mentions the invasive cancer types they were interested in, but that only accounts for a fraction of total cancer incidence. It could be that the vitamin d group just so happened to have slightly fewer cancer types that were lethal in the later years.   So for the layperson. Does vitamin d lower your risk of cancer when you're over 60? No. Does vitamin d lower your risk of dying from cancer when you're over 60? No. Does vitamin d lower your risk of dying after the first two years of your cancer when you're over 60? Maybe... Should you use vitamin d as an alternative to cancer therapy? Absolutley not (just making this clear for everyone).  Should you take vitamin d at all? Sure, why not? Getting enough vitamin d is important to your overall health.   Edit: after the first two years.", "human_ref_B": "None of the secondary endpoints look significant, their CI (confidence intervals) spanned 1.0. If the CI had been on one side of 1.0 or the other, e.g., 0.5-0.9 or 1.3-1.5, then those would have been significant differences.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1705.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vg68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "If certain animals can regenerate limbs (geckos tails, octopus tentacles, starfish, etc.), why isn't there focus on how these animals do this to try and figure out human organ/limb regeneration? Why hasn't research been done on trying to figure out how to regenerate a human body part (not cloning)? Wouldn't this prevent rejection of that part since it stems from that individual's body? If research has been done on this, why wasn't it successful?", "c_root_id_A": "ces04bd", "c_root_id_B": "ces1dmc", "created_at_utc_A": 1389978586, "created_at_utc_B": 1389981278, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "I know a lab at my university (University of Alabama at Birmingham) works with axolotls and their limb regeneration (or is going to, not sure how much theyve done with them), as well as determinite vs. indeterminite muscle growth in different fish species, namely different species of danios. The lab head is Dr. Peggy Biga, if you want to read any of her papers.", "human_ref_B": "While I must admit that my first thought on reading your question was \"duh, of course it's being worked on\" a little thinking brought me to wonder how it is that people do not know what types of research is being done. As a scientist it makes me a little bit sad that the general public is unaware of a lot of things that the scientific community works on, and this is probably a greater failing of scientists and the media in general.   But for your question, the research you are talking about is being done at universities and companies all over the world. It is a busy area. A quick google search for \"centers for regenerative medicine\" and you will find tons of good information about who is doing this work and where they are located.   The issue is that this research takes a long time. Humans are not axolotls, and the first step to translating this research into something applicable to humans is to understand every molecular step from injury to regrowth in an animal that has this capability, then find parallels in humans, then find a way to apply this knowledge to a living person. All in all, not an easy task, and it will be a long time until wide scale applications are available to regrow something like a human hand for an injured soldier.  Some reviews to read to get a feel for where the field is (note that there are likely better articles that are stuck behind a pay wall): The axolotl model for regeneration and aging research: a mini-review.  Spinal cord regeneration: Lessons for mammals from non-mammalian vertebrates  There is also a new scientific journal taking submissions called Regeneration  **tl;dr: It is being done, but it's a slow process that takes lots of work and money.**", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2692.0, "score_ratio": 5.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vg68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "If certain animals can regenerate limbs (geckos tails, octopus tentacles, starfish, etc.), why isn't there focus on how these animals do this to try and figure out human organ/limb regeneration? Why hasn't research been done on trying to figure out how to regenerate a human body part (not cloning)? Wouldn't this prevent rejection of that part since it stems from that individual's body? If research has been done on this, why wasn't it successful?", "c_root_id_A": "ces15cr", "c_root_id_B": "ces1dmc", "created_at_utc_A": 1389980790, "created_at_utc_B": 1389981278, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "There is research! Neuroscience is a fast growing field thanks to recent developments in technology. My old advisor is doing regeneration research with worms. Maybe you do, but a lot of people don't understand that research is just a bunch of baby steps towards a big breakthrough in discovery. Because neuroscience is just gaining more attention (and thus more funding) all the little discoveries are still piling up. We have to learn how something works before we can go on improving it.  Edit: it has also been- not published- but speculated that humans have evolved to the point where we're focused on protection, rather than regeneration. But I don't have any references for that.", "human_ref_B": "While I must admit that my first thought on reading your question was \"duh, of course it's being worked on\" a little thinking brought me to wonder how it is that people do not know what types of research is being done. As a scientist it makes me a little bit sad that the general public is unaware of a lot of things that the scientific community works on, and this is probably a greater failing of scientists and the media in general.   But for your question, the research you are talking about is being done at universities and companies all over the world. It is a busy area. A quick google search for \"centers for regenerative medicine\" and you will find tons of good information about who is doing this work and where they are located.   The issue is that this research takes a long time. Humans are not axolotls, and the first step to translating this research into something applicable to humans is to understand every molecular step from injury to regrowth in an animal that has this capability, then find parallels in humans, then find a way to apply this knowledge to a living person. All in all, not an easy task, and it will be a long time until wide scale applications are available to regrow something like a human hand for an injured soldier.  Some reviews to read to get a feel for where the field is (note that there are likely better articles that are stuck behind a pay wall): The axolotl model for regeneration and aging research: a mini-review.  Spinal cord regeneration: Lessons for mammals from non-mammalian vertebrates  There is also a new scientific journal taking submissions called Regeneration  **tl;dr: It is being done, but it's a slow process that takes lots of work and money.**", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 488.0, "score_ratio": 16.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vg68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "If certain animals can regenerate limbs (geckos tails, octopus tentacles, starfish, etc.), why isn't there focus on how these animals do this to try and figure out human organ/limb regeneration? Why hasn't research been done on trying to figure out how to regenerate a human body part (not cloning)? Wouldn't this prevent rejection of that part since it stems from that individual's body? If research has been done on this, why wasn't it successful?", "c_root_id_A": "ces0q8c", "c_root_id_B": "ces1dmc", "created_at_utc_A": 1389979891, "created_at_utc_B": 1389981278, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Aparently regeneration is done through the current running through your body. This is how it works in humans for bone regeneration however some animals have just evolved to use it for entire limbs.  Sauce: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC431978/", "human_ref_B": "While I must admit that my first thought on reading your question was \"duh, of course it's being worked on\" a little thinking brought me to wonder how it is that people do not know what types of research is being done. As a scientist it makes me a little bit sad that the general public is unaware of a lot of things that the scientific community works on, and this is probably a greater failing of scientists and the media in general.   But for your question, the research you are talking about is being done at universities and companies all over the world. It is a busy area. A quick google search for \"centers for regenerative medicine\" and you will find tons of good information about who is doing this work and where they are located.   The issue is that this research takes a long time. Humans are not axolotls, and the first step to translating this research into something applicable to humans is to understand every molecular step from injury to regrowth in an animal that has this capability, then find parallels in humans, then find a way to apply this knowledge to a living person. All in all, not an easy task, and it will be a long time until wide scale applications are available to regrow something like a human hand for an injured soldier.  Some reviews to read to get a feel for where the field is (note that there are likely better articles that are stuck behind a pay wall): The axolotl model for regeneration and aging research: a mini-review.  Spinal cord regeneration: Lessons for mammals from non-mammalian vertebrates  There is also a new scientific journal taking submissions called Regeneration  **tl;dr: It is being done, but it's a slow process that takes lots of work and money.**", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1387.0, "score_ratio": -16.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vg68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "If certain animals can regenerate limbs (geckos tails, octopus tentacles, starfish, etc.), why isn't there focus on how these animals do this to try and figure out human organ/limb regeneration? Why hasn't research been done on trying to figure out how to regenerate a human body part (not cloning)? Wouldn't this prevent rejection of that part since it stems from that individual's body? If research has been done on this, why wasn't it successful?", "c_root_id_A": "cesnx5o", "c_root_id_B": "ces15cr", "created_at_utc_A": 1390052927, "created_at_utc_B": 1389980790, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I did my postdoc in a lab that was working with salamander regeneration - the research is going on (and a competitive area), but the gap between amphibian models and mammalian models is still pretty big. Gaining the ability to regenerate isn't as simple as adding or turning on a set of cells/genes:  - The immune systems of regenerators are different from humans' defenses. The mammalian immune system rejects cells with \"abnormal\" development, but tadpoles and salamanders don't. Humans *need* to do this - it's part of our defense against cellular abnormalities like cancer. More simple models like hydra and starfish have very primitive defenses, which may make regeneration easier for them.  - The life cycles of many regenerators are different than humans'. To change from larva to adult an amphibian has to remodel lots of structures in its body, the best human analogs for this are puberty and menopause. It may be that the requirement of metamorphosis has influenced the genetic controls in a way that allows for modified, post-embyonic development in those species.  - The normal body patterns/development/regenerative mechanisms of species which can regenerate limbs are different. Starfish and octopus regeneration doesn't require osteogenesis (making bone), which requires lots of cell-to-cell interactions, cell migration, cartilage formation, etc. Starfish symmetry of organs and limbs means that there's little info to convey to a regenerating tissue about where it is located and what types of cells are needed. Amphibian models are a better reflection of what would happen in a human (more complex limbs, different front and hind limb patterns), and we are figuring out which genes are signaling during regeneration in those models.  At this point the most successful applications of regenerative medicine are acheived by forming new tissues outside the patient's body and then transplanting them in when complete. That bypasses problems of how to get cells to behave in the desired way and avoid rejection. Check out atala's work at Wake Forest - he's done a lot of that work and is good at explaining it.", "human_ref_B": "There is research! Neuroscience is a fast growing field thanks to recent developments in technology. My old advisor is doing regeneration research with worms. Maybe you do, but a lot of people don't understand that research is just a bunch of baby steps towards a big breakthrough in discovery. Because neuroscience is just gaining more attention (and thus more funding) all the little discoveries are still piling up. We have to learn how something works before we can go on improving it.  Edit: it has also been- not published- but speculated that humans have evolved to the point where we're focused on protection, rather than regeneration. But I don't have any references for that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 72137.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vg68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "If certain animals can regenerate limbs (geckos tails, octopus tentacles, starfish, etc.), why isn't there focus on how these animals do this to try and figure out human organ/limb regeneration? Why hasn't research been done on trying to figure out how to regenerate a human body part (not cloning)? Wouldn't this prevent rejection of that part since it stems from that individual's body? If research has been done on this, why wasn't it successful?", "c_root_id_A": "ces0q8c", "c_root_id_B": "cesnx5o", "created_at_utc_A": 1389979891, "created_at_utc_B": 1390052927, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Aparently regeneration is done through the current running through your body. This is how it works in humans for bone regeneration however some animals have just evolved to use it for entire limbs.  Sauce: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC431978/", "human_ref_B": "I did my postdoc in a lab that was working with salamander regeneration - the research is going on (and a competitive area), but the gap between amphibian models and mammalian models is still pretty big. Gaining the ability to regenerate isn't as simple as adding or turning on a set of cells/genes:  - The immune systems of regenerators are different from humans' defenses. The mammalian immune system rejects cells with \"abnormal\" development, but tadpoles and salamanders don't. Humans *need* to do this - it's part of our defense against cellular abnormalities like cancer. More simple models like hydra and starfish have very primitive defenses, which may make regeneration easier for them.  - The life cycles of many regenerators are different than humans'. To change from larva to adult an amphibian has to remodel lots of structures in its body, the best human analogs for this are puberty and menopause. It may be that the requirement of metamorphosis has influenced the genetic controls in a way that allows for modified, post-embyonic development in those species.  - The normal body patterns/development/regenerative mechanisms of species which can regenerate limbs are different. Starfish and octopus regeneration doesn't require osteogenesis (making bone), which requires lots of cell-to-cell interactions, cell migration, cartilage formation, etc. Starfish symmetry of organs and limbs means that there's little info to convey to a regenerating tissue about where it is located and what types of cells are needed. Amphibian models are a better reflection of what would happen in a human (more complex limbs, different front and hind limb patterns), and we are figuring out which genes are signaling during regeneration in those models.  At this point the most successful applications of regenerative medicine are acheived by forming new tissues outside the patient's body and then transplanting them in when complete. That bypasses problems of how to get cells to behave in the desired way and avoid rejection. Check out atala's work at Wake Forest - he's done a lot of that work and is good at explaining it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 73036.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vg68j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "If certain animals can regenerate limbs (geckos tails, octopus tentacles, starfish, etc.), why isn't there focus on how these animals do this to try and figure out human organ/limb regeneration? Why hasn't research been done on trying to figure out how to regenerate a human body part (not cloning)? Wouldn't this prevent rejection of that part since it stems from that individual's body? If research has been done on this, why wasn't it successful?", "c_root_id_A": "ces15cr", "c_root_id_B": "ces0q8c", "created_at_utc_A": 1389980790, "created_at_utc_B": 1389979891, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "There is research! Neuroscience is a fast growing field thanks to recent developments in technology. My old advisor is doing regeneration research with worms. Maybe you do, but a lot of people don't understand that research is just a bunch of baby steps towards a big breakthrough in discovery. Because neuroscience is just gaining more attention (and thus more funding) all the little discoveries are still piling up. We have to learn how something works before we can go on improving it.  Edit: it has also been- not published- but speculated that humans have evolved to the point where we're focused on protection, rather than regeneration. But I don't have any references for that.", "human_ref_B": "Aparently regeneration is done through the current running through your body. This is how it works in humans for bone regeneration however some animals have just evolved to use it for entire limbs.  Sauce: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC431978/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 899.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf45a1r", "c_root_id_B": "hf3t3yl", "created_at_utc_A": 1633192703, "created_at_utc_B": 1633187397, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "You should also look up epigenetics if you're interested.  Short explanation is that it's the study of external factors (lifestyle, disease environment or just normal development) that alter gene expression without directly altering DNA and how those changes can be heritable.  It sorta explains how some individuals become more susceptible to certain types of cancer over time because of these changes.  https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/929026", "human_ref_B": "Yes. I have seen a presentation on this before but I don\u2019t remember who gave it. Generally over time a persons DNA overall mutates. This, combined with epigenetic modifications overtime are just a few of the factors believed to cause aging to occur.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5306.0, "score_ratio": 2.3571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf3vicm", "c_root_id_B": "hf45a1r", "created_at_utc_A": 1633188477, "created_at_utc_B": 1633192703, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "I would add that you would be able to tell if the DNA of someone as a child was from the same person as an adult. It doesn't change nearly enough to show up as a different person altogether. Source: I am a molecular genetics PhD student.", "human_ref_B": "You should also look up epigenetics if you're interested.  Short explanation is that it's the study of external factors (lifestyle, disease environment or just normal development) that alter gene expression without directly altering DNA and how those changes can be heritable.  It sorta explains how some individuals become more susceptible to certain types of cancer over time because of these changes.  https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/929026", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4226.0, "score_ratio": 3.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf42w4w", "c_root_id_B": "hf45a1r", "created_at_utc_A": 1633191678, "created_at_utc_B": 1633192703, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "It depends. You can read the wiki article \u2018Mutation rate \u2014 variations in \u2026\u2019  A mutation for our purpose is the \u2018bit flipping\u2019 or changing of one nucleotide to another. This is called a substitution or a point mutation  Your DNA is comprised of coding and noncoding sections. The latter mutate faster because they are not a priority for DNA proofreading machinery to correct.  Mitochondrial DNA also has a higher mutation rate at 3 x 10^-5 per base per generation  Your protein coding DNA has 1 x 10^-8 \u2014||\u2014  RNA viruses have between 10^-5 and 10^-3 \u2014||\u2014  So it depends where in the genome you look; mutations increase over time / as you age because 1.) your non replicating cells (eg neurons) are older and thus have accumulated more mutations and 2.) your error correction machinery is worse. Additionally, rapidly dividing cells mutate more because each cell replication comes with it own error (this time in the copying machinery). However, this is less true for our sperms and egg cells which have evolved to accumulate fewer mutations for obvious reasons.   TLdR; Because you have 3.2 x 10^9 base pairs, I would assume that your DNA is on average 99.9% the same when you die. But it depends which cell you look at.", "human_ref_B": "You should also look up epigenetics if you're interested.  Short explanation is that it's the study of external factors (lifestyle, disease environment or just normal development) that alter gene expression without directly altering DNA and how those changes can be heritable.  It sorta explains how some individuals become more susceptible to certain types of cancer over time because of these changes.  https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/929026", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1025.0, "score_ratio": 16.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf3t3yl", "c_root_id_B": "hf4a59g", "created_at_utc_A": 1633187397, "created_at_utc_B": 1633194742, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Yes. I have seen a presentation on this before but I don\u2019t remember who gave it. Generally over time a persons DNA overall mutates. This, combined with epigenetic modifications overtime are just a few of the factors believed to cause aging to occur.", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is \u201cyes\u201d. The longer answer is that DNA within a given cell is very stable and barring something like damage from ionizing radiation or ultraviolet light, the DNA in that cell is NOT going to change. However, when the cell divides (how often that happens depends on the type of cell and circumstances), the child cell will have a few genetic differences from the parent cell; the process of DNA replication is ALMOST perfect, but a few errors (on the order of a 10-30 out of 6.4 billion base pairs) do happen.  Also, there are cells that do intentionally undergo genetic changes. A good example might be immune cells that make genetic rearrangements in regions associated with antibody production to be able to adapt the immune system to address novel antigens.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7345.0, "score_ratio": 1.6428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf4a59g", "c_root_id_B": "hf3vicm", "created_at_utc_A": 1633194742, "created_at_utc_B": 1633188477, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is \u201cyes\u201d. The longer answer is that DNA within a given cell is very stable and barring something like damage from ionizing radiation or ultraviolet light, the DNA in that cell is NOT going to change. However, when the cell divides (how often that happens depends on the type of cell and circumstances), the child cell will have a few genetic differences from the parent cell; the process of DNA replication is ALMOST perfect, but a few errors (on the order of a 10-30 out of 6.4 billion base pairs) do happen.  Also, there are cells that do intentionally undergo genetic changes. A good example might be immune cells that make genetic rearrangements in regions associated with antibody production to be able to adapt the immune system to address novel antigens.", "human_ref_B": "I would add that you would be able to tell if the DNA of someone as a child was from the same person as an adult. It doesn't change nearly enough to show up as a different person altogether. Source: I am a molecular genetics PhD student.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6265.0, "score_ratio": 2.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf42w4w", "c_root_id_B": "hf4a59g", "created_at_utc_A": 1633191678, "created_at_utc_B": 1633194742, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "It depends. You can read the wiki article \u2018Mutation rate \u2014 variations in \u2026\u2019  A mutation for our purpose is the \u2018bit flipping\u2019 or changing of one nucleotide to another. This is called a substitution or a point mutation  Your DNA is comprised of coding and noncoding sections. The latter mutate faster because they are not a priority for DNA proofreading machinery to correct.  Mitochondrial DNA also has a higher mutation rate at 3 x 10^-5 per base per generation  Your protein coding DNA has 1 x 10^-8 \u2014||\u2014  RNA viruses have between 10^-5 and 10^-3 \u2014||\u2014  So it depends where in the genome you look; mutations increase over time / as you age because 1.) your non replicating cells (eg neurons) are older and thus have accumulated more mutations and 2.) your error correction machinery is worse. Additionally, rapidly dividing cells mutate more because each cell replication comes with it own error (this time in the copying machinery). However, this is less true for our sperms and egg cells which have evolved to accumulate fewer mutations for obvious reasons.   TLdR; Because you have 3.2 x 10^9 base pairs, I would assume that your DNA is on average 99.9% the same when you die. But it depends which cell you look at.", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is \u201cyes\u201d. The longer answer is that DNA within a given cell is very stable and barring something like damage from ionizing radiation or ultraviolet light, the DNA in that cell is NOT going to change. However, when the cell divides (how often that happens depends on the type of cell and circumstances), the child cell will have a few genetic differences from the parent cell; the process of DNA replication is ALMOST perfect, but a few errors (on the order of a 10-30 out of 6.4 billion base pairs) do happen.  Also, there are cells that do intentionally undergo genetic changes. A good example might be immune cells that make genetic rearrangements in regions associated with antibody production to be able to adapt the immune system to address novel antigens.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3064.0, "score_ratio": 11.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf4zolx", "c_root_id_B": "hf42w4w", "created_at_utc_A": 1633205802, "created_at_utc_B": 1633191678, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The reality underlying this is much more nuanced, to the point that the question ends up not making sense, and then makes sense again.  After mom's egg and dad's sperm met, it creates a zygote, the very first cell of a new individual. This cell has 50% of its DNA from your paternal line and 50% form the maternal lineage. Including all the *de novo* mutations appearing in their eggs and sperm.  After the zygote is created, it starts dividing. From one cell we get 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... up to millions. Now, each of these cells has its own DNA. And mutations happen. A lot. Mutations are already happening independently in individual cells during early embriogenesis. When a mutation happens in a cell, and it is carried by all the daughter cells of that originally mutated cell, we call that a \"clone\" or \"subclone\". After the early stages of early embryogenesis, these clones mix up, and start developing into the whole individual (so your whole liver or brain does not originate from a single cell, but a pool with of cells with already different mutations).   Mutations do not stop appearing after development and keep appearing independently in cells through time. This paper from 2 days ago shows ~25 point mutations per year in intestines of healthy people. Mutations only appear when a cell divides, so tissues with short replicating times tend to accumulate more mutations than \"slower\" tissues (example in cancer, figure 1). Also, mutations happen spontaneously because of unstable chemical bonds in the DNA molecules as well as for errors made by the DNA replication machinery. However, other factors also induce large numbers of mutations, like exposure to certain chemicals or radiation. Thus, tissues more exposed to the environment (skin, lungs, intestines) accumulate more mutations than non-exposed tissues (example in cancer, figure 3).   Combine all these things and you'll see why your question really doesn't make sense. All of the cells of a newborn are already a mosaic of different cell lineages accumulating mutations. The only cells of a baby that have **identical** DNA, are adjacent cells coming from a very recent subclone. The older you get, the more cell divisions your tissues undergo, and the more mutations are accumulated. In this paper (especially fig 4g) you can see how many different subclones are present in a single piece of skin of an adult. Also, keep in mind that these mutations also happen in the cells that will become your eggs/sperm. This goes back to step 1, with those *de novo* mutations that will be passed to your offspring (Figure 1).  However, having said all that, take the example of colon. 25 mutations/year. After 80 years, that's 2,000 mutations. But, our genome is ~3Gbp long. That's 3,000,000,000 bases. 2kbp / 3gbp is 0.000067%. That's how different are your an old person's cell from their initial zygote.  These mutations, however, are appearing randomly in each individual cell. And sequencing a single cell is very difficult and imprecise because of the small amount of starting biological material. The most common way of genome sequencing takes a pool of cells (tissue sample, blood,...) and sequences all them together. These are hundreds or thousands of individual cells, and you end up obtaining the \"average sequence\" of them all. As mutations are appearing independently in each cell, most of them will be different and will be averaged out, giving you the \"original DNA sequence\", plus a very small number of mutations appearing in very early events. These early events already happened when you are a children, so a side answer to your original question is \"you can still 100% identify the person by its DNA by comparing the baby and the old person\".  TL;DR: All your cells are already different from the moment you are born. However, mutations appear independently and they are averaged out when analyzing multiple cells at once.", "human_ref_B": "It depends. You can read the wiki article \u2018Mutation rate \u2014 variations in \u2026\u2019  A mutation for our purpose is the \u2018bit flipping\u2019 or changing of one nucleotide to another. This is called a substitution or a point mutation  Your DNA is comprised of coding and noncoding sections. The latter mutate faster because they are not a priority for DNA proofreading machinery to correct.  Mitochondrial DNA also has a higher mutation rate at 3 x 10^-5 per base per generation  Your protein coding DNA has 1 x 10^-8 \u2014||\u2014  RNA viruses have between 10^-5 and 10^-3 \u2014||\u2014  So it depends where in the genome you look; mutations increase over time / as you age because 1.) your non replicating cells (eg neurons) are older and thus have accumulated more mutations and 2.) your error correction machinery is worse. Additionally, rapidly dividing cells mutate more because each cell replication comes with it own error (this time in the copying machinery). However, this is less true for our sperms and egg cells which have evolved to accumulate fewer mutations for obvious reasons.   TLdR; Because you have 3.2 x 10^9 base pairs, I would assume that your DNA is on average 99.9% the same when you die. But it depends which cell you look at.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14124.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf4qdwy", "c_root_id_B": "hf4zolx", "created_at_utc_A": 1633201760, "created_at_utc_B": 1633205802, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Yes, as a function of the turnover rate of the particular cell type, the cell lineage's exposure mutagens, etc. So I'd expect to see no/ very few changes in brain cortex neurons, but quite a few in skin cells and digestive tract endothelial cells in older adults. Cancer cells would necessarily have the changes that make them cancerous.", "human_ref_B": "The reality underlying this is much more nuanced, to the point that the question ends up not making sense, and then makes sense again.  After mom's egg and dad's sperm met, it creates a zygote, the very first cell of a new individual. This cell has 50% of its DNA from your paternal line and 50% form the maternal lineage. Including all the *de novo* mutations appearing in their eggs and sperm.  After the zygote is created, it starts dividing. From one cell we get 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... up to millions. Now, each of these cells has its own DNA. And mutations happen. A lot. Mutations are already happening independently in individual cells during early embriogenesis. When a mutation happens in a cell, and it is carried by all the daughter cells of that originally mutated cell, we call that a \"clone\" or \"subclone\". After the early stages of early embryogenesis, these clones mix up, and start developing into the whole individual (so your whole liver or brain does not originate from a single cell, but a pool with of cells with already different mutations).   Mutations do not stop appearing after development and keep appearing independently in cells through time. This paper from 2 days ago shows ~25 point mutations per year in intestines of healthy people. Mutations only appear when a cell divides, so tissues with short replicating times tend to accumulate more mutations than \"slower\" tissues (example in cancer, figure 1). Also, mutations happen spontaneously because of unstable chemical bonds in the DNA molecules as well as for errors made by the DNA replication machinery. However, other factors also induce large numbers of mutations, like exposure to certain chemicals or radiation. Thus, tissues more exposed to the environment (skin, lungs, intestines) accumulate more mutations than non-exposed tissues (example in cancer, figure 3).   Combine all these things and you'll see why your question really doesn't make sense. All of the cells of a newborn are already a mosaic of different cell lineages accumulating mutations. The only cells of a baby that have **identical** DNA, are adjacent cells coming from a very recent subclone. The older you get, the more cell divisions your tissues undergo, and the more mutations are accumulated. In this paper (especially fig 4g) you can see how many different subclones are present in a single piece of skin of an adult. Also, keep in mind that these mutations also happen in the cells that will become your eggs/sperm. This goes back to step 1, with those *de novo* mutations that will be passed to your offspring (Figure 1).  However, having said all that, take the example of colon. 25 mutations/year. After 80 years, that's 2,000 mutations. But, our genome is ~3Gbp long. That's 3,000,000,000 bases. 2kbp / 3gbp is 0.000067%. That's how different are your an old person's cell from their initial zygote.  These mutations, however, are appearing randomly in each individual cell. And sequencing a single cell is very difficult and imprecise because of the small amount of starting biological material. The most common way of genome sequencing takes a pool of cells (tissue sample, blood,...) and sequences all them together. These are hundreds or thousands of individual cells, and you end up obtaining the \"average sequence\" of them all. As mutations are appearing independently in each cell, most of them will be different and will be averaged out, giving you the \"original DNA sequence\", plus a very small number of mutations appearing in very early events. These early events already happened when you are a children, so a side answer to your original question is \"you can still 100% identify the person by its DNA by comparing the baby and the old person\".  TL;DR: All your cells are already different from the moment you are born. However, mutations appear independently and they are averaged out when analyzing multiple cells at once.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4042.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzvtrk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Does DNA change over time? Does the human DNA genome change as a person ages? By this I mean could you test the DNA of a child and get an exact full profile match to the same person when they have reached old age?", "c_root_id_A": "hf4zolx", "c_root_id_B": "hf4wa6x", "created_at_utc_A": 1633205802, "created_at_utc_B": 1633204327, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The reality underlying this is much more nuanced, to the point that the question ends up not making sense, and then makes sense again.  After mom's egg and dad's sperm met, it creates a zygote, the very first cell of a new individual. This cell has 50% of its DNA from your paternal line and 50% form the maternal lineage. Including all the *de novo* mutations appearing in their eggs and sperm.  After the zygote is created, it starts dividing. From one cell we get 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... up to millions. Now, each of these cells has its own DNA. And mutations happen. A lot. Mutations are already happening independently in individual cells during early embriogenesis. When a mutation happens in a cell, and it is carried by all the daughter cells of that originally mutated cell, we call that a \"clone\" or \"subclone\". After the early stages of early embryogenesis, these clones mix up, and start developing into the whole individual (so your whole liver or brain does not originate from a single cell, but a pool with of cells with already different mutations).   Mutations do not stop appearing after development and keep appearing independently in cells through time. This paper from 2 days ago shows ~25 point mutations per year in intestines of healthy people. Mutations only appear when a cell divides, so tissues with short replicating times tend to accumulate more mutations than \"slower\" tissues (example in cancer, figure 1). Also, mutations happen spontaneously because of unstable chemical bonds in the DNA molecules as well as for errors made by the DNA replication machinery. However, other factors also induce large numbers of mutations, like exposure to certain chemicals or radiation. Thus, tissues more exposed to the environment (skin, lungs, intestines) accumulate more mutations than non-exposed tissues (example in cancer, figure 3).   Combine all these things and you'll see why your question really doesn't make sense. All of the cells of a newborn are already a mosaic of different cell lineages accumulating mutations. The only cells of a baby that have **identical** DNA, are adjacent cells coming from a very recent subclone. The older you get, the more cell divisions your tissues undergo, and the more mutations are accumulated. In this paper (especially fig 4g) you can see how many different subclones are present in a single piece of skin of an adult. Also, keep in mind that these mutations also happen in the cells that will become your eggs/sperm. This goes back to step 1, with those *de novo* mutations that will be passed to your offspring (Figure 1).  However, having said all that, take the example of colon. 25 mutations/year. After 80 years, that's 2,000 mutations. But, our genome is ~3Gbp long. That's 3,000,000,000 bases. 2kbp / 3gbp is 0.000067%. That's how different are your an old person's cell from their initial zygote.  These mutations, however, are appearing randomly in each individual cell. And sequencing a single cell is very difficult and imprecise because of the small amount of starting biological material. The most common way of genome sequencing takes a pool of cells (tissue sample, blood,...) and sequences all them together. These are hundreds or thousands of individual cells, and you end up obtaining the \"average sequence\" of them all. As mutations are appearing independently in each cell, most of them will be different and will be averaged out, giving you the \"original DNA sequence\", plus a very small number of mutations appearing in very early events. These early events already happened when you are a children, so a side answer to your original question is \"you can still 100% identify the person by its DNA by comparing the baby and the old person\".  TL;DR: All your cells are already different from the moment you are born. However, mutations appear independently and they are averaged out when analyzing multiple cells at once.", "human_ref_B": "It depends on how it was analyzed. If you just sequenced DNA of skin tissue there probably wouldn\u2019t be any significant differences. DNA methylation (different from the sequence) changes significantly as a function of age in a way that\u2019s so defined that one can pretty accurately determine a person\u2019s age solely on that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1475.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sgby7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "How much neutron star material would it take to equal the mass of earth? From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star \"A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 milliliters) of its material would have a mass over 5.5\u00d71012 kg, about 900 times the mass of the Great Pyramid of Giza.\"  This made me wonder how much neutron star material would it take to equal the mass of earth?  Also, if you were able to break off a piece with mass equal to the earth, would it expand, stay the same size or explode?  Sorry if these questions are ridiculous. Neutron stars (like much of the universe) boggles my mind!", "c_root_id_A": "c4dtpi6", "c_root_id_B": "c4dv0ye", "created_at_utc_A": 1334775597, "created_at_utc_B": 1334780920, "score_A": -10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "About 5.9736\u00d710^24 kg of neutron star material would equal the 5.9736\u00d710^24 kg mass of the earth.  Downvote if you like, but this is the correct answer to the question as posed.   What I *think* you are trying to ask is \"what would the volume of a sphere containing 5.9736\u00d710^24 kg of neutron star material be?\"", "human_ref_B": "Wolfram alpha is great at these kinds of numerical questions  WA says between 3-75 million cubic meters", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5323.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sgby7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "How much neutron star material would it take to equal the mass of earth? From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star \"A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 milliliters) of its material would have a mass over 5.5\u00d71012 kg, about 900 times the mass of the Great Pyramid of Giza.\"  This made me wonder how much neutron star material would it take to equal the mass of earth?  Also, if you were able to break off a piece with mass equal to the earth, would it expand, stay the same size or explode?  Sorry if these questions are ridiculous. Neutron stars (like much of the universe) boggles my mind!", "c_root_id_A": "c4dwq2j", "c_root_id_B": "c4dtpi6", "created_at_utc_A": 1334789034, "created_at_utc_B": 1334775597, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": ">Also, if you were able to break off a piece with mass equal to the earth, would it expand, stay the same size or explode?  A mass of neutron star matter less than 0.1 solar masses is thought to be unstable. It would explode.  Edit: ref Physics of Neutron Star Interiors.", "human_ref_B": "About 5.9736\u00d710^24 kg of neutron star material would equal the 5.9736\u00d710^24 kg mass of the earth.  Downvote if you like, but this is the correct answer to the question as posed.   What I *think* you are trying to ask is \"what would the volume of a sphere containing 5.9736\u00d710^24 kg of neutron star material be?\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13437.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zmdpf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Due to the curvature of the earth, your head will always travel faster and farther than your feet. Because passage through space and time are inversely related, how much slower are your feet aging than your head?", "c_root_id_A": "c65ylgr", "c_root_id_B": "c660yxl", "created_at_utc_A": 1347245916, "created_at_utc_B": 1347257151, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I'd guess, both things happen simultaneously (physics graduate here). Just calculated over the thumb: If you ride your bike at 36 km/h for one hour, every day in 79 years, then the time dilation difference between feet and head (2 meters apart, say, but just for an upper bound) would add up to something like 3.6 x 10^-14 seconds. But that's only the speed thing from special relativity - the 9 x 10^-8 seconds from general relativity are ages longer (well ... kinda). Fun fact: Both effects also compete for GPS satellites - they're whizzing through space (so their clocks go slower), but they're also in a place where gravity is not as strong (so their clocks go faster). And again, the gravity effect wins, although the numbers are actually in the same ballpark here.", "human_ref_B": "Don't forget that we spend on average about 1/3 of our lives asleep(and probably laying down, unless you're one of those people who sleeps standing up) so the effect would be even less noticeable.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11235.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ph8yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Optical illusions cause me to see something that isn't real. Are there examples of illusions like this that fool my other senses like smell, or hearing?", "c_root_id_A": "cw6hk5k", "c_root_id_B": "cw6i12r", "created_at_utc_A": 1445357069, "created_at_utc_B": 1445357763, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Yes, there are auditory illusions. Ventriloquism is probably the most familiar example. I'd argue that 3D audio \"stereoscapes\" are a form of illusion -- put on headphones, close your eyes, and listen to this. There are also many audio-visual interactions like the McGurk effect -- depending on whether your eyes are open or closed you hear different things. There's also the sound-induced flash illusion which is sort of the reverse of the McGurk -- in the McGurk, what you saw affected what you heard; in the sound-induced flash illusion, what you hear affects what you see.  There are also illusions of touch and body position like the rubber hand illusion.", "human_ref_B": "Another auditory illusion is the Shepard Tone where multiple pitches are introduced and then ascend or descend (while cycling in new pitches at the bottom/top of the scale) so it sounds like it's continuously rising/falling indefinitely. There are some examples of this in music like at the end of this Wilco song", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 694.0, "score_ratio": 2.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ph8yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Optical illusions cause me to see something that isn't real. Are there examples of illusions like this that fool my other senses like smell, or hearing?", "c_root_id_A": "cw6jjq7", "c_root_id_B": "cw6hk5k", "created_at_utc_A": 1445359977, "created_at_utc_B": 1445357069, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "There's the phantom ringing syndrom where people wrongly and repeatedly think that their phone was ringing or vibrating.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, there are auditory illusions. Ventriloquism is probably the most familiar example. I'd argue that 3D audio \"stereoscapes\" are a form of illusion -- put on headphones, close your eyes, and listen to this. There are also many audio-visual interactions like the McGurk effect -- depending on whether your eyes are open or closed you hear different things. There's also the sound-induced flash illusion which is sort of the reverse of the McGurk -- in the McGurk, what you saw affected what you heard; in the sound-induced flash illusion, what you hear affects what you see.  There are also illusions of touch and body position like the rubber hand illusion.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2908.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ph8yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Optical illusions cause me to see something that isn't real. Are there examples of illusions like this that fool my other senses like smell, or hearing?", "c_root_id_A": "cw6iy17", "c_root_id_B": "cw6jjq7", "created_at_utc_A": 1445359102, "created_at_utc_B": 1445359977, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "A followup question since I'm sure someone will mention the Shepard effect and pitch circularity. Do we have any idea why this barber pole effect happens neurologically. Is it a form of feedback loop, or the result of the brain filling in patterns that aren't there? Or something else entirely? Is it similar to why we perceive optical illusions, or is the underlying cause demonstrably different?", "human_ref_B": "There's the phantom ringing syndrom where people wrongly and repeatedly think that their phone was ringing or vibrating.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 875.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ph8yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Optical illusions cause me to see something that isn't real. Are there examples of illusions like this that fool my other senses like smell, or hearing?", "c_root_id_A": "cw6iy17", "c_root_id_B": "cw6vis6", "created_at_utc_A": 1445359102, "created_at_utc_B": 1445376581, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "A followup question since I'm sure someone will mention the Shepard effect and pitch circularity. Do we have any idea why this barber pole effect happens neurologically. Is it a form of feedback loop, or the result of the brain filling in patterns that aren't there? Or something else entirely? Is it similar to why we perceive optical illusions, or is the underlying cause demonstrably different?", "human_ref_B": "My favorite auditory illusion is illusory continuity. That link explains it well, but basically, if you listen to a tone with short silent gaps, you can hear the distinct times the tone goes off and on. If you fill the gaps with noise, your brain fills in the gaps perceptually, so it sounds like the tone is continuous.  This is also a well-studied optical illusion. It's easier to identify the letters when the white gaps are occluded with a distinct shape.  edit: spelling", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17479.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ph8yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Optical illusions cause me to see something that isn't real. Are there examples of illusions like this that fool my other senses like smell, or hearing?", "c_root_id_A": "cw6vis6", "c_root_id_B": "cw6rtqk", "created_at_utc_A": 1445376581, "created_at_utc_B": 1445371527, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "My favorite auditory illusion is illusory continuity. That link explains it well, but basically, if you listen to a tone with short silent gaps, you can hear the distinct times the tone goes off and on. If you fill the gaps with noise, your brain fills in the gaps perceptually, so it sounds like the tone is continuous.  This is also a well-studied optical illusion. It's easier to identify the letters when the white gaps are occluded with a distinct shape.  edit: spelling", "human_ref_B": "Binaural beats are also a good example. It's particularly creepy because it can cause your brain to \"hear\" frequencies that are not perceivable by your ears.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5054.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ph8yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Optical illusions cause me to see something that isn't real. Are there examples of illusions like this that fool my other senses like smell, or hearing?", "c_root_id_A": "cw6prt1", "c_root_id_B": "cw6vis6", "created_at_utc_A": 1445368673, "created_at_utc_B": 1445376581, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Lots of them. Optical illusions are the commonest, but there is the echo which is a sound illusion. Occ. metal in the pocket can feel like it's wet. also, there are gustatory illusions, too. Virtually any sense can be fooled.  Camouflage is yet another kind of optical illusion, quite often used naturally as well as by humans. Some flowers create smells which attract their pollinators, as well. So that may act as a gustatory illusion. Colognes and perfumes are much the same.  When we are sitting in a car at a stop, and a large vehicle begins to move forward to the side of us, we momentarily get the illusion that we are moving backwards, until we focus on a more fixed spot such as a tree or building nearby and the illusion is abolished by that comparison. The same is often seen at a train stop when the other train begins to pull out, giving much the same illusion as when in the car.  Motion sickness is also an illusion, and is abolished by fixing on a site which is not moving in which to fix a stable center of gravity comparison.  In space it's a rough situation, as there IS NO down and then there is space sickness.  Basically it's a comparison process misfiring. Wrote this some time ago and as optical illusions are quite serious at times, causing problems in radiological diagnoses and in related image reading, it was last year's topic at the European Radiological Society, to whom I pointed out this article.  https://jochesh00.wordpress.com/2014/03/06/opticalsensory-illusions-creativity-the-comp/", "human_ref_B": "My favorite auditory illusion is illusory continuity. That link explains it well, but basically, if you listen to a tone with short silent gaps, you can hear the distinct times the tone goes off and on. If you fill the gaps with noise, your brain fills in the gaps perceptually, so it sounds like the tone is continuous.  This is also a well-studied optical illusion. It's easier to identify the letters when the white gaps are occluded with a distinct shape.  edit: spelling", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7908.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ph8yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Optical illusions cause me to see something that isn't real. Are there examples of illusions like this that fool my other senses like smell, or hearing?", "c_root_id_A": "cw6rtqk", "c_root_id_B": "cw6prt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1445371527, "created_at_utc_B": 1445368673, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Binaural beats are also a good example. It's particularly creepy because it can cause your brain to \"hear\" frequencies that are not perceivable by your ears.", "human_ref_B": "Lots of them. Optical illusions are the commonest, but there is the echo which is a sound illusion. Occ. metal in the pocket can feel like it's wet. also, there are gustatory illusions, too. Virtually any sense can be fooled.  Camouflage is yet another kind of optical illusion, quite often used naturally as well as by humans. Some flowers create smells which attract their pollinators, as well. So that may act as a gustatory illusion. Colognes and perfumes are much the same.  When we are sitting in a car at a stop, and a large vehicle begins to move forward to the side of us, we momentarily get the illusion that we are moving backwards, until we focus on a more fixed spot such as a tree or building nearby and the illusion is abolished by that comparison. The same is often seen at a train stop when the other train begins to pull out, giving much the same illusion as when in the car.  Motion sickness is also an illusion, and is abolished by fixing on a site which is not moving in which to fix a stable center of gravity comparison.  In space it's a rough situation, as there IS NO down and then there is space sickness.  Basically it's a comparison process misfiring. Wrote this some time ago and as optical illusions are quite serious at times, causing problems in radiological diagnoses and in related image reading, it was last year's topic at the European Radiological Society, to whom I pointed out this article.  https://jochesh00.wordpress.com/2014/03/06/opticalsensory-illusions-creativity-the-comp/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2854.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1rebxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why aren't diesel engines used in sports cars? From my understanding they produce high torque at lower speeds, but why can't you just have a very high gear ratio in your transmission to get a high top speed?", "c_root_id_A": "cdmgh3g", "c_root_id_B": "cdmigug", "created_at_utc_A": 1385363054, "created_at_utc_B": 1385373906, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Audi developed a successful diesel Le Mans car, and I have heard rumors of a TDI R8.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_R10_TDI  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_R15_TDI  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_R18  http://www.autoblog.com/2008/01/13/detroit-2008-audi-unleashes-its-diesel-monster-the-r8-v12-tdi/", "human_ref_B": "Actually they have been used with great success in race cars against Gasoline powered cars, most notably by Audi in Le Mans: R10 R15.  But I guess the other posters have already given good reasons why you don't see them much in commercial sports cars.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10852.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1rebxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why aren't diesel engines used in sports cars? From my understanding they produce high torque at lower speeds, but why can't you just have a very high gear ratio in your transmission to get a high top speed?", "c_root_id_A": "cdmjtss", "c_root_id_B": "cdmp17m", "created_at_utc_A": 1385383572, "created_at_utc_B": 1385400647, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Never made it to production but there was a v12 diesel r8 a few years back at the car shows.   Looks like there are rumors about it coming back again as a new model with a diesel/electric hybrid drive train: http://www.autoguide.com/auto-news/2012/11/audi-r8-tdi-planned-as-diesel-supercar.html", "human_ref_B": "Lots of good answers already but I thought I'd mention that Mazda just won the Grand AM with a diesel.  http://www.grand-am.com/News/GA_News/tabid/141/Article/53994/mazda6-becomes-first-diesel-to-win-at-indianapolis-motor-speedway.aspx  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HbCLdWOHJBs  2.2L twin turbo diesel, 400BHP, 440FT/LBS TQ.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17075.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1rebxm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why aren't diesel engines used in sports cars? From my understanding they produce high torque at lower speeds, but why can't you just have a very high gear ratio in your transmission to get a high top speed?", "c_root_id_A": "cdmmuyj", "c_root_id_B": "cdmp17m", "created_at_utc_A": 1385395147, "created_at_utc_B": 1385400647, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The gear ratio that maximizes torque at the wheel for a given car speed is the one that puts in the engine at peak power. If what you're looking for is pure acceleration, engine torque figures are irrelevant, you want power. As already pointed out, diesel engines tend to have poor power-to-weight ratio, compared to gasoline engines.  But besides engineering issues, sports cars are not just about performance, a successful sports car needs to appeal to potential buyers. People who like sports cars tend to dislike diesel engines for more subjective reasons like:  * they don't sound good  * they smell  * they make a lot of smoke at full throttle", "human_ref_B": "Lots of good answers already but I thought I'd mention that Mazda just won the Grand AM with a diesel.  http://www.grand-am.com/News/GA_News/tabid/141/Article/53994/mazda6-becomes-first-diesel-to-win-at-indianapolis-motor-speedway.aspx  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HbCLdWOHJBs  2.2L twin turbo diesel, 400BHP, 440FT/LBS TQ.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5500.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "219hm7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is there any relationship between a person's blood type and anything else? Some people I know say they have a diet based on blood type. Others say mosquitos are more likely to attack one blood type over another. I'm skeptical.   I am wondering if blood type affects anything mental/psychological. Are people with certain blood types more likely to be affected by schizophrenia, alzheimer's, dyslexia, etc.? What about blood type and mental abilities; is one more artistic, mathematical, scientific, etc.? What about body type, athleticism, hypertension, cholesterol, etc.?  **Has blood type been linked to anything other than blood type?**", "c_root_id_A": "cgb2c3m", "c_root_id_B": "cgb1lqh", "created_at_utc_A": 1395708335, "created_at_utc_B": 1395706908, "score_A": 190, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "That rumor about mosquitoes is TRUE.  See:   Selective Feeding of Anopheles gambiae according to ABO Blood Group Status, Wood et al. 1972, Nature  Landing Preference of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) on Human Skin Among ABO Blood Groups, Secretors or Nonsecretors, and ABH Antigens Shirai et al. 2004, Journal of Medical Entomology  Also, credit to my gf, u/IAlbatross, who knew this.", "human_ref_B": "This is an interesting topic, there's a lot on the 'what' here. I'd like to ask 'why'?   Why is it that humans have different blood types? If one represented an evolutionary advantage, wouldn't the others have died out? It is an advantage for us as a species to have the variation?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1427.0, "score_ratio": 17.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "219hm7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Is there any relationship between a person's blood type and anything else? Some people I know say they have a diet based on blood type. Others say mosquitos are more likely to attack one blood type over another. I'm skeptical.   I am wondering if blood type affects anything mental/psychological. Are people with certain blood types more likely to be affected by schizophrenia, alzheimer's, dyslexia, etc.? What about blood type and mental abilities; is one more artistic, mathematical, scientific, etc.? What about body type, athleticism, hypertension, cholesterol, etc.?  **Has blood type been linked to anything other than blood type?**", "c_root_id_A": "cgb1lqh", "c_root_id_B": "cgb4fr0", "created_at_utc_A": 1395706908, "created_at_utc_B": 1395712505, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 64, "human_ref_A": "This is an interesting topic, there's a lot on the 'what' here. I'd like to ask 'why'?   Why is it that humans have different blood types? If one represented an evolutionary advantage, wouldn't the others have died out? It is an advantage for us as a species to have the variation?", "human_ref_B": "If your friends are talking about the same \"blood type dieting\" that I'm thinking of, it's pseudo-science.  Our blood types existed millions of years before our diets involved hunting or agriculture- this invalidates the entire theory behind the diet.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5597.0, "score_ratio": 5.8181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hblbjab", "c_root_id_B": "hblay0l", "created_at_utc_A": 1630777316, "created_at_utc_B": 1630777054, "score_A": 1979, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "Yes, trees turn water and CO2 into wood and leafs. If the forest burns the carbon turns back into CO2 again. Also, if the tree dies and is digested by insects etc that will also release the carbon as CO2 again. So a forest keeps a certain amount of carbon bound as biomass, but it's a steady-state, it doesn't keep absorbing carbon on net. If e.g. farmers burn down the forests to create fields this releases some extra carbon to the atmosphere, because the field has less biomass than the forest.", "human_ref_B": "Sort of. The carbon is locked into sugar molecules with the hydrogen from water, using photosynthesis as a catalyst. When burned, you could dramatize it by saying that the oxygen and carbon are reunited.   As a reminder, cellulose is a sugar.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 262.0, "score_ratio": 34.7192982456, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hblrvry", "c_root_id_B": "hblwhfs", "created_at_utc_A": 1630784711, "created_at_utc_B": 1630786809, "score_A": 81, "score_B": 1086, "human_ref_A": "This is correct, the CO2 of a forest is a fixed cycle, meaning that static forests won't positively or negatively affect the CO2 levels in the atmosphere. CO2 is absorbed into the \"body\" of the tree as it grows and released back into the atmosphere if the tree is burned or decomposed.  CO2 cycles are very interesting to consider. For example the CO2 cycle of humans can be considered as a closed cycle involving only us and the food that we grow (mainly corn and rice), with the CO2 passing only transiently through the atmosphere as it trades back and forth between us and our crops. This is because plants convert free CO2 in the atmosphere into carbohydrates, which humans then harvest and consume, before metabolizing them back into CO2 that we exhale. The quantity of CO2 that we exhale exactly equals the CO2 absorbed by our crops as they grow, continuing the cycle. The cycle is extended if we eat meat: the carbon passes from atmosphere to plants to animals to humans and back to the atmosphere, but it is still a closed cycle.   The ecosystem is naturally comprised of these closed carbon cycles, which is why adding so much carbon to the atmosphere, that had been previously sequestered underground for millions of years, is such a crazy and dangerous experiment.", "human_ref_B": "Some of it, yes. Photosynthesis converts energy from the sun and CO2 into glucose molecules (and oxygen). Some of this is stored as sugars and starch (simple polymers of sugars). Much of it goes into production of structural compounds like cellulose and lignin which make up much of the wood and leaves.  However, approximately 65% of CO2 taken up by trees is returned to the atmosphere. Trees consume energy stores for growth and maintenance, a process called respiration. This is similar to respiration in our own bodies, and also requires uptake of oxygen. So during an average year, a tree only retains 35% of the carbon it initially collected, released through diffusion by roots and other tissues.  When a forest burns, wood consumed by fire is reconverted to CO2. Yet much of the woody material remains unburnt, depending on the location, fire intensity, and tree species. This unburnt wood will begin to decay in time, a process that might take years to decades. Also, roots often remain unburnt as well and decay in soil. Much of this decaying wood is released over this time as CO2, but some of it becomes incorporated as part of the soil, where it tends to decay even slower.  Overall, the movement of CO2 in and out of forests is much more complicated than it appears on the the surface, and while we've learned a lot, models still have a lot of uncertainty and variability in some areas. This is a highly active area of research, especially in the tropics and far north where deforestation and climate change are rapidly shifting forest dynamics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2098.0, "score_ratio": 13.4074074074, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hblwhfs", "c_root_id_B": "hblay0l", "created_at_utc_A": 1630786809, "created_at_utc_B": 1630777054, "score_A": 1086, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "Some of it, yes. Photosynthesis converts energy from the sun and CO2 into glucose molecules (and oxygen). Some of this is stored as sugars and starch (simple polymers of sugars). Much of it goes into production of structural compounds like cellulose and lignin which make up much of the wood and leaves.  However, approximately 65% of CO2 taken up by trees is returned to the atmosphere. Trees consume energy stores for growth and maintenance, a process called respiration. This is similar to respiration in our own bodies, and also requires uptake of oxygen. So during an average year, a tree only retains 35% of the carbon it initially collected, released through diffusion by roots and other tissues.  When a forest burns, wood consumed by fire is reconverted to CO2. Yet much of the woody material remains unburnt, depending on the location, fire intensity, and tree species. This unburnt wood will begin to decay in time, a process that might take years to decades. Also, roots often remain unburnt as well and decay in soil. Much of this decaying wood is released over this time as CO2, but some of it becomes incorporated as part of the soil, where it tends to decay even slower.  Overall, the movement of CO2 in and out of forests is much more complicated than it appears on the the surface, and while we've learned a lot, models still have a lot of uncertainty and variability in some areas. This is a highly active area of research, especially in the tropics and far north where deforestation and climate change are rapidly shifting forest dynamics.", "human_ref_B": "Sort of. The carbon is locked into sugar molecules with the hydrogen from water, using photosynthesis as a catalyst. When burned, you could dramatize it by saying that the oxygen and carbon are reunited.   As a reminder, cellulose is a sugar.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9755.0, "score_ratio": 19.0526315789, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hblay0l", "c_root_id_B": "hblrvry", "created_at_utc_A": 1630777054, "created_at_utc_B": 1630784711, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 81, "human_ref_A": "Sort of. The carbon is locked into sugar molecules with the hydrogen from water, using photosynthesis as a catalyst. When burned, you could dramatize it by saying that the oxygen and carbon are reunited.   As a reminder, cellulose is a sugar.", "human_ref_B": "This is correct, the CO2 of a forest is a fixed cycle, meaning that static forests won't positively or negatively affect the CO2 levels in the atmosphere. CO2 is absorbed into the \"body\" of the tree as it grows and released back into the atmosphere if the tree is burned or decomposed.  CO2 cycles are very interesting to consider. For example the CO2 cycle of humans can be considered as a closed cycle involving only us and the food that we grow (mainly corn and rice), with the CO2 passing only transiently through the atmosphere as it trades back and forth between us and our crops. This is because plants convert free CO2 in the atmosphere into carbohydrates, which humans then harvest and consume, before metabolizing them back into CO2 that we exhale. The quantity of CO2 that we exhale exactly equals the CO2 absorbed by our crops as they grow, continuing the cycle. The cycle is extended if we eat meat: the carbon passes from atmosphere to plants to animals to humans and back to the atmosphere, but it is still a closed cycle.   The ecosystem is naturally comprised of these closed carbon cycles, which is why adding so much carbon to the atmosphere, that had been previously sequestered underground for millions of years, is such a crazy and dangerous experiment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7657.0, "score_ratio": 1.4210526316, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hbmytur", "c_root_id_B": "hbmx9en", "created_at_utc_A": 1630805670, "created_at_utc_B": 1630804854, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "The majority of the co2 actually gets sent into the roots and earth of the tree and is handed over to mycelium in the soil in a symbiotic relationship that the fungus uses to build itself. It\u2019s estimated that up to 70% of the carbon taken in by a tree end up bellow the soil line. The other 30% goes into the tree itself.", "human_ref_B": "Wood is 50% carbon by weight.  All from CO2 absorbed over decades  Burning it returns to CO2 to the atmosphere, though.  The picture is more complicated if it rots, but it is mostly returned eventually  Things that truly sequester carbon \"forever\" (well, indefinitely) are rarer.  And, unfortunately, some big processes not only require colder temps to work, but are in fact reversing with warmer temps and releasing very old carbon.  Methane clathrate in the cold depths of the ocean, biomatter frozen in permafrost.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 816.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hbmytur", "c_root_id_B": "hbm3xb1", "created_at_utc_A": 1630805670, "created_at_utc_B": 1630790188, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "The majority of the co2 actually gets sent into the roots and earth of the tree and is handed over to mycelium in the soil in a symbiotic relationship that the fungus uses to build itself. It\u2019s estimated that up to 70% of the carbon taken in by a tree end up bellow the soil line. The other 30% goes into the tree itself.", "human_ref_B": "Yes the CO2 gets separated by the tree, using sunlight as a source of power. It spits out the Oxygen and keeps the carbon as material to grow the body of the tree.   Richard Feynman has the best explanation of the process I've ever seen here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ifk6iuLQk28", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15482.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hbmytur", "c_root_id_B": "hbmag28", "created_at_utc_A": 1630805670, "created_at_utc_B": 1630793257, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "The majority of the co2 actually gets sent into the roots and earth of the tree and is handed over to mycelium in the soil in a symbiotic relationship that the fungus uses to build itself. It\u2019s estimated that up to 70% of the carbon taken in by a tree end up bellow the soil line. The other 30% goes into the tree itself.", "human_ref_B": "The soil, ideally. When trees die and rot all that carbon is inert in the soil, unless disturbed. The soil is an absolutely huge carbon sink. This is why more and more farmers are doing no-till. Whenever you till a field, you\u2019re digging up all that carbon and releasing it to the atmosphere. So while plants and agriculture can be a a very successful carbon sink it\u2019s ultimately in the hands of the way we run our agriculture industry and what techniques we use.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12413.0, "score_ratio": 2.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hbmx9en", "c_root_id_B": "hbm3xb1", "created_at_utc_A": 1630804854, "created_at_utc_B": 1630790188, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Wood is 50% carbon by weight.  All from CO2 absorbed over decades  Burning it returns to CO2 to the atmosphere, though.  The picture is more complicated if it rots, but it is mostly returned eventually  Things that truly sequester carbon \"forever\" (well, indefinitely) are rarer.  And, unfortunately, some big processes not only require colder temps to work, but are in fact reversing with warmer temps and releasing very old carbon.  Methane clathrate in the cold depths of the ocean, biomatter frozen in permafrost.", "human_ref_B": "Yes the CO2 gets separated by the tree, using sunlight as a source of power. It spits out the Oxygen and keeps the carbon as material to grow the body of the tree.   Richard Feynman has the best explanation of the process I've ever seen here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ifk6iuLQk28", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14666.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "phvr8h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Where does the CO2 absorbed by trees end up? What is the final destination of the CO2 captured by trees? Their bodies? If that, is it released back into the atmosphere if the woods happen to burn down?", "c_root_id_A": "hbmx9en", "c_root_id_B": "hbmag28", "created_at_utc_A": 1630804854, "created_at_utc_B": 1630793257, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Wood is 50% carbon by weight.  All from CO2 absorbed over decades  Burning it returns to CO2 to the atmosphere, though.  The picture is more complicated if it rots, but it is mostly returned eventually  Things that truly sequester carbon \"forever\" (well, indefinitely) are rarer.  And, unfortunately, some big processes not only require colder temps to work, but are in fact reversing with warmer temps and releasing very old carbon.  Methane clathrate in the cold depths of the ocean, biomatter frozen in permafrost.", "human_ref_B": "The soil, ideally. When trees die and rot all that carbon is inert in the soil, unless disturbed. The soil is an absolutely huge carbon sink. This is why more and more farmers are doing no-till. Whenever you till a field, you\u2019re digging up all that carbon and releasing it to the atmosphere. So while plants and agriculture can be a a very successful carbon sink it\u2019s ultimately in the hands of the way we run our agriculture industry and what techniques we use.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11597.0, "score_ratio": 1.9285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10aqx4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What exactly is happening within a computer when a program is \"not responding\"? Sometimes it seems as if a program is just loading really slowly and it will eventually complete itself, but other times the program just freezes up. So i'm wondering what is actually occurring within the computer, and if there is any way to fix it.", "c_root_id_A": "c6bumii", "c_root_id_B": "c6bu440", "created_at_utc_A": 1348329368, "created_at_utc_B": 1348326560, "score_A": 1107, "score_B": 201, "human_ref_A": "Windows applications run an event loop, in which user interaction, windowing operations and various other things get handled.  For example, a `WM_PAINT` event informs the application that it needs to redraw its window, which is why you often see graphical corruption on hung/crashed application windows.  A \"not responding\" process is one in which the event loop hasn't been run in a while, which can be for all sorts of reasons - perhaps it's deadlocked, maybe it's stuck in an infinite loop due to some logic error, or maybe it's just busy doing work and hasn't been designed for responsiveness.", "human_ref_B": "When a program isn't responding, it's actually any one of a number of issues.  The most likely is either a thread within the program has gone in to an infinite loop, or has terminated in an unexpected way, causing the program to hang.   The processor and OS basically decide the program has gone kaput and report it through the various error handling in the OS.  Source: Comp Sci student", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2808.0, "score_ratio": 5.5074626866, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10aqx4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What exactly is happening within a computer when a program is \"not responding\"? Sometimes it seems as if a program is just loading really slowly and it will eventually complete itself, but other times the program just freezes up. So i'm wondering what is actually occurring within the computer, and if there is any way to fix it.", "c_root_id_A": "c6bumii", "c_root_id_B": "c6bul21", "created_at_utc_A": 1348329368, "created_at_utc_B": 1348329147, "score_A": 1107, "score_B": 89, "human_ref_A": "Windows applications run an event loop, in which user interaction, windowing operations and various other things get handled.  For example, a `WM_PAINT` event informs the application that it needs to redraw its window, which is why you often see graphical corruption on hung/crashed application windows.  A \"not responding\" process is one in which the event loop hasn't been run in a while, which can be for all sorts of reasons - perhaps it's deadlocked, maybe it's stuck in an infinite loop due to some logic error, or maybe it's just busy doing work and hasn't been designed for responsiveness.", "human_ref_B": "There are a lot of answers here, but they don't really touch on the nuts and bolts of what is happening. (and some of them are actually wrong in the description).  So to start, you have to understand the structure of a windows window.  Every window on the screen has an event handling loop. In that loop, the program accesses a queue of events that have happened and then handles them in a fashion that makes sense.  For the most part, that queue is managed by windows itself.  Events that go on that queue are things like \"The user clicked here\" or \"You need to redraw\".  When you get a \"This program has stopped responding\" message, it means that, for whatever reason, the program has not handled the events placed in its queue for a while.  This could be that on one of the events sent out, the window decided to do a load of calculations.  It could be that the window has somehow gotten stuck in an infinite loop. Whatever. The end result is that the window has not pulled from its event queue for a while and windows recognizes that.  Now, not all programs have event queues.  Console applications, in particular, don't really have them (well they sort of do, but not really).  They can \"not respond\" to the user for as long as they want and windows will never say \"Program not responding\"  It is really only threads that have event queues that are maintained by the OS that can get that warning.  So for example, your window thread could spin off another thread which gets stuck in an infinite loop.  So long as the window thread doesn't block, it will never get in a \"not responding\" state.  It will only get there if the main thread with the event loop blocks on waiting for the infinite loop thread to die (a quit event is fired and the window thread tries to wait for all other threads to quit.) or some other state delays it in handling its event queue.  Source: <- Computer engineer with a good understanding of how OSes work.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 221.0, "score_ratio": 12.4382022472, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10aqx4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What exactly is happening within a computer when a program is \"not responding\"? Sometimes it seems as if a program is just loading really slowly and it will eventually complete itself, but other times the program just freezes up. So i'm wondering what is actually occurring within the computer, and if there is any way to fix it.", "c_root_id_A": "c6c2vo2", "c_root_id_B": "c6bxt63", "created_at_utc_A": 1348370093, "created_at_utc_B": 1348345375, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "\"Not responding\" is actually a pretty good description of it.  The application is simply not responding to input (which is sitting in a queue of events, waiting to for the application to deal with it), for whatever reason.  Usually, because the application is busy doing something else.  Application developers these days are realising how important a responsive user interface is and this is influencing many software design decisions.  Thus the idea of \"not blocking the main thread\" has arisen - basically, if your application is going to be doing some work that will take a non-trivial amount of time (say, over 50-250ms), try and do it in a separate thread to the main thread, which has to be able to continually respond to user input.  That way, you can still respond to user input quickly enough.  However, this is often easier said than done.  If you are going to accept user input in the middle of an operation, then you have to account for that operation leaving the application in an inconsistent state.  That is, the thing you wanted to \"do\", is only half-done.  Thus, multi-threaded programming can be difficult at a low level.  Without multiple threads, you can still respond to user input quickly even while the software is doing a long operation, as long as you can break that operation up into very small pieces, allowing to check if user input has occurred in between proceeding to the next part.  This is probably the predominant way of doing things, especially before multi-threading become more prominent, and it requires good discipline on the part of the programmer in anticipating and breaking up any task which may take some time.  Some tasks don't take well to being broken up into smaller chunks, including tasks that depend on waiting for outside input, such as reading from or writing to disk.  At any given time there will be an \"event queue\" assigned to an application - events representing user input or other things waiting to be processed by the application.  When an application \"stops responding\" it simply has not returned to a state where it is processing user input for a certain amount of time - the main thread is busy doing something else (usually, waiting for an operation to complete).  A really smooth application should not do this for more than a couple of hundred milliseconds at most, but unexpected outside delays can and do happen which are hard for the application to control - such as high CPU load (possibly caused by other applications), disk errors or delays, or disk swapping.  In certain circumstances, a bug in the application could cause the main thread to \"hang\" indefinitely or for a very long time, never returning to process incoming events once more.  This could be due to entering an \"infinite loop\" (doing a sequence of things which is supposed to come to an end after a certain point, but just keeps repeating due to an error made by the programmer), or making bad assumptions about how long some task will take to complete or what external factors may delay it.  Unlike operating systems of days past, modern operating systems will tend to inform you if an application has not responded to input events for a long time, and give you the chance to end the application.  This helps achieves many things:  * Allows you to close the application if it really has \"hung\" - entered an infinite loop or state which it can't get out of. * Informs the user about which application is the likely culprit of system sluggishness or an apparent \"freeze\", so they don't shrug it off as just an unreliable OS.", "human_ref_B": "A layman's example of this would be \"How to keep an idiot busy\", where the first statement instructs the reader to read the second statement, and the second statement says to read the first.  In BASIC:     10: GOTO 20     20: GOTO 10  More formally, f() = g(), g() = f().  So f invokes g, g invokes f, which in turn invokes g.  Causing an infinite loop (or stack crash if tail recursion isn't in place, but that is another story).  A famous problem in computer science is known as the \"Halting Problem\".  Which asks, could a function exist that can determine whether or not a function will finish?  From the previous example, if our halting function is given f \"halts(f)\", it would invoke f, which would invoke g, and so on.  Thus, the halting function would not return because it was frozen (there are special circumstances in practice, but I'm talking about a general purpose solution that would work for a closed-source function on a machine with infinite memory).  Thus the function (and a panacea to the OP's problem) does not exist.  Getting back to the more practical world, many programs get around this by putting timers or counters on functions/threads/programs.  Sometimes the process itself does this, sometimes the parent of the process will.  Sometimes, these checks aren't inserted at all (and they shouldn't be).  In another case, process A might have resource 1 and cannot release it until it gets resource 2, while process B might have resource 2 and cannot release it until it gets resource 1.  These processes are said to be deadlocked.  What to do when the process does not return is up to the programmer.  And that is ultimately going to lead to inconsistencies (that were observed by the OP).  Why these issues slip through the cracks is usually a mix of carelessness, expediency (to ship), variation (users using programs differently), and complexity (the most commonly used programs have millions of lines of code { operating system, browser, web server, word processor, etc.} ).  To answer the question if freezing can be reduced/eliminated.  In an ideal world, the answer is yes, but it is extremely difficult to do in practice.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24718.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyqcq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "When I turn on my electric heater, am I accelerating our progress towards the heat death of the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c3d0dp8", "c_root_id_B": "c3czzkc", "created_at_utc_A": 1325447119, "created_at_utc_B": 1325444365, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Every irreversible process increases entropy and accelerates heat death. Just being alive accelerates heat death.", "human_ref_B": "The heater increases the entropy of a system faster when turned on than off, so yes.  Mostly just in the fuel or electricity or whatever the energy source is.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2754.0, "score_ratio": 1.9166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyqcq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "When I turn on my electric heater, am I accelerating our progress towards the heat death of the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c3d0dp8", "c_root_id_B": "c3czsux", "created_at_utc_A": 1325447119, "created_at_utc_B": 1325443020, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Every irreversible process increases entropy and accelerates heat death. Just being alive accelerates heat death.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, for sure. Not only the heater, but everything you turn on ultimately coverts electricity to heat. A long, long time ago sunshine was converted to plant matter which was buried and converted to coal or natural gas. By using electricity in any form (70% of which come from coal and gas in the US) you are turning that ancient sunshine into heat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4099.0, "score_ratio": 2.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyqcq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "When I turn on my electric heater, am I accelerating our progress towards the heat death of the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c3d0dp8", "c_root_id_B": "c3czmke", "created_at_utc_A": 1325447119, "created_at_utc_B": 1325441747, "score_A": 23, "score_B": -42, "human_ref_A": "Every irreversible process increases entropy and accelerates heat death. Just being alive accelerates heat death.", "human_ref_B": "I doubt it, conservation of energy and all that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5372.0, "score_ratio": -0.5476190476, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyqcq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "When I turn on my electric heater, am I accelerating our progress towards the heat death of the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c3czsux", "c_root_id_B": "c3czzkc", "created_at_utc_A": 1325443020, "created_at_utc_B": 1325444365, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Yes, for sure. Not only the heater, but everything you turn on ultimately coverts electricity to heat. A long, long time ago sunshine was converted to plant matter which was buried and converted to coal or natural gas. By using electricity in any form (70% of which come from coal and gas in the US) you are turning that ancient sunshine into heat.", "human_ref_B": "The heater increases the entropy of a system faster when turned on than off, so yes.  Mostly just in the fuel or electricity or whatever the energy source is.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1345.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyqcq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "When I turn on my electric heater, am I accelerating our progress towards the heat death of the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c3czzkc", "c_root_id_B": "c3czmke", "created_at_utc_A": 1325444365, "created_at_utc_B": 1325441747, "score_A": 12, "score_B": -42, "human_ref_A": "The heater increases the entropy of a system faster when turned on than off, so yes.  Mostly just in the fuel or electricity or whatever the energy source is.", "human_ref_B": "I doubt it, conservation of energy and all that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2618.0, "score_ratio": -0.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyqcq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "When I turn on my electric heater, am I accelerating our progress towards the heat death of the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c3czsux", "c_root_id_B": "c3d1q4q", "created_at_utc_A": 1325443020, "created_at_utc_B": 1325456363, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Yes, for sure. Not only the heater, but everything you turn on ultimately coverts electricity to heat. A long, long time ago sunshine was converted to plant matter which was buried and converted to coal or natural gas. By using electricity in any form (70% of which come from coal and gas in the US) you are turning that ancient sunshine into heat.", "human_ref_B": "Considering that the sun will eventually expand in size and engulf the earth, it won't matter much in the long run or on a universal scale.  The main effect is that there will be radiated energy that leaves the solar system.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13343.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyqcq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "When I turn on my electric heater, am I accelerating our progress towards the heat death of the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c3d1q4q", "c_root_id_B": "c3czmke", "created_at_utc_A": 1325456363, "created_at_utc_B": 1325441747, "score_A": 11, "score_B": -42, "human_ref_A": "Considering that the sun will eventually expand in size and engulf the earth, it won't matter much in the long run or on a universal scale.  The main effect is that there will be radiated energy that leaves the solar system.", "human_ref_B": "I doubt it, conservation of energy and all that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14616.0, "score_ratio": -0.2619047619, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyqcq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "When I turn on my electric heater, am I accelerating our progress towards the heat death of the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c3czmke", "c_root_id_B": "c3czsux", "created_at_utc_A": 1325441747, "created_at_utc_B": 1325443020, "score_A": -42, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I doubt it, conservation of energy and all that.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, for sure. Not only the heater, but everything you turn on ultimately coverts electricity to heat. A long, long time ago sunshine was converted to plant matter which was buried and converted to coal or natural gas. By using electricity in any form (70% of which come from coal and gas in the US) you are turning that ancient sunshine into heat.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1273.0, "score_ratio": -0.1904761905, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11ui93", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "When I heat up a metal where do photons come from? So I heat up any given metal to the point it starts giving off light, just like in a light bulb or foundry/ironworks. Where do photons come from and assuming I do so in a vacuum would such metal lose it's weight after some time?", "c_root_id_A": "c6pqt69", "c_root_id_B": "c6pp4fp", "created_at_utc_A": 1350843175, "created_at_utc_B": 1350836166, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "A photon is an electromagnetic wave. You make one by \"shaking\" an electron (any charged particle actually, but electron is most common). When you shake an electron you cause a momentary electrical wave, which then self induces a magnetic component and that's what a photon is.  No nothing is lost from the electron when you make a photon.  In order to shake an electron you need energy, that energy is used to create the photon.  When you heat anything (not just metal!) the atoms vibrate from the heat. This vibration is also shaking the electrons which then emit photons constantly. (Even at low temperatures photons are constantly being created - you just can't see them. See blackbody radiation if you want to know more.)  There are other ways of shaking electrons - a cool one is a free electron laser. You shoot an electron between alternating pairs of magnets. The magnets cause the electron to wriggle back and forth, producing photons. (It's called a free electron laser because the electron is not attached to an atom - it's traveling in the empty space between the magnets.)  You can move electrons in wires - which is how radio transmitters work.  An electron can absorb some energy, this causes it to \"jump\" to a higher orbit in the atom. When the electron \"falls\" back down (and it will), the motion causes it to release a photon. This is how chemical light (like from a firefly, florescent lamp, or most lasers) is produced. In a glow in the dark toy, you charge it with light - the light causes the electrons to more to higher orbits. They then take a while to fall back down - when they fall down they emit light. If you've seen white clothing glow in UV light, it works the same way. The electrons absorb the UV light, and then fall down producing their glow (unlike a glow in the dark toy, in this case they fall immediately).  When an electron falls down it always emits a very precise amount of light. This is because it can only obit the atom in very specific levels. So it always falls an exact amount (depending on which level it reached, different atoms have different possible levels, and usually more than one). That's why the glow is always an exact color.", "human_ref_B": "Photons have no mass, they are just packets of energy. The light being emitted is the excess energy released when electrons fall back to their ground state after being exited (by the heat).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7009.0, "score_ratio": 6.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bic5d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "To give some perspective about the size of the universe, how would you most accurately complete this analogy: \"An atom of hydrogen is to the size of the earth, as the earth is to the size of...\" I imagine the answer is some ginormous celestial body.", "c_root_id_A": "c96zdh6", "c_root_id_B": "c970qsk", "created_at_utc_A": 1364915958, "created_at_utc_B": 1364919771, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Maybe this helps a bit:  http://scaleofuniverse.com/", "human_ref_B": "About 25 Mpc (80 million light years), roughly the size of the Virgo Supercluster which we call home. This is over a thousand times the size of the Milky Way galaxy.    R(hydrogen atom) = 5.3 * 10^-11 m  R(Earth) = 6.4 *10^6 m   R(Earth)/R(H atom) = 1.2 * 10^17 m  Multiplying that scale factor by the size of the Earth yields 7.7 * 10^23 m, or 25 Mpc.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3813.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1x9d28", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Is there any place in the solar system that one can see a moon as big as ours? I assume gas giants would be quite spectacular to see in the sky from their moons.   But where else in the solar system would be a good place to watch the sky from a glass dome?", "c_root_id_A": "cf9bwf3", "c_root_id_B": "cf9afvw", "created_at_utc_A": 1391775767, "created_at_utc_B": 1391766290, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Pluto's moon, Charon, orbits at only 19500 km from Pluto. That's much closer than our Moon at 380000 km. Even if Charon is considerably smaller, it should look very big from Pluto.  If I didn't mess up with the math then the angular diameter (apparent size) of Charon seen from Pluto should be 3.76 degrees. Compare this to our Moon, which is only half a degree seen from Earth.", "human_ref_B": "As far as I can tell, the only moon that would appear bigger from the surface of its primary than our Moon is Io as seen from the surface of Jupiter (whatever that means). But only about 15% bigger in diameter compared to the Moon as seen from Earth.  However some moons as seen from another moon do appear bigger than that. Io as seen from the next moon of Jupiter Europa, at their closest pass, would look about 50% bigger by diameter than what the Moon looks from Earth. Saturn's moon Tethys as seen from the moon Enceladus would look almost twice the diameter of the full moon. Uranus' moon Ariel as seen from Miranda would be about the same.  I didn't go through all the minor moons of the gas giants, but some of them may pass very close to each other so despite being very small, they could appear quite big from the surface of one another. One pair that caught my eye were Pandora and Prometheus, moons of Saturn. They're fairly similar in size around 80 km in diameter. From the surface of the other, they each would appear around 3 to 4 times the diameter of our Moon. Especially Prometheus is very irregularly shaped so the long side could be up to 5 times the diameter of the full moon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9477.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1kmms6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Why do fizzy drinks 'fizz up' when they're shaken? What makes them do it? Why don't they just stay the way they were originally? And where does the \"extra air\" come from (that increases the pressure and 'explodes' out when you open the bottle)?", "c_root_id_A": "cbqhzne", "c_root_id_B": "cbqicae", "created_at_utc_A": 1376867660, "created_at_utc_B": 1376868809, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "From my understanding, when CO2 is under pressure it goes into solution in liquid. It comes out of solution (fizzes up) when the pressure is released and/or agitated. At lease that is what I learned in a lesson on bottling beer. I very well could be wrong. You'll get a much better chemical explanation from someone else.", "human_ref_B": "Hey.   Fizzy drinks have dissolved carbon dioxide in them. Since they have been bottled under pressure, there usually is an excess of carbon dioxide than can be dissolved in the drink. The empty part of the bottle contains carbon dioxide molecules that are waiting to escape into the atmosphere. It works well when you open the bottle and let them out but when you shake the bottle, these carbon dioxide molecules get mixed with the drink, and they end up everywhere in the drink. When you open the bottle after this, all these bubbles rush to escape into the low pressure outside. The CO2 bubbles push the liquid upwards as they reach for the opening.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1149.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1kmms6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Why do fizzy drinks 'fizz up' when they're shaken? What makes them do it? Why don't they just stay the way they were originally? And where does the \"extra air\" come from (that increases the pressure and 'explodes' out when you open the bottle)?", "c_root_id_A": "cbqj0mk", "c_root_id_B": "cbqhzne", "created_at_utc_A": 1376870900, "created_at_utc_B": 1376867660, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "As /u/chicagoredsean already stated, the \"fizz\" you're speaking of is actually carbon dioxide and not just air.  Carbonated drinks are fizzy due to the dissolution of gaseous carbon dioxide into a liquid (water, most times).  When water is the solvent, dissolved gaseous CO2 resides in the form of carbonic acid  (H2CO3).  However, this is not a favorable reaction, and in order to dissolve the CO2 into the liquid in the first place, high pressures are required (hence the tssss sound when you open up a can/bottle of soda, that's the pressure inside the container equalizing to atmospheric pressure).  Now, as far as \"why don't they stay the way they were originally?\" question, we can again look at the Le Chatelier's principle and the equation for dissolving CO2 in water.  Since the reaction to dissolve CO2 in water is quite unfavorable, there will be a three-fold excess at any given time *after* initial opening of the container (due to the pressure equalization) of gaseous CO2 to dissolved CO2 as carbonic acid.  Because of this, each time the container is opened, the gaseous CO2 in the container is lost to the atmosphere, resulting in loss of carbonation.    Finally, as far as what effect shaking up the bottle does, ~~you're essentially causing the reverse reaction (carbonic acid to CO2) to become more favorable, releasing even more CO2 into the container from the liquid than would be there otherwise in an unshaken container.~~  I was incorrect in thinking this was the case.  A simple test of my hypothesis in this part would be to shake up a can of soda and then open it.  The main issue is that liquid is emitted from the can along with any gaseous CO2.  From what I understand at this point, this is due to the shaking action forcing more collisions between the CO2 and H2O molecules, forcing more reactions to occur between them, and thus partially dissolving more CO2 into the water in the form of carbonic acid.  Since these \"bubbles\" of carbonic acid aren't completely dissolved (I believe), they tend to occupy the layer of liquid closest to where the reaction originally occurred, they will occupy whatever is closest to the gas in the bottle.  When opened, the dissolved CO2, much like the gaseous CO2, wants to escape, and will drag along the solved it is dissolved in as well, thus creating an unfortunate spilling of soda.", "human_ref_B": "From my understanding, when CO2 is under pressure it goes into solution in liquid. It comes out of solution (fizzes up) when the pressure is released and/or agitated. At lease that is what I learned in a lesson on bottling beer. I very well could be wrong. You'll get a much better chemical explanation from someone else.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3240.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1kmms6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Why do fizzy drinks 'fizz up' when they're shaken? What makes them do it? Why don't they just stay the way they were originally? And where does the \"extra air\" come from (that increases the pressure and 'explodes' out when you open the bottle)?", "c_root_id_A": "cbqj0mk", "c_root_id_B": "cbqiqdl", "created_at_utc_A": 1376870900, "created_at_utc_B": 1376870020, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "As /u/chicagoredsean already stated, the \"fizz\" you're speaking of is actually carbon dioxide and not just air.  Carbonated drinks are fizzy due to the dissolution of gaseous carbon dioxide into a liquid (water, most times).  When water is the solvent, dissolved gaseous CO2 resides in the form of carbonic acid  (H2CO3).  However, this is not a favorable reaction, and in order to dissolve the CO2 into the liquid in the first place, high pressures are required (hence the tssss sound when you open up a can/bottle of soda, that's the pressure inside the container equalizing to atmospheric pressure).  Now, as far as \"why don't they stay the way they were originally?\" question, we can again look at the Le Chatelier's principle and the equation for dissolving CO2 in water.  Since the reaction to dissolve CO2 in water is quite unfavorable, there will be a three-fold excess at any given time *after* initial opening of the container (due to the pressure equalization) of gaseous CO2 to dissolved CO2 as carbonic acid.  Because of this, each time the container is opened, the gaseous CO2 in the container is lost to the atmosphere, resulting in loss of carbonation.    Finally, as far as what effect shaking up the bottle does, ~~you're essentially causing the reverse reaction (carbonic acid to CO2) to become more favorable, releasing even more CO2 into the container from the liquid than would be there otherwise in an unshaken container.~~  I was incorrect in thinking this was the case.  A simple test of my hypothesis in this part would be to shake up a can of soda and then open it.  The main issue is that liquid is emitted from the can along with any gaseous CO2.  From what I understand at this point, this is due to the shaking action forcing more collisions between the CO2 and H2O molecules, forcing more reactions to occur between them, and thus partially dissolving more CO2 into the water in the form of carbonic acid.  Since these \"bubbles\" of carbonic acid aren't completely dissolved (I believe), they tend to occupy the layer of liquid closest to where the reaction originally occurred, they will occupy whatever is closest to the gas in the bottle.  When opened, the dissolved CO2, much like the gaseous CO2, wants to escape, and will drag along the solved it is dissolved in as well, thus creating an unfortunate spilling of soda.", "human_ref_B": "My chem teacher told us soda is full of carbonic acid, co3. This makes the drink acidic (bad for your teeth) and the molecule will separate with little energy. You shaking a soda gives enough energy to cause a chemical reaction forming vo2 and h2o, which is why flat sodas taste watered down.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 880.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "t8eeb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What keeps a nail attached to a toe or finger? Once the nail grows out of the \"base\", why does it grow still stuck to the skin up until the tip of the finger or toe?", "c_root_id_A": "c4kglmt", "c_root_id_B": "c4kfrxq", "created_at_utc_A": 1336242856, "created_at_utc_B": 1336237948, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "The nail goes beneath the skin, stemming from a thing called the germinal matrix.It actually goes quite a ways back in the nail, so I guess that provides support. I only know this because I have a small mark on my germinal matrix which grows along with my nail, making the right half of my right middle fingernail permanently black, no matter how many times I cut it.  Edits: Diagram/ My Finger", "human_ref_B": "Related question: if my nail bed doesn't extend to the tip of my finger ( from always biting my nails), will the nail bed grow out to the tip if i stop biting my nails?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4908.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lrg2i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Do those motion sickness wristbands actually work? Or is it just pseudo science quackery like the magnet bracelets?", "c_root_id_A": "c2v0ffp", "c_root_id_B": "c2v0pwb", "created_at_utc_A": 1319753612, "created_at_utc_B": 1319755660, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Nausea and vomiting  are significant side effects of anaesthesia.  These devices that apply pressure to the P6 acupressure point have been studied in multiple trials for reducing post-operative nausea and vomitting.    Not all trials agree, but a meta-analysis  indicates that these acupressure devices do have some effect.  In addition, they work just as well as drugs.", "human_ref_B": "pub med link to abstract of study involving these wristbands.  TL;DR Neither band nor placebo prevented the development of motion sickness, regardless of whether the bands were used correctly or incorrectly.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2048.0, "score_ratio": -3.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jvpsx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Do evolutionary changes happen faster in species' with shorter lifespans?   For example, would a species of housefly with an average lifespan of 20 days evolve faster than other species' like dogs and humans?  My thinking is that with more generations in a shorter amount of time, genetic changes would happen much faster. Am i right?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fjawd", "c_root_id_B": "c2fi4d6", "created_at_utc_A": 1314423353, "created_at_utc_B": 1314412022, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Just to be pedantic, the rate of reproduction is more important than lifespan, although there's the obvious correlation.", "human_ref_B": "Evolution is the change in frequency of genotypic (and associated phenotypic) traits of populations over generations.  So yes, this change in frequency occurs faster in populations of organisms that exhibit high fecundity and short developmental time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11331.0, "score_ratio": 3.6153846154, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jvpsx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Do evolutionary changes happen faster in species' with shorter lifespans?   For example, would a species of housefly with an average lifespan of 20 days evolve faster than other species' like dogs and humans?  My thinking is that with more generations in a shorter amount of time, genetic changes would happen much faster. Am i right?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fjawd", "c_root_id_B": "c2fj7b3", "created_at_utc_A": 1314423353, "created_at_utc_B": 1314422248, "score_A": 47, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Just to be pedantic, the rate of reproduction is more important than lifespan, although there's the obvious correlation.", "human_ref_B": "Yes. mainly because evolutionary change occurs when a genetic mutation become apparently advantageous to the population, and it increases fitness in affected individuals. Such genetic mutations are passed on to offspring, and over time the most advantageous individuals become commonplace, and thus evolved. When lifespan is shorter, these changes occur in less time as well, as more generations exist over a certain time frame.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1105.0, "score_ratio": 4.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jvpsx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Do evolutionary changes happen faster in species' with shorter lifespans?   For example, would a species of housefly with an average lifespan of 20 days evolve faster than other species' like dogs and humans?  My thinking is that with more generations in a shorter amount of time, genetic changes would happen much faster. Am i right?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fi4d6", "c_root_id_B": "c2fjz91", "created_at_utc_A": 1314412022, "created_at_utc_B": 1314433073, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Evolution is the change in frequency of genotypic (and associated phenotypic) traits of populations over generations.  So yes, this change in frequency occurs faster in populations of organisms that exhibit high fecundity and short developmental time.", "human_ref_B": "I've done my best to list the variables with large impacts on evolutionary speed. If I've missed anything please let me know!   1) Generation time (this isn't necessarily the same as life span - for examples, humans life around eighty years, but I think the historic generation time has been closer to 20)   2) Environmental Stress - organisms evolve more rapidly when placed under stronger selective forced. For example, if a species of bird has traits for long and short beaks, and each beak length is specialized to open a certain kind of nut. Then the small-beak nut species disappears. The majority of small beaked birds could die in a single generation, resulting in very fast evolutionary change.   3) Mutation rates. Different organisms acquire new mutations at different rates, as a result of differing processes for DNA replication. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation_rate.    4) The Ability to acquire new genes during one's life time greatly speeds up the rate at which a gene can propagate. Many bacteria are able to do this by swapping plasmids in a process called conjugation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation   5) Apparently, there is a theory that evolution occurs more quickly in warmer climates. I don't know very much about it, but here's a link...  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_evolutionary_time", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21051.0, "score_ratio": 1.1538461538, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jvpsx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Do evolutionary changes happen faster in species' with shorter lifespans?   For example, would a species of housefly with an average lifespan of 20 days evolve faster than other species' like dogs and humans?  My thinking is that with more generations in a shorter amount of time, genetic changes would happen much faster. Am i right?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fjz91", "c_root_id_B": "c2fj7b3", "created_at_utc_A": 1314433073, "created_at_utc_B": 1314422248, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I've done my best to list the variables with large impacts on evolutionary speed. If I've missed anything please let me know!   1) Generation time (this isn't necessarily the same as life span - for examples, humans life around eighty years, but I think the historic generation time has been closer to 20)   2) Environmental Stress - organisms evolve more rapidly when placed under stronger selective forced. For example, if a species of bird has traits for long and short beaks, and each beak length is specialized to open a certain kind of nut. Then the small-beak nut species disappears. The majority of small beaked birds could die in a single generation, resulting in very fast evolutionary change.   3) Mutation rates. Different organisms acquire new mutations at different rates, as a result of differing processes for DNA replication. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation_rate.    4) The Ability to acquire new genes during one's life time greatly speeds up the rate at which a gene can propagate. Many bacteria are able to do this by swapping plasmids in a process called conjugation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation   5) Apparently, there is a theory that evolution occurs more quickly in warmer climates. I don't know very much about it, but here's a link...  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_evolutionary_time", "human_ref_B": "Yes. mainly because evolutionary change occurs when a genetic mutation become apparently advantageous to the population, and it increases fitness in affected individuals. Such genetic mutations are passed on to offspring, and over time the most advantageous individuals become commonplace, and thus evolved. When lifespan is shorter, these changes occur in less time as well, as more generations exist over a certain time frame.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10825.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jvpsx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Do evolutionary changes happen faster in species' with shorter lifespans?   For example, would a species of housefly with an average lifespan of 20 days evolve faster than other species' like dogs and humans?  My thinking is that with more generations in a shorter amount of time, genetic changes would happen much faster. Am i right?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fjz91", "c_root_id_B": "c2fjtso", "created_at_utc_A": 1314433073, "created_at_utc_B": 1314430404, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I've done my best to list the variables with large impacts on evolutionary speed. If I've missed anything please let me know!   1) Generation time (this isn't necessarily the same as life span - for examples, humans life around eighty years, but I think the historic generation time has been closer to 20)   2) Environmental Stress - organisms evolve more rapidly when placed under stronger selective forced. For example, if a species of bird has traits for long and short beaks, and each beak length is specialized to open a certain kind of nut. Then the small-beak nut species disappears. The majority of small beaked birds could die in a single generation, resulting in very fast evolutionary change.   3) Mutation rates. Different organisms acquire new mutations at different rates, as a result of differing processes for DNA replication. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation_rate.    4) The Ability to acquire new genes during one's life time greatly speeds up the rate at which a gene can propagate. Many bacteria are able to do this by swapping plasmids in a process called conjugation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation   5) Apparently, there is a theory that evolution occurs more quickly in warmer climates. I don't know very much about it, but here's a link...  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_evolutionary_time", "human_ref_B": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R/K_selection_theory  That'd be a good read about this.  Basically, in unstable environments, it's best to focus on increasing the rate of reproduction, while in stable environments it's advantageous to have a longer lifespan and reproduce more per individual.  Source:  Uh.. well in high school I was in Science Olympiad and did the Ecology event.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2669.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jvpsx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Do evolutionary changes happen faster in species' with shorter lifespans?   For example, would a species of housefly with an average lifespan of 20 days evolve faster than other species' like dogs and humans?  My thinking is that with more generations in a shorter amount of time, genetic changes would happen much faster. Am i right?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fjo29", "c_root_id_B": "c2fjz91", "created_at_utc_A": 1314427941, "created_at_utc_B": 1314433073, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Not necessarily true for those with shorter lifespans, but those with a higher rate of reproduction will evolve quicker, yes.", "human_ref_B": "I've done my best to list the variables with large impacts on evolutionary speed. If I've missed anything please let me know!   1) Generation time (this isn't necessarily the same as life span - for examples, humans life around eighty years, but I think the historic generation time has been closer to 20)   2) Environmental Stress - organisms evolve more rapidly when placed under stronger selective forced. For example, if a species of bird has traits for long and short beaks, and each beak length is specialized to open a certain kind of nut. Then the small-beak nut species disappears. The majority of small beaked birds could die in a single generation, resulting in very fast evolutionary change.   3) Mutation rates. Different organisms acquire new mutations at different rates, as a result of differing processes for DNA replication. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation_rate.    4) The Ability to acquire new genes during one's life time greatly speeds up the rate at which a gene can propagate. Many bacteria are able to do this by swapping plasmids in a process called conjugation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation   5) Apparently, there is a theory that evolution occurs more quickly in warmer climates. I don't know very much about it, but here's a link...  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_evolutionary_time", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5132.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jvpsx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Do evolutionary changes happen faster in species' with shorter lifespans?   For example, would a species of housefly with an average lifespan of 20 days evolve faster than other species' like dogs and humans?  My thinking is that with more generations in a shorter amount of time, genetic changes would happen much faster. Am i right?", "c_root_id_A": "c2fjtso", "c_root_id_B": "c2fjo29", "created_at_utc_A": 1314430404, "created_at_utc_B": 1314427941, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R/K_selection_theory  That'd be a good read about this.  Basically, in unstable environments, it's best to focus on increasing the rate of reproduction, while in stable environments it's advantageous to have a longer lifespan and reproduce more per individual.  Source:  Uh.. well in high school I was in Science Olympiad and did the Ecology event.", "human_ref_B": "Not necessarily true for those with shorter lifespans, but those with a higher rate of reproduction will evolve quicker, yes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2463.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ue5s0l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "How is tuberculosis actually transmitted? I've been searching for quite a while now but cannot find a \"definitive\" answer. I haven't got into the academic/medical journal but from websites like who, cdc, nhs etc. it is stated that it can only be transmitted through the air when the person that got TB talks with another person. CDC even stated it cannot spread by kissing (hhmm what??) it just doesn't make sense to me that this bacteria can survive months outside the human body but it cannot spread by kissing? can it spread through food if the food is prepared by an infected person, or perhaps by using utensils handled by an infected person? if the bacteria can survives months outside the human body, isn't it only logical that it can spread through food, utensils and surfaces too? and close contact like kissing?     Thank you in advance", "c_root_id_A": "i6lkcr3", "c_root_id_B": "i6mf6kn", "created_at_utc_A": 1651188756, "created_at_utc_B": 1651202705, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "TB is uniquely small and able to find purchase deep in the lungs. Part of why covid was not considered \"airborne\" at first was a typo / misinterpretation of a  size of 5 units (nanometers?) being *required* for airborne transmission vs. 5 units just being an especially invasive size.", "human_ref_B": "Yes it\u2019s airborne but it can be confusing because the disease is not always infectious. Typically there is a long latent period where the bacteria are growing inside an infected person but they have no symptoms and are not contagious.   However, someone with active TB is very contagious, before COVID these were the type of people you\u2019d have to wear an N95 around if you visit them. The TB bacteria need to get into your lungs so eating/kissing on their own wouldn\u2019t do it but certainly if you were in that close contact with someone with active TB they likely coughed at you and that would infect you.   Assuming you live in a developed country you are unlikely to be infected with TB and if you are it it is treatable with antibiotics. The only reason TB is so deadly is because parts of the world still don\u2019t have access to healthcare and in those regions TB goes unchecked killing millions of people.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13949.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16domw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "How do we know that space/ the universe is expanding and not matter \"shrinking\" in relation to space? How do we know that the universe is expanding and not matter \"shrinking\"? I have no physics background so as far I can see the observable effects would be the same: As matter gets smaller/is shrinking, but space is'nt, it would seem like every galaxy is moving away from us. Also there would be no need for dark energy etc ... This might be a ridiculous question, but I just could not find an answer myself how we know for certain that this isn't the case.", "c_root_id_A": "c7v20wo", "c_root_id_B": "c7v5sb5", "created_at_utc_A": 1357915322, "created_at_utc_B": 1357929267, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Because the distance between two points in space increases over time. You cannot explain that with shrinking matter.", "human_ref_B": "Expanding space and shrinking matter actually have very different effects:  The interesting thing about expanding space is that the further something is away from you, the faster it appears to move away from you. Think about ants on a soap bubble, the more distant two ants are on the bubble as it expands the faster they will be moving away from each other. If they are right next to each other barely anything happens to them but if they are on the opposite side of the bubble the expansion will increase the distance between them along the surface quite rapidly.  Now shrinking: Imagine that you have two tennis balls right next to each other (no distance). Now imagine that these balls just shrunk to half their size - did the distance between them change? Yes, quite significantly so: before it was zero and now its one tennis ball radius. But now think about two tennis balls ten meters apart from each other - what happens when you shrink to half their size? Well, barely anything; the change is still one tennis ball radius and that's rather insignificant compared to the ten meters.  Conclusion: Expanding space means further objects move faster away from us whereas shrinking matter means all objects move away from us at the same rate (or possibly faster depending on their size). The only way that you can make the shrinking matter theory consistent with our observations is by saying that magically all ways for us to measure distance (e.g. strength of certain fields or the time it takes light or particles to travel) would also change which would lead to other observable changes. All in all, your theory would need extreme fine tuning to make it plausible which is an obvious flaw when you compare with the expansion theory that just works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13945.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zvlxv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why do white people seem to have the broadest range of hair and eye colors? It seems like many of the other races tend to mostly have black hair and dark brown eyes. Is there any particular reason for this?", "c_root_id_A": "c68egv2", "c_root_id_B": "c68974z", "created_at_utc_A": 1347680909, "created_at_utc_B": 1347656407, "score_A": -2, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "All other human \"races\" are extinct, race is not meaningful term in biology, but is rather a social construct (which is a poor construct, as sociology finds race even less meaningful, we talk about ethnicities).  Unless you want to talk about what can happen as a result of being rung through bottle neck events, sexual selection, random mutations, hybridizatoin (homo+neandertal), genetic drift, Virus, and environment/diet!  All 7 of these factors could weigh in on its occurance. Basically, \"White People\" have a few differently functioning rhibozones and rna that ultimatly cause protiens to fold in different ways.  This would be the particular reason.", "human_ref_B": "From what I've gathered over the years, asian and african populations have been evolving from a much larger, more diverse gene pool over a longer time than european populations.   White people are more likely to have genetic expressions of recessive genes because more people in their smaller, less diverse gene pool carry those same recessive genes, while the larger, more diverse gene pools of african and asian people don't allow for the expression of more recessive traits.   If I'm completely wrong in this, please explain the correct answer to me before downvoting.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24502.0, "score_ratio": 0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ls1p2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "When you ingest salt NaCl what does the body do with the chlorine after the sodium is absorbed?", "c_root_id_A": "c2v5buq", "c_root_id_B": "c2v5clf", "created_at_utc_A": 1319803403, "created_at_utc_B": 1319803715, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "\"In the upper part of the small intestine, chloride ion absorption is rapid nd occurs mainly by diffusion (i.e., absorption of sodium ions through the epithelium creates electronegativity in the chyme and electropositivity in the paracellular spaces between the epithelial cells). Then chloride ions move along this electricl gradient to \"follow\" the sodium ions.\" source Guyton and Hall Medical Physiology 12th ed.  Just wanted to provide a source for your comment.", "human_ref_B": "Cl- is also absorbed by the gastric mucosa. It can be secreted back into the stomach if needed to increase HCl concentration there. If not needed Cl- can stay inside the cell to be used. There is a certain Cl concentration inside the cells. But this concentration is very little compared to its extracellular concentration as Cl is one of the two major negative charges in the extracellular fluids (the other is bicarbonate).  So if there is more Cl in the cell than needed it will move out of the cell. It will stay in the blood or be filtered in the kidneys.  In the kidneys Cl will be reabsorbed or excreted.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 312.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ls1p2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "When you ingest salt NaCl what does the body do with the chlorine after the sodium is absorbed?", "c_root_id_A": "c2v5e6v", "c_root_id_B": "c2v5d0d", "created_at_utc_A": 1319804382, "created_at_utc_B": 1319803881, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Chloride ions are also important in the CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane receptor) protein. It's an ion channel specifically for Chloride that allows free movement of the ion which facilitates the movement of water molecules into the mucous to keep it fluid like. When the CFTR protein doesn't work you get the disease cystic fibrosis.", "human_ref_B": "Much of it is lost in urine.    Like other posters have mentioned, it also plays a big role in balancing out all of the positive charges floating around in the plasma/urine (sodium and potassium, mostly).  It also tags along with some of the cations through co-transporters to facilitate movement across membranes and stuff.  All in all, it's pretty much the wallflower of electrolytes.  Sodium, potassium, and bicarb are way more interesting.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 501.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9prslb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "If salt is a compound of sodium and chloride, how can there be different types and flavors of salts? Of course, some salts are intentionally flavored, but if the ingredients are a direct chemical compound, how can they differ?  Kosher salt, sea salt, etc.  Are there other things in there?", "c_root_id_A": "e84dias", "c_root_id_B": "e84dgnw", "created_at_utc_A": 1540046988, "created_at_utc_B": 1540046943, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "In the case of sea salt there are different things in there, sea salt is not pure sodium chloride. Sea water usually contains Magnesium, Sulfate, and Calcium ions in addition to Sodium and Chloride ions and many other ions at lower levels.   For reference standardized \"Artificial Seawater\" ASTM D1141-9 contains:  Sodium Chloride\tNaCl \t24.53 g/L    Magnesium Chloride \t MgCL2\t 5.20 g/L   Sodium Sulfate \tNa2S04 \t4.09 g/L    Calcium Chloride \tCaCl2 \t1.16 g/L   Potassium Chloride \t KCL\t0.695 g/L      Sodium Bicarbonate \t NaHCO3\t0.201 g/L    Potassium Bromide\t KBr\t 0.101 g/L   Boric Acid \t H3BO3\t0.027 g/L   Strontium Chloride \t SrCL2\t0.0025 g/L   Sodium Fluoride \t NaF\t0.003 g/L    Water\t H2O\t 988.968 g/L   I don't know if salt made from that water would actually be fit for consumption, but its an example of the kinds of other (non-NaCl) salts that can be found in sea water and presumably in sea salt.", "human_ref_B": "In addition to the various impurities, which might be tiny but strongly flavored, there's the texture that can affect how much dissolves vs. remains as crystals in a given application, and how it behaves in your mouth.  Of course there is also the psychological effect of the story, like a wine label.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 45.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rrhix", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Put a glass of Jameson in the freezer. What happened and why does it look like this???  After a party I put a glass of unfinished Jameson in the freezer, two days later, this.  http://imgur.com/a/eTQOB#0", "c_root_id_A": "c4821f8", "c_root_id_B": "c481vym", "created_at_utc_A": 1333476825, "created_at_utc_B": 1333476139, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The water in the whiskey froze into really small ice crystals that then stuck to each other through the unfrozen water/alcohol/other solutes solution left behind.", "human_ref_B": "Did it have melted ice in it or was it mixed with something?  I put liquor in my freezer all the time and it never freezes, although sometimes it gets a little 'sludgy'.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 686.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1sa5m8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do nuclear bombs create a 'mushroom' cloud?", "c_root_id_A": "cdvjtb7", "c_root_id_B": "cdvj4xo", "created_at_utc_A": 1386383814, "created_at_utc_B": 1386382030, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Whenever a less dense substance moves through a more dense substance, it creates instabilities and vortices like those created in a mushroom cloud. This is known as Rayleigh-Taylor instability.   In the case of a nuclear weapon, the fireball is very hot and much less dense than the air around it \u2014 this is why it rises. However, as it rises it cools and encounters friction with the air. This causes the \"ball\" to flatten and turn into a torus surrounded by mushroom cap. The stem is caused by the hot fireball sucking up dirt from the ground into it; if the bomb is detonated at a high-enough altitude, a stem does not form.", "human_ref_B": "The initial pillar of smoke is just the super-hot fireball around the explosion, mixed with random pieces of matter, either solid or vaporized, rising because it's so hot. It's a \"fireball\" only initially, then it starts to cool off.  Eventually it cools off enough to stop rising, and then it spreads out horizontally, forming the top of the \"mushroom\".  BTW, this has nothing to do with the nuclear nature of the explosion. Anything producing that much energy in a very short time would also produce a mushroom cloud. Although it's pretty hard to think of anything that energetic other than... well... a nuclear weapon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1784.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "223yc9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why is thunder and lightning more common in rainstorms than in snowstorms? Last winter, we had lots of snowstorms, and we only had thundersnow a couple of times. It seems like rainstorms frequently have thunder and lightning. The rainstorm thunder seems louder, too.  Why?", "c_root_id_A": "cgj898y", "c_root_id_B": "cgj8j93", "created_at_utc_A": 1396549364, "created_at_utc_B": 1396549931, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Snow producing clouds are usually flat and shallow. Thunderstorm clouds are taller, reflecting the convection currents within. The convection current is  what generates the electrical charge withing the cloud. So a snowstorm is only able to generate lightning if it has the height capable of such an internal flow.  The thunder is quieter because of the way snow in the air and on the ground absorbs sound.", "human_ref_B": "To generate the electrical energy in a thunderstorm there needs to be both liquid and frozen water present to effectively separate the charge.  In a typical thunderstorm the top half of the storm is ice particles and the bottom half liquid water, but in a snowstorm the water is mostly frozen throughout the entire cloud.  In some snowstorms there will be enough water for charge separation which causes the somewhat rare \"thundersnow\".  The louder thunder in a rainstorm is probably due to snow absorbing the sound waves better than rain.  The actual strength of the lightning should be about the same in both types of storms.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 567.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14hx8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "At what point does \"normal\" physics break down to follow the rules of quantum physics? And how can the universe operate on 2 completely incompatible sets of rules?? Ok, so my understanding of the universe is as follows: \"normal\", predicable physics is used to explain the universe we can see and interact with, and quantum physics is used to explain the universe of the scale that particles interact with each other. My question is this: at what point does conventional physics break down and quantum physics take over? The obvious answer is that quantum physics takes over when u reach the quantum scale, by i was wondering if there was some overlap of physical rules as the scale approaches the quantum? or is there a hard line of measurement where very slightly smaller is quantum rules, and very slightly above this limit is standard physics?  i am also completely amazed that the universe can operate with 2 (or more??) sets of rules that are incompatible with each other. How could these differing sets of rules both be describing the same events so differently? One example that springs to mind is throwing a ball against a wall. As i understand it, quantum physics says that there is a probability that the ball may end up on the other side of the wall, but standard physics says the ball MUST hit the wall and return to where it was thrown. how can BOTH be operating at the SAME TIME?", "c_root_id_A": "c7d78tt", "c_root_id_B": "c7d798u", "created_at_utc_A": 1354976361, "created_at_utc_B": 1354976462, "score_A": 46, "score_B": 1112, "human_ref_A": "Quantum physics occurs at all scales. However, if you try to take the de broglie wavelength of something like a baseball, you get a wavelength of 10^-34  (effectively zero). So there is no hard line between classical and quantum physics. Just the effects of quantum physics become so small that they can be ignored.", "human_ref_B": "There is actually a continuum here, not some sharp distinction. Also, there are no two 'sets of rules' that operate at the same time.   Let me elaborate a little: quantum physics completely describes *everything* (edit: okay, this is too much of a sweeping statement but the question was not about gravity so I felt no need to involve the problems of a quantum theory of gravity) in the entire universe: there is a general consensus that all 'normal'-scale phenomena can be perfectly described in terms of elementary particles and their interactions, using the quantum physical formalism. This is part of a broader philosophical concept called epistemological reductionism, which can be summarized by the statement 'the knowledge of the the whole is the sum of the knowledge of its parts'.   Now, why do we then still use classical mechanics instead of QM when describing everyday systems? Because it's simpler, and under 'normal' circumstances, classical (Newtonian) mechanics is a very accurate approximation of reality. Very briefly, one could say something like: the bigger your system becomes, the better of an approximation classical physics is. There is no single point where CM becomes 'correct' and QM 'stops working'. Describing large (compared to quantum scale) systems in QM formalism is just a really big load of work and wouldn't really give *very* different results.  But all this does not change the fact that there really *is* a chance that a ball can end up on the other side of a wall (or another so-called *potential barrier*) by quantum tunnelling!! The chances are just really really really ridiculously small (say, 10^-(10^10^10) or so): the classical approximation which says that the chance is exactly zero is close enough under any normal circumstances to describe whatever we want. But it is really just an approximation, and quantum physics is the *only* set of rules there is that are truly correct (as far as we know).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 101.0, "score_ratio": 24.1739130435, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14hx8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "At what point does \"normal\" physics break down to follow the rules of quantum physics? And how can the universe operate on 2 completely incompatible sets of rules?? Ok, so my understanding of the universe is as follows: \"normal\", predicable physics is used to explain the universe we can see and interact with, and quantum physics is used to explain the universe of the scale that particles interact with each other. My question is this: at what point does conventional physics break down and quantum physics take over? The obvious answer is that quantum physics takes over when u reach the quantum scale, by i was wondering if there was some overlap of physical rules as the scale approaches the quantum? or is there a hard line of measurement where very slightly smaller is quantum rules, and very slightly above this limit is standard physics?  i am also completely amazed that the universe can operate with 2 (or more??) sets of rules that are incompatible with each other. How could these differing sets of rules both be describing the same events so differently? One example that springs to mind is throwing a ball against a wall. As i understand it, quantum physics says that there is a probability that the ball may end up on the other side of the wall, but standard physics says the ball MUST hit the wall and return to where it was thrown. how can BOTH be operating at the SAME TIME?", "c_root_id_A": "c7d80vo", "c_root_id_B": "c7d7kjj", "created_at_utc_A": 1354981571, "created_at_utc_B": 1354978777, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "A good rule of thumb: Quantum mechanics becomes \"important\" at scales such that the de Broglie wavelength of an object is around the same order of magnitude as its size.", "human_ref_B": "Consider an analogy. At the scale of a field the world is clearly flat. We base all our predictions at this scale on the assumption that if you go 10m left you'll be at roughly the same hight. Yet if you go far enough the world is round.  The real world is actually round. There's not two kinds of shape of the world, one to do with fields and one to do with the whole world.   What we have is two different kinds of theories about the shape of the world that are more or less useful in different situations.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2794.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14hx8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "At what point does \"normal\" physics break down to follow the rules of quantum physics? And how can the universe operate on 2 completely incompatible sets of rules?? Ok, so my understanding of the universe is as follows: \"normal\", predicable physics is used to explain the universe we can see and interact with, and quantum physics is used to explain the universe of the scale that particles interact with each other. My question is this: at what point does conventional physics break down and quantum physics take over? The obvious answer is that quantum physics takes over when u reach the quantum scale, by i was wondering if there was some overlap of physical rules as the scale approaches the quantum? or is there a hard line of measurement where very slightly smaller is quantum rules, and very slightly above this limit is standard physics?  i am also completely amazed that the universe can operate with 2 (or more??) sets of rules that are incompatible with each other. How could these differing sets of rules both be describing the same events so differently? One example that springs to mind is throwing a ball against a wall. As i understand it, quantum physics says that there is a probability that the ball may end up on the other side of the wall, but standard physics says the ball MUST hit the wall and return to where it was thrown. how can BOTH be operating at the SAME TIME?", "c_root_id_A": "c7d7kjj", "c_root_id_B": "c7d8sb4", "created_at_utc_A": 1354978777, "created_at_utc_B": 1354985368, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Consider an analogy. At the scale of a field the world is clearly flat. We base all our predictions at this scale on the assumption that if you go 10m left you'll be at roughly the same hight. Yet if you go far enough the world is round.  The real world is actually round. There's not two kinds of shape of the world, one to do with fields and one to do with the whole world.   What we have is two different kinds of theories about the shape of the world that are more or less useful in different situations.", "human_ref_B": "> i am also completely amazed that the universe can operate with 2 (or more??) sets of rules that are incompatible with each other.  You are missing a key idea, the correspondence principle. Classical physics and quantum physics are not incompatible; classical physics naturally emerges [1] as limit of quantum mechanics for large quantum numbers.   [1] With a few complications but let's take one step at a time.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6591.0, "score_ratio": 1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14hx8l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "At what point does \"normal\" physics break down to follow the rules of quantum physics? And how can the universe operate on 2 completely incompatible sets of rules?? Ok, so my understanding of the universe is as follows: \"normal\", predicable physics is used to explain the universe we can see and interact with, and quantum physics is used to explain the universe of the scale that particles interact with each other. My question is this: at what point does conventional physics break down and quantum physics take over? The obvious answer is that quantum physics takes over when u reach the quantum scale, by i was wondering if there was some overlap of physical rules as the scale approaches the quantum? or is there a hard line of measurement where very slightly smaller is quantum rules, and very slightly above this limit is standard physics?  i am also completely amazed that the universe can operate with 2 (or more??) sets of rules that are incompatible with each other. How could these differing sets of rules both be describing the same events so differently? One example that springs to mind is throwing a ball against a wall. As i understand it, quantum physics says that there is a probability that the ball may end up on the other side of the wall, but standard physics says the ball MUST hit the wall and return to where it was thrown. how can BOTH be operating at the SAME TIME?", "c_root_id_A": "c7d8sb4", "c_root_id_B": "c7d82ft", "created_at_utc_A": 1354985368, "created_at_utc_B": 1354981819, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "> i am also completely amazed that the universe can operate with 2 (or more??) sets of rules that are incompatible with each other.  You are missing a key idea, the correspondence principle. Classical physics and quantum physics are not incompatible; classical physics naturally emerges [1] as limit of quantum mechanics for large quantum numbers.   [1] With a few complications but let's take one step at a time.", "human_ref_B": "Here's how I understand it as a former English major who studied quantum physics with a Lit professor:  Everything in the universe operates on a quantum model based on probability.  Quantum weirdness goes on all around us, but probability still reigns supreme.    For instance, the particles that are currently behaving in such a way to hold the shape and size of the chair you're sitting on could, at any moment, separate because of a quantum shift of state.  However, they PROBABLY won't.  This was the counter argument made by CERN scientists when, at trial, they were asked how they could in good faith operate a super collider that had a chance of creating a black hole on earth.  Their response?  It also technically could open up a dimension to a dragon universe which would let in evil dragon kings to evaporate the world with their dragon breath.  It is, in fact, an actual possibility in quantum physics.  But it's a very low probability.    And to bring this back to your question, the world we observe and measure every day happens to follow the same rules and behaviors not because quantum mechanics aren't at work, but because the probability of any bizarre quantum fluctuations is so low.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3549.0, "score_ratio": 2.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kdp71i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How will we test whether COVID-19 vaccines are effective against transmission? I keep hearing about how the vaccines are 95% or so effective against subjects developing symptoms, but that it is yet unknown how effective they are in preventing transmission.  Is there a way to measure whether someone is a carrier after they've gotten the vaccine? I figure an antibody test would not work since from my limited understanding, the point of the vaccine is to produce antibodies.  Or are we just waiting on some aggregate statistics from people who were not vaccinated?", "c_root_id_A": "gfyamjv", "c_root_id_B": "gfy5feg", "created_at_utc_A": 1608060637, "created_at_utc_B": 1608058323, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "In concept it\u2019s very easy. You give one group the vaccine, another the placebo, and then you test them for virus every 3-5 days for a few months.   In practice of course that\u2019s hard to do, especially if your test group is 30,000 people and if you want to test for a year or more. Over a shorter period, though, it\u2019s perfectly possible, and in fact Moderna\u2019s Phase 3 clinical trial did just that, testing for asymptomatic infections over several weeks after the first dose of vaccine (the numbers were small, but suggest that the vaccine may in fact prevent transmission).   >\tNew data from Moderna suggest that its vaccine may reduce transmission. Researchers found that people who had one shot were less likely than those in the placebo group to have symptom-free infections in their noses \u2014 and therefore less likely to be contagious.  \u2014Moderna Vaccine Is Highly Protective Against Covid-19, the F.D.A. Finds  Another approach would be to test at intervals for immunity to parts of the virus not included in the vaccine. None of the vaccines in Phase 3, and only a few in development, are attenuated live viruses, which means that infection should produce antigens that distinguish infection from vaccination. For example, screening for NP in vaccinees who only received spike protein would be effective. This general approach has been used with other vaccines to distinguish infection from vaccination.", "human_ref_B": "To test that, you would need an experiment with making people sick on purpose and trying to transmit on purpose, to compare rates.   Otherwise we just need the real world experiment of comparing populations as we go...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2314.0, "score_ratio": 8000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kdp71i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How will we test whether COVID-19 vaccines are effective against transmission? I keep hearing about how the vaccines are 95% or so effective against subjects developing symptoms, but that it is yet unknown how effective they are in preventing transmission.  Is there a way to measure whether someone is a carrier after they've gotten the vaccine? I figure an antibody test would not work since from my limited understanding, the point of the vaccine is to produce antibodies.  Or are we just waiting on some aggregate statistics from people who were not vaccinated?", "c_root_id_A": "gfyoivp", "c_root_id_B": "gfy5feg", "created_at_utc_A": 1608066960, "created_at_utc_B": 1608058323, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The direct methods would be hard or impossible to do, but given enough time statistics would be easy to develop.   Just with some contact-tracing of infected people you can model how much transmission is taking place from vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals. If there is a very big difference it would have a clear statistical signal.", "human_ref_B": "To test that, you would need an experiment with making people sick on purpose and trying to transmit on purpose, to compare rates.   Otherwise we just need the real world experiment of comparing populations as we go...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8637.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kdp71i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How will we test whether COVID-19 vaccines are effective against transmission? I keep hearing about how the vaccines are 95% or so effective against subjects developing symptoms, but that it is yet unknown how effective they are in preventing transmission.  Is there a way to measure whether someone is a carrier after they've gotten the vaccine? I figure an antibody test would not work since from my limited understanding, the point of the vaccine is to produce antibodies.  Or are we just waiting on some aggregate statistics from people who were not vaccinated?", "c_root_id_A": "gfy5feg", "c_root_id_B": "gg0dx9l", "created_at_utc_A": 1608058323, "created_at_utc_B": 1608103224, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "To test that, you would need an experiment with making people sick on purpose and trying to transmit on purpose, to compare rates.   Otherwise we just need the real world experiment of comparing populations as we go...", "human_ref_B": "My sense is that this is a challenging study to do because you would have to do contact tracing for everybody in the study. In order to characterize an asymptomatic carrier transmission rate, you'd have to follow everybody in your study, track their contacts, and figure out how many of those contacts develop COVID. And once vaccination takes widely, it becomes even more difficult because you also would need to know their contacts' vaccination status. It becomes super messy quickly.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 44901.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3a1j7x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "During the eras when dinosaurs roamed, were they ever exposed to freezing temps? I don't mean at the end when that may have killed them, but more so during their heyday.", "c_root_id_A": "cs8miyv", "c_root_id_B": "cs8kjdd", "created_at_utc_A": 1434478867, "created_at_utc_B": 1434475990, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Until someone with actual expertise on the subject responds to you, you might want to check out here for some introductory reading on the subject: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Polar_dinosaurs  There are some geological layers in Australia associated with dinosaur fossils and tracks that have features associated with cold to freezing temperatures.   There are also a few dinosaur fossils with feature (e.g. large orbits) that have been interpreted to be adaptations to cold and/or low light environments.", "human_ref_B": "I'd always read that the Earth was consistently ice-free for most of the Mesozoic, but I came across this article that suggests there might have actually still been a fair amount of polar ice at some points. Looking through some later papers, I'm not convinced there was as much as ice as this article suggests, but it's not unreasonable to think there may have been dinosaurs that lived in glaciated areas. We've certainly found fossils of polar dinosaurs, it's just a matter of whether they were actually there when the ice was.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2877.0, "score_ratio": 3.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ggecd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are five particle physicists here to discuss our projects and answer your questions. Ask Us Anything! -----  /u/AsAChemicalEngineer (13 EDT, 17 UTC): I am a graduate student working in experimental high energy physics specifically with a group that deals with calorimetry (the study of measuring energy) for the ATLAS detector at the LHC. I spend my time studying what are referred to as particle jets. Jets are essentially shotgun blasts of particles associated with the final state or end result of a collision event. Here is a diagram of what jets look like versus other signals you may see in a detector such as electrons.  Because of color confinement, free quarks cannot exist for any significant amount of time, so they produce more color-carrying particles until the system becomes colorless. This is called hadronization. For example, the top quark almost exclusively decaying into a bottom quark and W boson, and assuming the W decays into leptons (which is does about half the time), we will see at least one particle jet resulting from the hadronization of that bottom quark. While we will never see that top quark as it lives too shortly (too shortly to even hadronize!), we can infer its existence from final states such as these.   -----  /u/diazona (on-off throughout the day, EDT): I'm /u/diazona, a particle physicist working on predicting the behavior of protons and atomic nuclei in high-energy collisions. My research right now involves calculating how often certain particles should come out of proton-atomic nucleus collisions in various directions. The predictions I help make get compared to data from the LHC and RHIC to determine how well the models I use correspond to the real structures of particles.  -----  /u/ididnoteatyourcat (12 EDT+, 16 UTC+): I'm an experimental physicist searching for dark matter. I've searched for dark matter with the ATLAS experiment at the LHC and with deep-underground direct-detection dark matter experiments.  -----  /u/omgdonerkebab (18-21 EDT, 22-01 UTC): I used to be a PhD student in theoretical particle physics, before leaving the field. My research was mostly in collider phenomenology, which is the study of how we can use particle colliders to produce and detect new particles and other evidence of new physics. Specifically, I worked on projects developing new searches for supersymmetry at the Large Hadron Collider, where the signals contained boosted heavy objects - a sort of fancy term for a fast-moving top quark, bottom quark, Higgs boson, or other as-yet-undiscovered heavy particle. The work was basically half physics and half programming proof-of-concept analyses to run on simulated collider data. After getting my PhD, I changed careers and am now a software engineer.  -----  /u/Sirkkus (14-16 EDT, 18-20 UTC): I'm currently a fourth-year PhD student working on effective field theories in high energy Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD). When interpreting data from particle accelerator experiments, it's necessary to have theoretical calculations for what the Standard Model predicts in order to detect deviations from the Standard Model or to fit the data for a particular physical parameter. At accelerators like the LHC, the most common products of collisions are \"jets\" - collimated clusters of strongly bound particles - which are supposed to be described by QCD. For various reasons it's more difficult to do practical calculations with QCD than it is with the other forces in the Standard Model. Effective Field Theory is a tool that we can use to try to make improvements in these kinds of calculations, and this is what I'm trying to do for some particular measurements.", "c_root_id_A": "ctxvk4u", "c_root_id_B": "ctxx67p", "created_at_utc_A": 1439209737, "created_at_utc_B": 1439213743, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 174, "human_ref_A": "I asked a variant of this in the Hawking AMA, but since I don't expect I'll ever see an answer... for all of you:  -Do you expect that we'll see hints of supersymmetry during the new LHC run?  -Do you think that supersymmetry is respected at all in nature?  -If the new LHC run doesn't detect it, is it time to stop searching for it for now?  -If the new LHC run doesn't detect it, is there a different promising theory that you think lots of theorists will start to adopt?", "human_ref_B": "Given a ridiculous quasi-infinite budget, what kind of particle experiment would you design?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4006.0, "score_ratio": 3.3461538462, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ggecd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are five particle physicists here to discuss our projects and answer your questions. Ask Us Anything! -----  /u/AsAChemicalEngineer (13 EDT, 17 UTC): I am a graduate student working in experimental high energy physics specifically with a group that deals with calorimetry (the study of measuring energy) for the ATLAS detector at the LHC. I spend my time studying what are referred to as particle jets. Jets are essentially shotgun blasts of particles associated with the final state or end result of a collision event. Here is a diagram of what jets look like versus other signals you may see in a detector such as electrons.  Because of color confinement, free quarks cannot exist for any significant amount of time, so they produce more color-carrying particles until the system becomes colorless. This is called hadronization. For example, the top quark almost exclusively decaying into a bottom quark and W boson, and assuming the W decays into leptons (which is does about half the time), we will see at least one particle jet resulting from the hadronization of that bottom quark. While we will never see that top quark as it lives too shortly (too shortly to even hadronize!), we can infer its existence from final states such as these.   -----  /u/diazona (on-off throughout the day, EDT): I'm /u/diazona, a particle physicist working on predicting the behavior of protons and atomic nuclei in high-energy collisions. My research right now involves calculating how often certain particles should come out of proton-atomic nucleus collisions in various directions. The predictions I help make get compared to data from the LHC and RHIC to determine how well the models I use correspond to the real structures of particles.  -----  /u/ididnoteatyourcat (12 EDT+, 16 UTC+): I'm an experimental physicist searching for dark matter. I've searched for dark matter with the ATLAS experiment at the LHC and with deep-underground direct-detection dark matter experiments.  -----  /u/omgdonerkebab (18-21 EDT, 22-01 UTC): I used to be a PhD student in theoretical particle physics, before leaving the field. My research was mostly in collider phenomenology, which is the study of how we can use particle colliders to produce and detect new particles and other evidence of new physics. Specifically, I worked on projects developing new searches for supersymmetry at the Large Hadron Collider, where the signals contained boosted heavy objects - a sort of fancy term for a fast-moving top quark, bottom quark, Higgs boson, or other as-yet-undiscovered heavy particle. The work was basically half physics and half programming proof-of-concept analyses to run on simulated collider data. After getting my PhD, I changed careers and am now a software engineer.  -----  /u/Sirkkus (14-16 EDT, 18-20 UTC): I'm currently a fourth-year PhD student working on effective field theories in high energy Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD). When interpreting data from particle accelerator experiments, it's necessary to have theoretical calculations for what the Standard Model predicts in order to detect deviations from the Standard Model or to fit the data for a particular physical parameter. At accelerators like the LHC, the most common products of collisions are \"jets\" - collimated clusters of strongly bound particles - which are supposed to be described by QCD. For various reasons it's more difficult to do practical calculations with QCD than it is with the other forces in the Standard Model. Effective Field Theory is a tool that we can use to try to make improvements in these kinds of calculations, and this is what I'm trying to do for some particular measurements.", "c_root_id_A": "ctxx67p", "c_root_id_B": "ctxvlts", "created_at_utc_A": 1439213743, "created_at_utc_B": 1439209871, "score_A": 174, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Given a ridiculous quasi-infinite budget, what kind of particle experiment would you design?", "human_ref_B": "Thanks for doing this AMA. I have read that Feynman Diagrams are no longer the standard for doing calculations anymore and that they have survived due to didactic reasons. Is that even close to be true?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3872.0, "score_ratio": 6.96, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ikl9q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "how do doctors tell stem cells what organ to become? from my understanding stem cells can become any piece of tissue so even if the put a mold in the right shape how do the cells \"know\" to be a kidney and not a liver or just skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c24hrvt", "c_root_id_B": "c24iu75", "created_at_utc_A": 1310178955, "created_at_utc_B": 1310191999, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "In the simplest terms, what they will become depends on what chemical signals they receive", "human_ref_B": "There are a number of different strategies right now:  * Small signaling molecules * Inducing genes commonly expressed in the target cell type * Fine-tuning surface hardness (soft surfaces promote neuronal growth, hard surfaces bone) * Creating concoctions of growth factors and crossing fingers that THIS mix will be slightly more effective than the last one.  Cellular differentiation involves tons of genes talking back and fourth with each other, up regulating one, down regulating another. The biggest problem in the stem cell world right now is a lack of standardization. Some people have cell lines that happily differentiate into blood and liver cells, but take that same stem cell and attempt to make a neuron out of it and you're SOL. With other cell lines, the complete opposite may be true.  So how do cells know to become a kidney or a *\"just\"*  &#3232;\\_&#3232;  a skin cell? Cells have surface proteins that can bind to a large variety of molecules, these surface proteins start a signal cascade to some other part of the cell. So if a stem cell is surrounded by kidney cells, all making kidney proteins, in kidney salt concentrations, then it's probably going to assume it's a kidney cell.   So if we start off as a mass of stem cells why do we develop highly segregated organs instead of a massive kidney? Something about edge effects in the early embryo or something, fuck if i know.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13044.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ikl9q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "how do doctors tell stem cells what organ to become? from my understanding stem cells can become any piece of tissue so even if the put a mold in the right shape how do the cells \"know\" to be a kidney and not a liver or just skin?", "c_root_id_A": "c24in1q", "c_root_id_B": "c24iu75", "created_at_utc_A": 1310189189, "created_at_utc_B": 1310191999, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Actually, at the moment scientists aren't really able to grow whole organs in the lab. We can tell them to become most of the cell types that would make up the organs, but we don't understand enough to tell them to shape into an organ.  As for how do we do it? The best way is to attempt to mimic the way it happens in the body. That involves adding the appropriate stimuli (chemical/mechanical) at the right time.", "human_ref_B": "There are a number of different strategies right now:  * Small signaling molecules * Inducing genes commonly expressed in the target cell type * Fine-tuning surface hardness (soft surfaces promote neuronal growth, hard surfaces bone) * Creating concoctions of growth factors and crossing fingers that THIS mix will be slightly more effective than the last one.  Cellular differentiation involves tons of genes talking back and fourth with each other, up regulating one, down regulating another. The biggest problem in the stem cell world right now is a lack of standardization. Some people have cell lines that happily differentiate into blood and liver cells, but take that same stem cell and attempt to make a neuron out of it and you're SOL. With other cell lines, the complete opposite may be true.  So how do cells know to become a kidney or a *\"just\"*  &#3232;\\_&#3232;  a skin cell? Cells have surface proteins that can bind to a large variety of molecules, these surface proteins start a signal cascade to some other part of the cell. So if a stem cell is surrounded by kidney cells, all making kidney proteins, in kidney salt concentrations, then it's probably going to assume it's a kidney cell.   So if we start off as a mass of stem cells why do we develop highly segregated organs instead of a massive kidney? Something about edge effects in the early embryo or something, fuck if i know.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2810.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9rc3hb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "What are some forestry management and public policy best practices to minimize the damage caused by wildfires?", "c_root_id_A": "e8gqmx7", "c_root_id_B": "e8glbu3", "created_at_utc_A": 1540519210, "created_at_utc_B": 1540514455, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The Smokey Bear era, where every fire was treated as a bad fire was really bad for forests. Prescribed burns are a good way to restore these unhealthy forests to a more natural state. But they can get out of control and make things worse. As a wildland firefighter, we would sometimes allow lightning strike or other fires to continue burning if it didn't threaten anything.    Most forests where I live are pretty overgrown.", "human_ref_B": "A huge thing is defensible space...just leaving some unwooded area between houses and forestlands.  Fire spreads most feircely through trees and brush so if firebreaks are present around houses and subdivisions, it really reduces damage.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4755.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1wkqa3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why is it that in some areas, the western side of a mountain range is desert and the eastern side is lush, but in other (sometimes nearby) regions, the opposite is true? I noticed this looking at the satellite view of Chile/Argentina, where there appears to be a flip to the north of Santiago.  What accounts for this?", "c_root_id_A": "cf2y6l5", "c_root_id_B": "cf2x0hi", "created_at_utc_A": 1391112161, "created_at_utc_B": 1391109837, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "For the Andes, in addition to the orographic effects described in the other answers, because the mountain range spans such a huge range of latitudes, you are also seeing some influence of global scale atmospheric effects, like the Hadley Cell. There's a nice discussion of the interaction of local and global climate and topography by Manfred Strecker and others, titled \"Tectonics and Climate of the Southern Central Andes\" in Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences that talks about this for the Andes.", "human_ref_B": "It has to do with what's known as the rain shadow effect. On one side of the mountain, where the clouds are forced to ascend the mountain, they have to drop weight (rain) creating a wet, cool environment. On the other side an environment is created that is warm and dry due to the lack of precipitation. Here's a link from National Geographic: http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/rain-shadow/?ar_a=1", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2324.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1wkqa3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why is it that in some areas, the western side of a mountain range is desert and the eastern side is lush, but in other (sometimes nearby) regions, the opposite is true? I noticed this looking at the satellite view of Chile/Argentina, where there appears to be a flip to the north of Santiago.  What accounts for this?", "c_root_id_A": "cf3139j", "c_root_id_B": "cf2yqvt", "created_at_utc_A": 1391117739, "created_at_utc_B": 1391113275, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The Rain Shadow effect is well covered here, but the \"flip\" of the Andes is also due largely to the Hadley Cell effect, in which latitude determines general wind direction. This image shows the South American situation nicely- the wind coming directly from the ocean is wet, and that same wind becomes dry after crossing the Andes.", "human_ref_B": "i've heard it called the orographic effect: clouds are effectively squeezed upwards by a high mountain ridge, which causes the clouds to lose their ability to carry precipitation. hence not only is it hard for a rain cloud to make it to the now 'dry' side, but the rain is much higher on the 'wet' side as all the clouds are getting wrung out.  there are lots of good illustrations on google, if you look up 'orographic rain'", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4464.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ua4hu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What prevents my bike from falling on it's side while I am riding it and how would you describe the minimum speed required to prevent your bike from falling over?", "c_root_id_A": "ceg55it", "c_root_id_B": "ceg3f2j", "created_at_utc_A": 1388731680, "created_at_utc_B": 1388726748, "score_A": 6, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "There's been a few posts on this over the past few months:  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1f91xj/how_do_bicycles_stay_upright/ http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/191x9m/something_ive_pondered_for_years_with_no/  The second, in particular, has some excellent discussion and cites several papers describing bicycle motion.  If you're curious, I'd recommend giving it a read.", "human_ref_B": "You! Yourself prevent your bike from falling on side even if you don't realize it! Its in your subconcious. When the bike tilts left you put your weight to the right ever so slightly to balance it. It happens continiously. You can do it even if the bike is standstill, but speed makes it easier to balance. I am a mechanical engineer.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4932.0, "score_ratio": -0.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ua4hu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What prevents my bike from falling on it's side while I am riding it and how would you describe the minimum speed required to prevent your bike from falling over?", "c_root_id_A": "ceg3f2j", "c_root_id_B": "ceg9aqy", "created_at_utc_A": 1388726748, "created_at_utc_B": 1388752975, "score_A": -8, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "You! Yourself prevent your bike from falling on side even if you don't realize it! Its in your subconcious. When the bike tilts left you put your weight to the right ever so slightly to balance it. It happens continiously. You can do it even if the bike is standstill, but speed makes it easier to balance. I am a mechanical engineer.", "human_ref_B": "**Centrifugal side-force holds you up when you lean into a turn.**  There are many, many incompetent, confused teachers on this subject. Some have credentials. Don't let them spread their  confusion to you any more.  The actual amount of centrifugal force can be varied with two factors:  1) Speed: The faster you are going, the greater the centrifugal force for a given turn radius.   (Insufficient speed=Insufficient centrifugal force=Fall over.)  2) Turn radius: The smaller the turn radius, the greater the centrifugal force for a given speed.   (Edit to Add: You can \"hunt\" for the perfect amount of centrifugal force by *wiggling* the steering. You see this a lot, especially in novice riders, or at low speed.)  The essential challenge to becoming a bicycle rider is learning to balance: (A) Leaning (B) centrifugal force, and (C) speed ..  And the algorithm used to teach it this: **\"Turn into the fall.\"**   When you are traveling in a mostly-straight line, only small, brief, gentle turns  are needed to produce the extremely small amounts of centrifugal force to pull you upright.  (Edit to add: If only small, slow corrections are needed, subtle leaning works gracefully.)  There is a lot of dis-information on this subject, even by otherwise educated and intelligent people.  It is NOT because the wheels are gyroscopic. No. It is not.  As you may know, a fast-rolling bicycle will tend to stay upright by itself.  This is because ~~front wheel~~ steering geometry is designed to turn into a fall if it starts to lean over. It's a nice feature that makes the bicycle easier to ride, but it is not essential.  I know this last assertiton be true, because I have ridden hundreds of miles on a couple of bicycles that had their front forks bent to the extent that this nice self-stabilizing feature had been completely neutralized, rendering the bicycles rideable only with hands-on-the-bars.  Source: I am an accomplished trans-continental bicyclist..", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26227.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2bfss8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "Why does water taste better when it's cold than when it's warm?", "c_root_id_A": "cj4zh9u", "c_root_id_B": "cj51n1j", "created_at_utc_A": 1406074139, "created_at_utc_B": 1406078715, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I think this question may actually belong in Neuroscience flair rather than Chemistry, because it's all about taste sensation. The composition of the water can lead to a variety of tastes, and that all depends on the acidity of the water, the mineral makeup which will also influence hardness or softness of the water, and also and most importantly the temperature of the water^2 . For example, a high iron content can often lead to a very bitter tasting water (see previous source). This dissertation also showed that colder water tastes better. The ideal temperature for water was found to be between 15 and 20 degrees Centigrade. Why? Well another paper from 1987 showed that cooling the tongue can decrease the perception of sweet and bitter tastes, but interestingly not salty or acidic tastes^1 .   So what is the mechanism? I couldn't find a study directly and experimentally addressing this. I would guess it is because the receptors that code for bitterness^3 can be affected by cooling. These receptors, like all cellular receptors, can be slowed down by cooling. When you make a neuron cold it functions more slowly and less efficiently because enzymes are slowed down, receptors operate with slower kinetics, synaptic transmission is impaired, and even the membrane of the cells becomes less fluid^4 . Interestingly, in the study from 1987, they found that salty and sour tastes were not affected by cold. This could be because those tastes, unlike sweet and bitter, are transduced by different receptors that may be less susceptible to cold^5. Sour and salty are coded by ion channels, and all they have to do to signal is open up and allow ions to flow. By contrast sweet and bitter are coded by g-protein coupled receptors that require not only the surface receptor to move, but also rely on many cellular processes that are all individually affected by cold. That last mechanistic bit is just me hypothesizing with no direct evidence. However I think it's something that should be studied!  So in summary (or **TL:DR**) it has been well documented that colder water tastes better. This could be because you taste *less* with colder water. Also this is why beer \"tastes better\" when it is cold. It is because you can't taste the beer as well as you can when it is warm.", "human_ref_B": "it's almost certainly cultural. in china, for example, people have a strong aversion to drinking cold water. i don't think there's an objective answer to this question.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4576.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lmwkf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "What are the real pros and cons of chewing gum? I've lots of stuff about memory improvement. And some about it messing with your jaw. Should I invest in chewing gum or keep my mouth shut? I really like learning. I really like memorizing things. Should I add chewing gum to my life to make myself better at that?  I want to know the pros and the cons.  Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "c2tznf9", "c_root_id_B": "c2u1l5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1319454843, "created_at_utc_B": 1319473468, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "I've read the occasional article that says chewing gum aids math-related testing and thought process by a small percent, but it sounds like a bit of a gimmick to me. Try it, at the least you might observe a placebo effect and see an improvement regardless of the gum's properties.  Personally, I use chewing gum to replace other nervous habits. I bite my nails less and eat fewer snacks when I'm chewing gum. It remains to be seen what it's done to my jaw, however. I often go several (up to 8) hours constantly chewing gum, and while my jaw doesn't get too sore anymore, I do have some clicks and pains when I do a big yawn.", "human_ref_B": "Chewing sugar gum will increase your risk of cavities.  Many patients that chew gum containing sugar all day will get rampant cavities.  Many gum brands now have xylitol, which has anti-cariogenic (anti-cavity) properties.  It will inhibit growth of S.mutans, a primary cavity causing bacterium.  The effect is probably temporary as S. mutans has been shown to become resistant to xylitol over time (9+ months).  The resistant bacteria are not more cariogenic.  Chewing sugar-free or xylitol containing gum after meals/drinks will also raise the pH, which prevents cavities.    I am not aware of any good studies showing a link between TMD (what most people call TMJ) and chewing gum, but there *seems* to be an association.  I *rarely* treat TMD, but the patients that did not have trauma to the joint are often gum chewers.  There are a lot of factors that go into TMD, and \"overuse\" from chewing gum all day probably partially contributes.  Gum seems to help pain immediately after an orthodontic adjustment, and there is some good research on that.  Hopefully this will help you from the dental side.  I do occasionally chew gum with xylitol.    TMD= temporomandibular disorder.  It is a problem with the joint. TMJ= temporomandibular joint.  The joint itself.  When people say \"I have TMJ,\" they are basically saying \"I have a knee.\"  Yes, you have 2 of them.  /Board Certified Periodontist", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18625.0, "score_ratio": 1.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lmwkf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "What are the real pros and cons of chewing gum? I've lots of stuff about memory improvement. And some about it messing with your jaw. Should I invest in chewing gum or keep my mouth shut? I really like learning. I really like memorizing things. Should I add chewing gum to my life to make myself better at that?  I want to know the pros and the cons.  Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "c2u0vgj", "c_root_id_B": "c2u1l5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1319468681, "created_at_utc_B": 1319473468, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Last number I saw was a 42% improvement during tests. Many students were given an exam and those who chewed gum performed 42% better than those who didn't. I suspect that mastication in general is what causes the improvement because I get a major improvement from eating sunflower seeds.  BTW, this level of improvement is much higher than results for coffee, various stimulants, and even a full night's rest. It's hard to recall, but I believe that cocaine has similar levels of improvement but has the side effects that gum does not.  links  telegraph  This study only claims 3-5%", "human_ref_B": "Chewing sugar gum will increase your risk of cavities.  Many patients that chew gum containing sugar all day will get rampant cavities.  Many gum brands now have xylitol, which has anti-cariogenic (anti-cavity) properties.  It will inhibit growth of S.mutans, a primary cavity causing bacterium.  The effect is probably temporary as S. mutans has been shown to become resistant to xylitol over time (9+ months).  The resistant bacteria are not more cariogenic.  Chewing sugar-free or xylitol containing gum after meals/drinks will also raise the pH, which prevents cavities.    I am not aware of any good studies showing a link between TMD (what most people call TMJ) and chewing gum, but there *seems* to be an association.  I *rarely* treat TMD, but the patients that did not have trauma to the joint are often gum chewers.  There are a lot of factors that go into TMD, and \"overuse\" from chewing gum all day probably partially contributes.  Gum seems to help pain immediately after an orthodontic adjustment, and there is some good research on that.  Hopefully this will help you from the dental side.  I do occasionally chew gum with xylitol.    TMD= temporomandibular disorder.  It is a problem with the joint. TMJ= temporomandibular joint.  The joint itself.  When people say \"I have TMJ,\" they are basically saying \"I have a knee.\"  Yes, you have 2 of them.  /Board Certified Periodontist", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4787.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4h74vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "How or why does moon sometimes appear bigger and in different colour?", "c_root_id_A": "d2o13sb", "c_root_id_B": "d2o20ro", "created_at_utc_A": 1462070770, "created_at_utc_B": 1462072567, "score_A": -17, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Atmospheric lensing.  Basically Earth's atmosphere acts like a lens causing an effect similar to placing an object half in and half out of a glass of water.  Closer to the horizon, there is more atmosphere, which causes greater diffraction.  This greater diffraction is what causes the moon to look larger.  As the moon rises, the distance to the moon stays roughly the same (as a percentage of the whole the change is negligible), but the amount of that distance that is through the atmosphere changes, the diffraction reduces, therefore the apparent size reduces.", "human_ref_B": "When moon is near the horizon, we compare its size with trees, houses, building etc, which makes it look bigger compared to when it is not on horizon. You can test this by closing one eye and covering moon with your thumb and repeat again when moon is not on horizon. Your thumb should be at the same distance from your body.   The reason for the color is due to the scattering of light by the atmosphere.  Sorry for the grammar.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1797.0, "score_ratio": -1.4705882353, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4h74vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "How or why does moon sometimes appear bigger and in different colour?", "c_root_id_A": "d2oi63d", "c_root_id_B": "d2o13sb", "created_at_utc_A": 1462118073, "created_at_utc_B": 1462070770, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -17, "human_ref_A": "Here is the easiest trick to see how your mind is interpreting reality.  One night when the moon is high in the sky and seems small hold out your arm and compare the size of the moon to your thumb (or a dime, etc.).   Make a note of that and wait until the moon is on the horizon and seems large.  Do the same comparison and you'll find it's the same size.  Your brain just perceives it differently when it has something to compare it to.", "human_ref_B": "Atmospheric lensing.  Basically Earth's atmosphere acts like a lens causing an effect similar to placing an object half in and half out of a glass of water.  Closer to the horizon, there is more atmosphere, which causes greater diffraction.  This greater diffraction is what causes the moon to look larger.  As the moon rises, the distance to the moon stays roughly the same (as a percentage of the whole the change is negligible), but the amount of that distance that is through the atmosphere changes, the diffraction reduces, therefore the apparent size reduces.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 47303.0, "score_ratio": -0.0588235294, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4h74vh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "How or why does moon sometimes appear bigger and in different colour?", "c_root_id_A": "d2oplqe", "c_root_id_B": "d2o13sb", "created_at_utc_A": 1462129988, "created_at_utc_B": 1462070770, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -17, "human_ref_A": "I'm going to break this up into the color aspect and the size aspect as different issues.  Regarding color, there's three things of note. The first one that I think most people are familiar with is the phases of the moon. The half of the moon that is lit means that we see some portion of the moon to be much brighter than the rest of it.  The next most common thing is the effect of light entering out atmosphere. This is the same reason why the sunset is red. The atmosphere is filtering out shorter wavelengths of light, and that effects the color we see for the moon.  The least common thing, but it stil happens a couple times a year, is a lunar eclipse. In this case, the moon passes into the earth's shadow, and so this changes the light that hits the moon's surface and so the light coming from the moon is, itself, much redder.  Now, the size issue is much trickier. Over the course of a month, the moon's distance from us does change a little bit, and so there is a real change in the size of the moon of about 10%. It shows up when you have a whole month of pictures side by side or a sped up movie of the moon but it's not the sort of thing that we generally notice. Which comes to why does the moon appear to be bigger near the horizon, and the general answer to that is we're not sure. There's a lot of ideas though. There's two basic ideas. One is that our brain processes the moon as bigger because it's lower on the horizon, and that generally means something in the sky is much further away. The other is that it may come from it appearing bigger when it's closer to the horizon and there's other reference objects than it does when it's high in the sky with no references nearby. It's not a settled issue as to why this happens, and to some extent, it ceases to be an astronomy question and starts to become about how our brain processes things.", "human_ref_B": "Atmospheric lensing.  Basically Earth's atmosphere acts like a lens causing an effect similar to placing an object half in and half out of a glass of water.  Closer to the horizon, there is more atmosphere, which causes greater diffraction.  This greater diffraction is what causes the moon to look larger.  As the moon rises, the distance to the moon stays roughly the same (as a percentage of the whole the change is negligible), but the amount of that distance that is through the atmosphere changes, the diffraction reduces, therefore the apparent size reduces.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 59218.0, "score_ratio": -0.0588235294, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceu7q4i", "c_root_id_B": "ceu8nc6", "created_at_utc_A": 1390230528, "created_at_utc_B": 1390233168, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 349, "human_ref_A": "NASA stated that the rock originated from one of two events,  1. It was \u201csomehow flicked out of the ground by a wheel\u201d  2. There is \u201ca smoking hole in the ground somewhere nearby\u201d and it was caused by a meteor.  If find reason one to be somewhat improbable due to this statement \"We had driven a metre or two away from here, and I think the idea that somehow we mysteriously flicked it with a wheel is the best explanation.\u201d - Sqyures  Opportunity can travel at a maximum speed of .05 mph which is about 80.4 meters per hour or 1.35 meters per minute. Noting that this is the speed of the Opportunity, and that the closest the rover came to this spot was 1-2 meters as stated by Sqyures, the chance that one of the rover's wheels made contact with the rock in a manner that was able to dislodge the rock, and then throw it a length of 1-2, are pretty small.   Now, the team stated that there is a red spot in the center (resembling the jelly in a jelly donut). Additionally, it was noted that a large amount of Manganese and Sulfur were found in the rock. It would be my guess that the rock is then some form of Alabandite. The pink hue inherent in Alabandite may be reddened by the Martian landscape, dust storms, etc.   In this case, it is probable that this rock was a part of a meteorite as Alabandite has been found in meteorites in the past. I also find this theory more compelling than the rock throwing theory because the rock has been stated to be 'different' than anything we have found previously on Mars. If the rock was kicked up from the ground, the chances of it being a rare rock of this sort are slim. A quick look at the picture shows an extremely reflective rock which also leads me to believe it was not recently underground and covered in dust.  But then again everything I just said is speculation and this could of course be aliens offering up a delicious treat to the Opportunity.   EDIT: Alabandite itself is not pink, Manganese(II) Sulfide is. Its possible that the red in the center of the rock is Rhodocrosite (a manganese carbonate material.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfide http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrosite", "human_ref_B": "I posted about this in the /r/space thread for the Belfast article. The content seems fairly sensationalized and I can't seem to find any sources from NASA for the composition. /u/sonar1 points out that the composition was mentioned by Steve Squyres during a recorded JPL event, but I really think we should all be patient until NASA releases something specific regarding the origin and composition of the rock.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2640.0, "score_ratio": 38.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceu7q4i", "c_root_id_B": "ceu9thc", "created_at_utc_A": 1390230528, "created_at_utc_B": 1390236043, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 117, "human_ref_A": "NASA stated that the rock originated from one of two events,  1. It was \u201csomehow flicked out of the ground by a wheel\u201d  2. There is \u201ca smoking hole in the ground somewhere nearby\u201d and it was caused by a meteor.  If find reason one to be somewhat improbable due to this statement \"We had driven a metre or two away from here, and I think the idea that somehow we mysteriously flicked it with a wheel is the best explanation.\u201d - Sqyures  Opportunity can travel at a maximum speed of .05 mph which is about 80.4 meters per hour or 1.35 meters per minute. Noting that this is the speed of the Opportunity, and that the closest the rover came to this spot was 1-2 meters as stated by Sqyures, the chance that one of the rover's wheels made contact with the rock in a manner that was able to dislodge the rock, and then throw it a length of 1-2, are pretty small.   Now, the team stated that there is a red spot in the center (resembling the jelly in a jelly donut). Additionally, it was noted that a large amount of Manganese and Sulfur were found in the rock. It would be my guess that the rock is then some form of Alabandite. The pink hue inherent in Alabandite may be reddened by the Martian landscape, dust storms, etc.   In this case, it is probable that this rock was a part of a meteorite as Alabandite has been found in meteorites in the past. I also find this theory more compelling than the rock throwing theory because the rock has been stated to be 'different' than anything we have found previously on Mars. If the rock was kicked up from the ground, the chances of it being a rare rock of this sort are slim. A quick look at the picture shows an extremely reflective rock which also leads me to believe it was not recently underground and covered in dust.  But then again everything I just said is speculation and this could of course be aliens offering up a delicious treat to the Opportunity.   EDIT: Alabandite itself is not pink, Manganese(II) Sulfide is. Its possible that the red in the center of the rock is Rhodocrosite (a manganese carbonate material.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfide http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrosite", "human_ref_B": "The NASA explanation that a rover wheel \"kicked the rock\" seems the most plausible. Before I heard that explanation, I kept focusing on the Before image which shows a little bowl about the same size and shape as the doughnut rock which seems to rest in the very spot. I found that to be most peculiar.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5515.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceuclpn", "c_root_id_B": "ceua2s8", "created_at_utc_A": 1390242180, "created_at_utc_B": 1390236649, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "Since the rock has been found close to the rover and was not there previously, then could it be possible that the material crystallised on a part of the rover (possibly during the bad weather event) and broken off closeby?   Maybe the donut shape corresonds to a circular element of the rover.", "human_ref_B": "Would the rover be able to identify if the \"rock\" was made of CO2?    I know we discourage speculation here, but thought an appropriate deduction would be that if:  * The rock did not get blown there * The rover did not dislodge it from another location * An asteroid impact is highly unlikely to be witnessed event  Then it was \"created\" right were it is in the form of a CO2 clathrate that formed from subsurface CO2.  Any thoughts?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5531.0, "score_ratio": 1.28125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceuaqxy", "c_root_id_B": "ceuclpn", "created_at_utc_A": 1390238194, "created_at_utc_B": 1390242180, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "This is from the NASA rover team-  \u201cSo my best guess for this rock... is that it\u2019s something that was nearby,\u201d Squyers told Discovery News. \u201cI must stress that I\u2019m guessing now, but I think it happened when the rover did a turn in place a meter or two from where this rock now lies.\u201d Seems probable.", "human_ref_B": "Since the rock has been found close to the rover and was not there previously, then could it be possible that the material crystallised on a part of the rover (possibly during the bad weather event) and broken off closeby?   Maybe the donut shape corresonds to a circular element of the rover.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3986.0, "score_ratio": 1.4642857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceuclpn", "c_root_id_B": "ceu7q4i", "created_at_utc_A": 1390242180, "created_at_utc_B": 1390230528, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Since the rock has been found close to the rover and was not there previously, then could it be possible that the material crystallised on a part of the rover (possibly during the bad weather event) and broken off closeby?   Maybe the donut shape corresonds to a circular element of the rover.", "human_ref_B": "NASA stated that the rock originated from one of two events,  1. It was \u201csomehow flicked out of the ground by a wheel\u201d  2. There is \u201ca smoking hole in the ground somewhere nearby\u201d and it was caused by a meteor.  If find reason one to be somewhat improbable due to this statement \"We had driven a metre or two away from here, and I think the idea that somehow we mysteriously flicked it with a wheel is the best explanation.\u201d - Sqyures  Opportunity can travel at a maximum speed of .05 mph which is about 80.4 meters per hour or 1.35 meters per minute. Noting that this is the speed of the Opportunity, and that the closest the rover came to this spot was 1-2 meters as stated by Sqyures, the chance that one of the rover's wheels made contact with the rock in a manner that was able to dislodge the rock, and then throw it a length of 1-2, are pretty small.   Now, the team stated that there is a red spot in the center (resembling the jelly in a jelly donut). Additionally, it was noted that a large amount of Manganese and Sulfur were found in the rock. It would be my guess that the rock is then some form of Alabandite. The pink hue inherent in Alabandite may be reddened by the Martian landscape, dust storms, etc.   In this case, it is probable that this rock was a part of a meteorite as Alabandite has been found in meteorites in the past. I also find this theory more compelling than the rock throwing theory because the rock has been stated to be 'different' than anything we have found previously on Mars. If the rock was kicked up from the ground, the chances of it being a rare rock of this sort are slim. A quick look at the picture shows an extremely reflective rock which also leads me to believe it was not recently underground and covered in dust.  But then again everything I just said is speculation and this could of course be aliens offering up a delicious treat to the Opportunity.   EDIT: Alabandite itself is not pink, Manganese(II) Sulfide is. Its possible that the red in the center of the rock is Rhodocrosite (a manganese carbonate material.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfide http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrosite", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11652.0, "score_ratio": 4.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceubtse", "c_root_id_B": "ceuclpn", "created_at_utc_A": 1390240552, "created_at_utc_B": 1390242180, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 41, "human_ref_A": "A quote from the Belfast Telegraph article by Steve Squyres states the rover 'had driven a metre or two away from here (the 'doughnut')'  Would the rover travelling at 0.05mph physically be able to 'flick' something a metre or two away, even factoring in gravity differences? On top of this, surely it would cause enough seismic activity on board for the operators to be able to pick up on/ sense whether it had slipped off a small ledge, rolled over a pile of debris etc?   If this theory is true, it just so happens that of all the rocks on Mars the rover could have disturbed, it disturbed a rock the likes of which has never been seen before. Hmm...", "human_ref_B": "Since the rock has been found close to the rover and was not there previously, then could it be possible that the material crystallised on a part of the rover (possibly during the bad weather event) and broken off closeby?   Maybe the donut shape corresonds to a circular element of the rover.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1628.0, "score_ratio": 5.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceu7q4i", "c_root_id_B": "ceua2s8", "created_at_utc_A": 1390230528, "created_at_utc_B": 1390236649, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "NASA stated that the rock originated from one of two events,  1. It was \u201csomehow flicked out of the ground by a wheel\u201d  2. There is \u201ca smoking hole in the ground somewhere nearby\u201d and it was caused by a meteor.  If find reason one to be somewhat improbable due to this statement \"We had driven a metre or two away from here, and I think the idea that somehow we mysteriously flicked it with a wheel is the best explanation.\u201d - Sqyures  Opportunity can travel at a maximum speed of .05 mph which is about 80.4 meters per hour or 1.35 meters per minute. Noting that this is the speed of the Opportunity, and that the closest the rover came to this spot was 1-2 meters as stated by Sqyures, the chance that one of the rover's wheels made contact with the rock in a manner that was able to dislodge the rock, and then throw it a length of 1-2, are pretty small.   Now, the team stated that there is a red spot in the center (resembling the jelly in a jelly donut). Additionally, it was noted that a large amount of Manganese and Sulfur were found in the rock. It would be my guess that the rock is then some form of Alabandite. The pink hue inherent in Alabandite may be reddened by the Martian landscape, dust storms, etc.   In this case, it is probable that this rock was a part of a meteorite as Alabandite has been found in meteorites in the past. I also find this theory more compelling than the rock throwing theory because the rock has been stated to be 'different' than anything we have found previously on Mars. If the rock was kicked up from the ground, the chances of it being a rare rock of this sort are slim. A quick look at the picture shows an extremely reflective rock which also leads me to believe it was not recently underground and covered in dust.  But then again everything I just said is speculation and this could of course be aliens offering up a delicious treat to the Opportunity.   EDIT: Alabandite itself is not pink, Manganese(II) Sulfide is. Its possible that the red in the center of the rock is Rhodocrosite (a manganese carbonate material.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfide http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrosite", "human_ref_B": "Would the rover be able to identify if the \"rock\" was made of CO2?    I know we discourage speculation here, but thought an appropriate deduction would be that if:  * The rock did not get blown there * The rover did not dislodge it from another location * An asteroid impact is highly unlikely to be witnessed event  Then it was \"created\" right were it is in the form of a CO2 clathrate that formed from subsurface CO2.  Any thoughts?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6121.0, "score_ratio": 3.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceuaqxy", "c_root_id_B": "ceu7q4i", "created_at_utc_A": 1390238194, "created_at_utc_B": 1390230528, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "This is from the NASA rover team-  \u201cSo my best guess for this rock... is that it\u2019s something that was nearby,\u201d Squyers told Discovery News. \u201cI must stress that I\u2019m guessing now, but I think it happened when the rover did a turn in place a meter or two from where this rock now lies.\u201d Seems probable.", "human_ref_B": "NASA stated that the rock originated from one of two events,  1. It was \u201csomehow flicked out of the ground by a wheel\u201d  2. There is \u201ca smoking hole in the ground somewhere nearby\u201d and it was caused by a meteor.  If find reason one to be somewhat improbable due to this statement \"We had driven a metre or two away from here, and I think the idea that somehow we mysteriously flicked it with a wheel is the best explanation.\u201d - Sqyures  Opportunity can travel at a maximum speed of .05 mph which is about 80.4 meters per hour or 1.35 meters per minute. Noting that this is the speed of the Opportunity, and that the closest the rover came to this spot was 1-2 meters as stated by Sqyures, the chance that one of the rover's wheels made contact with the rock in a manner that was able to dislodge the rock, and then throw it a length of 1-2, are pretty small.   Now, the team stated that there is a red spot in the center (resembling the jelly in a jelly donut). Additionally, it was noted that a large amount of Manganese and Sulfur were found in the rock. It would be my guess that the rock is then some form of Alabandite. The pink hue inherent in Alabandite may be reddened by the Martian landscape, dust storms, etc.   In this case, it is probable that this rock was a part of a meteorite as Alabandite has been found in meteorites in the past. I also find this theory more compelling than the rock throwing theory because the rock has been stated to be 'different' than anything we have found previously on Mars. If the rock was kicked up from the ground, the chances of it being a rare rock of this sort are slim. A quick look at the picture shows an extremely reflective rock which also leads me to believe it was not recently underground and covered in dust.  But then again everything I just said is speculation and this could of course be aliens offering up a delicious treat to the Opportunity.   EDIT: Alabandite itself is not pink, Manganese(II) Sulfide is. Its possible that the red in the center of the rock is Rhodocrosite (a manganese carbonate material.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfide http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrosite", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7666.0, "score_ratio": 3.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceu7q4i", "c_root_id_B": "ceuo6ib", "created_at_utc_A": 1390230528, "created_at_utc_B": 1390267090, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "NASA stated that the rock originated from one of two events,  1. It was \u201csomehow flicked out of the ground by a wheel\u201d  2. There is \u201ca smoking hole in the ground somewhere nearby\u201d and it was caused by a meteor.  If find reason one to be somewhat improbable due to this statement \"We had driven a metre or two away from here, and I think the idea that somehow we mysteriously flicked it with a wheel is the best explanation.\u201d - Sqyures  Opportunity can travel at a maximum speed of .05 mph which is about 80.4 meters per hour or 1.35 meters per minute. Noting that this is the speed of the Opportunity, and that the closest the rover came to this spot was 1-2 meters as stated by Sqyures, the chance that one of the rover's wheels made contact with the rock in a manner that was able to dislodge the rock, and then throw it a length of 1-2, are pretty small.   Now, the team stated that there is a red spot in the center (resembling the jelly in a jelly donut). Additionally, it was noted that a large amount of Manganese and Sulfur were found in the rock. It would be my guess that the rock is then some form of Alabandite. The pink hue inherent in Alabandite may be reddened by the Martian landscape, dust storms, etc.   In this case, it is probable that this rock was a part of a meteorite as Alabandite has been found in meteorites in the past. I also find this theory more compelling than the rock throwing theory because the rock has been stated to be 'different' than anything we have found previously on Mars. If the rock was kicked up from the ground, the chances of it being a rare rock of this sort are slim. A quick look at the picture shows an extremely reflective rock which also leads me to believe it was not recently underground and covered in dust.  But then again everything I just said is speculation and this could of course be aliens offering up a delicious treat to the Opportunity.   EDIT: Alabandite itself is not pink, Manganese(II) Sulfide is. Its possible that the red in the center of the rock is Rhodocrosite (a manganese carbonate material.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfide http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrosite", "human_ref_B": "Well I was intrigued by this as well and spent a little bit of time trying to find some more info about it.  The space.com article states that prior to the jelly doughnut rock revelation, Steve Squyres discussed suspected gypsum near the rim of the Endeavour Crater and there is a thumbnail of a vein of gypsum not far below.  Gypsum (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsum) is CaSO4 (high in sulfur).  But what about the Mg and Mn?  Well since Mg is directly above Ca in the periodic table it might be worth considering that this could be MgSO4 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate). Now you might ask \"Is there a manganese sulfate?\" Yep (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MnSO4)!  But its white to light pink not dark red like the article states the jelly portion of the rock resembles.  But there are an few earthly minerals that have substantial Mn content and a deep red colour and are not terribly dissimilar in structure to a sulfate (MnCO3 \"Rhodochrosite\" a carbonate is the first that comes to mind)and you can find some cool examples here (http://theodoregray.com/periodictable/Elements/025/index.s7.html). This response may be wildly off the mark but it's as good as I can manage with the vaugue description of the rock.  As for how it got there?  Space crabs.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 36562.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vo5bb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "May I please have your educated analysis of the recent 'donought rock' found on Mars by the Opportunity Rover? Here is the article from the Belfast Telegraph.   And Ars Technica  And Space.com  I am quite intrigued & am keen on hearing educated & knowledgeable analysis.", "c_root_id_A": "ceuo6ib", "c_root_id_B": "ceubtse", "created_at_utc_A": 1390267090, "created_at_utc_B": 1390240552, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Well I was intrigued by this as well and spent a little bit of time trying to find some more info about it.  The space.com article states that prior to the jelly doughnut rock revelation, Steve Squyres discussed suspected gypsum near the rim of the Endeavour Crater and there is a thumbnail of a vein of gypsum not far below.  Gypsum (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsum) is CaSO4 (high in sulfur).  But what about the Mg and Mn?  Well since Mg is directly above Ca in the periodic table it might be worth considering that this could be MgSO4 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate). Now you might ask \"Is there a manganese sulfate?\" Yep (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MnSO4)!  But its white to light pink not dark red like the article states the jelly portion of the rock resembles.  But there are an few earthly minerals that have substantial Mn content and a deep red colour and are not terribly dissimilar in structure to a sulfate (MnCO3 \"Rhodochrosite\" a carbonate is the first that comes to mind)and you can find some cool examples here (http://theodoregray.com/periodictable/Elements/025/index.s7.html). This response may be wildly off the mark but it's as good as I can manage with the vaugue description of the rock.  As for how it got there?  Space crabs.", "human_ref_B": "A quote from the Belfast Telegraph article by Steve Squyres states the rover 'had driven a metre or two away from here (the 'doughnut')'  Would the rover travelling at 0.05mph physically be able to 'flick' something a metre or two away, even factoring in gravity differences? On top of this, surely it would cause enough seismic activity on board for the operators to be able to pick up on/ sense whether it had slipped off a small ledge, rolled over a pile of debris etc?   If this theory is true, it just so happens that of all the rocks on Mars the rover could have disturbed, it disturbed a rock the likes of which has never been seen before. Hmm...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26538.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ii82r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why does red print appear to move on a blue background?", "c_root_id_A": "e6jyton", "c_root_id_B": "e6k1ses", "created_at_utc_A": 1537804433, "created_at_utc_B": 1537806938, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Is it sort of like this?", "human_ref_B": "It's due to chromatic aberration of the lens in the eye. No lens can avoid chromatic aberration entirely: different wavelengths are bent slightly differently by lenses. In human perception, the effect is known as Chromostereopsis.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2505.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ov1as", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "what happened to those neutrinos that were faster than light? sorry if this is a bit crude, or if it has been answered recently, but do we have any further evidence to back up the recent claims about neutrinos able to travel faster than the speed of light?  If there has not been any further development, when can we expect to hear more?  thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "c3k9fmj", "c_root_id_B": "c3k9y51", "created_at_utc_A": 1327441811, "created_at_utc_B": 1327444339, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "No.   there are a bunch of scientists who flat out reject it as an artifact of the test or of the particular brand of neutrino being made in CERN.   One big piece of evidence against the faster than light neutrino is a super nova event a few years back where the neutrinos and light arrived within hours of one another.. which given the distance should have been Days worth of separation if the neutrino faster than c, thing were real.    Everything thing i have heard is a bunch of I don't think its correct and it needs to be verified by outside experimenters..   My source for this has been the Weekly podcast, Skeptics Guide to the Universe.  Bob Likes to talk about neutrinos and has been keeping the listeners up to date on what the physicists are saying..   TLDr  A great many qualified people think that the experiment is contributing to the results in an unexpected way, they are waiting on more experiments and cross verification from the community.", "human_ref_B": "Here's the Wikipedia article.  To answer your two main questions, they re-ran the experiment a short time after the initial announcement in a slightly modified way to focus even more on the time of flight (the focus of the original experiment was not on time of flight).  There are a few other places in the world that are equipped to run similar experiments, mainly at FermiLab near Chicago, and J-PARC in Japan.  They are gearing up to run similar experiments which should be turning out their first results in a year or so.  Edit: by the way, FermiLab did observe a similar anomaly in 2007, but the precision in that measurement was so low that it's hard to say if they were really observing the same effect or just random error.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2528.0, "score_ratio": 2.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5c5c07", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Can you travel faster than light relative to a moving object? So if two ships are moving away from each other, each going .9 the speed of light, their relative speed to each other would be 1.8 the speed of light. So obviously it's possible to go faster than the SOL relative to another object, right?. And everything in space is moving relative to everything else. So if the earth is moving in one direction at say .01 SOL (not just our orbit but solar system and galaxy are moving as well), and a ship travelled away from it at .99, we would be traveling at light speed as far as our origin is concerned, right? Then I think, space is just empty, how can it limit your speed with no reference, but it doesn't limit it with a reference like with the two moving ships. Sorry I hope I'm making sense.", "c_root_id_A": "d9tywqg", "c_root_id_B": "d9u34xg", "created_at_utc_A": 1478755827, "created_at_utc_B": 1478765490, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Easiest way to think about this: the faster you go, the slower time passes for you. So the ship that \"ought to\" be going at 1.8c relative to you only goes 0.99c as observed by you, because time itself has slowed down for you.", "human_ref_B": ">Can you travel faster than light relative to a moving object?  No. That's the bizarre thing about special relativity. You can't go faster than light relative to *anything.*  >So if two ships are moving away from each other, each going .9 the speed of light, their relative speed to each other would be 1.8 the speed of light.  No. It's actually about 0.9945 of the speed of light.  In special relativity you have to understand that your newtonian intuitions about velocity don't apply anymore. Velocity *is not additive.* This isn't some sort of illusion. It just isn't, in the real world.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9663.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5c5c07", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Can you travel faster than light relative to a moving object? So if two ships are moving away from each other, each going .9 the speed of light, their relative speed to each other would be 1.8 the speed of light. So obviously it's possible to go faster than the SOL relative to another object, right?. And everything in space is moving relative to everything else. So if the earth is moving in one direction at say .01 SOL (not just our orbit but solar system and galaxy are moving as well), and a ship travelled away from it at .99, we would be traveling at light speed as far as our origin is concerned, right? Then I think, space is just empty, how can it limit your speed with no reference, but it doesn't limit it with a reference like with the two moving ships. Sorry I hope I'm making sense.", "c_root_id_A": "d9u001l", "c_root_id_B": "d9u34xg", "created_at_utc_A": 1478757952, "created_at_utc_B": 1478765490, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Sinse others have already well answered this, here are two good videos that explain related concepts well.  Minute Physics: Common Physics Misconception  When the Apple Drops: What is Minkowski Space?", "human_ref_B": ">Can you travel faster than light relative to a moving object?  No. That's the bizarre thing about special relativity. You can't go faster than light relative to *anything.*  >So if two ships are moving away from each other, each going .9 the speed of light, their relative speed to each other would be 1.8 the speed of light.  No. It's actually about 0.9945 of the speed of light.  In special relativity you have to understand that your newtonian intuitions about velocity don't apply anymore. Velocity *is not additive.* This isn't some sort of illusion. It just isn't, in the real world.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7538.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rcq3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Since the universe is constantly expanding and nothing moves faster than light, could you get on a spacecraft that travels at the speed of light and reach the boundaries of the universe? If the universe is constantly expanding at a rate slower than light, wouldn't you eventually get to the edge?", "c_root_id_A": "cnetg9b", "c_root_id_B": "cnetmvg", "created_at_utc_A": 1420432763, "created_at_utc_B": 1420433152, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "My professor used the analogy of a balloon with dots drawn on it. When the balloon expands, the dots individually get farther apart from one another, but that's not to say that the surface area of the balloon has \"increased,\" (as in, new area) but rather that it \"expanded\" (stretched out).  As I understand it, the universe is getting larger in another dimension, and from our dimensional perspective we see objects receding away from us (as would any other object from their point of view).  So the question of whether a space craft could travel to the edge of the universe is perhaps improperly framed. I don't know if scientists have an understanding what the \"edge of the universe\" is. And I think there was something about the universe being round or curved,  perhaps in the shape of a saddle. Just what I remember from my professor, sorry I can't provide more.", "human_ref_B": "To clarify a point to your question: There is no 'edge' to the universe, much as if you are a 2D being on the surface of a ball, there is no 'edge' that you can ever encounter.   More to your question is the concept known as the cosmic event horizon. There are a few subtitles to it but the general gist is that due to the expansion of the universe, the further objects are from us, the faster they appear to be moving away (the Hubble expansion).  At sufficiently far enough distances information (say light) from one object can never reach us because too much new space will appear on its journey.   You can imagine it as if the light travels for 5 billion light years, but in that time, 5 billion lightyears of new distance are now between the original two objects...the light will never catch us and as such we'll never know about it.  As it turns out the rate of expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating which has an implication that as t-->Infinity the cosmic event horizon will shrink.  This means that if we launched ourselves in a spacecraft that could get arbitrarily close to the speed of light, there are indeed objects we could never reach (if they exist), but they are stupendously far away.  A person more well-versed in GR may be able to flesh out more of the fine details but I think this should cover the basics.  edit: change 'know' to 'no'", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 389.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rcq3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Since the universe is constantly expanding and nothing moves faster than light, could you get on a spacecraft that travels at the speed of light and reach the boundaries of the universe? If the universe is constantly expanding at a rate slower than light, wouldn't you eventually get to the edge?", "c_root_id_A": "cnetb08", "c_root_id_B": "cnetmvg", "created_at_utc_A": 1420432456, "created_at_utc_B": 1420433152, "score_A": -13, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Being that the universe is not expanding at the speed of light, it would stand to reason that you could reach the edge of the big bang (the edge of space) if you traveled at the speed of light.   As I understand it, the galaxies are picking up speed as they hurl through space. Someday the galaxies will reach the speed of light. At that point the electromagnetic hooks that bind atoms together to make solids will come undone. Astrophysicist tell us that will be that, i.e. The End.   It doesn't seem a very befitting end to such elegant magnificence. So scientist, like the rest of us, wonder and guess. Perhaps there is a great retraction, is one guess they propose. That's where everything goes into reverse, picking up speed and someday slams together at a finite point causing another big bang.  In this view there never was a beginning nor will there ever be an end. This has been going on forever. Still another guess is one where the big bang resulted in a multitude of universes like bubbles on a head of beer and we are in one of them.  But more to your question, if you traveled the speed of light to the edge of the universe, you'd have to get their before the the universe's expansion reached that speed.  Also, the speed of light is the cosmic speed limit. Nothing shall move as fast or faster than the speed of light. But the cosmic rule book does allow you to move 99.9% the speed of light. Good luck on your journey!  As you might be able to tell, I'm a science enthusiast and have no formal education on the subject. :-)", "human_ref_B": "To clarify a point to your question: There is no 'edge' to the universe, much as if you are a 2D being on the surface of a ball, there is no 'edge' that you can ever encounter.   More to your question is the concept known as the cosmic event horizon. There are a few subtitles to it but the general gist is that due to the expansion of the universe, the further objects are from us, the faster they appear to be moving away (the Hubble expansion).  At sufficiently far enough distances information (say light) from one object can never reach us because too much new space will appear on its journey.   You can imagine it as if the light travels for 5 billion light years, but in that time, 5 billion lightyears of new distance are now between the original two objects...the light will never catch us and as such we'll never know about it.  As it turns out the rate of expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating which has an implication that as t-->Infinity the cosmic event horizon will shrink.  This means that if we launched ourselves in a spacecraft that could get arbitrarily close to the speed of light, there are indeed objects we could never reach (if they exist), but they are stupendously far away.  A person more well-versed in GR may be able to flesh out more of the fine details but I think this should cover the basics.  edit: change 'know' to 'no'", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 696.0, "score_ratio": -0.2307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2rcq3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Since the universe is constantly expanding and nothing moves faster than light, could you get on a spacecraft that travels at the speed of light and reach the boundaries of the universe? If the universe is constantly expanding at a rate slower than light, wouldn't you eventually get to the edge?", "c_root_id_A": "cnetb08", "c_root_id_B": "cnetg9b", "created_at_utc_A": 1420432456, "created_at_utc_B": 1420432763, "score_A": -13, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Being that the universe is not expanding at the speed of light, it would stand to reason that you could reach the edge of the big bang (the edge of space) if you traveled at the speed of light.   As I understand it, the galaxies are picking up speed as they hurl through space. Someday the galaxies will reach the speed of light. At that point the electromagnetic hooks that bind atoms together to make solids will come undone. Astrophysicist tell us that will be that, i.e. The End.   It doesn't seem a very befitting end to such elegant magnificence. So scientist, like the rest of us, wonder and guess. Perhaps there is a great retraction, is one guess they propose. That's where everything goes into reverse, picking up speed and someday slams together at a finite point causing another big bang.  In this view there never was a beginning nor will there ever be an end. This has been going on forever. Still another guess is one where the big bang resulted in a multitude of universes like bubbles on a head of beer and we are in one of them.  But more to your question, if you traveled the speed of light to the edge of the universe, you'd have to get their before the the universe's expansion reached that speed.  Also, the speed of light is the cosmic speed limit. Nothing shall move as fast or faster than the speed of light. But the cosmic rule book does allow you to move 99.9% the speed of light. Good luck on your journey!  As you might be able to tell, I'm a science enthusiast and have no formal education on the subject. :-)", "human_ref_B": "My professor used the analogy of a balloon with dots drawn on it. When the balloon expands, the dots individually get farther apart from one another, but that's not to say that the surface area of the balloon has \"increased,\" (as in, new area) but rather that it \"expanded\" (stretched out).  As I understand it, the universe is getting larger in another dimension, and from our dimensional perspective we see objects receding away from us (as would any other object from their point of view).  So the question of whether a space craft could travel to the edge of the universe is perhaps improperly framed. I don't know if scientists have an understanding what the \"edge of the universe\" is. And I think there was something about the universe being round or curved,  perhaps in the shape of a saddle. Just what I remember from my professor, sorry I can't provide more.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 307.0, "score_ratio": -0.0769230769, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "luzx1k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "I understand that astronauts inside the ISS are free falling. What about the Apollo Astronauts? And How far do you have to go to have a bigger tug from the sun than the earth? Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "gpb3zyc", "c_root_id_B": "gpbh1ry", "created_at_utc_A": 1614613266, "created_at_utc_B": 1614619200, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Earth has a SOI)  of 0.929*10^6 km, which is about 3 times the distance to the moon.   Apollo astronauts were free-falling too. Free falling means \"only subject to the force of gravity\", which is the case for all crafts that in the vacuum of space (so no drag) and not using their thrusters.", "human_ref_B": "When flying in space with the thrusters OFF, you're in free fall.  When firing the engines, they weren't in free fall. The CSM engine produced about a 1/3 *g* acceleration. (It was an overkill engine for the job, because it was designed for a direct ascent mission.)  And obviously when landed on the Moon, they were not in free fall.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5934.0, "score_ratio": 2.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "luzx1k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "I understand that astronauts inside the ISS are free falling. What about the Apollo Astronauts? And How far do you have to go to have a bigger tug from the sun than the earth? Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "gpb3zyc", "c_root_id_B": "gpc4btt", "created_at_utc_A": 1614613266, "created_at_utc_B": 1614629458, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Earth has a SOI)  of 0.929*10^6 km, which is about 3 times the distance to the moon.   Apollo astronauts were free-falling too. Free falling means \"only subject to the force of gravity\", which is the case for all crafts that in the vacuum of space (so no drag) and not using their thrusters.", "human_ref_B": "You will be in freefall all the time unless you  1. Have your rocket engines on 2. Physically contacting a planet or another object that is accelerating you. 3. Are within the atmosphere at relative speed to it  It doesn't matter if you are in orbit, or even in a spaceship.  It doesn't matter where you are.  It doesn't matter how far you are from the sun.   So every astronaut who has left the atmosphere of the earth, and turned their engines off was in free fall until they re-entered, or lit an engine, or landed on the moon.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16192.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4o2s7l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What caused the massive glaciers to begin melting ~ 20,000 years ago? I was discussing global warming and climate change with my dad. While I am a firm believer in climate change and anthropogenic-caused global warming, my dad is not. His argument is that the same force that initiated our current interglacial period is still at play, and it made me curious - how did our current interglacial period actually begin?", "c_root_id_A": "d4ak9bb", "c_root_id_B": "d4bh28l", "created_at_utc_A": 1466017607, "created_at_utc_B": 1466079402, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "From my understanding is we live in an interglacial period. Humans have caused the earth to heat up MUCH MUCH quicker than it has in the past by releasing CO2 and other gasses into the atmosphere. But youre dad is not wrong, the earth was warming before human induced heating took over but at a much slower pace (think 100,000 years vs 200 years)   What caused the glaciation event to stop progressing and reverse is still up for debate but it appears to be cyclical.", "human_ref_B": "Our interglacial began 10 thousand years ago, and began similar to any other during the Pleistocene and beyond. What is unique is the recent 200 years of anthropogenic fossil fuel burning--this is unprecedented.  The amount of solar radiation received by the Earth is the most important factor controlling Earth's climate. Variations in the earth's orbit (Milankovitch cycles) are known quite well, and have been described as \"the pacemaker of the ice ages.\" Almost like clockwork, glacials begin and die during predictable minima and maxima in solar insolation.  The sun isn't everything, though. Greenhouse gases, primarily CO2, act as a knob to amplify the effects of warming. During glacial cycles, carbon is redistributed and reorganized between the atmosphere and the ocean (as well as land vegetation). On these timescales, carbon sequestered in rock is inaccessible, so the deep ocean ends up being the largest reservoir of carbon. During glacials, more is stored in the ocean; during deglaciations (like 20-10 ka), carbon is released into the atmosphere. So insolation ultimately drives any initial temperature changes, which is then amplified by ice sheet building/decay, CO2 change, ocean reorganization, etc.  But our recent warming isn't about insolation change. The Earth hasn't seen our modern-day levels of CO2 in over 3 million years. Furthermore, the rate of CO2 release into the atmosphere excedes anything in the geologic record, even during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ~55 ma. Unlike any other period, human activity has actively released carbon from a reservoir not accessible on these timescales. Carbon being burned as fossil fuels would have naturally been reintroduced to the carbon cycle in millions and millions of years... not a century.  Hope that helps!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 61795.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9q4x3l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How do you determine if an animal is from a different species ? How do biologists determine if an animal , hybrid between two species, is not from a new different species. Is it just that if it\u2019s sterile , it cannot be a new species ? And also , how do they know that the animal is sterile?", "c_root_id_A": "e88mw6x", "c_root_id_B": "e898sok", "created_at_utc_A": 1540222056, "created_at_utc_B": 1540239572, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Two members of the same species can interbreed. If they can't, they are different species.  In some instances (mainly plants) you can use Fst distance, which is a measurement of how genetically dissimilar two organisms are. There's a certain threshold for genetic dissimilarity to define a new species.", "human_ref_B": "Theres a few different ways to do so. One is looking at morphological differences, though we are transitioning away from that more and more as different morphology isnt always an indicator of different species (different environments can cause changes in protein expression leading to differing morphology).  Another way has already been posted, and that is the question of interbreeding, but waiting for species 1 and 2 to reach sexual maturity to test it out isn't optimal either.  An ongoing project is the barcode of life project, which uses sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase gene to \"barcode\" a species specifically. This gene is present in all animals and has a high rate of molecular evolution such that no two species should have the same sequence. Thus sequencing an organisma CO1 gene can let you know if you have species A or B.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17516.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3i7c3i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do hydroelectric power plants produce electricity with a frequency of 50Hz/60Hz consistently? Electric current provided by hydroelectric power plants needs to be precisely 50Hz/60Hz when it arrives at your household plugs. My physics teacher said that this current wasn't converted nor modified during its trip to the household. So my question is what makes that electric current stable at 60Hz/50Hz when it leaves the station? I've looked into it, asked some engineers about it but only got some vague answers. Any scientist willing to answer me?", "c_root_id_A": "cuebjzb", "c_root_id_B": "cue9d6s", "created_at_utc_A": 1440449884, "created_at_utc_B": 1440446634, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I'm an EE working for a power utility and interned at one of our hydro plants for about a year and a half before graduating and getting hired on in another department. Others mentioned how to get a certain frequency with a set amount of poles and rpm. We had 72 poles (a steam unit usually has 2, a hydro unit uses more poles so it doesn't have to rotate as fast) so it only had to maintain 100 rpm. To maintain the rotational speed (in order to maintain the frequency in the power delivered as per your question) we used things called wicket gates to control how much water went to the runner (hydro-speak for turbine blades). The more load on the system the more water (aka force) you need to maintain rotational speed in addition to the inertia of the blades and rotor. Let me know if you have any more questions.", "human_ref_B": "Wicket gates.....like VGT- variable geometry turbine...adjustable angle static vanes around the periphery of the turbine wheel which vary the angle of incidence and the force of the water contacting the turbine blades, throttling the water at the inlet is very crude with respect to load changes. wicket gates can tune the load to match demand.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3250.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3i7c3i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do hydroelectric power plants produce electricity with a frequency of 50Hz/60Hz consistently? Electric current provided by hydroelectric power plants needs to be precisely 50Hz/60Hz when it arrives at your household plugs. My physics teacher said that this current wasn't converted nor modified during its trip to the household. So my question is what makes that electric current stable at 60Hz/50Hz when it leaves the station? I've looked into it, asked some engineers about it but only got some vague answers. Any scientist willing to answer me?", "c_root_id_A": "cudyqer", "c_root_id_B": "cuebjzb", "created_at_utc_A": 1440430290, "created_at_utc_B": 1440449884, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I live next to a hydropower plant  They take a while to get up to speed  Can hear it on am radio. And can't be brought online till then. Ours is a dam raise water at night to be released during the day. The pipe going to the turbine has a valve that isn't all the way open and adjust as needed to control speed the governor controls the value", "human_ref_B": "I'm an EE working for a power utility and interned at one of our hydro plants for about a year and a half before graduating and getting hired on in another department. Others mentioned how to get a certain frequency with a set amount of poles and rpm. We had 72 poles (a steam unit usually has 2, a hydro unit uses more poles so it doesn't have to rotate as fast) so it only had to maintain 100 rpm. To maintain the rotational speed (in order to maintain the frequency in the power delivered as per your question) we used things called wicket gates to control how much water went to the runner (hydro-speak for turbine blades). The more load on the system the more water (aka force) you need to maintain rotational speed in addition to the inertia of the blades and rotor. Let me know if you have any more questions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19594.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3i7c3i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do hydroelectric power plants produce electricity with a frequency of 50Hz/60Hz consistently? Electric current provided by hydroelectric power plants needs to be precisely 50Hz/60Hz when it arrives at your household plugs. My physics teacher said that this current wasn't converted nor modified during its trip to the household. So my question is what makes that electric current stable at 60Hz/50Hz when it leaves the station? I've looked into it, asked some engineers about it but only got some vague answers. Any scientist willing to answer me?", "c_root_id_A": "cuef00c", "c_root_id_B": "cuelnov", "created_at_utc_A": 1440455438, "created_at_utc_B": 1440466767, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The frequency a generator produces is based on the number of magnetic poles the generator has and how fast it's spinning.   So they design generators with the correct number of poles to produce 50-60hz at a certain speed and they regulate how fast the prime mover is turning at (generally a turbine powered by steam or water) so it stays at that speed.", "human_ref_B": "Something else you'll notice is that power plants spin their rotors at some multiple of 60.  I work at a nuke plant, and we run at 1800 rpm.  The hydro plant nearby runs at 300 rpm (if I remember correctly)  When we go to tie onto the grid, we bring the turbine up to speed.  Then, we engage the equipment that synchs our frequency to what's already in the grid.  It does this by adjusting the steam inlet valves to the turbine to speed it up or slow it down.  At the hydro plant, there are a series of openings around the turbine that are opened and closed in a similar manner to adjust how much water is let in, adjusting the speed that way.  Also, the blades can be rotated (similar to a helicopter) for similar effect.  Once the frequencies match up, we tie onto the grid, and then the equipment continues to keep all of the plants on the grid matched up.  If a plant were to ever get too far out of phase, it would be tripped so that it doesn't cause damage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11329.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3i7c3i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do hydroelectric power plants produce electricity with a frequency of 50Hz/60Hz consistently? Electric current provided by hydroelectric power plants needs to be precisely 50Hz/60Hz when it arrives at your household plugs. My physics teacher said that this current wasn't converted nor modified during its trip to the household. So my question is what makes that electric current stable at 60Hz/50Hz when it leaves the station? I've looked into it, asked some engineers about it but only got some vague answers. Any scientist willing to answer me?", "c_root_id_A": "cuehe9l", "c_root_id_B": "cuelnov", "created_at_utc_A": 1440459629, "created_at_utc_B": 1440466767, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It might help you visualize it if you ignore the electricity part of it, and just think of them all as mechanically linked gears.  Imagine your section of the US power grid is a big wheel or gear the size of Alaska, hovering over you and neighboring states, spinning at 3600 RPM (3600 RPM  = 60 Hz).    Now, your hydro plant is hooked up via gears (in reality electromagnetic fields) to this giant spinning wheel of power, but via a clever series of gear reduction (like on your bike), only needs to spin at 60 RPM (which according to wikipedia is somewhere in the range of a gramophone record).  So you hook that up to a wheel that has water running over it (gross over-simplification), but the water is moving faster than the wheel is turning.  So friction from the water tries to make the wheel spin faster.  But it's hooked up to a wheel the size of Alaska, and your little river isn't going to make it go much faster, but it will try, and in doing so, will be adding rotational energy to the system.  This makes up for the fact that on the other side of the giant wheel, you've hooked up your blender (via a series of reduction gears, aka transformers), and are blending some bananas for a smoothie.  Again, your little blender isn't going to appreciably slow the giant wheel of power by itself.  But if millions of people are all running their blenders, it would slow the wheel down, if not for the fact that thousands of power plants are pushing on their spinny bits to try and speed up the wheel.  Most of the time it balances out.  If there's not enough power pushing the grid (too many blenders), the big wheel will slow down (voltage will drop), so to balance it, you add more power plants pushing the wheel to go faster.", "human_ref_B": "Something else you'll notice is that power plants spin their rotors at some multiple of 60.  I work at a nuke plant, and we run at 1800 rpm.  The hydro plant nearby runs at 300 rpm (if I remember correctly)  When we go to tie onto the grid, we bring the turbine up to speed.  Then, we engage the equipment that synchs our frequency to what's already in the grid.  It does this by adjusting the steam inlet valves to the turbine to speed it up or slow it down.  At the hydro plant, there are a series of openings around the turbine that are opened and closed in a similar manner to adjust how much water is let in, adjusting the speed that way.  Also, the blades can be rotated (similar to a helicopter) for similar effect.  Once the frequencies match up, we tie onto the grid, and then the equipment continues to keep all of the plants on the grid matched up.  If a plant were to ever get too far out of phase, it would be tripped so that it doesn't cause damage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7138.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3i7c3i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do hydroelectric power plants produce electricity with a frequency of 50Hz/60Hz consistently? Electric current provided by hydroelectric power plants needs to be precisely 50Hz/60Hz when it arrives at your household plugs. My physics teacher said that this current wasn't converted nor modified during its trip to the household. So my question is what makes that electric current stable at 60Hz/50Hz when it leaves the station? I've looked into it, asked some engineers about it but only got some vague answers. Any scientist willing to answer me?", "c_root_id_A": "cuelnov", "c_root_id_B": "cuehkr1", "created_at_utc_A": 1440466767, "created_at_utc_B": 1440459937, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Something else you'll notice is that power plants spin their rotors at some multiple of 60.  I work at a nuke plant, and we run at 1800 rpm.  The hydro plant nearby runs at 300 rpm (if I remember correctly)  When we go to tie onto the grid, we bring the turbine up to speed.  Then, we engage the equipment that synchs our frequency to what's already in the grid.  It does this by adjusting the steam inlet valves to the turbine to speed it up or slow it down.  At the hydro plant, there are a series of openings around the turbine that are opened and closed in a similar manner to adjust how much water is let in, adjusting the speed that way.  Also, the blades can be rotated (similar to a helicopter) for similar effect.  Once the frequencies match up, we tie onto the grid, and then the equipment continues to keep all of the plants on the grid matched up.  If a plant were to ever get too far out of phase, it would be tripped so that it doesn't cause damage.", "human_ref_B": "They adjust the rotation of the generators over a 24 hour period, so that the number of phases 'passed' approaches the 5,184,000 cycles you would have on a perfect day. This is largely so clocks powered by AC (think kitchen) are always correct.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6830.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bldfjh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Could you blow up a black hole by feeding it a large enough amount of particles with the same electric charge (ie, a couple solar masses worth of just protons)?", "c_root_id_A": "emqri2h", "c_root_id_B": "emqq3yn", "created_at_utc_A": 1557240650, "created_at_utc_B": 1557239842, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I know there are other commenters on here with much more general relativity experience who can give you a better answer but as I understand it this is not possible. First, overcharging a black hole would not \"blow it up,\" but would expose a naked singularity, which would be incompatible with the cosmic censorship hypothesis. In general to prevent a naked singularity the mass, charge, and angular momentum of the black hole must satisfy the equation Q^2 + (J/M)^2 \u2264 M^2 where Q, J, and M are in Planck units. For a non-spinning black hole this basically means that Q \u2264 M. If you were to start with the extremal case Q = M and added some charged particle with q > m, would that not overcharge the black hole? As it turns out, it wouldn't. The charged black hole would repel the incoming charge, so in order to get it to cross the event horizon you would have to push it in with some energy that would increase the mass added to the black hole such that q < m.", "human_ref_B": "Black holes can have a charge, so if you did feed it protons/electrons continuously, you would end up with a very highly charged singularity. However, while the exact effects of a charged black hole are pretty damn complicated, it won't effect the singularity itself, or make it something other than a black hole. You may end up creating a naked singularity, though, which would be a singularity without an event horizon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 808.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qa7xf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Does the glow produced by hot objects depends on the material they're made of or not ? For example is a red coal the same temperature as red iron ? And can you determine the temperature of an object simply by the color of its glow ?  Thanx !", "c_root_id_A": "c3vz8yv", "c_root_id_B": "c3vz6y9", "created_at_utc_A": 1330464873, "created_at_utc_B": 1330464606, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Yes, this is called blackbody radiation. You've probably heard of thermal goggles, yes? These allow you to see heat of everyday objects. Turns out, whatever temperature an object is, it releases thermal radiation (infrared light) whose wavelength gets smaller the hotter it is (for light, the energy of the light is proportional to the frequency of the light. So, higher temperature, higher frequency, lower wavelength). So, for most things on Earth, the thermal radiation they release is well into the infrared spectrum, so we can't see them.   However, when something gets hot enough, the thermal radiation it starts emitting is in the visible spectrum. As things get hotter they move from infrared, red.... blue, ultraviolet etc. So yes, you can tell the temperature of an object simply by observing the thermal radiation it is emitting.", "human_ref_B": "Generally, the radiation you see from a solid object is continuum radiation.  The amount that it radiates is governed by the emissivity of the material.  This governs how good the material is at converting thermal energy to radiation.  Emissivity is a fairly weakly varying function of wavelength for most materials.  This is the grey-body assumption.  What it means is that for the ratio of blue light to red light in coal will be roughly the same as for iron provided they're at the same temperature.  If you knew the temperature, you might be able to tell what material it was based on the magnitude of the radiation.  If you know the emissivity, you can indeed tell the temperature from the radiation, this is called pyrometry.  Lastly, if the material is really hot, you will start getting atomic effects.  Electrons will get liberated and then recombine.  When they do they will emit radiation that is very localized in wavelengths.  So the light from line radiation of iron will be very different from that of the Carbon in coal.  This is called Atomic Spectroscopy", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 267.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g8gp5j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do neutron stars die? Do they simply burn out? Do they collapse into black holes?", "c_root_id_A": "foniqmw", "c_root_id_B": "fonw1c1", "created_at_utc_A": 1587920272, "created_at_utc_B": 1587927582, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "It depends on their mass from what I understand.  If the neutron star is below the mass to be a black hole as almost all of them should be, I believe over time it gradually cools down and the spin slows.  By cool it's still ridiculously hot, just not glowing blindly.  However, I remember reading that there may be a few stars that were right at the mass limit for a black hole, and as the neutron star ages, it can accumulate matter from a partner or infalling stuff, and that might push it over the limit, or as its spin slows, if it was right on the edge, the loss of centripidal force might allow it to contract just enought to tip it over the density needed to be a black hole.", "human_ref_B": "There are two types of Pauli Exclusions - electron degeneracy and neutron degeneracy. In white dwarfs, the gravitational force is balanced by the electrons \u201corbiting\u201d the nucleus of the atoms making up the remnant star. This is how the Sun\u2019s life will end. A carbon sphere with the electrons resisting gravitational collapse. Paradoxically, the more massive a white dwarf is, the smaller it\u2019s diameter. It\u2019s the same for neutron stars as well.   When the mass is too large for the electrons to resist the gravitational force, they are forced to collapse into the atomic nuclei and combine with the protons to make neutrons. This causes the stellar remanent to collapse from something about the sized the earth, to a sphere with a diameter in the order of 10km.   If the mass is great enough, neutron degeneracy will be insufficient to support the neutron star, and it will collapse to a singularity of zero dimension and become a black hole.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7310.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ygxjq", "c_root_id_B": "c2yh04y", "created_at_utc_A": 1320866339, "created_at_utc_B": 1320866760, "score_A": -27, "score_B": 50, "human_ref_A": "It's trying to digest itself", "human_ref_B": "Stomach is empty and may have pockets of air in it. When you are hungry, stomach automatically starts churning but since it only has small amounts of air, it tends to make awkward noises especially when you are sitting next to a girl.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 421.0, "score_ratio": -1.8518518519, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2yh1ak", "c_root_id_B": "c2yh3i4", "created_at_utc_A": 1320866951, "created_at_utc_B": 1320867310, "score_A": -12, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Your parents are essentially correct.  In order to understand why, it is first necessary to understand a bit of anatomy and physiology.         When we eat something, the food enters a highly acidic environment.  The ingested food is trapped in the stomach for a time by the pyloric sphincter as stomach acids begin to dissolve food and kill pathogenic organisms.  Then, the pyloric sphincter opens and the acidic food is flushed into the small intestine.  Acidity steadily falls as the food continues through the digestive tract.  The pyloric sphincter closes and the body begins to secrete stomach acids in anticipation of your next meal.      Whats more, the body remembers your eating habits and will anticipate by adjusting both the size of the stomach and amount of acids secreted.           So why does the stomach grumble and cause pain when you skip meals?       The grumble you hear is the pyloric sphincter opening and flushing a stomach full of acid into the small intestine.  The pain is probably associated with the acid burning the small intestine due to its unusually high concentration and acidity.        make sense?", "human_ref_B": "Peptic ulcers are not caused by eating spicy foods or by stress, but both can make an ulcer worse. Peptic ulcers are known to be caused by Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, but are commonly caused by a bacteria called H. pylori.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 359.0, "score_ratio": -0.5833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ygxjq", "c_root_id_B": "c2yh3i4", "created_at_utc_A": 1320866339, "created_at_utc_B": 1320867310, "score_A": -27, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "It's trying to digest itself", "human_ref_B": "Peptic ulcers are not caused by eating spicy foods or by stress, but both can make an ulcer worse. Peptic ulcers are known to be caused by Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, but are commonly caused by a bacteria called H. pylori.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 971.0, "score_ratio": -0.2592592593, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ykai9", "c_root_id_B": "c2yjjug", "created_at_utc_A": 1320887325, "created_at_utc_B": 1320882353, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "why do i feel like puking when i'm hungry/starving?", "human_ref_B": "call me crazy, but I thought this was a trigger to let you know you are hungry and to grab something to eat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4972.0, "score_ratio": -0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ykai9", "c_root_id_B": "c2yjv1j", "created_at_utc_A": 1320887325, "created_at_utc_B": 1320884442, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "why do i feel like puking when i'm hungry/starving?", "human_ref_B": "http://lmgtfy.com/?q=why+does+your+stomach+growl&l=1", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2883.0, "score_ratio": -0.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ykai9", "c_root_id_B": "c2yh1ak", "created_at_utc_A": 1320887325, "created_at_utc_B": 1320866951, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -12, "human_ref_A": "why do i feel like puking when i'm hungry/starving?", "human_ref_B": "Your parents are essentially correct.  In order to understand why, it is first necessary to understand a bit of anatomy and physiology.         When we eat something, the food enters a highly acidic environment.  The ingested food is trapped in the stomach for a time by the pyloric sphincter as stomach acids begin to dissolve food and kill pathogenic organisms.  Then, the pyloric sphincter opens and the acidic food is flushed into the small intestine.  Acidity steadily falls as the food continues through the digestive tract.  The pyloric sphincter closes and the body begins to secrete stomach acids in anticipation of your next meal.      Whats more, the body remembers your eating habits and will anticipate by adjusting both the size of the stomach and amount of acids secreted.           So why does the stomach grumble and cause pain when you skip meals?       The grumble you hear is the pyloric sphincter opening and flushing a stomach full of acid into the small intestine.  The pain is probably associated with the acid burning the small intestine due to its unusually high concentration and acidity.        make sense?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20374.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ykai9", "c_root_id_B": "c2yhfru", "created_at_utc_A": 1320887325, "created_at_utc_B": 1320869367, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -19, "human_ref_A": "why do i feel like puking when i'm hungry/starving?", "human_ref_B": "The real answer is that if it didn't, you wouldn't eat and you would then die.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17958.0, "score_ratio": -0.1052631579, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ykai9", "c_root_id_B": "c2ygxjq", "created_at_utc_A": 1320887325, "created_at_utc_B": 1320866339, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -27, "human_ref_A": "why do i feel like puking when i'm hungry/starving?", "human_ref_B": "It's trying to digest itself", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20986.0, "score_ratio": -0.0740740741, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2yh1ak", "c_root_id_B": "c2yjjug", "created_at_utc_A": 1320866951, "created_at_utc_B": 1320882353, "score_A": -12, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Your parents are essentially correct.  In order to understand why, it is first necessary to understand a bit of anatomy and physiology.         When we eat something, the food enters a highly acidic environment.  The ingested food is trapped in the stomach for a time by the pyloric sphincter as stomach acids begin to dissolve food and kill pathogenic organisms.  Then, the pyloric sphincter opens and the acidic food is flushed into the small intestine.  Acidity steadily falls as the food continues through the digestive tract.  The pyloric sphincter closes and the body begins to secrete stomach acids in anticipation of your next meal.      Whats more, the body remembers your eating habits and will anticipate by adjusting both the size of the stomach and amount of acids secreted.           So why does the stomach grumble and cause pain when you skip meals?       The grumble you hear is the pyloric sphincter opening and flushing a stomach full of acid into the small intestine.  The pain is probably associated with the acid burning the small intestine due to its unusually high concentration and acidity.        make sense?", "human_ref_B": "call me crazy, but I thought this was a trigger to let you know you are hungry and to grab something to eat.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15402.0, "score_ratio": 0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2yhfru", "c_root_id_B": "c2yjjug", "created_at_utc_A": 1320869367, "created_at_utc_B": 1320882353, "score_A": -19, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "The real answer is that if it didn't, you wouldn't eat and you would then die.", "human_ref_B": "call me crazy, but I thought this was a trigger to let you know you are hungry and to grab something to eat.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12986.0, "score_ratio": 0.1578947368, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2yjjug", "c_root_id_B": "c2ygxjq", "created_at_utc_A": 1320882353, "created_at_utc_B": 1320866339, "score_A": -3, "score_B": -27, "human_ref_A": "call me crazy, but I thought this was a trigger to let you know you are hungry and to grab something to eat.", "human_ref_B": "It's trying to digest itself", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16014.0, "score_ratio": 0.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2yjv1j", "c_root_id_B": "c2yh1ak", "created_at_utc_A": 1320884442, "created_at_utc_B": 1320866951, "score_A": -5, "score_B": -12, "human_ref_A": "http://lmgtfy.com/?q=why+does+your+stomach+growl&l=1", "human_ref_B": "Your parents are essentially correct.  In order to understand why, it is first necessary to understand a bit of anatomy and physiology.         When we eat something, the food enters a highly acidic environment.  The ingested food is trapped in the stomach for a time by the pyloric sphincter as stomach acids begin to dissolve food and kill pathogenic organisms.  Then, the pyloric sphincter opens and the acidic food is flushed into the small intestine.  Acidity steadily falls as the food continues through the digestive tract.  The pyloric sphincter closes and the body begins to secrete stomach acids in anticipation of your next meal.      Whats more, the body remembers your eating habits and will anticipate by adjusting both the size of the stomach and amount of acids secreted.           So why does the stomach grumble and cause pain when you skip meals?       The grumble you hear is the pyloric sphincter opening and flushing a stomach full of acid into the small intestine.  The pain is probably associated with the acid burning the small intestine due to its unusually high concentration and acidity.        make sense?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17491.0, "score_ratio": 0.4166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2yjv1j", "c_root_id_B": "c2yhfru", "created_at_utc_A": 1320884442, "created_at_utc_B": 1320869367, "score_A": -5, "score_B": -19, "human_ref_A": "http://lmgtfy.com/?q=why+does+your+stomach+growl&l=1", "human_ref_B": "The real answer is that if it didn't, you wouldn't eat and you would then die.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15075.0, "score_ratio": 0.2631578947, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ygxjq", "c_root_id_B": "c2yjv1j", "created_at_utc_A": 1320866339, "created_at_utc_B": 1320884442, "score_A": -27, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "It's trying to digest itself", "human_ref_B": "http://lmgtfy.com/?q=why+does+your+stomach+growl&l=1", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18103.0, "score_ratio": 0.1851851852, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2yh1ak", "c_root_id_B": "c2ygxjq", "created_at_utc_A": 1320866951, "created_at_utc_B": 1320866339, "score_A": -12, "score_B": -27, "human_ref_A": "Your parents are essentially correct.  In order to understand why, it is first necessary to understand a bit of anatomy and physiology.         When we eat something, the food enters a highly acidic environment.  The ingested food is trapped in the stomach for a time by the pyloric sphincter as stomach acids begin to dissolve food and kill pathogenic organisms.  Then, the pyloric sphincter opens and the acidic food is flushed into the small intestine.  Acidity steadily falls as the food continues through the digestive tract.  The pyloric sphincter closes and the body begins to secrete stomach acids in anticipation of your next meal.      Whats more, the body remembers your eating habits and will anticipate by adjusting both the size of the stomach and amount of acids secreted.           So why does the stomach grumble and cause pain when you skip meals?       The grumble you hear is the pyloric sphincter opening and flushing a stomach full of acid into the small intestine.  The pain is probably associated with the acid burning the small intestine due to its unusually high concentration and acidity.        make sense?", "human_ref_B": "It's trying to digest itself", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 612.0, "score_ratio": 0.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m6dc1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does your stomach grumble and hurt when you get hungry? When I was a child, I was told that it is because the stomach acids are corroding the lining of your stomach. But I figured that that doesn't really make any sense because wouldn't it still be doing the same thing if you were eating?   Also, my parents used to tell me that I would get stomach ulcers if I skip meals a lot. I highly doubt this as well but is there any connection to it at all?", "c_root_id_A": "c2yhfru", "c_root_id_B": "c2ygxjq", "created_at_utc_A": 1320869367, "created_at_utc_B": 1320866339, "score_A": -19, "score_B": -27, "human_ref_A": "The real answer is that if it didn't, you wouldn't eat and you would then die.", "human_ref_B": "It's trying to digest itself", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3028.0, "score_ratio": 0.7037037037, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "huoz0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "If a radioactive isotope is accelerated near c, will the decay slow down or remain the same relative to observer? I would assume the decay would slow down, but the more I think on it, the less I'm confident.", "c_root_id_A": "c1yj3k6", "c_root_id_B": "c1ymxbm", "created_at_utc_A": 1307553415, "created_at_utc_B": 1307589647, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Doesn't this happen at big colliders like the LHC? Whilst the protons are a bit slower than the speed of light (0.999c or so when it finally gets up to full power), it doesn't make much difference to them as they last a long time anyway but the collision products retain a serious amount of the velocity and time dilation is both observed and used (it makes the short-lived collision products a bit easier to detect).", "human_ref_B": "Nothing really to add, I just wanted to say this is an awesome question. I love /r/askscience.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 36232.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rb0bws", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why Moderna half dose and not a full dose for the booster?", "c_root_id_A": "hno8638", "c_root_id_B": "hnm30ie", "created_at_utc_A": 1638931706, "created_at_utc_B": 1638896927, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Vaccine dosage is based on both laboratory study of how the vaccine works as well as clinical trial data.  Drug makers seek to find the optimal balance between desired effects, in this case COVID protection, unwanted adverse effects, use of resources, and cost.  You might think that giving twice the dose would be twice as effective (or half the dose half as effective) but it doesn't always work that way.  For example, if half the dose gives 90% extra protection but double that gives 95% protection you might go with half because its still very high, but it allows you to double the doses available.  And giving 100 people 90% protection vs. 50 people 95% protection would be better.  So Moderna and the relevant gov't authorities (the FDA in the US) have looked at the data and determined that for most people a 50% booster dose is sufficient.  There are people who can receive a full strength third shot, people who are immunocompromised in some way.  In that case the first two doses would be less effective than in a \"normal\" person, so its worthwhile to give them a stronger dose to improve their immune response.", "human_ref_B": "its more about public health policy than individual benefits.  more shots in arms in a shorter time (ie with less supply bottlenecks) for less cost compared to giving full doses, and less side effects so more cooperation.  from an individual perspective a full dose is probably better but the half dose does a good job of boosting immunity too. i don't have the numbers but that was the overview a doctor gave me.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 34779.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u65gd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "If I planted my bonsai tree in the ground, would it remain small or grow into a regular tree? Are bonsai only kept small by the small pot and the pruning, or are they permanently stunted? If they are permanently stunted, at what point and how is this stunting accomplished?", "c_root_id_A": "c4sn7x0", "c_root_id_B": "c4snex7", "created_at_utc_A": 1338053986, "created_at_utc_B": 1338055137, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Someone bought me a\"bonsai kit\" and after about 5 years of sitting there I decided to do it only to discover it was regular tree seeds! It would be interesting to know if dwarf seeds exist. Do bonsai trees create seeds?", "human_ref_B": "Bonsai trees are completely normal trees whose growth has been stunted by not having room for a large root system as well as the grower intentionally cutting off new growths.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1151.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rhr0a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What actually happens to a person when they die of \"old age\"? I'm assuming something has to actually happen that causes your body to stop working. If you get too old does your heart just stop? If so, is this different from a heart attack?", "c_root_id_A": "c464nlw", "c_root_id_B": "c45ze07", "created_at_utc_A": 1332992201, "created_at_utc_B": 1332965979, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I always thought it was because of the Telomeres (non-coding DNA strands) running out and causing cells to cut into DNA when the divide. Thus causing it to be harder to heal injuries and protect against mutations. However, I'm not an expert in Biology by any means, and I am 99.999% sure I'm wrong. If someone could explain to me why this is incorrect, I'd greatly appreciate it.", "human_ref_B": "One of the theories is that as the body ages the genes in the DNA of the somatic cells accumulate mutations, because of DNA replication errors, exposure to mutagens, and other environmental factors. As we age, the cells replicate, making a once rare mutation more common than it once was. Because of these mutations the proteins encoded by these genes do not function as properly they cause our phenotype to change as we age (connective tissue mutations cause droopy skin and arthritis, myocardial mutations can cause heart disease, etc.). Many diseases that appear to cause rapid aging are the result of a mutation in a DNA repair gene, which causes mutations in the genome to accumulate much faster than normal.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_repair-deficiency_disorder  EDIT: Thank you for the input, Teedy.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26222.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1l0u8n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If a Ferrari can travel at 110 m/s max and nerve impulses travel at 100 m/s max, does this mean that the driver would be traveling forward mroe quickly than his brain could process the visual information from the road? I noticed on wolfram alpha the following:  http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=100+m%2Fs  If you look at \"comparisons as speed\" you'll see that it lists the maximum speed of a Ferrari F50 GT1 as 110m/s and the maximum nerve impulse speed as only 100 m/s.   I understand that it's a miniscule difference, but does that mean that the car is traveling forward more quickly than the brain can receive visual information about its location?", "c_root_id_A": "cbut1lx", "c_root_id_B": "cbuun1h", "created_at_utc_A": 1377403794, "created_at_utc_B": 1377410167, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "According to the wikipedia entry for the optic nerve it's about 50mm long.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_nerve  At 100m/s that means (ignoring the time for the eye to receive the image and the brain to interpret it for simplicity's sake) it takes .5 milliseconds for visual images to reach the brain.  In .5ms a car travelling at  110m/s would have traveled 55mm.    So in for the Ferrari to hit something before the image of it registered on the drivers brain it would literally have to appear out of nowhere about 2 inches in front of the car.", "human_ref_B": "No, the visual information travels nearly the entire distance at the speed of light, because it is light, and then once it's received by your eye it travels the rest of the way as nerve signals. But that second distance is fixed, regardless of how fast your body is moving.  So if you're wondering about the speed a vehicle can go before information comes in too fast to be processed, it's the speed of light you should be comparing with, and even a Ferrari doesn't go at relativistic speeds. (Something comparable but perceptible does happen with airplanes and sound.) On the other hand, if you're wondering about human reaction time, you don't need to be moving at all - rapidly changing images on a stationary video screen will be just as difficult.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6373.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1l0u8n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If a Ferrari can travel at 110 m/s max and nerve impulses travel at 100 m/s max, does this mean that the driver would be traveling forward mroe quickly than his brain could process the visual information from the road? I noticed on wolfram alpha the following:  http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=100+m%2Fs  If you look at \"comparisons as speed\" you'll see that it lists the maximum speed of a Ferrari F50 GT1 as 110m/s and the maximum nerve impulse speed as only 100 m/s.   I understand that it's a miniscule difference, but does that mean that the car is traveling forward more quickly than the brain can receive visual information about its location?", "c_root_id_A": "cbuyc8a", "c_root_id_B": "cbuvqjm", "created_at_utc_A": 1377435776, "created_at_utc_B": 1377415923, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes and no.   **Both of those speeds are *relative* speeds.** The maximum nerve impulse speed is relative to the nerves/body around it. The speed of the Ferrari is relative to the surface beneath it.  ...the speed of the Earth's surface at the equator is 465.1 m/s, relative to the Earth's center. And the speed that the Earth's center is travelling at is almost 30000 m/s, relative to the Sun. The speed that the Sun is travelling at is estimated to be 220000 m/s, relative to the estimated center of the galaxy. Etc.  \"Absolute\" velocities are always relative to something.", "human_ref_B": "Well here's another question then, what speed would you have to be going for it to become impossible to react to anything in your path, no matter how far away it was?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19853.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1l0u8n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If a Ferrari can travel at 110 m/s max and nerve impulses travel at 100 m/s max, does this mean that the driver would be traveling forward mroe quickly than his brain could process the visual information from the road? I noticed on wolfram alpha the following:  http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=100+m%2Fs  If you look at \"comparisons as speed\" you'll see that it lists the maximum speed of a Ferrari F50 GT1 as 110m/s and the maximum nerve impulse speed as only 100 m/s.   I understand that it's a miniscule difference, but does that mean that the car is traveling forward more quickly than the brain can receive visual information about its location?", "c_root_id_A": "cbuyc8a", "c_root_id_B": "cbuxruc", "created_at_utc_A": 1377435776, "created_at_utc_B": 1377431919, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes and no.   **Both of those speeds are *relative* speeds.** The maximum nerve impulse speed is relative to the nerves/body around it. The speed of the Ferrari is relative to the surface beneath it.  ...the speed of the Earth's surface at the equator is 465.1 m/s, relative to the Earth's center. And the speed that the Earth's center is travelling at is almost 30000 m/s, relative to the Sun. The speed that the Sun is travelling at is estimated to be 220000 m/s, relative to the estimated center of the galaxy. Etc.  \"Absolute\" velocities are always relative to something.", "human_ref_B": "Does relativity apply here? Since the Ferrari is moving at 110 m/s, so are you inside of it. Does that somehow affect nerve impulses?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3857.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ykt5o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How did chemists explain reactions before the discovery of the atom?", "c_root_id_A": "ea3w480", "c_root_id_B": "ea41yph", "created_at_utc_A": 1542730395, "created_at_utc_B": 1542734874, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The classical philosophers argued about three forces of life and other reactions: vitalism, purpose, and atomism.  Vitalism where objects and creatures had life forces and heat inside them and when that ran out they died or burned up (instead of the other way around). Plato spoke of forms which pointed to things life and objects doing what they did because it was their purpose and made that way. Others thought of a mechanistic world of atoms and void, but with with them being of infinite shapes and sizes. Source; Life\u2019s Ratchet be Peter Hoffman", "human_ref_B": "Their explanations were very ambiguous. For example, there was knowledge of what an acid was before the discovery of the atom based on physical and chemical properties, but there wasn't an explanation of what an acidic molecule was like. So a reaction would be run and the scientist would say they made an acid based on testing the properties. A lot of the analysis of products was done by comparing melting point, acidity, relative reactivity, and sometimes even taste (!) to known natural chemicals.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4479.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ykt5o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How did chemists explain reactions before the discovery of the atom?", "c_root_id_A": "ea42s0v", "c_root_id_B": "ea3w480", "created_at_utc_A": 1542735460, "created_at_utc_B": 1542730395, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Like many subjects, chemistry has evolved over time.   Initially things started out as a kind of mythological understanding (i.e. ancient alchemy.) A lack of true understanding lead to people trying to turn various things into gold. We now know that you can't do that, but back in antiquity people had no idea. They knew if you mixed A with B you'd get C. So in theory, you could mix D with E to get gold. You just need to figure out what D and E were.   The ancient civilizations understood that everything was made up of stuff. Originally this was as simple as fire, earth, water, air. Then people started to understand that stuff was made up of other smaller stuff. The word \"atom\" comes from the latin \"atomos\" meaning indivisible or uncuttable. Atoms therefore became name for the smallest building block of everything. (We now know this isn't exactly correct. Atoms can actually be further divided.) We went from saying things were made of fire and water to understanding that there were other things (i.e. elements.)   There were varied explanations as to why certain things worked but no real concrete explanation. As time goes on, people start focusing on the *why.* Experiments were designed to test these theories. For example, wind. We can't really see it, but it is there. We feel it on our skin and see it move the leaves on trees. Well, why does wind move trees? It's probably not the breath of Zeus or the wrath of Athena. There must be something that makes the leaves move.  What are those things? Atoms! What do those look like? There have been many explanations of this: Bohr, Rutherford, Thomson, etc all had theories. Continued exploration eventually figured out that atoms are positive centers with orbiting negative particles and so on.  The more we learned about the composition of the parts of compounds, the more we understood how they work. The more we understood the more we could explain.   So in short, they just kinda BS'd it. Fake it til you make it irl. If you want a more detailed explanation, grab any gen chem textbook. One of the first chapters in most textbooks will cover the discovery of the atom from the simplest models to the current quantum mechanical theory.   For example: Lead white is a compound that has been synthetically made and used since antiquity in white paints. The preparation for this compound has been described as early as 300BC by Theophrastus. Theophrastus' description says lead was placed in a vessel with vinegar and left until it formed a crust. The crust was then scraped off and the lead was placed back in the vessel and the process repeated until there was no more lead.  The scraped off crusts were dried and powdered andddd bam! You've got paint pigment. Why does this work? They had no idea, but it's how you get white lead. Now we know it's a process called corrosion (aka the formation of a metal oxide.)   tl;dr Fake it til you make it. Explanations were given based off the information of the time and evolved as the science became more understood.   &#x200B;", "human_ref_B": "The classical philosophers argued about three forces of life and other reactions: vitalism, purpose, and atomism.  Vitalism where objects and creatures had life forces and heat inside them and when that ran out they died or burned up (instead of the other way around). Plato spoke of forms which pointed to things life and objects doing what they did because it was their purpose and made that way. Others thought of a mechanistic world of atoms and void, but with with them being of infinite shapes and sizes. Source; Life\u2019s Ratchet be Peter Hoffman", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5065.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "647ivr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "How did Humans in the past know that a specific organ does this specific function in the body? How were we able to discover that the brain is the organ that controls most of the activities of the body?  Without the present technology that we have, How were people in the past able to tell that brain is a most important organ? (Was it because they observed some person got hurt on the head and his whole body and mental health got affected ? ) Because before technology  Just not the brain but also other organs.. And more important than this , How were they able to come up with medicines ? How did they know that this specific herb would cure this disease?", "c_root_id_A": "dg0bqbm", "c_root_id_B": "dg0blad", "created_at_utc_A": 1491683712, "created_at_utc_B": 1491683513, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Until the last few hundred years, they basically didn't know.  For example, the ancient Egyptians thought that the brain was a useless organ, and during the mumification process, threw it away, but kept all other internal organs in canopic jars. They thought the *heart* was the seat of conciousness.", "human_ref_B": "If you don't get an answer here, try /r/askhistorians, /r/historyofideas, /r/historyofscience, or /r/historyofmedicine", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 199.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "19nq16", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Can we build a space faring super-computer-server-farm that orbits the Earth or Moon and utilizes the low temperature and abundant solar energy? And 3 follow-up questions:  (1)Could the low temperature of space be used to overclock CPUs and GPUs to an absurd level?  (2)Is there enough solar energy, Moon or Earth, that can be harnessed to power such a machine?  (3)And if it orbits the Earth as opposed to the moon, how much less energy would be available due to its proximity to the Earth's magnetosphere?", "c_root_id_A": "c8poio1", "c_root_id_B": "c8potgm", "created_at_utc_A": 1362429744, "created_at_utc_B": 1362430571, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 1157, "human_ref_A": "It should be noted that abundant solar energy and low temperature are not best bedfellows. For instance, the surface of the moon, roughly as far from the sun as a server farm orbiting the earth, reaches over 200 degrees in the sunlight.   Similarly, since the only cooling in space is radiative cooling, the heat built up by the devices themselves would be slow to dissipate. There's no air, or water, or other material to carry the heat away.   In either case you'd presumably need heat sinks to avoid overheating. More or less like we have on our CPUs here on Earth.", "human_ref_B": "1) No.  Space is only cold right up until you drift into direct sunlight and/or generate waste heat.  A vacuum is a fantastic thermal insulator.  2) Depends entirely on what you wanted to actually build, but I'm sure you could get enough solar panels to do it.  3) Well solar panels are typically tuned to the visible spectrum which the magnetosphere doesn't mess with at all, so it won't have much of an effect.  That said this is an insanely bad idea.  There's zero benefit to putting such a system in space and the expenses incurred in doing so are outrageous.  Billions of dollars in fuel alone not including all the radiation hardening and support systems you're definitely going to need.  If you really wanted to do something like that it's smarter to build it here on Earth and employ some cryo cooling methods to keep it all chilled.  Liquid nitrogen is cheap as dirt given a moderate investment in the infrastructure required to produce and safely handle it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 827.0, "score_ratio": 41.3214285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "19nq16", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Can we build a space faring super-computer-server-farm that orbits the Earth or Moon and utilizes the low temperature and abundant solar energy? And 3 follow-up questions:  (1)Could the low temperature of space be used to overclock CPUs and GPUs to an absurd level?  (2)Is there enough solar energy, Moon or Earth, that can be harnessed to power such a machine?  (3)And if it orbits the Earth as opposed to the moon, how much less energy would be available due to its proximity to the Earth's magnetosphere?", "c_root_id_A": "c8poio1", "c_root_id_B": "c8pp35r", "created_at_utc_A": 1362429744, "created_at_utc_B": 1362431331, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 175, "human_ref_A": "It should be noted that abundant solar energy and low temperature are not best bedfellows. For instance, the surface of the moon, roughly as far from the sun as a server farm orbiting the earth, reaches over 200 degrees in the sunlight.   Similarly, since the only cooling in space is radiative cooling, the heat built up by the devices themselves would be slow to dissipate. There's no air, or water, or other material to carry the heat away.   In either case you'd presumably need heat sinks to avoid overheating. More or less like we have on our CPUs here on Earth.", "human_ref_B": "Overheating is more of a problem in space than it is on Earth.  Normally, a computer would lose it's heat to the atmosphere via conduction, by blowing cool air over warm components (even liquid-cooled computers conduct heat from the cooling fluid into the air). There's no air in space, so heat must be lost by radiation, which is much slower.  In this picture of the ISS, you can see how large the radiators need to be. Also, the inside surfaces of the space shuttle cargo doors are covered in radiators, which is why they're always open.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1587.0, "score_ratio": 6.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "19nq16", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Can we build a space faring super-computer-server-farm that orbits the Earth or Moon and utilizes the low temperature and abundant solar energy? And 3 follow-up questions:  (1)Could the low temperature of space be used to overclock CPUs and GPUs to an absurd level?  (2)Is there enough solar energy, Moon or Earth, that can be harnessed to power such a machine?  (3)And if it orbits the Earth as opposed to the moon, how much less energy would be available due to its proximity to the Earth's magnetosphere?", "c_root_id_A": "c8pq96x", "c_root_id_B": "c8poio1", "created_at_utc_A": 1362434547, "created_at_utc_B": 1362429744, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Could we? Sure. We can do lots of things.  Should we? No!  To someone unfamiliar with datacenters this might seem like a cool idea, but the problems that datacenters face are usually more about doing more computing, but cheaper.   Also, moving heat requires somewhere to actually *put* that heat into. Space is not a great place for that.   Also the latency of satellite round trips is unreasonably slow for most things. Content Delivery Networks make most content available locally in highly populated areas already, so you'd be up against only a couple milliseconds of physical latency from ground based technology.  Plus a huge problem in datacenters is the constant rotation of equipment into and out of the datacenter. If it cost you a few hundred million dollars to put the server up there in the first place, nobody is going to want to send stuff up there every 3 years to have reasonably capable machines.", "human_ref_B": "It should be noted that abundant solar energy and low temperature are not best bedfellows. For instance, the surface of the moon, roughly as far from the sun as a server farm orbiting the earth, reaches over 200 degrees in the sunlight.   Similarly, since the only cooling in space is radiative cooling, the heat built up by the devices themselves would be slow to dissipate. There's no air, or water, or other material to carry the heat away.   In either case you'd presumably need heat sinks to avoid overheating. More or less like we have on our CPUs here on Earth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4803.0, "score_ratio": 1.4642857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inbecn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "If the lungs in land vertebrates evolved from the gas bladder, what did the gills evolve into?", "c_root_id_A": "g48noik", "c_root_id_B": "g47pxb0", "created_at_utc_A": 1599407040, "created_at_utc_B": 1599380050, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Ah, the interesting thing is the gas bladder evolved from lungs!  Early bony fish lived in fresh waters that were often low in oxygen.  They commonly gulped air into their digestive tracts to absorb some oxygen through their gut.  Pouch a bit off the digestive tract and you get a primitive lung.  It seems that getting oxygen, not buoyancy, drove this adaptation in the first place.  Proper gas bladders only show up in a particular lineage of bony fish that appeared later on and then diversified to give rise to most of the fish in the world today.  Many earlier branching groups of fish like lungfish, bichirs, and bowfin still rely quite a bit on air breathing in some situations.    Doesn't exactly answer your question, but I thought it was worth bringing up.", "human_ref_B": "It is complicated, as each pair of gills has evolved into various structures such as the jaw, the ears, and the internal bones of the ears. Here is a fragment of a talk on the subject.  Edit: The talk that that fragment came from is fascinating. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mESFlBawGG4", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26990.0, "score_ratio": 14.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "inbecn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "If the lungs in land vertebrates evolved from the gas bladder, what did the gills evolve into?", "c_root_id_A": "g48xq57", "c_root_id_B": "g47pxb0", "created_at_utc_A": 1599411913, "created_at_utc_B": 1599380050, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "fish and land vertebrates both have pharyngeal arches (which become gill arches in fish) and pharyngeal pouches (which become the gills themselves in fish) during development  the gill arches have more or less become neck cartilage and bits of head bones, and the pharyngeal pouches turn into... well, a bunch of things#Specific_pouches)", "human_ref_B": "It is complicated, as each pair of gills has evolved into various structures such as the jaw, the ears, and the internal bones of the ears. Here is a fragment of a talk on the subject.  Edit: The talk that that fragment came from is fascinating. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mESFlBawGG4", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31863.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikopgac", "c_root_id_B": "iknvzqd", "created_at_utc_A": 1660759069, "created_at_utc_B": 1660747879, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Why is the Oort Cloud thought to be spherical when everything inside it like the Kuiper belt  and all the planets are in a disc due to rotation?", "human_ref_B": "Why is k-feldspar in granites etc so commonly (but not always) pink? .. Doesn't look like it's just from Potassium content, though a lot of K rich minerals do seem to have pinkish forms along with colorless ones .. Is it simply from hematite inclusions? If so, why is k-spar so much more likely to accommodate that vs plagioclase?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11190.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iknuapi", "c_root_id_B": "ikopgac", "created_at_utc_A": 1660747212, "created_at_utc_B": 1660759069, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "How does the universe expand? Does it expand by \"creating more universe\" from its center, similar to how a hair grows; by growing from its borders, like a country invading another; or does it grow from within each and every existing \"piece\" of universe?  If it's the latter, does that mean that we (as in our atoms and particles) are expanding too? If so, at what rate?", "human_ref_B": "Why is the Oort Cloud thought to be spherical when everything inside it like the Kuiper belt  and all the planets are in a disc due to rotation?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11857.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikopgac", "c_root_id_B": "ikoeb2p", "created_at_utc_A": 1660759069, "created_at_utc_B": 1660754887, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Why is the Oort Cloud thought to be spherical when everything inside it like the Kuiper belt  and all the planets are in a disc due to rotation?", "human_ref_B": "At the park called 'Garden of the Gods' in Colorado Springs, there are huge **vertical** sedimentary rock formations which were turned vertical during the Rocky Mountain  uplift.    How common are such 'vertical' formations? What are good books (or search terms) describing this vertical process (besides just orogeny)?  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_of_the_Gods#Geological_formations", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4182.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikopgac", "c_root_id_B": "iknxuvf", "created_at_utc_A": 1660759069, "created_at_utc_B": 1660748607, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why is the Oort Cloud thought to be spherical when everything inside it like the Kuiper belt  and all the planets are in a disc due to rotation?", "human_ref_B": "Are the Grand-Teton peaks still rising, or just the Jackson hole valley floor sinking? (Or in general, how can crustal extension uplift mountains)  basically, if the grand-teton-fault is a normal fault being stretched apart, it makes sense that the valley floor to the east would be sinking, but how can a stretching of the crust/plates push the mountains to the west upwards? Are the mountains therefore remnants from older uplift and are no longer growing but just the valley floor sinking downwards as the stretching happens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10462.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iko6m5j", "c_root_id_B": "ikopgac", "created_at_utc_A": 1660751979, "created_at_utc_B": 1660759069, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "How do geostationary satellites maintain their orbit with minimal station-keeping fuel expense?  Follow-up:  Why does the geostationary orbit exist at \\~22,300 miles and not at a different distance from Earth?", "human_ref_B": "Why is the Oort Cloud thought to be spherical when everything inside it like the Kuiper belt  and all the planets are in a disc due to rotation?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7090.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iknvzqd", "c_root_id_B": "iknuapi", "created_at_utc_A": 1660747879, "created_at_utc_B": 1660747212, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Why is k-feldspar in granites etc so commonly (but not always) pink? .. Doesn't look like it's just from Potassium content, though a lot of K rich minerals do seem to have pinkish forms along with colorless ones .. Is it simply from hematite inclusions? If so, why is k-spar so much more likely to accommodate that vs plagioclase?", "human_ref_B": "How does the universe expand? Does it expand by \"creating more universe\" from its center, similar to how a hair grows; by growing from its borders, like a country invading another; or does it grow from within each and every existing \"piece\" of universe?  If it's the latter, does that mean that we (as in our atoms and particles) are expanding too? If so, at what rate?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 667.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikoeb2p", "c_root_id_B": "iknxuvf", "created_at_utc_A": 1660754887, "created_at_utc_B": 1660748607, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "At the park called 'Garden of the Gods' in Colorado Springs, there are huge **vertical** sedimentary rock formations which were turned vertical during the Rocky Mountain  uplift.    How common are such 'vertical' formations? What are good books (or search terms) describing this vertical process (besides just orogeny)?  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_of_the_Gods#Geological_formations", "human_ref_B": "Are the Grand-Teton peaks still rising, or just the Jackson hole valley floor sinking? (Or in general, how can crustal extension uplift mountains)  basically, if the grand-teton-fault is a normal fault being stretched apart, it makes sense that the valley floor to the east would be sinking, but how can a stretching of the crust/plates push the mountains to the west upwards? Are the mountains therefore remnants from older uplift and are no longer growing but just the valley floor sinking downwards as the stretching happens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6280.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iko6m5j", "c_root_id_B": "ikoeb2p", "created_at_utc_A": 1660751979, "created_at_utc_B": 1660754887, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How do geostationary satellites maintain their orbit with minimal station-keeping fuel expense?  Follow-up:  Why does the geostationary orbit exist at \\~22,300 miles and not at a different distance from Earth?", "human_ref_B": "At the park called 'Garden of the Gods' in Colorado Springs, there are huge **vertical** sedimentary rock formations which were turned vertical during the Rocky Mountain  uplift.    How common are such 'vertical' formations? What are good books (or search terms) describing this vertical process (besides just orogeny)?  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_of_the_Gods#Geological_formations", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2908.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpaxcn", "c_root_id_B": "ikqni7x", "created_at_utc_A": 1660767109, "created_at_utc_B": 1660787071, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "So I was watching Lightyears with my kids and wondered about the time dilation effect. If in theory the people on the ground could see buzz flying around the moon in 4 minutes (his time)...what would that look like to an observer (4 years)?", "human_ref_B": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19962.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikqni7x", "c_root_id_B": "ikpkkme", "created_at_utc_A": 1660787071, "created_at_utc_B": 1660770692, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "human_ref_B": "The James Webb telescope is finding numerous well- formed galaxies much further back in time than expected. Does this contradict the Big Bang theory, and if so, what is the next best explanation for the creation of the universe?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16379.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikqni7x", "c_root_id_B": "ikptofy", "created_at_utc_A": 1660787071, "created_at_utc_B": 1660774211, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "human_ref_B": "What about the earth would change if the earth had rings like saturn?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12860.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iknxuvf", "c_root_id_B": "ikqni7x", "created_at_utc_A": 1660748607, "created_at_utc_B": 1660787071, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are the Grand-Teton peaks still rising, or just the Jackson hole valley floor sinking? (Or in general, how can crustal extension uplift mountains)  basically, if the grand-teton-fault is a normal fault being stretched apart, it makes sense that the valley floor to the east would be sinking, but how can a stretching of the crust/plates push the mountains to the west upwards? Are the mountains therefore remnants from older uplift and are no longer growing but just the valley floor sinking downwards as the stretching happens?", "human_ref_B": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 38464.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikqni7x", "c_root_id_B": "iko6m5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1660787071, "created_at_utc_B": 1660751979, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "human_ref_B": "How do geostationary satellites maintain their orbit with minimal station-keeping fuel expense?  Follow-up:  Why does the geostationary orbit exist at \\~22,300 miles and not at a different distance from Earth?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 35092.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikqni7x", "c_root_id_B": "ikoys70", "created_at_utc_A": 1660787071, "created_at_utc_B": 1660762553, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "human_ref_B": "What impact does the moon have on earth?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24518.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikp1yz4", "c_root_id_B": "ikqni7x", "created_at_utc_A": 1660763758, "created_at_utc_B": 1660787071, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If time slows down the closer something is to a black hole, does time stop in the center?", "human_ref_B": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23313.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikqni7x", "c_root_id_B": "ikpg6cf", "created_at_utc_A": 1660787071, "created_at_utc_B": 1660769047, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "human_ref_B": "Hawking Radiation: if a new particle is born at the event horizon and half of it escapes as Hawking Radiation, and the half goes into the black hole, shouldn\u2019t the black hole get bigger \u2026 not smaller?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18024.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikqni7x", "c_root_id_B": "ikpmciv", "created_at_utc_A": 1660787071, "created_at_utc_B": 1660771361, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "human_ref_B": "If we abandoned all of the satellites and the international space station, would they eventually fall or crash into each other, unsupervised?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15710.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikq7wnt", "c_root_id_B": "ikqni7x", "created_at_utc_A": 1660780229, "created_at_utc_B": 1660787071, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If everything has been cooling down since the Big Bang where are we in the cooling of the universe.  How much cooler will the universe get?  Also, as the universe cools what will become impossible ( new star formation, maybe certain elements can no longer be created due to certain reactions becoming less common)?", "human_ref_B": "Why all the fuss about life potentially being seeded from comets or what have you, are they not aware that earth is part of space? Like whether life developed somewhere out in the cosmos and was seeded here or developed independently on this planet it still developed on a rock out in space.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6842.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpaxcn", "c_root_id_B": "iknxuvf", "created_at_utc_A": 1660767109, "created_at_utc_B": 1660748607, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "So I was watching Lightyears with my kids and wondered about the time dilation effect. If in theory the people on the ground could see buzz flying around the moon in 4 minutes (his time)...what would that look like to an observer (4 years)?", "human_ref_B": "Are the Grand-Teton peaks still rising, or just the Jackson hole valley floor sinking? (Or in general, how can crustal extension uplift mountains)  basically, if the grand-teton-fault is a normal fault being stretched apart, it makes sense that the valley floor to the east would be sinking, but how can a stretching of the crust/plates push the mountains to the west upwards? Are the mountains therefore remnants from older uplift and are no longer growing but just the valley floor sinking downwards as the stretching happens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18502.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpaxcn", "c_root_id_B": "iko6m5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1660767109, "created_at_utc_B": 1660751979, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "So I was watching Lightyears with my kids and wondered about the time dilation effect. If in theory the people on the ground could see buzz flying around the moon in 4 minutes (his time)...what would that look like to an observer (4 years)?", "human_ref_B": "How do geostationary satellites maintain their orbit with minimal station-keeping fuel expense?  Follow-up:  Why does the geostationary orbit exist at \\~22,300 miles and not at a different distance from Earth?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15130.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpaxcn", "c_root_id_B": "ikoys70", "created_at_utc_A": 1660767109, "created_at_utc_B": 1660762553, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "So I was watching Lightyears with my kids and wondered about the time dilation effect. If in theory the people on the ground could see buzz flying around the moon in 4 minutes (his time)...what would that look like to an observer (4 years)?", "human_ref_B": "What impact does the moon have on earth?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4556.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpaxcn", "c_root_id_B": "ikp1yz4", "created_at_utc_A": 1660767109, "created_at_utc_B": 1660763758, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "So I was watching Lightyears with my kids and wondered about the time dilation effect. If in theory the people on the ground could see buzz flying around the moon in 4 minutes (his time)...what would that look like to an observer (4 years)?", "human_ref_B": "If time slows down the closer something is to a black hole, does time stop in the center?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3351.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpkkme", "c_root_id_B": "iknxuvf", "created_at_utc_A": 1660770692, "created_at_utc_B": 1660748607, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The James Webb telescope is finding numerous well- formed galaxies much further back in time than expected. Does this contradict the Big Bang theory, and if so, what is the next best explanation for the creation of the universe?", "human_ref_B": "Are the Grand-Teton peaks still rising, or just the Jackson hole valley floor sinking? (Or in general, how can crustal extension uplift mountains)  basically, if the grand-teton-fault is a normal fault being stretched apart, it makes sense that the valley floor to the east would be sinking, but how can a stretching of the crust/plates push the mountains to the west upwards? Are the mountains therefore remnants from older uplift and are no longer growing but just the valley floor sinking downwards as the stretching happens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22085.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iko6m5j", "c_root_id_B": "ikpkkme", "created_at_utc_A": 1660751979, "created_at_utc_B": 1660770692, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How do geostationary satellites maintain their orbit with minimal station-keeping fuel expense?  Follow-up:  Why does the geostationary orbit exist at \\~22,300 miles and not at a different distance from Earth?", "human_ref_B": "The James Webb telescope is finding numerous well- formed galaxies much further back in time than expected. Does this contradict the Big Bang theory, and if so, what is the next best explanation for the creation of the universe?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18713.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikoys70", "c_root_id_B": "ikpkkme", "created_at_utc_A": 1660762553, "created_at_utc_B": 1660770692, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What impact does the moon have on earth?", "human_ref_B": "The James Webb telescope is finding numerous well- formed galaxies much further back in time than expected. Does this contradict the Big Bang theory, and if so, what is the next best explanation for the creation of the universe?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8139.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpkkme", "c_root_id_B": "ikp1yz4", "created_at_utc_A": 1660770692, "created_at_utc_B": 1660763758, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The James Webb telescope is finding numerous well- formed galaxies much further back in time than expected. Does this contradict the Big Bang theory, and if so, what is the next best explanation for the creation of the universe?", "human_ref_B": "If time slows down the closer something is to a black hole, does time stop in the center?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6934.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpg6cf", "c_root_id_B": "ikpkkme", "created_at_utc_A": 1660769047, "created_at_utc_B": 1660770692, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hawking Radiation: if a new particle is born at the event horizon and half of it escapes as Hawking Radiation, and the half goes into the black hole, shouldn\u2019t the black hole get bigger \u2026 not smaller?", "human_ref_B": "The James Webb telescope is finding numerous well- formed galaxies much further back in time than expected. Does this contradict the Big Bang theory, and if so, what is the next best explanation for the creation of the universe?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1645.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikptofy", "c_root_id_B": "iknxuvf", "created_at_utc_A": 1660774211, "created_at_utc_B": 1660748607, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What about the earth would change if the earth had rings like saturn?", "human_ref_B": "Are the Grand-Teton peaks still rising, or just the Jackson hole valley floor sinking? (Or in general, how can crustal extension uplift mountains)  basically, if the grand-teton-fault is a normal fault being stretched apart, it makes sense that the valley floor to the east would be sinking, but how can a stretching of the crust/plates push the mountains to the west upwards? Are the mountains therefore remnants from older uplift and are no longer growing but just the valley floor sinking downwards as the stretching happens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25604.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iko6m5j", "c_root_id_B": "ikptofy", "created_at_utc_A": 1660751979, "created_at_utc_B": 1660774211, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How do geostationary satellites maintain their orbit with minimal station-keeping fuel expense?  Follow-up:  Why does the geostationary orbit exist at \\~22,300 miles and not at a different distance from Earth?", "human_ref_B": "What about the earth would change if the earth had rings like saturn?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22232.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikptofy", "c_root_id_B": "ikoys70", "created_at_utc_A": 1660774211, "created_at_utc_B": 1660762553, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What about the earth would change if the earth had rings like saturn?", "human_ref_B": "What impact does the moon have on earth?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11658.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikp1yz4", "c_root_id_B": "ikptofy", "created_at_utc_A": 1660763758, "created_at_utc_B": 1660774211, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If time slows down the closer something is to a black hole, does time stop in the center?", "human_ref_B": "What about the earth would change if the earth had rings like saturn?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10453.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpg6cf", "c_root_id_B": "ikptofy", "created_at_utc_A": 1660769047, "created_at_utc_B": 1660774211, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hawking Radiation: if a new particle is born at the event horizon and half of it escapes as Hawking Radiation, and the half goes into the black hole, shouldn\u2019t the black hole get bigger \u2026 not smaller?", "human_ref_B": "What about the earth would change if the earth had rings like saturn?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5164.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wqpq99", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "ikpmciv", "c_root_id_B": "ikptofy", "created_at_utc_A": 1660771361, "created_at_utc_B": 1660774211, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If we abandoned all of the satellites and the international space station, would they eventually fall or crash into each other, unsupervised?", "human_ref_B": "What about the earth would change if the earth had rings like saturn?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2850.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o6ddyh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h2rt9f6", "c_root_id_B": "h2rqzad", "created_at_utc_A": 1624459180, "created_at_utc_B": 1624458085, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What's the best theory that could explain why some diffuse galaxies contain almost no dark matter?", "human_ref_B": "I know that the Friedman equations predict different dates for the universe, but which one is the most likely to happen (big rip or big freeze)?  Also, we know that dark energy causes expansion of the universe, but the total matter energy density in the universe, dark energy included, is very close to the critical density (just slightly above it). What I don't get is that if dark energy is accelerating the expansion of the universe, why is it counted in matter-energy which is supposed to reduce the rate of expansion of the universe? Am I confused about smth here?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1095.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o6ddyh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h2rramy", "c_root_id_B": "h2rt9f6", "created_at_utc_A": 1624458235, "created_at_utc_B": 1624459180, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Why does Hawking radiation cause black holes to lose energy?", "human_ref_B": "What's the best theory that could explain why some diffuse galaxies contain almost no dark matter?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 945.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5lfnd", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jds8", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951430, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950618, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Is the high standard of living in some countries only possible due to the low standard of living in others? If so, can it be proved?", "human_ref_B": "(Hopefully linguistics related?): how is it possible that we\u2019re able to (\u201cblindly\u201d) recognize and identify hundreds of different human voices? I don\u2019t understand how there\u2019s enough variety and identifiable characteristics in a voice for this to be possible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 812.0, "score_ratio": 1.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5ivb8", "c_root_id_B": "hj5lfnd", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950415, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951430, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "Why did rugs become so popular in persia?", "human_ref_B": "Is the high standard of living in some countries only possible due to the low standard of living in others? If so, can it be proved?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1015.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5lfnd", "c_root_id_B": "hj5f4wm", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951430, "created_at_utc_B": 1635948885, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Is the high standard of living in some countries only possible due to the low standard of living in others? If so, can it be proved?", "human_ref_B": "How would impact global economy if crypto currency were regulated?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2545.0, "score_ratio": 3.5454545455, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5h9b4", "c_root_id_B": "hj5lfnd", "created_at_utc_A": 1635949764, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951430, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "In our heads, are the words the same as their meaning, or are words just a property of the object they denote?", "human_ref_B": "Is the high standard of living in some countries only possible due to the low standard of living in others? If so, can it be proved?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1666.0, "score_ratio": 4.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5lfnd", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jc7q", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951430, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950601, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is the high standard of living in some countries only possible due to the low standard of living in others? If so, can it be proved?", "human_ref_B": "There are plenty of news about recent breakthroughs in physics, chemistry, medicine, psychology, etc. What's the latest big thing in linguistics that is strictly about languages, not those related to other fields like artificial intelligence and neuroscience?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 829.0, "score_ratio": 9.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5hx3r", "c_root_id_B": "hj5lfnd", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950033, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951430, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "If the US imposes a wealth tax on billionaires, most of whose wealth is in stocks, would that have downstream implications for my middle-class retirement savings, most of which is held in stocks?", "human_ref_B": "Is the high standard of living in some countries only possible due to the low standard of living in others? If so, can it be proved?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1397.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5lfnd", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jk8v", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951430, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950690, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Is the high standard of living in some countries only possible due to the low standard of living in others? If so, can it be proved?", "human_ref_B": "so.. how did suns/planets get formed?  Like, Space is just so friggen vast, and it's full of nothing - so how did so many different bodies end up forming?  How do planets end up orbiting a sun?  were they all floating around aimlessly, until they got caught in a sun's gravity?  were they formed from debris that was already in the solar system over time?    Is this a 'nobody knows, but we assume it's the 'big bang'.'?  if that's the case, is it still happening?  Is there an 'unfolding' of space far away from us, where more shit is happening?   I consider myself a fairly smart person, with a good imagination, but I just can't wrap my head around the mysteries of space.  (this all started coming to mind when my 5 year old son started asking me some of these questions, and I couldn't answer)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 740.0, "score_ratio": 5.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5kezi", "c_root_id_B": "hj5lfnd", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951029, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951430, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 39, "human_ref_A": "What is the future like for marxism? It is harder to imagine a successful revolution today than it has ever been, with the way that neoliberalism has conquered and subjugated all corners of the world. Marx could never have foreseen the radical new ways that modern capitalism has been able to reinvent and revolutionise its modes of production, with the rise of cutting edge technologies enabling the frightening surveillance capitalism, cryptocurrencies and NFTs of today. Has Marx's metanarrative of \"historical materialism\" been completely disproved?", "human_ref_B": "Is the high standard of living in some countries only possible due to the low standard of living in others? If so, can it be proved?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 401.0, "score_ratio": 39.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5ivb8", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jds8", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950415, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950618, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "Why did rugs become so popular in persia?", "human_ref_B": "(Hopefully linguistics related?): how is it possible that we\u2019re able to (\u201cblindly\u201d) recognize and identify hundreds of different human voices? I don\u2019t understand how there\u2019s enough variety and identifiable characteristics in a voice for this to be possible.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 203.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5jds8", "c_root_id_B": "hj5f4wm", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950618, "created_at_utc_B": 1635948885, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "(Hopefully linguistics related?): how is it possible that we\u2019re able to (\u201cblindly\u201d) recognize and identify hundreds of different human voices? I don\u2019t understand how there\u2019s enough variety and identifiable characteristics in a voice for this to be possible.", "human_ref_B": "How would impact global economy if crypto currency were regulated?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1733.0, "score_ratio": 2.4545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5h9b4", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jds8", "created_at_utc_A": 1635949764, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950618, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "In our heads, are the words the same as their meaning, or are words just a property of the object they denote?", "human_ref_B": "(Hopefully linguistics related?): how is it possible that we\u2019re able to (\u201cblindly\u201d) recognize and identify hundreds of different human voices? I don\u2019t understand how there\u2019s enough variety and identifiable characteristics in a voice for this to be possible.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 854.0, "score_ratio": 3.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5jc7q", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jds8", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950601, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950618, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 27, "human_ref_A": "There are plenty of news about recent breakthroughs in physics, chemistry, medicine, psychology, etc. What's the latest big thing in linguistics that is strictly about languages, not those related to other fields like artificial intelligence and neuroscience?", "human_ref_B": "(Hopefully linguistics related?): how is it possible that we\u2019re able to (\u201cblindly\u201d) recognize and identify hundreds of different human voices? I don\u2019t understand how there\u2019s enough variety and identifiable characteristics in a voice for this to be possible.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17.0, "score_ratio": 6.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5jds8", "c_root_id_B": "hj5hx3r", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950618, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950033, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "(Hopefully linguistics related?): how is it possible that we\u2019re able to (\u201cblindly\u201d) recognize and identify hundreds of different human voices? I don\u2019t understand how there\u2019s enough variety and identifiable characteristics in a voice for this to be possible.", "human_ref_B": "If the US imposes a wealth tax on billionaires, most of whose wealth is in stocks, would that have downstream implications for my middle-class retirement savings, most of which is held in stocks?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 585.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5ivb8", "c_root_id_B": "hj5f4wm", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950415, "created_at_utc_B": 1635948885, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Why did rugs become so popular in persia?", "human_ref_B": "How would impact global economy if crypto currency were regulated?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1530.0, "score_ratio": 1.3636363636, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5ivb8", "c_root_id_B": "hj5h9b4", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950415, "created_at_utc_B": 1635949764, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Why did rugs become so popular in persia?", "human_ref_B": "In our heads, are the words the same as their meaning, or are words just a property of the object they denote?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 651.0, "score_ratio": 1.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5ivb8", "c_root_id_B": "hj5hx3r", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950415, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950033, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Why did rugs become so popular in persia?", "human_ref_B": "If the US imposes a wealth tax on billionaires, most of whose wealth is in stocks, would that have downstream implications for my middle-class retirement savings, most of which is held in stocks?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 382.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5jc7q", "c_root_id_B": "hj5wtem", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950601, "created_at_utc_B": 1635955807, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "There are plenty of news about recent breakthroughs in physics, chemistry, medicine, psychology, etc. What's the latest big thing in linguistics that is strictly about languages, not those related to other fields like artificial intelligence and neuroscience?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5206.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5wtem", "c_root_id_B": "hj5hx3r", "created_at_utc_A": 1635955807, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950033, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "human_ref_B": "If the US imposes a wealth tax on billionaires, most of whose wealth is in stocks, would that have downstream implications for my middle-class retirement savings, most of which is held in stocks?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5774.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5jk8v", "c_root_id_B": "hj5wtem", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950690, "created_at_utc_B": 1635955807, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "so.. how did suns/planets get formed?  Like, Space is just so friggen vast, and it's full of nothing - so how did so many different bodies end up forming?  How do planets end up orbiting a sun?  were they all floating around aimlessly, until they got caught in a sun's gravity?  were they formed from debris that was already in the solar system over time?    Is this a 'nobody knows, but we assume it's the 'big bang'.'?  if that's the case, is it still happening?  Is there an 'unfolding' of space far away from us, where more shit is happening?   I consider myself a fairly smart person, with a good imagination, but I just can't wrap my head around the mysteries of space.  (this all started coming to mind when my 5 year old son started asking me some of these questions, and I couldn't answer)", "human_ref_B": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5117.0, "score_ratio": 1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5ltk2", "c_root_id_B": "hj5wtem", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951582, "created_at_utc_B": 1635955807, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Are humans guided by rational self-interest?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4225.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5wtem", "c_root_id_B": "hj5oliq", "created_at_utc_A": 1635955807, "created_at_utc_B": 1635952681, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "human_ref_B": "Linguistics - Ive heard many times that the features of a pidgin/creole are predictable. But i heard elsewhere that sound changes are not easy to predict, with even vowel chain shifts being debatable. So whats the dealio?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3126.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5wtem", "c_root_id_B": "hj5pokx", "created_at_utc_A": 1635955807, "created_at_utc_B": 1635953103, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "human_ref_B": "Perfect timing. Saw an article today on fusion reactors and noticed that the 22b$ extreme power generator... Makes steam. Just like nuclear, just like coal, just like the spain solar array.   Are there any developments in high end power generation (after acknowledging solar panels and wind turbines) that aren't just making a better steam engine?  Edit: just reread the topic. So changing slightly to be in scope, \"Are we just building better steam engines because its more economically feasible, or because of a lack of creativity?\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2704.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5uus7", "c_root_id_B": "hj5wtem", "created_at_utc_A": 1635955065, "created_at_utc_B": 1635955807, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "How are these fields rigorously applying the scientific method in their research?  I find articles are often just surveys that lack important controls (for practical purposes).", "human_ref_B": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 742.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5q53l", "c_root_id_B": "hj5wtem", "created_at_utc_A": 1635953283, "created_at_utc_B": 1635955807, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "What is the current situation regarding real estate in China? There were some big news regarding Evergrande collapse but it went quiet pretty quickly. What is the current situation? What will be a possible impact on the rest of the world, if any?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2524.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5kezi", "c_root_id_B": "hj5wtem", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951029, "created_at_utc_B": 1635955807, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "What is the future like for marxism? It is harder to imagine a successful revolution today than it has ever been, with the way that neoliberalism has conquered and subjugated all corners of the world. Marx could never have foreseen the radical new ways that modern capitalism has been able to reinvent and revolutionise its modes of production, with the rise of cutting edge technologies enabling the frightening surveillance capitalism, cryptocurrencies and NFTs of today. Has Marx's metanarrative of \"historical materialism\" been completely disproved?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any resources that explain in layman terms how to parse and understand a scientific research paper? They're pretty imposing to someone without a STEM background, and I'd like to be able to go to sources directly instead of always relying on other people to interpret publications.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4778.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5jk8v", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jc7q", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950690, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950601, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "so.. how did suns/planets get formed?  Like, Space is just so friggen vast, and it's full of nothing - so how did so many different bodies end up forming?  How do planets end up orbiting a sun?  were they all floating around aimlessly, until they got caught in a sun's gravity?  were they formed from debris that was already in the solar system over time?    Is this a 'nobody knows, but we assume it's the 'big bang'.'?  if that's the case, is it still happening?  Is there an 'unfolding' of space far away from us, where more shit is happening?   I consider myself a fairly smart person, with a good imagination, but I just can't wrap my head around the mysteries of space.  (this all started coming to mind when my 5 year old son started asking me some of these questions, and I couldn't answer)", "human_ref_B": "There are plenty of news about recent breakthroughs in physics, chemistry, medicine, psychology, etc. What's the latest big thing in linguistics that is strictly about languages, not those related to other fields like artificial intelligence and neuroscience?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 89.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5jc7q", "c_root_id_B": "hj5pokx", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950601, "created_at_utc_B": 1635953103, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "There are plenty of news about recent breakthroughs in physics, chemistry, medicine, psychology, etc. What's the latest big thing in linguistics that is strictly about languages, not those related to other fields like artificial intelligence and neuroscience?", "human_ref_B": "Perfect timing. Saw an article today on fusion reactors and noticed that the 22b$ extreme power generator... Makes steam. Just like nuclear, just like coal, just like the spain solar array.   Are there any developments in high end power generation (after acknowledging solar panels and wind turbines) that aren't just making a better steam engine?  Edit: just reread the topic. So changing slightly to be in scope, \"Are we just building better steam engines because its more economically feasible, or because of a lack of creativity?\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2502.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5uus7", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jc7q", "created_at_utc_A": 1635955065, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950601, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "How are these fields rigorously applying the scientific method in their research?  I find articles are often just surveys that lack important controls (for practical purposes).", "human_ref_B": "There are plenty of news about recent breakthroughs in physics, chemistry, medicine, psychology, etc. What's the latest big thing in linguistics that is strictly about languages, not those related to other fields like artificial intelligence and neuroscience?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4464.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5hx3r", "c_root_id_B": "hj5jk8v", "created_at_utc_A": 1635950033, "created_at_utc_B": 1635950690, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "If the US imposes a wealth tax on billionaires, most of whose wealth is in stocks, would that have downstream implications for my middle-class retirement savings, most of which is held in stocks?", "human_ref_B": "so.. how did suns/planets get formed?  Like, Space is just so friggen vast, and it's full of nothing - so how did so many different bodies end up forming?  How do planets end up orbiting a sun?  were they all floating around aimlessly, until they got caught in a sun's gravity?  were they formed from debris that was already in the solar system over time?    Is this a 'nobody knows, but we assume it's the 'big bang'.'?  if that's the case, is it still happening?  Is there an 'unfolding' of space far away from us, where more shit is happening?   I consider myself a fairly smart person, with a good imagination, but I just can't wrap my head around the mysteries of space.  (this all started coming to mind when my 5 year old son started asking me some of these questions, and I couldn't answer)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 657.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5ltk2", "c_root_id_B": "hj5pokx", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951582, "created_at_utc_B": 1635953103, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Are humans guided by rational self-interest?", "human_ref_B": "Perfect timing. Saw an article today on fusion reactors and noticed that the 22b$ extreme power generator... Makes steam. Just like nuclear, just like coal, just like the spain solar array.   Are there any developments in high end power generation (after acknowledging solar panels and wind turbines) that aren't just making a better steam engine?  Edit: just reread the topic. So changing slightly to be in scope, \"Are we just building better steam engines because its more economically feasible, or because of a lack of creativity?\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1521.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5uus7", "c_root_id_B": "hj5ltk2", "created_at_utc_A": 1635955065, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951582, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How are these fields rigorously applying the scientific method in their research?  I find articles are often just surveys that lack important controls (for practical purposes).", "human_ref_B": "Are humans guided by rational self-interest?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3483.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5kezi", "c_root_id_B": "hj5ltk2", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951029, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951582, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What is the future like for marxism? It is harder to imagine a successful revolution today than it has ever been, with the way that neoliberalism has conquered and subjugated all corners of the world. Marx could never have foreseen the radical new ways that modern capitalism has been able to reinvent and revolutionise its modes of production, with the rise of cutting edge technologies enabling the frightening surveillance capitalism, cryptocurrencies and NFTs of today. Has Marx's metanarrative of \"historical materialism\" been completely disproved?", "human_ref_B": "Are humans guided by rational self-interest?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 553.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5oliq", "c_root_id_B": "hj5pokx", "created_at_utc_A": 1635952681, "created_at_utc_B": 1635953103, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Linguistics - Ive heard many times that the features of a pidgin/creole are predictable. But i heard elsewhere that sound changes are not easy to predict, with even vowel chain shifts being debatable. So whats the dealio?", "human_ref_B": "Perfect timing. Saw an article today on fusion reactors and noticed that the 22b$ extreme power generator... Makes steam. Just like nuclear, just like coal, just like the spain solar array.   Are there any developments in high end power generation (after acknowledging solar panels and wind turbines) that aren't just making a better steam engine?  Edit: just reread the topic. So changing slightly to be in scope, \"Are we just building better steam engines because its more economically feasible, or because of a lack of creativity?\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 422.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5uus7", "c_root_id_B": "hj5oliq", "created_at_utc_A": 1635955065, "created_at_utc_B": 1635952681, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How are these fields rigorously applying the scientific method in their research?  I find articles are often just surveys that lack important controls (for practical purposes).", "human_ref_B": "Linguistics - Ive heard many times that the features of a pidgin/creole are predictable. But i heard elsewhere that sound changes are not easy to predict, with even vowel chain shifts being debatable. So whats the dealio?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2384.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5oliq", "c_root_id_B": "hj5kezi", "created_at_utc_A": 1635952681, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951029, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Linguistics - Ive heard many times that the features of a pidgin/creole are predictable. But i heard elsewhere that sound changes are not easy to predict, with even vowel chain shifts being debatable. So whats the dealio?", "human_ref_B": "What is the future like for marxism? It is harder to imagine a successful revolution today than it has ever been, with the way that neoliberalism has conquered and subjugated all corners of the world. Marx could never have foreseen the radical new ways that modern capitalism has been able to reinvent and revolutionise its modes of production, with the rise of cutting edge technologies enabling the frightening surveillance capitalism, cryptocurrencies and NFTs of today. Has Marx's metanarrative of \"historical materialism\" been completely disproved?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1652.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5pokx", "c_root_id_B": "hj5kezi", "created_at_utc_A": 1635953103, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951029, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Perfect timing. Saw an article today on fusion reactors and noticed that the 22b$ extreme power generator... Makes steam. Just like nuclear, just like coal, just like the spain solar array.   Are there any developments in high end power generation (after acknowledging solar panels and wind turbines) that aren't just making a better steam engine?  Edit: just reread the topic. So changing slightly to be in scope, \"Are we just building better steam engines because its more economically feasible, or because of a lack of creativity?\"", "human_ref_B": "What is the future like for marxism? It is harder to imagine a successful revolution today than it has ever been, with the way that neoliberalism has conquered and subjugated all corners of the world. Marx could never have foreseen the radical new ways that modern capitalism has been able to reinvent and revolutionise its modes of production, with the rise of cutting edge technologies enabling the frightening surveillance capitalism, cryptocurrencies and NFTs of today. Has Marx's metanarrative of \"historical materialism\" been completely disproved?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2074.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5uus7", "c_root_id_B": "hj5q53l", "created_at_utc_A": 1635955065, "created_at_utc_B": 1635953283, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How are these fields rigorously applying the scientific method in their research?  I find articles are often just surveys that lack important controls (for practical purposes).", "human_ref_B": "What is the current situation regarding real estate in China? There were some big news regarding Evergrande collapse but it went quiet pretty quickly. What is the current situation? What will be a possible impact on the rest of the world, if any?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1782.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5kezi", "c_root_id_B": "hj5uus7", "created_at_utc_A": 1635951029, "created_at_utc_B": 1635955065, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "What is the future like for marxism? It is harder to imagine a successful revolution today than it has ever been, with the way that neoliberalism has conquered and subjugated all corners of the world. Marx could never have foreseen the radical new ways that modern capitalism has been able to reinvent and revolutionise its modes of production, with the rise of cutting edge technologies enabling the frightening surveillance capitalism, cryptocurrencies and NFTs of today. Has Marx's metanarrative of \"historical materialism\" been completely disproved?", "human_ref_B": "How are these fields rigorously applying the scientific method in their research?  I find articles are often just surveys that lack important controls (for practical purposes).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4036.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj5q53l", "c_root_id_B": "hj5kezi", "created_at_utc_A": 1635953283, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951029, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What is the current situation regarding real estate in China? There were some big news regarding Evergrande collapse but it went quiet pretty quickly. What is the current situation? What will be a possible impact on the rest of the world, if any?", "human_ref_B": "What is the future like for marxism? It is harder to imagine a successful revolution today than it has ever been, with the way that neoliberalism has conquered and subjugated all corners of the world. Marx could never have foreseen the radical new ways that modern capitalism has been able to reinvent and revolutionise its modes of production, with the rise of cutting edge technologies enabling the frightening surveillance capitalism, cryptocurrencies and NFTs of today. Has Marx's metanarrative of \"historical materialism\" been completely disproved?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2254.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qlv3fj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hj697z5", "c_root_id_B": "hj5kezi", "created_at_utc_A": 1635960464, "created_at_utc_B": 1635951029, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "why can i not buy an island, declare its independence, and make my own tax laws?", "human_ref_B": "What is the future like for marxism? It is harder to imagine a successful revolution today than it has ever been, with the way that neoliberalism has conquered and subjugated all corners of the world. Marx could never have foreseen the radical new ways that modern capitalism has been able to reinvent and revolutionise its modes of production, with the rise of cutting edge technologies enabling the frightening surveillance capitalism, cryptocurrencies and NFTs of today. Has Marx's metanarrative of \"historical materialism\" been completely disproved?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9435.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8jfcns", "c_root_id_B": "h8jzaxt", "created_at_utc_A": 1628693025, "created_at_utc_B": 1628701439, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Why is there still controversy in linguistics and anthropology on whether non-human animals have their own languages?    Doesn't culture imply language?  If we can show animals like orcas have distinct cultures wouldn't that mean they have their own languages?", "human_ref_B": "Why do humans cook their food? How did we figure that out? Did we stumble upon burnt carcasses in the wild and then try to recreate it? Did we discover fire to keep warm and then shoved an animal in the fire?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8414.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8jzaxt", "c_root_id_B": "h8jdha3", "created_at_utc_A": 1628701439, "created_at_utc_B": 1628692209, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Why do humans cook their food? How did we figure that out? Did we stumble upon burnt carcasses in the wild and then try to recreate it? Did we discover fire to keep warm and then shoved an animal in the fire?", "human_ref_B": "is there a limit where the global lending currency volume is so much greater than the amount of actual currency that exists, where the finance system implodes?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9230.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8jkzas", "c_root_id_B": "h8jzaxt", "created_at_utc_A": 1628695417, "created_at_utc_B": 1628701439, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "human_ref_B": "Why do humans cook their food? How did we figure that out? Did we stumble upon burnt carcasses in the wild and then try to recreate it? Did we discover fire to keep warm and then shoved an animal in the fire?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6022.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8jzaxt", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628701439, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 10, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "Why do humans cook their food? How did we figure that out? Did we stumble upon burnt carcasses in the wild and then try to recreate it? Did we discover fire to keep warm and then shoved an animal in the fire?", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2188.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8jfcns", "c_root_id_B": "h8jdha3", "created_at_utc_A": 1628693025, "created_at_utc_B": 1628692209, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Why is there still controversy in linguistics and anthropology on whether non-human animals have their own languages?    Doesn't culture imply language?  If we can show animals like orcas have distinct cultures wouldn't that mean they have their own languages?", "human_ref_B": "is there a limit where the global lending currency volume is so much greater than the amount of actual currency that exists, where the finance system implodes?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 816.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8jdha3", "c_root_id_B": "h8kn9zl", "created_at_utc_A": 1628692209, "created_at_utc_B": 1628711379, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "is there a limit where the global lending currency volume is so much greater than the amount of actual currency that exists, where the finance system implodes?", "human_ref_B": "Is there a definition of what \"persuasion\" is, in either a political science or psychology context?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19170.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kiesb", "c_root_id_B": "h8kn9zl", "created_at_utc_A": 1628709373, "created_at_utc_B": 1628711379, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Does rain or fog have an evaporative cooling effect on the surrounding air?", "human_ref_B": "Is there a definition of what \"persuasion\" is, in either a political science or psychology context?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2006.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kn9zl", "c_root_id_B": "h8kjd4j", "created_at_utc_A": 1628711379, "created_at_utc_B": 1628709766, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is there a definition of what \"persuasion\" is, in either a political science or psychology context?", "human_ref_B": "Why doesn't the US update its currency to something less forgeable and more user friendly?    Many (most?) other countries use colours, windows, holograms, and Braille to enhance and verify their money.   I would think that the cost effectiveness would be amazing, especially in the long run.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1613.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kn9zl", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628711379, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is there a definition of what \"persuasion\" is, in either a political science or psychology context?", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15962.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kn9zl", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628711379, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 4, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "Is there a definition of what \"persuasion\" is, in either a political science or psychology context?", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12128.0, "score_ratio": -0.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l4aum", "c_root_id_B": "h8jdha3", "created_at_utc_A": 1628718488, "created_at_utc_B": 1628692209, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "#Economics:  Why do economic theories always discount doubt? It seems it usually reduces doubt of a system to zero, when in even most simulations promises are broken. Use the \"Would you rather $100 today, or $101 tomorrow?\" Compounding 1% daily is an impossibly good rate, but is it enough to counter any, let alone all of the following: \"If I say $100 now, you are likely to give it to me. If I say $101 tomorrow there is at least some chance that you will change your mind\" or \"I have to find you\" or \"If I take the $100 now, I get cash, but if I take $101 I have to give you my bank/cash app info\"   On top of all that doubt, there is the underlying charge that although 1% daily is great, it is really only great if it actually gets to compound. If we are discussing the problem now, just give me the money now. Heck $101 is not really worth it two hours from now.   Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "is there a limit where the global lending currency volume is so much greater than the amount of actual currency that exists, where the finance system implodes?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26279.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l4aum", "c_root_id_B": "h8kiesb", "created_at_utc_A": 1628718488, "created_at_utc_B": 1628709373, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "#Economics:  Why do economic theories always discount doubt? It seems it usually reduces doubt of a system to zero, when in even most simulations promises are broken. Use the \"Would you rather $100 today, or $101 tomorrow?\" Compounding 1% daily is an impossibly good rate, but is it enough to counter any, let alone all of the following: \"If I say $100 now, you are likely to give it to me. If I say $101 tomorrow there is at least some chance that you will change your mind\" or \"I have to find you\" or \"If I take the $100 now, I get cash, but if I take $101 I have to give you my bank/cash app info\"   On top of all that doubt, there is the underlying charge that although 1% daily is great, it is really only great if it actually gets to compound. If we are discussing the problem now, just give me the money now. Heck $101 is not really worth it two hours from now.   Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "Does rain or fog have an evaporative cooling effect on the surrounding air?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9115.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kjd4j", "c_root_id_B": "h8l4aum", "created_at_utc_A": 1628709766, "created_at_utc_B": 1628718488, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Why doesn't the US update its currency to something less forgeable and more user friendly?    Many (most?) other countries use colours, windows, holograms, and Braille to enhance and verify their money.   I would think that the cost effectiveness would be amazing, especially in the long run.", "human_ref_B": "#Economics:  Why do economic theories always discount doubt? It seems it usually reduces doubt of a system to zero, when in even most simulations promises are broken. Use the \"Would you rather $100 today, or $101 tomorrow?\" Compounding 1% daily is an impossibly good rate, but is it enough to counter any, let alone all of the following: \"If I say $100 now, you are likely to give it to me. If I say $101 tomorrow there is at least some chance that you will change your mind\" or \"I have to find you\" or \"If I take the $100 now, I get cash, but if I take $101 I have to give you my bank/cash app info\"   On top of all that doubt, there is the underlying charge that although 1% daily is great, it is really only great if it actually gets to compound. If we are discussing the problem now, just give me the money now. Heck $101 is not really worth it two hours from now.   Thanks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8722.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kopdq", "c_root_id_B": "h8l4aum", "created_at_utc_A": 1628711979, "created_at_utc_B": 1628718488, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How large of a solar shade would be needed to neutralize the effects of global warming.", "human_ref_B": "#Economics:  Why do economic theories always discount doubt? It seems it usually reduces doubt of a system to zero, when in even most simulations promises are broken. Use the \"Would you rather $100 today, or $101 tomorrow?\" Compounding 1% daily is an impossibly good rate, but is it enough to counter any, let alone all of the following: \"If I say $100 now, you are likely to give it to me. If I say $101 tomorrow there is at least some chance that you will change your mind\" or \"I have to find you\" or \"If I take the $100 now, I get cash, but if I take $101 I have to give you my bank/cash app info\"   On top of all that doubt, there is the underlying charge that although 1% daily is great, it is really only great if it actually gets to compound. If we are discussing the problem now, just give me the money now. Heck $101 is not really worth it two hours from now.   Thanks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6509.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l0xct", "c_root_id_B": "h8l4aum", "created_at_utc_A": 1628717066, "created_at_utc_B": 1628718488, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is there a reason why a lot of romance languages ended up having strictly gendered words?", "human_ref_B": "#Economics:  Why do economic theories always discount doubt? It seems it usually reduces doubt of a system to zero, when in even most simulations promises are broken. Use the \"Would you rather $100 today, or $101 tomorrow?\" Compounding 1% daily is an impossibly good rate, but is it enough to counter any, let alone all of the following: \"If I say $100 now, you are likely to give it to me. If I say $101 tomorrow there is at least some chance that you will change your mind\" or \"I have to find you\" or \"If I take the $100 now, I get cash, but if I take $101 I have to give you my bank/cash app info\"   On top of all that doubt, there is the underlying charge that although 1% daily is great, it is really only great if it actually gets to compound. If we are discussing the problem now, just give me the money now. Heck $101 is not really worth it two hours from now.   Thanks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1422.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l4aum", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628718488, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "#Economics:  Why do economic theories always discount doubt? It seems it usually reduces doubt of a system to zero, when in even most simulations promises are broken. Use the \"Would you rather $100 today, or $101 tomorrow?\" Compounding 1% daily is an impossibly good rate, but is it enough to counter any, let alone all of the following: \"If I say $100 now, you are likely to give it to me. If I say $101 tomorrow there is at least some chance that you will change your mind\" or \"I have to find you\" or \"If I take the $100 now, I get cash, but if I take $101 I have to give you my bank/cash app info\"   On top of all that doubt, there is the underlying charge that although 1% daily is great, it is really only great if it actually gets to compound. If we are discussing the problem now, just give me the money now. Heck $101 is not really worth it two hours from now.   Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23071.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l4aum", "c_root_id_B": "h8kvbs6", "created_at_utc_A": 1628718488, "created_at_utc_B": 1628714798, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "#Economics:  Why do economic theories always discount doubt? It seems it usually reduces doubt of a system to zero, when in even most simulations promises are broken. Use the \"Would you rather $100 today, or $101 tomorrow?\" Compounding 1% daily is an impossibly good rate, but is it enough to counter any, let alone all of the following: \"If I say $100 now, you are likely to give it to me. If I say $101 tomorrow there is at least some chance that you will change your mind\" or \"I have to find you\" or \"If I take the $100 now, I get cash, but if I take $101 I have to give you my bank/cash app info\"   On top of all that doubt, there is the underlying charge that although 1% daily is great, it is really only great if it actually gets to compound. If we are discussing the problem now, just give me the money now. Heck $101 is not really worth it two hours from now.   Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "If I were to drop an ant on the ground, from the height of my arm held out, would it die on impact? I don't imagine it would.  Concurrently, why don't raindrops outright kill insects? Being bombarded with mini droplets of water is mildly inconvenient for a human, but for a fly, the equivalent experience should be humans being bombarded with globs of gallons of water at a constant rate. Am I way off base there?  One more thing, if dropping an ant from arms length doesn't kill the ant(not sure if it would), would hypothetically dropping a whale from the height of a few feet outright kill it?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3690.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l4aum", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628718488, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "#Economics:  Why do economic theories always discount doubt? It seems it usually reduces doubt of a system to zero, when in even most simulations promises are broken. Use the \"Would you rather $100 today, or $101 tomorrow?\" Compounding 1% daily is an impossibly good rate, but is it enough to counter any, let alone all of the following: \"If I say $100 now, you are likely to give it to me. If I say $101 tomorrow there is at least some chance that you will change your mind\" or \"I have to find you\" or \"If I take the $100 now, I get cash, but if I take $101 I have to give you my bank/cash app info\"   On top of all that doubt, there is the underlying charge that although 1% daily is great, it is really only great if it actually gets to compound. If we are discussing the problem now, just give me the money now. Heck $101 is not really worth it two hours from now.   Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19237.0, "score_ratio": -0.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kpvt3", "c_root_id_B": "h8jdha3", "created_at_utc_A": 1628712480, "created_at_utc_B": 1628692209, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What's the problem with China rising as a global power? For me, that just seems like USA whining for fear of being debunked but not a real issue for other countries (at least, not the third world ones)", "human_ref_B": "is there a limit where the global lending currency volume is so much greater than the amount of actual currency that exists, where the finance system implodes?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20271.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kiesb", "c_root_id_B": "h8kpvt3", "created_at_utc_A": 1628709373, "created_at_utc_B": 1628712480, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Does rain or fog have an evaporative cooling effect on the surrounding air?", "human_ref_B": "What's the problem with China rising as a global power? For me, that just seems like USA whining for fear of being debunked but not a real issue for other countries (at least, not the third world ones)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3107.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kpvt3", "c_root_id_B": "h8kjd4j", "created_at_utc_A": 1628712480, "created_at_utc_B": 1628709766, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What's the problem with China rising as a global power? For me, that just seems like USA whining for fear of being debunked but not a real issue for other countries (at least, not the third world ones)", "human_ref_B": "Why doesn't the US update its currency to something less forgeable and more user friendly?    Many (most?) other countries use colours, windows, holograms, and Braille to enhance and verify their money.   I would think that the cost effectiveness would be amazing, especially in the long run.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2714.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kopdq", "c_root_id_B": "h8kpvt3", "created_at_utc_A": 1628711979, "created_at_utc_B": 1628712480, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How large of a solar shade would be needed to neutralize the effects of global warming.", "human_ref_B": "What's the problem with China rising as a global power? For me, that just seems like USA whining for fear of being debunked but not a real issue for other countries (at least, not the third world ones)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 501.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kpvt3", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628712480, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What's the problem with China rising as a global power? For me, that just seems like USA whining for fear of being debunked but not a real issue for other countries (at least, not the third world ones)", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17063.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8ju4cx", "c_root_id_B": "h8kpvt3", "created_at_utc_A": 1628699251, "created_at_utc_B": 1628712480, "score_A": -10, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "human_ref_B": "What's the problem with China rising as a global power? For me, that just seems like USA whining for fear of being debunked but not a real issue for other countries (at least, not the third world ones)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13229.0, "score_ratio": -0.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8jdha3", "c_root_id_B": "h8kt99b", "created_at_utc_A": 1628692209, "created_at_utc_B": 1628713924, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "is there a limit where the global lending currency volume is so much greater than the amount of actual currency that exists, where the finance system implodes?", "human_ref_B": "What affects the stock market on a daily basis. ( Example today )", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21715.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kiesb", "c_root_id_B": "h8kt99b", "created_at_utc_A": 1628709373, "created_at_utc_B": 1628713924, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Does rain or fog have an evaporative cooling effect on the surrounding air?", "human_ref_B": "What affects the stock market on a daily basis. ( Example today )", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4551.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kt99b", "c_root_id_B": "h8kjd4j", "created_at_utc_A": 1628713924, "created_at_utc_B": 1628709766, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What affects the stock market on a daily basis. ( Example today )", "human_ref_B": "Why doesn't the US update its currency to something less forgeable and more user friendly?    Many (most?) other countries use colours, windows, holograms, and Braille to enhance and verify their money.   I would think that the cost effectiveness would be amazing, especially in the long run.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4158.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kt99b", "c_root_id_B": "h8kopdq", "created_at_utc_A": 1628713924, "created_at_utc_B": 1628711979, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What affects the stock market on a daily basis. ( Example today )", "human_ref_B": "How large of a solar shade would be needed to neutralize the effects of global warming.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1945.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kt99b", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628713924, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What affects the stock market on a daily basis. ( Example today )", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18507.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kt99b", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628713924, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "What affects the stock market on a daily basis. ( Example today )", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14673.0, "score_ratio": -0.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8jkzas", "c_root_id_B": "h8kiesb", "created_at_utc_A": 1628695417, "created_at_utc_B": 1628709373, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "human_ref_B": "Does rain or fog have an evaporative cooling effect on the surrounding air?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13956.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8ju4cx", "c_root_id_B": "h8kiesb", "created_at_utc_A": 1628699251, "created_at_utc_B": 1628709373, "score_A": -10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "human_ref_B": "Does rain or fog have an evaporative cooling effect on the surrounding air?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10122.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kjd4j", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628709766, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why doesn't the US update its currency to something less forgeable and more user friendly?    Many (most?) other countries use colours, windows, holograms, and Braille to enhance and verify their money.   I would think that the cost effectiveness would be amazing, especially in the long run.", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14349.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8ju4cx", "c_root_id_B": "h8kjd4j", "created_at_utc_A": 1628699251, "created_at_utc_B": 1628709766, "score_A": -10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "human_ref_B": "Why doesn't the US update its currency to something less forgeable and more user friendly?    Many (most?) other countries use colours, windows, holograms, and Braille to enhance and verify their money.   I would think that the cost effectiveness would be amazing, especially in the long run.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10515.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kopdq", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628711979, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "How large of a solar shade would be needed to neutralize the effects of global warming.", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16562.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kopdq", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628711979, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "How large of a solar shade would be needed to neutralize the effects of global warming.", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12728.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l0xct", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628717066, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is there a reason why a lot of romance languages ended up having strictly gendered words?", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21649.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kvbs6", "c_root_id_B": "h8l0xct", "created_at_utc_A": 1628714798, "created_at_utc_B": 1628717066, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If I were to drop an ant on the ground, from the height of my arm held out, would it die on impact? I don't imagine it would.  Concurrently, why don't raindrops outright kill insects? Being bombarded with mini droplets of water is mildly inconvenient for a human, but for a fly, the equivalent experience should be humans being bombarded with globs of gallons of water at a constant rate. Am I way off base there?  One more thing, if dropping an ant from arms length doesn't kill the ant(not sure if it would), would hypothetically dropping a whale from the height of a few feet outright kill it?", "human_ref_B": "Is there a reason why a lot of romance languages ended up having strictly gendered words?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2268.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l0xct", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628717066, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "Is there a reason why a lot of romance languages ended up having strictly gendered words?", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17815.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8lzgsr", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628732749, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why do we have the word \"the\" and what is its meaning??", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 37332.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8lzgsr", "c_root_id_B": "h8kvbs6", "created_at_utc_A": 1628732749, "created_at_utc_B": 1628714798, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why do we have the word \"the\" and what is its meaning??", "human_ref_B": "If I were to drop an ant on the ground, from the height of my arm held out, would it die on impact? I don't imagine it would.  Concurrently, why don't raindrops outright kill insects? Being bombarded with mini droplets of water is mildly inconvenient for a human, but for a fly, the equivalent experience should be humans being bombarded with globs of gallons of water at a constant rate. Am I way off base there?  One more thing, if dropping an ant from arms length doesn't kill the ant(not sure if it would), would hypothetically dropping a whale from the height of a few feet outright kill it?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17951.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l6k3y", "c_root_id_B": "h8lzgsr", "created_at_utc_A": 1628719437, "created_at_utc_B": 1628732749, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "what is the best way to disprove the Austrian School (Mises, Hayek, Friedman)", "human_ref_B": "Why do we have the word \"the\" and what is its meaning??", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13312.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8lzgsr", "c_root_id_B": "h8lj8yo", "created_at_utc_A": 1628732749, "created_at_utc_B": 1628725126, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why do we have the word \"the\" and what is its meaning??", "human_ref_B": "Is it possible by adjusting the valves timing of a internal combustion engine we can make the exhaust pipe suck in air and the intake pumping air out? Sure this wouldn't be practical and stuff but is it technically possible?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7623.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8ju4cx", "c_root_id_B": "h8lzgsr", "created_at_utc_A": 1628699251, "created_at_utc_B": 1628732749, "score_A": -10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "human_ref_B": "Why do we have the word \"the\" and what is its meaning??", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33498.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8mh25j", "c_root_id_B": "h8jkzas", "created_at_utc_A": 1628748395, "created_at_utc_B": 1628695417, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What theories are there about how language affects culture?", "human_ref_B": "How does an economy in countries such as Britain or Scandinavian countries manage to develop into something where almost everything is both affordable but also profitable enough to be sustainable business? This is something that blows my mind.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 52978.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8kvbs6", "c_root_id_B": "h8mh25j", "created_at_utc_A": 1628714798, "created_at_utc_B": 1628748395, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If I were to drop an ant on the ground, from the height of my arm held out, would it die on impact? I don't imagine it would.  Concurrently, why don't raindrops outright kill insects? Being bombarded with mini droplets of water is mildly inconvenient for a human, but for a fly, the equivalent experience should be humans being bombarded with globs of gallons of water at a constant rate. Am I way off base there?  One more thing, if dropping an ant from arms length doesn't kill the ant(not sure if it would), would hypothetically dropping a whale from the height of a few feet outright kill it?", "human_ref_B": "What theories are there about how language affects culture?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33597.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l6k3y", "c_root_id_B": "h8mh25j", "created_at_utc_A": 1628719437, "created_at_utc_B": 1628748395, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "what is the best way to disprove the Austrian School (Mises, Hayek, Friedman)", "human_ref_B": "What theories are there about how language affects culture?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28958.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8lj8yo", "c_root_id_B": "h8mh25j", "created_at_utc_A": 1628725126, "created_at_utc_B": 1628748395, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is it possible by adjusting the valves timing of a internal combustion engine we can make the exhaust pipe suck in air and the intake pumping air out? Sure this wouldn't be practical and stuff but is it technically possible?", "human_ref_B": "What theories are there about how language affects culture?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23269.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8mh25j", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628748395, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "What theories are there about how language affects culture?", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 49144.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8ju4cx", "c_root_id_B": "h8kvbs6", "created_at_utc_A": 1628699251, "created_at_utc_B": 1628714798, "score_A": -10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "human_ref_B": "If I were to drop an ant on the ground, from the height of my arm held out, would it die on impact? I don't imagine it would.  Concurrently, why don't raindrops outright kill insects? Being bombarded with mini droplets of water is mildly inconvenient for a human, but for a fly, the equivalent experience should be humans being bombarded with globs of gallons of water at a constant rate. Am I way off base there?  One more thing, if dropping an ant from arms length doesn't kill the ant(not sure if it would), would hypothetically dropping a whale from the height of a few feet outright kill it?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15547.0, "score_ratio": -0.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8lj8yo", "c_root_id_B": "h8l6k3y", "created_at_utc_A": 1628725126, "created_at_utc_B": 1628719437, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Is it possible by adjusting the valves timing of a internal combustion engine we can make the exhaust pipe suck in air and the intake pumping air out? Sure this wouldn't be practical and stuff but is it technically possible?", "human_ref_B": "what is the best way to disprove the Austrian School (Mises, Hayek, Friedman)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5689.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8l6k3y", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628719437, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "what is the best way to disprove the Austrian School (Mises, Hayek, Friedman)", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20186.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p2dmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "h8lj8yo", "c_root_id_B": "h8ju4cx", "created_at_utc_A": 1628725126, "created_at_utc_B": 1628699251, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -10, "human_ref_A": "Is it possible by adjusting the valves timing of a internal combustion engine we can make the exhaust pipe suck in air and the intake pumping air out? Sure this wouldn't be practical and stuff but is it technically possible?", "human_ref_B": "Is money edible? Seems like people would rather have the dollar bills than a planet that can actually grow food and provide essentials for life.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25875.0, "score_ratio": -0.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iiszabd", "c_root_id_B": "iisheci", "created_at_utc_A": 1659546300, "created_at_utc_B": 1659539460, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Physicisists and biologist are discovering quantum mechanisms in animals for the first time (quantum biology). Like the bird that navigates with the magnetic flux, or being able smell something where the wave of probability vibrate against quantum mechanism, instead of an actual chemical reaction. Have we discovered any quantum mechanisms in humans yet? If so what are the implications?", "human_ref_B": "What is the limiting nutrient in the absorption and metabolism of Vitamin C, Zinc, and Vitamin D? Is there a point that if I do not have those nutrients that Vitamin C, Zinc, or Vitamin D will not be effective regarding immunity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6840.0, "score_ratio": 4.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iiszabd", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659546300, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "Physicisists and biologist are discovering quantum mechanisms in animals for the first time (quantum biology). Like the bird that navigates with the magnetic flux, or being able smell something where the wave of probability vibrate against quantum mechanism, instead of an actual chemical reaction. Have we discovered any quantum mechanisms in humans yet? If so what are the implications?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5060.0, "score_ratio": 24.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iit9mss", "c_root_id_B": "iitaq57", "created_at_utc_A": 1659550356, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550796, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "What is the current consensus on the future of soil quality as a result of humanity's intense farming? I remember a big outpouring of concern about this 10 years ago but haven't heard much since.", "human_ref_B": "why do some people experience spiciness when they poop, and some never do? is there a genetic or digestive factor that predicts how well you digest capsaicin? Are some people just more sensitive down there? Usually, but not always, it seems that men experience spicy poops, but women don't.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 440.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iisheci", "c_root_id_B": "iitaq57", "created_at_utc_A": 1659539460, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550796, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "What is the limiting nutrient in the absorption and metabolism of Vitamin C, Zinc, and Vitamin D? Is there a point that if I do not have those nutrients that Vitamin C, Zinc, or Vitamin D will not be effective regarding immunity.", "human_ref_B": "why do some people experience spiciness when they poop, and some never do? is there a genetic or digestive factor that predicts how well you digest capsaicin? Are some people just more sensitive down there? Usually, but not always, it seems that men experience spicy poops, but women don't.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11336.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iit0edx", "c_root_id_B": "iitaq57", "created_at_utc_A": 1659546737, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550796, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Does condensation collect on the surface of ice cream?", "human_ref_B": "why do some people experience spiciness when they poop, and some never do? is there a genetic or digestive factor that predicts how well you digest capsaicin? Are some people just more sensitive down there? Usually, but not always, it seems that men experience spicy poops, but women don't.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4059.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitafu2", "c_root_id_B": "iitaq57", "created_at_utc_A": 1659550681, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550796, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Are there any innovations in your field that you can talk about that was a result of covid or the covid shutdown?", "human_ref_B": "why do some people experience spiciness when they poop, and some never do? is there a genetic or digestive factor that predicts how well you digest capsaicin? Are some people just more sensitive down there? Usually, but not always, it seems that men experience spicy poops, but women don't.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 115.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitaq57", "c_root_id_B": "iislzty", "created_at_utc_A": 1659550796, "created_at_utc_B": 1659541240, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "why do some people experience spiciness when they poop, and some never do? is there a genetic or digestive factor that predicts how well you digest capsaicin? Are some people just more sensitive down there? Usually, but not always, it seems that men experience spicy poops, but women don't.", "human_ref_B": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9556.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iit9mss", "c_root_id_B": "iite93r", "created_at_utc_A": 1659550356, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552209, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What is the current consensus on the future of soil quality as a result of humanity's intense farming? I remember a big outpouring of concern about this 10 years ago but haven't heard much since.", "human_ref_B": "If someone go through severe mental illness like depression or anxiety, can it affect brain function like memory?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1853.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iite93r", "c_root_id_B": "iite8hn", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552209, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552202, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "If someone go through severe mental illness like depression or anxiety, can it affect brain function like memory?", "human_ref_B": "Why isn't it called  \"Ask Whatever Wednesday\"?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iite93r", "c_root_id_B": "iisheci", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552209, "created_at_utc_B": 1659539460, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "If someone go through severe mental illness like depression or anxiety, can it affect brain function like memory?", "human_ref_B": "What is the limiting nutrient in the absorption and metabolism of Vitamin C, Zinc, and Vitamin D? Is there a point that if I do not have those nutrients that Vitamin C, Zinc, or Vitamin D will not be effective regarding immunity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12749.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iite93r", "c_root_id_B": "iit0edx", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552209, "created_at_utc_B": 1659546737, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If someone go through severe mental illness like depression or anxiety, can it affect brain function like memory?", "human_ref_B": "Does condensation collect on the surface of ice cream?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5472.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitafu2", "c_root_id_B": "iite93r", "created_at_utc_A": 1659550681, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552209, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Are there any innovations in your field that you can talk about that was a result of covid or the covid shutdown?", "human_ref_B": "If someone go through severe mental illness like depression or anxiety, can it affect brain function like memory?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1528.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iite93r", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552209, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "If someone go through severe mental illness like depression or anxiety, can it affect brain function like memory?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10969.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iit9mss", "c_root_id_B": "iisheci", "created_at_utc_A": 1659550356, "created_at_utc_B": 1659539460, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "What is the current consensus on the future of soil quality as a result of humanity's intense farming? I remember a big outpouring of concern about this 10 years ago but haven't heard much since.", "human_ref_B": "What is the limiting nutrient in the absorption and metabolism of Vitamin C, Zinc, and Vitamin D? Is there a point that if I do not have those nutrients that Vitamin C, Zinc, or Vitamin D will not be effective regarding immunity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10896.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iit9mss", "c_root_id_B": "iit0edx", "created_at_utc_A": 1659550356, "created_at_utc_B": 1659546737, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What is the current consensus on the future of soil quality as a result of humanity's intense farming? I remember a big outpouring of concern about this 10 years ago but haven't heard much since.", "human_ref_B": "Does condensation collect on the surface of ice cream?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3619.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iit9mss", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550356, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "What is the current consensus on the future of soil quality as a result of humanity's intense farming? I remember a big outpouring of concern about this 10 years ago but haven't heard much since.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9116.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iisheci", "c_root_id_B": "iite8hn", "created_at_utc_A": 1659539460, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552202, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "What is the limiting nutrient in the absorption and metabolism of Vitamin C, Zinc, and Vitamin D? Is there a point that if I do not have those nutrients that Vitamin C, Zinc, or Vitamin D will not be effective regarding immunity.", "human_ref_B": "Why isn't it called  \"Ask Whatever Wednesday\"?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12742.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iit0edx", "c_root_id_B": "iite8hn", "created_at_utc_A": 1659546737, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552202, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Does condensation collect on the surface of ice cream?", "human_ref_B": "Why isn't it called  \"Ask Whatever Wednesday\"?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5465.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iite8hn", "c_root_id_B": "iitafu2", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552202, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550681, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Why isn't it called  \"Ask Whatever Wednesday\"?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any innovations in your field that you can talk about that was a result of covid or the covid shutdown?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1521.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iite8hn", "c_root_id_B": "iislzty", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552202, "created_at_utc_B": 1659541240, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why isn't it called  \"Ask Whatever Wednesday\"?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10962.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iit0edx", "c_root_id_B": "iitgp4q", "created_at_utc_A": 1659546737, "created_at_utc_B": 1659553201, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Does condensation collect on the surface of ice cream?", "human_ref_B": "So many people I know who take SSRI's, including myself, have an increase in vivid and strange dreams. Have there been any studies that look at this side effect, or what do we know about how neurotransmitters effect dreaming?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6464.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitsm1e", "c_root_id_B": "iit0edx", "created_at_utc_A": 1659558091, "created_at_utc_B": 1659546737, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "human_ref_B": "Does condensation collect on the surface of ice cream?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11354.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iit0edx", "c_root_id_B": "iislzty", "created_at_utc_A": 1659546737, "created_at_utc_B": 1659541240, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Does condensation collect on the surface of ice cream?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5497.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitgp4q", "c_root_id_B": "iitafu2", "created_at_utc_A": 1659553201, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550681, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "So many people I know who take SSRI's, including myself, have an increase in vivid and strange dreams. Have there been any studies that look at this side effect, or what do we know about how neurotransmitters effect dreaming?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any innovations in your field that you can talk about that was a result of covid or the covid shutdown?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2520.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitgp4q", "c_root_id_B": "iitehin", "created_at_utc_A": 1659553201, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552303, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "So many people I know who take SSRI's, including myself, have an increase in vivid and strange dreams. Have there been any studies that look at this side effect, or what do we know about how neurotransmitters effect dreaming?", "human_ref_B": "Why is it so hard for children to learn the difference between left and right? (Some are 10-12, others never learn it)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 898.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitgp4q", "c_root_id_B": "iiteiy6", "created_at_utc_A": 1659553201, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552319, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "So many people I know who take SSRI's, including myself, have an increase in vivid and strange dreams. Have there been any studies that look at this side effect, or what do we know about how neurotransmitters effect dreaming?", "human_ref_B": "What sets up wind to blow in gusts? Like, stillness, brisk breeze, stillness, brisk breeze, and so on.  Oh, never mind, it's not really ask anything. Please ignore.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 882.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitgp4q", "c_root_id_B": "iislzty", "created_at_utc_A": 1659553201, "created_at_utc_B": 1659541240, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "So many people I know who take SSRI's, including myself, have an increase in vivid and strange dreams. Have there been any studies that look at this side effect, or what do we know about how neurotransmitters effect dreaming?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11961.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitsm1e", "c_root_id_B": "iitafu2", "created_at_utc_A": 1659558091, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550681, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "human_ref_B": "Are there any innovations in your field that you can talk about that was a result of covid or the covid shutdown?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7410.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitehin", "c_root_id_B": "iitsm1e", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552303, "created_at_utc_B": 1659558091, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Why is it so hard for children to learn the difference between left and right? (Some are 10-12, others never learn it)", "human_ref_B": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5788.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iiteiy6", "c_root_id_B": "iitsm1e", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552319, "created_at_utc_B": 1659558091, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What sets up wind to blow in gusts? Like, stillness, brisk breeze, stillness, brisk breeze, and so on.  Oh, never mind, it's not really ask anything. Please ignore.", "human_ref_B": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5772.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitsm1e", "c_root_id_B": "iitk4df", "created_at_utc_A": 1659558091, "created_at_utc_B": 1659554598, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "human_ref_B": "How can you prove the existence of ADHD?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3493.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitsm1e", "c_root_id_B": "iitnequ", "created_at_utc_A": 1659558091, "created_at_utc_B": 1659555952, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "human_ref_B": "What makes soft plastics have an oily film over time?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2139.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitsm1e", "c_root_id_B": "iitj4n5", "created_at_utc_A": 1659558091, "created_at_utc_B": 1659554197, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "human_ref_B": "Is it possible to prove through brainwaves that all humans perceive the world with their senses in the same way?? Like, they all see the same shade of color, or smell the same thing etc", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3894.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitoe3v", "c_root_id_B": "iitsm1e", "created_at_utc_A": 1659556355, "created_at_utc_B": 1659558091, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Are there known mechanisms that contribute to adult onset caffeine sensitivity? Can that sensitivity be reversed?", "human_ref_B": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1736.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iitsm1e", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659558091, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "How long does it actually take for micro organisms such as bacteria or funghi to attach to another object or surface (like a piece of bread falling to the floor) and how do they do it if you pick it up quickly", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16851.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iitafu2", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659550681, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "Are there any innovations in your field that you can talk about that was a result of covid or the covid shutdown?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9441.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iiteiy6", "c_root_id_B": "iitehin", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552319, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552303, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What sets up wind to blow in gusts? Like, stillness, brisk breeze, stillness, brisk breeze, and so on.  Oh, never mind, it's not really ask anything. Please ignore.", "human_ref_B": "Why is it so hard for children to learn the difference between left and right? (Some are 10-12, others never learn it)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitehin", "c_root_id_B": "iitk4df", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552303, "created_at_utc_B": 1659554598, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Why is it so hard for children to learn the difference between left and right? (Some are 10-12, others never learn it)", "human_ref_B": "How can you prove the existence of ADHD?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2295.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitehin", "c_root_id_B": "iitnequ", "created_at_utc_A": 1659552303, "created_at_utc_B": 1659555952, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Why is it so hard for children to learn the difference between left and right? (Some are 10-12, others never learn it)", "human_ref_B": "What makes soft plastics have an oily film over time?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3649.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iitehin", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552303, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "Why is it so hard for children to learn the difference between left and right? (Some are 10-12, others never learn it)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11063.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iiteiy6", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659552319, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "What sets up wind to blow in gusts? Like, stillness, brisk breeze, stillness, brisk breeze, and so on.  Oh, never mind, it's not really ask anything. Please ignore.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11079.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitj4n5", "c_root_id_B": "iitk4df", "created_at_utc_A": 1659554197, "created_at_utc_B": 1659554598, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Is it possible to prove through brainwaves that all humans perceive the world with their senses in the same way?? Like, they all see the same shade of color, or smell the same thing etc", "human_ref_B": "How can you prove the existence of ADHD?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 401.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitk4df", "c_root_id_B": "iislzty", "created_at_utc_A": 1659554598, "created_at_utc_B": 1659541240, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "How can you prove the existence of ADHD?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13358.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitnequ", "c_root_id_B": "iitj4n5", "created_at_utc_A": 1659555952, "created_at_utc_B": 1659554197, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What makes soft plastics have an oily film over time?", "human_ref_B": "Is it possible to prove through brainwaves that all humans perceive the world with their senses in the same way?? Like, they all see the same shade of color, or smell the same thing etc", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1755.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iitnequ", "c_root_id_B": "iislzty", "created_at_utc_A": 1659555952, "created_at_utc_B": 1659541240, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What makes soft plastics have an oily film over time?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14712.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iitj4n5", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659554197, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "Is it possible to prove through brainwaves that all humans perceive the world with their senses in the same way?? Like, they all see the same shade of color, or smell the same thing etc", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12957.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iitoe3v", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659556355, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "Are there known mechanisms that contribute to adult onset caffeine sensitivity? Can that sensitivity be reversed?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15115.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iiveb7d", "c_root_id_B": "iislzty", "created_at_utc_A": 1659584359, "created_at_utc_B": 1659541240, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What is the cause of fruits and vegetables developing \"scars\" or \"pits\" as they begin to age or rot? For example, tomatoes get lines that look like scars and start to sink in partially on the surface. Or, more recently, I noticed my cherries were starting to develop what looked like slightly sunken in flesh in spots and what would appear as scarring if it was human skin. This can happen on fruit or veggies that are still growing but also when picked, after several days in the fridge.   The items don't appear damaged usually under the skin at first, although if left longer, they will spoil in those spots first.  What's the process behind this, at what point is is cosmetic versus harmful to eat?", "human_ref_B": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 43119.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wf7di7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "iislzty", "c_root_id_B": "iiwajte", "created_at_utc_A": 1659541240, "created_at_utc_B": 1659607007, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Is there any signs of any hormones or neurotransmitters such as dopamine, oxytocin, endorphins, etc and damage to DNA of cells from quantities that can occur in our bodies under any natural circumstance e.g. an orgasm   or are they harmless in the levels our body can naturally produce them?", "human_ref_B": "Does IQ change with age?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 65767.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hb7jvu2", "c_root_id_B": "hb79ju1", "created_at_utc_A": 1630516281, "created_at_utc_B": 1630512081, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What happens in a person's brain when they fall from a great height? Do they remain fully conscious until they hit? Does it happen too fast in most cases for the brain to respond and do anything to minimize the inevitable? It's probably not an easy thing to study and would have to rely upon accounts from people who survived.", "human_ref_B": "If women are born with all the ovums they'll ever have how does the ovum contain info from the mother?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4200.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hb7jvu2", "c_root_id_B": "hb7eyew", "created_at_utc_A": 1630516281, "created_at_utc_B": 1630514285, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What happens in a person's brain when they fall from a great height? Do they remain fully conscious until they hit? Does it happen too fast in most cases for the brain to respond and do anything to minimize the inevitable? It's probably not an easy thing to study and would have to rely upon accounts from people who survived.", "human_ref_B": "In mRNA vaccines, can we elliminate vector immunity and allergy by using conserved bodily nanoparicles?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1996.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hb8jc3q", "c_root_id_B": "hb7z7xg", "created_at_utc_A": 1630530816, "created_at_utc_B": 1630522560, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why is the diaphragm skeletal muscle? It seems like all the other muscles in the body that have to do constant work are involuntary e.g. the heart is cardiac muscle, the GI tract is smooth muscle.   I understand that it being skeletal muscle gives us some voluntary control but why is that a thing?", "human_ref_B": "I don't know if this is the right place to ask this question ,but here I go, So I've having a feeling of extreme lightheadedness in my dreams?! I have never had these types of dreams ever in my life before. Why is this happening?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8256.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hb8jc3q", "c_root_id_B": "hb79ju1", "created_at_utc_A": 1630530816, "created_at_utc_B": 1630512081, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why is the diaphragm skeletal muscle? It seems like all the other muscles in the body that have to do constant work are involuntary e.g. the heart is cardiac muscle, the GI tract is smooth muscle.   I understand that it being skeletal muscle gives us some voluntary control but why is that a thing?", "human_ref_B": "If women are born with all the ovums they'll ever have how does the ovum contain info from the mother?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18735.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hb7eyew", "c_root_id_B": "hb8jc3q", "created_at_utc_A": 1630514285, "created_at_utc_B": 1630530816, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "In mRNA vaccines, can we elliminate vector immunity and allergy by using conserved bodily nanoparicles?", "human_ref_B": "Why is the diaphragm skeletal muscle? It seems like all the other muscles in the body that have to do constant work are involuntary e.g. the heart is cardiac muscle, the GI tract is smooth muscle.   I understand that it being skeletal muscle gives us some voluntary control but why is that a thing?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16531.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hb7z7xg", "c_root_id_B": "hbb07oj", "created_at_utc_A": 1630522560, "created_at_utc_B": 1630583968, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I don't know if this is the right place to ask this question ,but here I go, So I've having a feeling of extreme lightheadedness in my dreams?! I have never had these types of dreams ever in my life before. Why is this happening?", "human_ref_B": "I have read that lack of vitamin D contributes to depression. Why is that so?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 61408.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hbb07oj", "c_root_id_B": "hb79ju1", "created_at_utc_A": 1630583968, "created_at_utc_B": 1630512081, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I have read that lack of vitamin D contributes to depression. Why is that so?", "human_ref_B": "If women are born with all the ovums they'll ever have how does the ovum contain info from the mother?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 71887.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hb7eyew", "c_root_id_B": "hbb07oj", "created_at_utc_A": 1630514285, "created_at_utc_B": 1630583968, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "In mRNA vaccines, can we elliminate vector immunity and allergy by using conserved bodily nanoparicles?", "human_ref_B": "I have read that lack of vitamin D contributes to depression. Why is that so?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 69683.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pfuhej", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**  Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: \"What would happen if...\", \"How will the future...\", \"If all the rules for 'X' were different...\", \"Why does my...\".  **Asking Questions:**  Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.  **Answering Questions:**  Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.  If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.  Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!", "c_root_id_A": "hbb07oj", "c_root_id_B": "hb8ohhh", "created_at_utc_A": 1630583968, "created_at_utc_B": 1630533178, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I have read that lack of vitamin D contributes to depression. Why is that so?", "human_ref_B": "Could a complex organism evolve the ability to be space-ferring?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 50790.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8rw2c4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why does one catch a cold after getting wet in a rain?", "c_root_id_A": "e0uxldy", "c_root_id_B": "e0w0h0j", "created_at_utc_A": 1529303931, "created_at_utc_B": 1529351749, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "I\u2019m not aware of a firm answer on the reason *why*, but a study at the University of Cardiff showed there was a statistically significant increase in cold symptoms in the period 4-5 days following immersion of feet in cold water  https://academic.oup.com/fampra/article/22/6/608/497956  They *speculate* that the construction of blood vessels in the upper airways may restrict the immune response to the infection.", "human_ref_B": "I think the general idea is that bad weather is associated with people being huddled closer together indoors, which usually helps speed up transmission of aerosalizable/respiratory pathogens. So its more of an epidemiological phenomenon, and I can assure you that exposure to rain is not inherently immunosupressive.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 47818.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tbsuu0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "what is a coefficient? like the convection heat-transfer coefficient and the drag coefficient", "c_root_id_A": "i0ajy25", "c_root_id_B": "i0apqzf", "created_at_utc_A": 1647034401, "created_at_utc_B": 1647036805, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "A coefficient is a constant.  In your examples, the coefficients of drag or heat transfer are a constant for a given shape.   The drag force will change with viscosity, density, and velocity of the fluid, but the multiplier - the drag force coefficient - remains the same for the same shape.  Different shapes (airfoils, etc) have different coefficients.     Same for the heat transfer coefficient.  The rate of heat transfer will change with fluid properties, temperatures, & flow rates, but the coefficient for a given tube enhancement or whatever will remain the same, a constant.", "human_ref_B": "Certain equations can be made to prove that certain measurements or values are proportional, whether inversely or directly, to each other. However, in certain situations for some reason, once you find out all the variables that actually influence each other, all the calculated values are still off by a certain, but **constant**, amount.  Using the ideal gas equation as an example, it was discovered that a gas's pressure, volume, temperature and number of moles are all related to each other in some way, but for some reason, every calculation that compares them is always curiously off. So while we don't know exactly WHY they're off, if you put a gas in an ideal situation and test for the values of pressure (P), volume (V), number of moles of atoms/molecules (n), and temperature (T), you can form a pretty close relationship with them:  (P)(V) \u2248 (n)(T)  If you want to know what value is what causes this equation to not be correct, simply move everything to one side of the equation: in this case, divide both sides by moles\\*temperature:  \\[(P)(V)\\] / \\[(n)(T)\\] = some numerical value  The value left on the other side of the equation is a ratio that doesn't really mean anything to the person doing the study, since it doesn't relate to anything. The interesting thing here is that no matter what kind of gas you use, and no matter how you alter the values of all the individual variables in an experiment, you will ALWAYS find that ratio to be the same: it's a **constant** value. There's no real reason we use the letter R to describe it, you could call it any letter or symbol and nothing would change, but universally calling it R makes it so that everyone can agree on what constant you're talking about.  Finally, the units: the above equation dictates the units. Looking at the equation to find R, you have pressure and volume on top, as well as moles and temperature on the bottom. Because of this, if you were to be measuring each of them respectively in atm, L, mol, and K, you can see that atm and L would be on top, and mol and K would be on the bottom. That's how we give those constant their units. And that's what a constant is: just a value that never changes, found algebraically and experimentally through many tests.  A coefficient is basically the same thing: a numerical value that accompanies an equation or a term, that ensures that everything matches up nicely to the expected result. Like in the equation for kinetic energy, 0.5\\*m\\*v\\^2, the 0.5 is a coefficient, and is derived through algebra and/or calculus (depending on your starting point).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2404.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tbsuu0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "what is a coefficient? like the convection heat-transfer coefficient and the drag coefficient", "c_root_id_A": "i0bowof", "c_root_id_B": "i0ajy25", "created_at_utc_A": 1647053620, "created_at_utc_B": 1647034401, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A coefficient is a way of turning a proportionality into an equation.   An equation is pretty familiar to most people. The expression on one side of the = symbol is equivalent and equal to the expression on the other side of the symbol. So the expression 2 + 2 is equal to the expression 12 / 3, which could be written more simply as 2 + 2 = 12 / 3.  A proportionality is less familiar. We've selected units where possible to eliminate the requirement for them in modern physics. An example is found in aerodynamic drag, where for a given object and flow, the drag is proportional to the surface area of the object in the flow, and to the fluid density, and to the square of the flow speed.   So if you measure the drag, and then change one of those variables, you can calculate what the new drag should be, by adjusting the drag figure in like proportion. Double the fluid density, you double the drag. Double the flow speed, and you multiply the drag by 4.   If you rearrange the proportionality for a given object, you can express it in a form where you simply multiply that expression by the variables to get the drag. That ratio is different for every object, but the same for the same object. By doing so we change the proportionality into an equation, and the rearranged expression we call a coefficient.   For the case of drag, the drag coefficient ends up being the drag force multiplied by 2, divided by the flow speed squared, the fluid density and the surface area.", "human_ref_B": "A coefficient is a constant.  In your examples, the coefficients of drag or heat transfer are a constant for a given shape.   The drag force will change with viscosity, density, and velocity of the fluid, but the multiplier - the drag force coefficient - remains the same for the same shape.  Different shapes (airfoils, etc) have different coefficients.     Same for the heat transfer coefficient.  The rate of heat transfer will change with fluid properties, temperatures, & flow rates, but the coefficient for a given tube enhancement or whatever will remain the same, a constant.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19219.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tbsuu0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "what is a coefficient? like the convection heat-transfer coefficient and the drag coefficient", "c_root_id_A": "i0cuhqo", "c_root_id_B": "i0ajy25", "created_at_utc_A": 1647082562, "created_at_utc_B": 1647034401, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "As for drag coefficient, it is a number that describes the total drag of an object divided by the frontal area. This gives a dimensionless value that allows you to compare the relative \u201cslipperyness\u201d of an object in a fluid stream. For example, Tesla stated that their semi truck has a lower Cd dan a supercar. Which means per unit of frontal area on average it is slipperier, so the air induces less of a force per unit area than a supercar. This does not mean it has lower drag however. Since to get the drag we need the following equation: D=Cd*0.5*(fluid density)*(velocity)^2*(Frontal surface area). Since a semi has a much larger frontal surface area, the total drag will be much higher. (This equation also shows how the drag increases with the velocity squared, also an interesting note).  Even though a supercar might look flatter and more aero, things like big air intakes for the engine and cooling and other performance or esthetics related items might give it a higher Cd to the semi because the semi is electric and therefore does not need these intakes. Also, the general trend with electric vehicles seems to be to make the car as streamlined as possible, thus reducing the Cd and drag, and power consumption.", "human_ref_B": "A coefficient is a constant.  In your examples, the coefficients of drag or heat transfer are a constant for a given shape.   The drag force will change with viscosity, density, and velocity of the fluid, but the multiplier - the drag force coefficient - remains the same for the same shape.  Different shapes (airfoils, etc) have different coefficients.     Same for the heat transfer coefficient.  The rate of heat transfer will change with fluid properties, temperatures, & flow rates, but the coefficient for a given tube enhancement or whatever will remain the same, a constant.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 48161.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "deww77", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Would blowing a meteor up as it enters atmosphere lessen the damage to Earth? Or just turn it from a cannonball into grapeshot?", "c_root_id_A": "f2zljlk", "c_root_id_B": "f2znyyh", "created_at_utc_A": 1570528749, "created_at_utc_B": 1570532155, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "A better plan would be to alter its trajectory so it misses our planet. Depending on the size, breaking it up could make things worse. Contact a company that does blasting and ask them how hard it is to break rock - you have to drill into it and crack it. The movie Armageddon at least got that right. They're actually working on a viable plan in Rome right now.", "human_ref_B": "If it's a small one it will definitely help ensure that it won't reach surface and won't explode like Chelyabinsk one.   If it's a big one - there is no difference if it comes as a whole or in chunks, the total energy that comes into the atmosphere would be basically the same, nuclear winter and mass extinction ensues.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3406.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n04k17", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Does a sealed bottle of carbonated water become flat over a long period of time?", "c_root_id_A": "gw6m8bs", "c_root_id_B": "gw6j4qm", "created_at_utc_A": 1619624592, "created_at_utc_B": 1619623278, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Yes! Gasses dissolved into fluids \"generally\" don't enjoy being there, at least not in large quantities that would give you the fizz you desire. They are forced into solution via high pressure and low temperature liquids. (This is because unlike dissolving most solids, gasses generally are more soluble at lower temperature and less so at higher temp. Like dissolves like, and gas is closer to a liquid at low temp than at high temp as a general concept) As the bottle warms, more of the gas wants to leave the fluid and enter back into the vapor phase, but it is kept dissolved by the vapor pressure built up in the can/bottle. Now here is where the great argument of how should beer be stored comes from (can or bottle) and the answer all day, all year is in a can. Why? It's because cans have less permeability than a plastic bottle (also keep all light out which is great for storage, which is why cans beat glass for beer storage).   What is permeability? The ability for a membrane/plane to pass gas/liquid through it  What does this mean? Your bottle of carbonated water is ever so slowly losing molecules of gas through the bottle/cap itself. The longer it sits (especially at room or warm temperatures) the more gas escapes from the bottle. This allows more gas to gradually come out of solution and enter the vapor phase, which reduces the fizz you feel, since the concentrations are dropping. Thus! Your bottle of water does in fact become flat over time, and a can would last much longer comparatively!   Sources/info:  Permeability info: https://www.versaperm.com/applications/carbonated-drinks.php  Permeability of aluminum: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/permeability-d_1923.html  Gas solubility info: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_General_Chemistry_(Petrucci_et_al.)/13%3A_Solutions_and_their_Physical_Properties/13.05%3A_Solubilities_of_Gases", "human_ref_B": "Yes. The temperature has a large effect on this and time as well. Making it simple, the gas molecules are leaving the liquid due to entropy. They use energy to do this and many bounce back into the liquid but eventually, many of the molecules escape and there are some that don\u2019t but the amount is so low that you can\u2019t detect it with your senses. I remember learning this in college and it\u2019s more complicated than it seems.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1314.0, "score_ratio": 14.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1w17qq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "[Engineering] If drag is such an issue on planes, why are the planes not covered in dimples like a golf ball? Golf balls have dimples to reduce drag. The slight increase in turbulence in the boundary layer reduces adhesion and reduce eddies. This gives a total reduction in drag. A reduction in drag is highly desirable for a plane. It seems like an obvious solution to cover parts of the plane with dimples. Why is it not done?", "c_root_id_A": "ceydslo", "c_root_id_B": "ceyfpj5", "created_at_utc_A": 1390630979, "created_at_utc_B": 1390640229, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Actually, in some cases they are.  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/F-15E_Strike_Eagle_is_parked_by_a_crew_chief_from_Elmendorf_Air_Force_Base.jpg  If you look in the #1 inlet (ramp up), you can see a 'cheese grater' mottling on several of the ramp surfaces. The inlet ramps of the F-15 (as well as some parts on the sides) are dimpled specifically to break up boundary layer air. The incoming air has a tendency to 'stick' to the surfaces and introduce unstable airflow to the engine. Since the engines work best with subsonic, smooth air, the ramps (which are extremely cleverly designed) bounce the shockwaves up and down until the air is subsonic and smooth.", "human_ref_B": "Part of my senior project involved this topic with bodies moving through water.  We discovered that for long straight sections of the body moving through the fluid, imagine perhaps the sides of a semi truck, that the beneficial effects of dimpling are naturally counter productive and increase the resistance of flow at the boundary layer.  However, at points where the body changes direction, or at the points of inflection, dimpling was found beneficial in our testing.  For instance, imagine dimpling only the curved portions of the aircraft including the nose, tail and wings.  Our project indicated that there is some benefit of reduced drag force by applying dimpling in this manner via CFD models and wind tunnel tests.  However, the speeds we tested were not comparable to aircraft.  Perhaps if the dimple shapes could be optimized (elliptical maybe?) on curved portions *only*, there might be some benefit, but I suspect the cost and possible maintenance of dimpling on such large and widely produced machines would outweigh the benefits.   Imagine that the air traveling over the nose of the aircraft \"jumps\" up and over the straight body of the plane as the particles continue along their trajectory.  At this inflection point where the curved nose meets the straight body, dimpling would help \"pull\" that stream of air traveling upwards back down towards the straight portion of the airplane body similar to the golfball.  With that said, it appears streamlining is the best way to reduce drag at these speeds, but it would be interesting to study the effects of dimpled curved portions at such speeds.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9250.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "27tafg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "If they put golf-ball dimples on bullets, would they shoot farther? And if so, why don't they?", "c_root_id_A": "ci4cxv6", "c_root_id_B": "ci4gozs", "created_at_utc_A": 1402445657, "created_at_utc_B": 1402453954, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "http://i.imgur.com/TYK1Ag5.png  That graph shows the different drag values for smooth and rough (dimpled) surfaces in relation to the reynolds number. The reynolds number includes pressure, viscosity, stream velocity and significant length of the object, so it can be scaled and have pretty much identical flow shapes/paths.  As you can see, the golf ball hits the sweet spot at around 10^5.  The rough surface induces a turbulent boundary layer, which stays attached for longer -> less vortices and drag. The bullet might also benefit from dimples, but the corresponding reynolds number should be equivalent (10^5) -> you would have to adjust the variables. Then they would have less drag, stay faster for longer and thus, shoot further.", "human_ref_B": "No. Dimples help promote turbulence on a ball and keep the boundary layer attached to the surface longer, which reduces drag (and if the ball is spinning on an axis not parallel to the direction of travel, lift). This is a big deal on certain types of shapes.   There are two differences bullets have with golf balls, and these are important:  First, most bullets have a flat back. The boundary layer will separate across the flat back regardless of any geometric surface treatment on the nose. Thus, dimples will not lower the drag on a bullet shaped body. It might hurt simply due to airflow asymmetries causing the bullet to veer, spiral (if the bullet is spinning on axis) or tumble.   Second, some bullets travel fast enough break the sound barrier, and compressible flow (how flow behaves above the speed of sound), behaves very differently than flow below the speed of sound. I am not certain what dimpling will do in a compressible flow situation (probably depends on the exact geometry of bullet and dimples), but it is likely it will hurt due to premature shock wave formation.   TL;DR: dimpling helps ball-like shapes at slow speed by tripping turbulent flow thus keeping the boundary layer from separating and lowering drag. If the shape is not \"ball-like\" or the speed is near the speed of sound, dimpling is not helpful and might even hurt.   source: Master's degree in mechanical engineering with a focus on fluid dynamics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8297.0, "score_ratio": 1.0526315789, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rhr6a2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Does adding an acid to a solution already containing a stronger acid lower the pH? As the title says I'm wondering if proton donation is the same regardless of other chemicals. Our specific example is with regards to carbonic acid and citrus acid (does carbonating orange juice make it more acidic) Was having the discussion and we thought of 3 outcomes and couldn't determine which was right.  1) H2CO3 when added to the orange juice would donate it's hydrogens and cause pH to be lower since we have more free hydrogen in solution.  2) pH would increase to a point between the relative acidity of carbonic acid and citric acid through the magic of chemical interactions.  3) no change in pH since the H2CO3 would be already below it's natural dissociation amount and therefore not release any of its protons into solution.  Which one of these is the case? Is there a 4th situation for what actually happens? We need to know the effects of using a sodastream with orange juice.  Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "hot5lpb", "c_root_id_B": "hostkui", "created_at_utc_A": 1639678428, "created_at_utc_B": 1639673805, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Yes, the pH change will be negligible. In fact, typically acidic beverages more readily equilibrate towards releasing the carbon dioxide vis Le Chatlier\u2019s principle. Since there is already an abundance of protons, it\u2019s likelier that the carbon dioxide will not want to remain in solution for very long. Hence the high pressurization needed to produce and contain soda products, which tend to be already acidic.  Source: I am a consulting food scientist that has designed carbonated beverages.", "human_ref_B": "Mostly 3. The pH would drop, but very insignificantly.  All of the three postulates are true to some degree. Carbonic acid would dissociate (a little), fruit acids would be protonated (a little). No observable changes in pH would occur.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4623.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rhr6a2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Does adding an acid to a solution already containing a stronger acid lower the pH? As the title says I'm wondering if proton donation is the same regardless of other chemicals. Our specific example is with regards to carbonic acid and citrus acid (does carbonating orange juice make it more acidic) Was having the discussion and we thought of 3 outcomes and couldn't determine which was right.  1) H2CO3 when added to the orange juice would donate it's hydrogens and cause pH to be lower since we have more free hydrogen in solution.  2) pH would increase to a point between the relative acidity of carbonic acid and citric acid through the magic of chemical interactions.  3) no change in pH since the H2CO3 would be already below it's natural dissociation amount and therefore not release any of its protons into solution.  Which one of these is the case? Is there a 4th situation for what actually happens? We need to know the effects of using a sodastream with orange juice.  Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "hot3mvx", "c_root_id_B": "hot5lpb", "created_at_utc_A": 1639677659, "created_at_utc_B": 1639678428, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I think it\u2019s 2. This is a buffer/titration question. Because the pH is lower than the pka of the new acid, the newly added acid would mostly stay in the protonated state. The water it is solvated in would dilute the acidic solution you originally had.   Remember that pH is a logarithmic scale so the difference in pka of 2 or 3 is a difference in acidity 100-1000x", "human_ref_B": "Yes, the pH change will be negligible. In fact, typically acidic beverages more readily equilibrate towards releasing the carbon dioxide vis Le Chatlier\u2019s principle. Since there is already an abundance of protons, it\u2019s likelier that the carbon dioxide will not want to remain in solution for very long. Hence the high pressurization needed to produce and contain soda products, which tend to be already acidic.  Source: I am a consulting food scientist that has designed carbonated beverages.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 769.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bakbog", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What \u201ccharacteristics\u201d allow cryopreservation of embryos to be \u201creanimated\u201d in assisted reproduction, but make reanimating a cryo preserved adult human something that exists only in science fiction? I have a rudimentary understanding that the main difficulty in cryo comes from the prevention of the formation of ice crystals which can damage cell membranes. Obviously an adult has orders of magnitude more cells, which means orders of magnitude more water which can damage cells when frozen and subsequently thawed.   Can someone explain why we are able to achieve one and not the other? Is the difference at a molecular/cellular/ macro (tissue) level?", "c_root_id_A": "ekfxlk3", "c_root_id_B": "ekd29j2", "created_at_utc_A": 1554777493, "created_at_utc_B": 1554692144, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I work with cells  Freezing and unfreezing cells has to be very rapid. Think of lowering temperature as a slowing metabolic activity. So instead of dying, the cells are just metabolically inactive.   Furthermore, often we use chemicals to inhibit crystal formations and these chemicals are often toxic. When thawing cells, I take the tube the cells are in and I dunk it in a hot water bath just longer enough that the ice melts from the sides of the tube and then can freely move around. I then quickly pour this melting ice pellet in cell media to dilute the chemicals as much as possible while also giving the cells a more optimal medium in which to sit before I spin everything down, wash, resuspend.   I\u2019ll freeze 1 billion cells if I need 500 million, just to be safe.  Now that works because this is one type of cell and I only have to worry about one set of cell properties. Freezing your brain while also freezing your heart is a very different thing. Hell, forgot brain and heart, freezing your myelinated axons and unmyelinated axons is already crazy difficult.   For this to ever work I would imagine we would need some sort of bypass where we would remove as much as we can from you, blood, lymph, maybe even multiple organs, and then freeze those individually before getting to the main part of your body.  No idea how thawing you would work.", "human_ref_B": "One of the biggest hurdles is the circulation system. Capillaries are so tiny that absolutely any crystalline structures would destroy them.  This is by far not the biggest issue or the only one, but I assume it is a common problem. Anything complicated is easily susceptible to even the tiniest of changes.  Embryos just aren't that complicated. Also, you can freeze 8-16 embryos and only get 2-8 that are viable to use. So it's not a perfect science yet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 85349.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "58umjk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Is energy something physical? Where (if anywhere) is energy stored in atoms / molecyles? For ex. If I raise an object from the ground (thus storing potential energy into it) where does it go?", "c_root_id_A": "d950r4n", "c_root_id_B": "d942x0u", "created_at_utc_A": 1477273083, "created_at_utc_B": 1477216412, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I think the best way to think of energy is that it is simply the quantity that is conserved, like by definition. When we say energy has differnet forms, potential, chemical, kinetic, etc. it is because we know that mathematically there is a conservation law in our universe that something must remain constant in time.  If we discovered a new \"form\" of energy it would really mean we found something that energy appeared to go missing from our current calculations, and we would have to find what new quantity to also call \"energy\" since we could convert our current known forms of energy into it, and of course because it is conserved by definition convert it back into one of the known forms.  This is not how energy was always thought of, but it is really the best way since the work of Emmy Noether and a mathematical foundation for conservation laws. We now know that because the laws of physics do not change with *time*, meaning they are the same laws now as they are 1 minute from now, there must be *something*, some quantity, that is always conserved. We now know that is the thing we had always called \"energy\",.", "human_ref_B": "potential energy is not stored in parts of the system. It is a number ascribed to the whole system, that depends on the configuration of the system.  If you lift a ball the whole system earth + ball is in a configuration of higher Energy. It's not that just the ball has gained more Energy.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 56671.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "58umjk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Is energy something physical? Where (if anywhere) is energy stored in atoms / molecyles? For ex. If I raise an object from the ground (thus storing potential energy into it) where does it go?", "c_root_id_A": "d950r4n", "c_root_id_B": "d944f58", "created_at_utc_A": 1477273083, "created_at_utc_B": 1477222193, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I think the best way to think of energy is that it is simply the quantity that is conserved, like by definition. When we say energy has differnet forms, potential, chemical, kinetic, etc. it is because we know that mathematically there is a conservation law in our universe that something must remain constant in time.  If we discovered a new \"form\" of energy it would really mean we found something that energy appeared to go missing from our current calculations, and we would have to find what new quantity to also call \"energy\" since we could convert our current known forms of energy into it, and of course because it is conserved by definition convert it back into one of the known forms.  This is not how energy was always thought of, but it is really the best way since the work of Emmy Noether and a mathematical foundation for conservation laws. We now know that because the laws of physics do not change with *time*, meaning they are the same laws now as they are 1 minute from now, there must be *something*, some quantity, that is always conserved. We now know that is the thing we had always called \"energy\",.", "human_ref_B": "Maybe a stupid question: isn't energy simply a mathematical quantity? I mean it's nothing physical, just an abstract definition or concept which happens to fit perfectly on our observations (or vice versa)? Therefore you cannot define location or reason of energy, you cannot even proclaim it's existence.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 50890.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "58umjk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Is energy something physical? Where (if anywhere) is energy stored in atoms / molecyles? For ex. If I raise an object from the ground (thus storing potential energy into it) where does it go?", "c_root_id_A": "d950r4n", "c_root_id_B": "d93d843", "created_at_utc_A": 1477273083, "created_at_utc_B": 1477165631, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I think the best way to think of energy is that it is simply the quantity that is conserved, like by definition. When we say energy has differnet forms, potential, chemical, kinetic, etc. it is because we know that mathematically there is a conservation law in our universe that something must remain constant in time.  If we discovered a new \"form\" of energy it would really mean we found something that energy appeared to go missing from our current calculations, and we would have to find what new quantity to also call \"energy\" since we could convert our current known forms of energy into it, and of course because it is conserved by definition convert it back into one of the known forms.  This is not how energy was always thought of, but it is really the best way since the work of Emmy Noether and a mathematical foundation for conservation laws. We now know that because the laws of physics do not change with *time*, meaning they are the same laws now as they are 1 minute from now, there must be *something*, some quantity, that is always conserved. We now know that is the thing we had always called \"energy\",.", "human_ref_B": "It is easier with electrical fields. You could calculate the parallel-plate capacitor, and the field energy in the volume between the plates.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 107452.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "58umjk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Is energy something physical? Where (if anywhere) is energy stored in atoms / molecyles? For ex. If I raise an object from the ground (thus storing potential energy into it) where does it go?", "c_root_id_A": "d93d843", "c_root_id_B": "d942x0u", "created_at_utc_A": 1477165631, "created_at_utc_B": 1477216412, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It is easier with electrical fields. You could calculate the parallel-plate capacitor, and the field energy in the volume between the plates.", "human_ref_B": "potential energy is not stored in parts of the system. It is a number ascribed to the whole system, that depends on the configuration of the system.  If you lift a ball the whole system earth + ball is in a configuration of higher Energy. It's not that just the ball has gained more Energy.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 50781.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "58umjk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Is energy something physical? Where (if anywhere) is energy stored in atoms / molecyles? For ex. If I raise an object from the ground (thus storing potential energy into it) where does it go?", "c_root_id_A": "d944f58", "c_root_id_B": "d93d843", "created_at_utc_A": 1477222193, "created_at_utc_B": 1477165631, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Maybe a stupid question: isn't energy simply a mathematical quantity? I mean it's nothing physical, just an abstract definition or concept which happens to fit perfectly on our observations (or vice versa)? Therefore you cannot define location or reason of energy, you cannot even proclaim it's existence.", "human_ref_B": "It is easier with electrical fields. You could calculate the parallel-plate capacitor, and the field energy in the volume between the plates.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 56562.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "58umjk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Is energy something physical? Where (if anywhere) is energy stored in atoms / molecyles? For ex. If I raise an object from the ground (thus storing potential energy into it) where does it go?", "c_root_id_A": "d95cer3", "c_root_id_B": "d93d843", "created_at_utc_A": 1477296623, "created_at_utc_B": 1477165631, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I like to think of energy as a currency for states. If a state has a certain amount of energy that means it can (barring conditions imposed by other conservation laws) transition to other states with as much or less energy. That's why the energy scale is often picked depending on the problem, you're typically only interested in comparing the relative energy of some objects or states.", "human_ref_B": "It is easier with electrical fields. You could calculate the parallel-plate capacitor, and the field energy in the volume between the plates.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 130992.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "awm2y7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Why does a battery's charge get lower and lower and provide less and less energy instead of instantly running out while providing full power?", "c_root_id_A": "ehpkiw7", "c_root_id_B": "ehnudjm", "created_at_utc_A": 1551634747, "created_at_utc_B": 1551569555, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The maximum power that a cell can deliver reduces as it becomes discharged. However, most cell phones use a buck boost converter or some other DC to DC converter so in effect the switching regulator reduces the charge side impedance up until a point where the cell is near shorted, this is how the phone is able to work even if the battery is below the minimum running voltage.", "human_ref_B": "A battery can provide constant energy throughout its discharge cycle as long as the load includes a circuit to regulate the power. Your cellphone doesn't work differently on a full charge than a quarter charge. With a simple resistive load the voltage drops as the battery is discharged. Nickle based chemistries have a flatter discharge curve than other types.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 65192.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "awm2y7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Why does a battery's charge get lower and lower and provide less and less energy instead of instantly running out while providing full power?", "c_root_id_A": "ehpl1jp", "c_root_id_B": "ehnudjm", "created_at_utc_A": 1551635138, "created_at_utc_B": 1551569555, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "All batteries work because of electron-transfer (redox) chemical reactions. The reaction energy is converted into electrical power by forcing the transferred electron to take a long route through some electrical device, rather than directly transferring. The energy extracted from this reaction is due entirely to the enthalpy of reaction. This enthalpy can be split into two steps: (1) taking an electron away from species A and (2) giving the electron to species B. These two steps are often separated, giving so-called \"half reaction\" energies. The voltage provided by these half reactions is called the Standard Reduction Potential. For any complete battery system, the ideal total voltage is simply the half-reaction of giving an electron to the cathode minus the half-reaction of taking the electron from the anode.  However, in most real chemical environments this voltage is not the precise voltage of the battery system. The most common drawback is the Nernst Relation. This equation relates the voltage of redox half to the concentration of the required species for the redox reaction. You can derive this equation from considerations of entropy, based on the assumption that most redox reactions are reversible. It is also worth noting that for complete reactions (two half reactions added together) the Nernst Relation perfectly recreates the mass-law rate constants you will find for calculations such as pKa.  In addition to the Nernst relation, other effects can modify the battery voltage. In most batteries, the two redox half reactions that provides the voltage is the combination of taking an electron from a lithium atom, and giving that electron to a transition metal element such as cobalt. However, the atoms are not just free ions in solution. All current batteries have the required reaction take place in solid electrodes to allow for good electronic contact to facilitate the diverting of the electrons to power external circuits. During discharge, the positively charged Li+ ions intercalate into the CoO2 cathode. If this doesn't happen, the long-range coulomb potential will oppose further reaction and cut off our source of electrons. However, the intercalation of Li+ ions and the reduction of Co both change the structure and stability of the LixCoO2 cathode. These changes in structure stability also change the effective chemical potentials (which are now less than the standard redox potential) that drive the battery reaction.  Finally, there are a large number of effects that create internal resistance in the battery. If batteries were charged or discharged at an infinitesimally small current, these internal resistances would not matter. But when non-zero currents are drawn from these batteries, the internal resistance decreases the effective voltage by Ohm's Law.  In summary, the concentration of the reactive species (Nernst Equation), internal resistance, and the behavior of cathode crystal structures all decrease the effective battery potential.", "human_ref_B": "A battery can provide constant energy throughout its discharge cycle as long as the load includes a circuit to regulate the power. Your cellphone doesn't work differently on a full charge than a quarter charge. With a simple resistive load the voltage drops as the battery is discharged. Nickle based chemistries have a flatter discharge curve than other types.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 65583.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "61e0o7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we use a cocktail of many types of antibiotics at the same time limit the chances of the bacteria developing a resistance? Why don't we use a cocktail of many types of antibiotics at the same time limit the chances of the bacteria developing a resistance?  So say you had a sample of bacteria that was treated with 20 similar targeting antibiotics at the same time and a mutation existed in some of the population that caused them to have a resistance to antibiotic #1, wouldn't that mutant segment of the population still be wiped out by antibiotics #2-#20 and for any resistant mutant strain to develop and survive the treatment it would require a mutation that was resistant to all 20?  Apologies if my understanding of the way resistances develop or any other misunderstanding of the subject.", "c_root_id_A": "dfey0sf", "c_root_id_B": "dfeqkkd", "created_at_utc_A": 1490495297, "created_at_utc_B": 1490484310, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There's no free lunch. This isn't just a statistics problem.  Drugs have side effects. Some of those side effects are deadly. But worse than that, some of the side effects are life altering for the worse. \"Saving the patient at all costs\" leads to inhumane treatment of patients. Every hospital has ethics committees that manage these issues, patient by patient.  So while you can kill all the bugs, you're also possibly killing or dramatically degrading the host.", "human_ref_B": "It's a well intentioned but really horrible idea.  Current treatment with such drugs is well thought out, rational, and scientifically proven.      Many reasons for NOT doing as you propose: 1) It would cost 20 times more, people complain about the price of health care all the time. 2) You'd have to infuse several liters into a patient a day. 3) You wouldn't have enough time.  Each one takes half an hour, 3-6 doses a day. 4) Diminishing returns for each one you add beyond 3 or so. 5) Something will develop a resistance, to everything.  And start killing everyone who gets an infection 6) There aren't 20 different mechanisms for antibiotics.  Most are some variant of Pennicillin.  It would be like feeding someone milk chocolate, chocolate, dark chocolate, hot chocolate, coco pebbles, and cherry chocolate to get one chocolate effect.  On chocolate bar is enough. 7) If the patient has an allergic reaction or problem with one of them, you have no idea which to cut an no other option for treatment. 8) Seldom necessary.  Vast majority of infections can be cured with one or two antibiotics. 9) Kills good bacteria your body needs. 10) Your nurse is overworked already, don't give them more work to no purpose. 11) A lot or resistance is due to patients not using their prescription drugs correctly. 12) We can identify the organism in most cases and be sure we're using the right thing.   Some treat only certain types of infections.  Metronidazole isn't useful against most infections, but works well for the right types of infection.   13) Everytime you use an antibiotic, the chances of resistance to it occurring go up.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10987.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qtrht", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Can the start codon be found in a non-codon triplet? Then can you start the codon sequence? Let's say that there is an mRNA strand that is like this:  GAUUGACGAGAUGGUUGCCCAGU.... The start codon (AUG) is obviously there, but it is not in the codon triplet. GAU|UGA|CGA|GAU|GGU|UCC|CAG|U.   My question is can you read the mRNA until the start codon and then create the codon triplets after? EX: GAUUGACGAG|AUG|GUU|CCC|AGU.  Or do the triplets have to start at the beginning of the mRNA strand?", "c_root_id_A": "c40ezdm", "c_root_id_B": "c40dj8c", "created_at_utc_A": 1331607148, "created_at_utc_B": 1331599291, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Another thing people are forgetting is that there is a lot that comes before the start codon on a mRNA.  To start translation, you need more than just a start site, you also need the upstream sections for the various parts of the translation machinery to sit on to start the process.  I'd suggest checking out the wikipedia) page on translation, and if you've still got more questions after that, come back and ask them!  It took me a long time to realize that transcription and translation weren't quite as simple as it's presented in general biology, and really, knowing some of those details makes it make a lot more sense (at least to me).", "human_ref_B": "Yes. The portion before the start codon is the 5' untranslated region. The reading frame is defined by the start codon, not the first base in the sequence.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7857.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "22b5t8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do liquids \"hang on\" to an object when they pour out? (When pouring milk into a glass and it drips down the side of the carton, for example)", "c_root_id_A": "cgl2vt5", "c_root_id_B": "cgl4jaf", "created_at_utc_A": 1396744392, "created_at_utc_B": 1396748693, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The liquid sticks to the carton (to use your example) because the surface tension on the liquid is lower when it clings to the side of it than when it is suspended in the air. As a rule of thumb for fluid dynamics: liquids generally try to minimise the surface tension on them.", "human_ref_B": "All fluids have cohesive and adhesive properties.  Cohesive properties determine the strength of the tendency of the fluid to stick to itself and adhesive properties determine the tendency to stick to other matter.  That is why glue is called adhesive.  Milk has a weaker cohesive property and stronger adhesive property and thus tending to adhere to most of the surfaces. Mercury,  on the other hand, had extremely strong cohesive properties and will collect together to form a large drop very easily and will not stick to other surfaces.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4301.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "22b5t8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Why do liquids \"hang on\" to an object when they pour out? (When pouring milk into a glass and it drips down the side of the carton, for example)", "c_root_id_A": "cgl2vt5", "c_root_id_B": "cgl98h0", "created_at_utc_A": 1396744392, "created_at_utc_B": 1396762167, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The liquid sticks to the carton (to use your example) because the surface tension on the liquid is lower when it clings to the side of it than when it is suspended in the air. As a rule of thumb for fluid dynamics: liquids generally try to minimise the surface tension on them.", "human_ref_B": "At a molecular level the liquids can form things like hydrogen bonds or other strong intermolecular interactions with the surface.   If this is favorable you get that sticking. For instance glass typically has OH groups on the surface which water can bond to.   If you were to use a surface that whose interaction with the liquid is highly unfavorable you'll notice it will stick significantly less.    If you were to take some lard and grease the side of the glass you would notice water will stick less to the glass than an ungreased surface will.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17775.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rymvy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why does a space shuttle do a quarter turn 15-30 seconds into launch? Why not just launch it with that orientation rather than turning?", "c_root_id_A": "c49p4as", "c_root_id_B": "c49pasc", "created_at_utc_A": 1333852333, "created_at_utc_B": 1333854158, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "Because the orientation it needs will be different with each launch, but it can only sit on the launch pad one way. If you watch the video Enkaybee posted, notice the Shuttle rolls just before it pitches (starts leaning over on its \"back\")---the angle it rolls to determines its heading as it flies away from Cape Canaveral. Ultimately, that heading determines which orbit it flies into. In the video, it's going to rendezvous with the International Space Station, so it has to launch into a matching orbit.  Exactly which angle it'll take to do that depends on the time of the launch, down to almost the second. A different launch window means a different roll angle. A different destination orbit (visiting the Hubble telescope, say) means a different roll angle.", "human_ref_B": "Excellent question!  The roll program is executed around T+12 to orient the shuttle into a heads down attitude to reduce structural loading, gain downrange velocity, and provide a easier abort maneuver setup.  The roll program is a combined roll, yaw and pitch maneuver. I think your question is mainly about the roll and yaw portions of the maneuver. The pitch maneuver brings the nose around with the belly up, points it downrange and gives the trajectory that arc shape.  So, why does the shuttle need to roll and yaw? Because the launch pad has a fixed orientation, but the shuttle orbits at various inclinations (angle relative to the equator) depending on the mission. A typical inclination of 28 degrees takes advantage of the earth's rotation for lifting heavy payloads. Space station missions are flown at a 52 degree inclination. So, since the pad is fixed, the roll program is necessary to orient the shuttle to the correct orbital inclination.  So, why didn't they just pick the most likely inclination and orient the launch pad accordingly; thereby only needing to execute the pitch portion of the program for most missions? This is the answer I didn't know and had to dig for. Apparently the launch pads are leftovers from the Apollo program and the access tower and support structures are oriented as they were for the Saturn V rockets. Also, the shuttle straddles two leftover flame trenches, one for the boosters and one for the main engines, which also dictate the shuttle's launch orientation.  Edit: Fixed the time of the roll program.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1825.0, "score_ratio": 3.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rymvy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why does a space shuttle do a quarter turn 15-30 seconds into launch? Why not just launch it with that orientation rather than turning?", "c_root_id_A": "c49pasc", "c_root_id_B": "c49onop", "created_at_utc_A": 1333854158, "created_at_utc_B": 1333849576, "score_A": 36, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Excellent question!  The roll program is executed around T+12 to orient the shuttle into a heads down attitude to reduce structural loading, gain downrange velocity, and provide a easier abort maneuver setup.  The roll program is a combined roll, yaw and pitch maneuver. I think your question is mainly about the roll and yaw portions of the maneuver. The pitch maneuver brings the nose around with the belly up, points it downrange and gives the trajectory that arc shape.  So, why does the shuttle need to roll and yaw? Because the launch pad has a fixed orientation, but the shuttle orbits at various inclinations (angle relative to the equator) depending on the mission. A typical inclination of 28 degrees takes advantage of the earth's rotation for lifting heavy payloads. Space station missions are flown at a 52 degree inclination. So, since the pad is fixed, the roll program is necessary to orient the shuttle to the correct orbital inclination.  So, why didn't they just pick the most likely inclination and orient the launch pad accordingly; thereby only needing to execute the pitch portion of the program for most missions? This is the answer I didn't know and had to dig for. Apparently the launch pads are leftovers from the Apollo program and the access tower and support structures are oriented as they were for the Saturn V rockets. Also, the shuttle straddles two leftover flame trenches, one for the boosters and one for the main engines, which also dictate the shuttle's launch orientation.  Edit: Fixed the time of the roll program.", "human_ref_B": "When a rocket launches, its goal is (typically) to attain orbit around the earth.  In order to do that, it needs to have a good deal of lateral velocity.  However, near the ground, there is air resistance to be accounted for.  If a rocket launched at a steep angle, then it would be fighting against air resistance for a longer time, and would waste energy.  Alternatively, if the rocket launched straight up until it was out of the atmosphere, it would then need to stop and make a 90 degree turn to begin accelerating towards an orbit.  The compromise between the two is to have the rocket launch vertically at first, minimizing time in the dense (low altitude) part of the atmosphere, and therefore minimizing energy lost due to air resistance, and then curve towards its intended orbit at high altitude where the air is thinner and resistance is reduced, maximizing its orbital speed once it is out of the atmosphere.  Edit: Mis-read the question.  My mistake.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4582.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rymvy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why does a space shuttle do a quarter turn 15-30 seconds into launch? Why not just launch it with that orientation rather than turning?", "c_root_id_A": "c49onop", "c_root_id_B": "c49p4as", "created_at_utc_A": 1333849576, "created_at_utc_B": 1333852333, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "When a rocket launches, its goal is (typically) to attain orbit around the earth.  In order to do that, it needs to have a good deal of lateral velocity.  However, near the ground, there is air resistance to be accounted for.  If a rocket launched at a steep angle, then it would be fighting against air resistance for a longer time, and would waste energy.  Alternatively, if the rocket launched straight up until it was out of the atmosphere, it would then need to stop and make a 90 degree turn to begin accelerating towards an orbit.  The compromise between the two is to have the rocket launch vertically at first, minimizing time in the dense (low altitude) part of the atmosphere, and therefore minimizing energy lost due to air resistance, and then curve towards its intended orbit at high altitude where the air is thinner and resistance is reduced, maximizing its orbital speed once it is out of the atmosphere.  Edit: Mis-read the question.  My mistake.", "human_ref_B": "Because the orientation it needs will be different with each launch, but it can only sit on the launch pad one way. If you watch the video Enkaybee posted, notice the Shuttle rolls just before it pitches (starts leaning over on its \"back\")---the angle it rolls to determines its heading as it flies away from Cape Canaveral. Ultimately, that heading determines which orbit it flies into. In the video, it's going to rendezvous with the International Space Station, so it has to launch into a matching orbit.  Exactly which angle it'll take to do that depends on the time of the launch, down to almost the second. A different launch window means a different roll angle. A different destination orbit (visiting the Hubble telescope, say) means a different roll angle.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2757.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "us7uad", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Does the inverse square law apply to lasers? So I saw this Post on this subreddit, and that got me thinking, does the inverse square law apply to lasers? I did a quick google search and it said no, so how is a lasers diffraction different to normal light?", "c_root_id_A": "i92hmvj", "c_root_id_B": "i9217an", "created_at_utc_A": 1652879107, "created_at_utc_B": 1652868588, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "You know, inverse square law is really just calculating the surface of a sphere at a given distance  If you have a light bulb, it emit light in all directions. So you can imagine a sphere, of 1m radius centred on the bulb, receiving all the energy. Another sphere, of 10m radius, would receive the same energy.  The first sphere has a surface of 4\u03c0.1\u00b2  The second has a surface of 4\u03c0.10\u00b2  So the same energy is spread other a hundred times more surface, so a small paper place at 1 meter will receive a hundred times more energy than the same one placed at 10 meters.  That's the inverse square law (multiply distance by 10, get 100 times less energy)   Now lasers.  Laser are not light bulb, laser emit all their light in one direction. So you could think, the surface that is lighted is always the same, wether it is 1m away or 10m away (same surface lighted, same energy)  But there is a catch: physics do not allow perfectly parallel light beam. Due to diffraction, your initially nice parallels beam will spread out at long distance (long, being considered versus the size of the beam in the place were the beam is perfectly parallel, called the \"waist\")  There is formula to calculate the surface lighted by your laser as a function of distance. Close to the waist, it's almost constant, you always get the same energy. The further away for the waist you are, the larger the beam gets, the less energy per squared meter you have (but, you light more square meter) Eventually, you end up at infinite distance with a spherical beam and the inverse square law", "human_ref_B": "On long distances, yes.  One simplified model to describe laser light propagation is the Gaussian beam. If you are sitting at the focal point, then (asymptotically) the beam intensity will decrease by 1/z^2 with the distance.  If you are focusing the laser at some point in the distance, then of course the beam intensity would increase at that point, so inverse square is not given in that range, but only well beyond that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10519.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4nyafz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "What is the demarcation altitude between a cloud and a fog? Are they scientifically the same thing? I was recently realizing the notion that clouds are fog in the sky when I blasted through one during a tandem skydive and it was only vapor/mist as I sailed through.", "c_root_id_A": "d48m80t", "c_root_id_B": "d48diuc", "created_at_utc_A": 1465905086, "created_at_utc_B": 1465880181, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Scientifically they are the same thing yes, however fog is defined as visible water vapour at ground level, which makes fog a type of cloud. The difference is really only how clouds/fog are formed.  All clouds form when a parcel of warm air cools to the point where it reaches saturation point (since cool air can hold less moisture than warm air, when it cools the moisture condenses to form cloud). Clouds most often form as a result of warm air rising, and being cooled as it rises. The altitude at which it cools enough to reach saturation point is where clouds in the sky form.  Since fog is on the ground, it must form in a different way than rising air that cools, which is usually in one of two ways: In the early morning when ground radiation from daytime heating finally dissipates causing the temperature to drop low enough that relative humidity reaches 100% (saturation point), or as a result of warm air travelling horizontally over a colder surface (ex. warm water to cooler ground at night) and again cooling to saturation point.", "human_ref_B": "If I remember correctly, they are the same but fog is when the cloud bottom is on the ground. There are specific variables that affect cloud top and cloud bottom,  and I'm sure somebody more qualified than I can plug in the details.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24905.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2vb35b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How is it possible for a country that, relatively, is quite small like japan, become a world superpower? Where do they get natural resources to create and sell goods?", "c_root_id_A": "cogfxcc", "c_root_id_B": "cog83jb", "created_at_utc_A": 1423522290, "created_at_utc_B": 1423509386, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "To build on the answers others have given, it's important to note that while Japan is geographically small (although larger than California, which is a substantial chunk of the US economic output and population), it is the 10th largest country in the world by population.  Beyond this, neither physical size nor population seem to be absolutely correlated with being a world power. Although Brazil, Mexico, India, China, and Russia all have both large population and large land mass, none of these countries exert truly global power in the way the economies (or armies) of the US, the EU, or even Japan do. Beyond this, no country has ever come close to the global reach of economy and military that the United States has enjoyed since the end of WWII, nuclear weapons notwithstanding.  Japan, like Russia, Europe, and the US, has a rich history of science, mathematics, and engineering. Japan has never suffered the same type of \"brain drain\" that Russia has suffered since the collapse of the Soviet Union. This engineering talent base is, in part, why Japan can import raw materials and export a desirable good, like a Toyota Camry, microchips, or Mitsubishi (Heavy Industries, I believe?) generators that serve as diesel backups at my university (Connecticut).  In The Clash of Civilizations, Samuel P. Huntington discusses some obstacles to \"westernization\" or simply industrialization, in that the first generation of industrializing nations will go overseas to obtain information from developed powers, then return and eventually instruct a second generation of locals, often by translating from English (or another \"western\" language) into the local tongue (and often poorly). Huntington then goes on to discuss the social implications of this, but that isn't relevant to this conversation.  Japan (and Russia) completed this transition long ago. Japan, for example, was obviously able to create weaponry on par with those of the west during WWII, although, as you point out, its lack of local resources was a hindrance that drove it to expansion and into conflict with the United States. Since WWII, Japan's economy has shifted towards heavy industries and electronics. Its large population gave it the ability to both staff a military and maintain industry at the same time. There's no real way to exert military dominance over a large portion of land without having the manpower to support it.  Japan is able to import raw goods and convert them to a more valuable form, and it has the manpower, infrastructure, and \"institutional knowledge\" required to do so. Thus, it controls a valuable resource (conversion of natural resources into goods) that is competitive on a global market. This is on contrast to Russia, which is geographically much larger, controlling many more natural resources, and with a population of slightly larger size. Russia began industrialization not much before Japan, and has had an even larger impact (I would argue) on all fields of math and science, but its poor economic and social policies during the late Soviet era led to economic collapse, social unrest, and the flight of talent out of the country. Certainly, something similar could happen in Japan, which has been experiencing two decades of lackluster economic performance.  The point being that physical size and population aren't absolutely correlated to world power, only particular instances of world power. That I'm aware, no modern world power (not superpower) is dependent solely on its population or natural resources for its status. That is, nobody is holding the world hostage (absolutely, at least) by one single resource or resource class, or by some massive army, or by some massive consumer base.", "human_ref_B": "England, Holland, and Portugal are other examples of small countries that, in their day, were quite powerful and affluent. In those cases, it was colonialism that provided the wealth and military might that provided the muscle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12904.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2vb35b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How is it possible for a country that, relatively, is quite small like japan, become a world superpower? Where do they get natural resources to create and sell goods?", "c_root_id_A": "cogfxcc", "c_root_id_B": "cogd02a", "created_at_utc_A": 1423522290, "created_at_utc_B": 1423517464, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "To build on the answers others have given, it's important to note that while Japan is geographically small (although larger than California, which is a substantial chunk of the US economic output and population), it is the 10th largest country in the world by population.  Beyond this, neither physical size nor population seem to be absolutely correlated with being a world power. Although Brazil, Mexico, India, China, and Russia all have both large population and large land mass, none of these countries exert truly global power in the way the economies (or armies) of the US, the EU, or even Japan do. Beyond this, no country has ever come close to the global reach of economy and military that the United States has enjoyed since the end of WWII, nuclear weapons notwithstanding.  Japan, like Russia, Europe, and the US, has a rich history of science, mathematics, and engineering. Japan has never suffered the same type of \"brain drain\" that Russia has suffered since the collapse of the Soviet Union. This engineering talent base is, in part, why Japan can import raw materials and export a desirable good, like a Toyota Camry, microchips, or Mitsubishi (Heavy Industries, I believe?) generators that serve as diesel backups at my university (Connecticut).  In The Clash of Civilizations, Samuel P. Huntington discusses some obstacles to \"westernization\" or simply industrialization, in that the first generation of industrializing nations will go overseas to obtain information from developed powers, then return and eventually instruct a second generation of locals, often by translating from English (or another \"western\" language) into the local tongue (and often poorly). Huntington then goes on to discuss the social implications of this, but that isn't relevant to this conversation.  Japan (and Russia) completed this transition long ago. Japan, for example, was obviously able to create weaponry on par with those of the west during WWII, although, as you point out, its lack of local resources was a hindrance that drove it to expansion and into conflict with the United States. Since WWII, Japan's economy has shifted towards heavy industries and electronics. Its large population gave it the ability to both staff a military and maintain industry at the same time. There's no real way to exert military dominance over a large portion of land without having the manpower to support it.  Japan is able to import raw goods and convert them to a more valuable form, and it has the manpower, infrastructure, and \"institutional knowledge\" required to do so. Thus, it controls a valuable resource (conversion of natural resources into goods) that is competitive on a global market. This is on contrast to Russia, which is geographically much larger, controlling many more natural resources, and with a population of slightly larger size. Russia began industrialization not much before Japan, and has had an even larger impact (I would argue) on all fields of math and science, but its poor economic and social policies during the late Soviet era led to economic collapse, social unrest, and the flight of talent out of the country. Certainly, something similar could happen in Japan, which has been experiencing two decades of lackluster economic performance.  The point being that physical size and population aren't absolutely correlated to world power, only particular instances of world power. That I'm aware, no modern world power (not superpower) is dependent solely on its population or natural resources for its status. That is, nobody is holding the world hostage (absolutely, at least) by one single resource or resource class, or by some massive army, or by some massive consumer base.", "human_ref_B": "Because mining rocks out of the ground and harvesting crops is peasant work.  The real money (from which comes power) is in actually making finished products from those natural resources.  This is a severe and downright insulting simplification, of course.  Farming and mining can be highly lucrative and specialized work requiring significant education and infrastructure.  Point is, you can extract significant wealth even without having much ability to produce them yourself, so long as you can buy them from people who do.  Post-WW2 Japan gained power by importing raw iron ore and sand and exporting cars and computer chips.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4826.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2vb35b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How is it possible for a country that, relatively, is quite small like japan, become a world superpower? Where do they get natural resources to create and sell goods?", "c_root_id_A": "cogfpqy", "c_root_id_B": "cogfxcc", "created_at_utc_A": 1423521938, "created_at_utc_B": 1423522290, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "You might get a better answer to this on /r/AskHistorians.", "human_ref_B": "To build on the answers others have given, it's important to note that while Japan is geographically small (although larger than California, which is a substantial chunk of the US economic output and population), it is the 10th largest country in the world by population.  Beyond this, neither physical size nor population seem to be absolutely correlated with being a world power. Although Brazil, Mexico, India, China, and Russia all have both large population and large land mass, none of these countries exert truly global power in the way the economies (or armies) of the US, the EU, or even Japan do. Beyond this, no country has ever come close to the global reach of economy and military that the United States has enjoyed since the end of WWII, nuclear weapons notwithstanding.  Japan, like Russia, Europe, and the US, has a rich history of science, mathematics, and engineering. Japan has never suffered the same type of \"brain drain\" that Russia has suffered since the collapse of the Soviet Union. This engineering talent base is, in part, why Japan can import raw materials and export a desirable good, like a Toyota Camry, microchips, or Mitsubishi (Heavy Industries, I believe?) generators that serve as diesel backups at my university (Connecticut).  In The Clash of Civilizations, Samuel P. Huntington discusses some obstacles to \"westernization\" or simply industrialization, in that the first generation of industrializing nations will go overseas to obtain information from developed powers, then return and eventually instruct a second generation of locals, often by translating from English (or another \"western\" language) into the local tongue (and often poorly). Huntington then goes on to discuss the social implications of this, but that isn't relevant to this conversation.  Japan (and Russia) completed this transition long ago. Japan, for example, was obviously able to create weaponry on par with those of the west during WWII, although, as you point out, its lack of local resources was a hindrance that drove it to expansion and into conflict with the United States. Since WWII, Japan's economy has shifted towards heavy industries and electronics. Its large population gave it the ability to both staff a military and maintain industry at the same time. There's no real way to exert military dominance over a large portion of land without having the manpower to support it.  Japan is able to import raw goods and convert them to a more valuable form, and it has the manpower, infrastructure, and \"institutional knowledge\" required to do so. Thus, it controls a valuable resource (conversion of natural resources into goods) that is competitive on a global market. This is on contrast to Russia, which is geographically much larger, controlling many more natural resources, and with a population of slightly larger size. Russia began industrialization not much before Japan, and has had an even larger impact (I would argue) on all fields of math and science, but its poor economic and social policies during the late Soviet era led to economic collapse, social unrest, and the flight of talent out of the country. Certainly, something similar could happen in Japan, which has been experiencing two decades of lackluster economic performance.  The point being that physical size and population aren't absolutely correlated to world power, only particular instances of world power. That I'm aware, no modern world power (not superpower) is dependent solely on its population or natural resources for its status. That is, nobody is holding the world hostage (absolutely, at least) by one single resource or resource class, or by some massive army, or by some massive consumer base.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 352.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uml0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Theoretically, would mosquitos drink blood from a recently deceased body or standing pools of blood? I'm aware that mosquitoes detect carbon dioxide, and decaying carcasses do give off some C02, but I'm thinking of a very recently dead body -- within minutes.  And before anyone asks, this is for a short story. :)", "c_root_id_A": "c4wpgsp", "c_root_id_B": "c4wq2el", "created_at_utc_A": 1338929890, "created_at_utc_B": 1338932309, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Sorry to be nit-picky, but that's \"CO2\" and not \"C02\" - figured I should point that out particularly in case you write it in your story or something, haha :) Not sure of the answer, unfortunately.. and that's a shame that you're not brent spiner, that would be cool :(", "human_ref_B": "I studied malaria mosquitoes, and you can't get them to feed from pooled blood. It doesn't even attract them (of course, it attracts flies).  They are attracted (as you said) by carbon dioxide, moisture and some smells emitted by prey bodies. I think they would feed on a body that was still warm.  By the way, we had to feed our mosquitoes by putting our arms (with a glove over our hands) in the cage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2419.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uml0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Theoretically, would mosquitos drink blood from a recently deceased body or standing pools of blood? I'm aware that mosquitoes detect carbon dioxide, and decaying carcasses do give off some C02, but I'm thinking of a very recently dead body -- within minutes.  And before anyone asks, this is for a short story. :)", "c_root_id_A": "c4wppr9", "c_root_id_B": "c4wq2el", "created_at_utc_A": 1338930873, "created_at_utc_B": 1338932309, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Sometimes those with access to it will hang a big bag of Goats blood In a room. All the mosquitoes Attack the bag", "human_ref_B": "I studied malaria mosquitoes, and you can't get them to feed from pooled blood. It doesn't even attract them (of course, it attracts flies).  They are attracted (as you said) by carbon dioxide, moisture and some smells emitted by prey bodies. I think they would feed on a body that was still warm.  By the way, we had to feed our mosquitoes by putting our arms (with a glove over our hands) in the cage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1436.0, "score_ratio": -9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uml0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Theoretically, would mosquitos drink blood from a recently deceased body or standing pools of blood? I'm aware that mosquitoes detect carbon dioxide, and decaying carcasses do give off some C02, but I'm thinking of a very recently dead body -- within minutes.  And before anyone asks, this is for a short story. :)", "c_root_id_A": "c4wpof6", "c_root_id_B": "c4wq2el", "created_at_utc_A": 1338930726, "created_at_utc_B": 1338932309, "score_A": -4, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "If it's for a short story, I don't think the answer matters. It sounds like you're trying to create a moment or image with the idea. I think that in cases like this poetic license should be allowed to stand apart from reality.", "human_ref_B": "I studied malaria mosquitoes, and you can't get them to feed from pooled blood. It doesn't even attract them (of course, it attracts flies).  They are attracted (as you said) by carbon dioxide, moisture and some smells emitted by prey bodies. I think they would feed on a body that was still warm.  By the way, we had to feed our mosquitoes by putting our arms (with a glove over our hands) in the cage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1583.0, "score_ratio": -2.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uml0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Theoretically, would mosquitos drink blood from a recently deceased body or standing pools of blood? I'm aware that mosquitoes detect carbon dioxide, and decaying carcasses do give off some C02, but I'm thinking of a very recently dead body -- within minutes.  And before anyone asks, this is for a short story. :)", "c_root_id_A": "c4wpgsp", "c_root_id_B": "c4wth8b", "created_at_utc_A": 1338929890, "created_at_utc_B": 1338947699, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Sorry to be nit-picky, but that's \"CO2\" and not \"C02\" - figured I should point that out particularly in case you write it in your story or something, haha :) Not sure of the answer, unfortunately.. and that's a shame that you're not brent spiner, that would be cool :(", "human_ref_B": "Within 10-15 minutes of death, pallor mortis occurs, and bloods drains from the capillaries (where mosquitoes draw blood). As soon as the blood drains, cellular respiration stops, which reduces \"odors\" that the mosquito might require as a signal.  In other words, there is blood available, but not accessible to the mosquito, as it flows to the lost point of the body. Any blood that is flowing out of the body would quickly clot, also being useless to the mosquito.  So, a recently deceased animal (human, cow, goat or whatever) would be a good food source for a few minutes, but that's about it.   Also, remember all animals that seek food sources utilize energy in doing so. If they cannot get energy from trying to feed on a body when the blood is no longer in easily accessible capillaries, they need to move on. I'm sure there's some signal that indicates to the mosquito that the dead body has a limited blood source, so they would turn their attention to a better source or nourishment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17809.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uml0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Theoretically, would mosquitos drink blood from a recently deceased body or standing pools of blood? I'm aware that mosquitoes detect carbon dioxide, and decaying carcasses do give off some C02, but I'm thinking of a very recently dead body -- within minutes.  And before anyone asks, this is for a short story. :)", "c_root_id_A": "c4wth8b", "c_root_id_B": "c4wppr9", "created_at_utc_A": 1338947699, "created_at_utc_B": 1338930873, "score_A": 8, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Within 10-15 minutes of death, pallor mortis occurs, and bloods drains from the capillaries (where mosquitoes draw blood). As soon as the blood drains, cellular respiration stops, which reduces \"odors\" that the mosquito might require as a signal.  In other words, there is blood available, but not accessible to the mosquito, as it flows to the lost point of the body. Any blood that is flowing out of the body would quickly clot, also being useless to the mosquito.  So, a recently deceased animal (human, cow, goat or whatever) would be a good food source for a few minutes, but that's about it.   Also, remember all animals that seek food sources utilize energy in doing so. If they cannot get energy from trying to feed on a body when the blood is no longer in easily accessible capillaries, they need to move on. I'm sure there's some signal that indicates to the mosquito that the dead body has a limited blood source, so they would turn their attention to a better source or nourishment.", "human_ref_B": "Sometimes those with access to it will hang a big bag of Goats blood In a room. All the mosquitoes Attack the bag", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16826.0, "score_ratio": -8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uml0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Theoretically, would mosquitos drink blood from a recently deceased body or standing pools of blood? I'm aware that mosquitoes detect carbon dioxide, and decaying carcasses do give off some C02, but I'm thinking of a very recently dead body -- within minutes.  And before anyone asks, this is for a short story. :)", "c_root_id_A": "c4wpof6", "c_root_id_B": "c4wth8b", "created_at_utc_A": 1338930726, "created_at_utc_B": 1338947699, "score_A": -4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "If it's for a short story, I don't think the answer matters. It sounds like you're trying to create a moment or image with the idea. I think that in cases like this poetic license should be allowed to stand apart from reality.", "human_ref_B": "Within 10-15 minutes of death, pallor mortis occurs, and bloods drains from the capillaries (where mosquitoes draw blood). As soon as the blood drains, cellular respiration stops, which reduces \"odors\" that the mosquito might require as a signal.  In other words, there is blood available, but not accessible to the mosquito, as it flows to the lost point of the body. Any blood that is flowing out of the body would quickly clot, also being useless to the mosquito.  So, a recently deceased animal (human, cow, goat or whatever) would be a good food source for a few minutes, but that's about it.   Also, remember all animals that seek food sources utilize energy in doing so. If they cannot get energy from trying to feed on a body when the blood is no longer in easily accessible capillaries, they need to move on. I'm sure there's some signal that indicates to the mosquito that the dead body has a limited blood source, so they would turn their attention to a better source or nourishment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16973.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uml0z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Theoretically, would mosquitos drink blood from a recently deceased body or standing pools of blood? I'm aware that mosquitoes detect carbon dioxide, and decaying carcasses do give off some C02, but I'm thinking of a very recently dead body -- within minutes.  And before anyone asks, this is for a short story. :)", "c_root_id_A": "c4wpof6", "c_root_id_B": "c4wppr9", "created_at_utc_A": 1338930726, "created_at_utc_B": 1338930873, "score_A": -4, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "If it's for a short story, I don't think the answer matters. It sounds like you're trying to create a moment or image with the idea. I think that in cases like this poetic license should be allowed to stand apart from reality.", "human_ref_B": "Sometimes those with access to it will hang a big bag of Goats blood In a room. All the mosquitoes Attack the bag", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 147.0, "score_ratio": 0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oed8e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "When you lose weight through exercise, how exactly does that weight leave the body? You lift weights, you 'burn' fat... and then where does it go? Is it excreted through feces, urine or sweat? Is it literally 'burned' off and becomes heat energy?  Bonus points will be awarded for the exact chemical process e.g. fat reacts with chemical -> energy and byproducts.... etc.", "c_root_id_A": "c3gk502", "c_root_id_B": "c3gk61u", "created_at_utc_A": 1326400143, "created_at_utc_B": 1326400286, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "The carbon dioxide and water you breathe out has more mass than the oxygen you breathe in.", "human_ref_B": "Breath. Let's greatly simplify respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6 H2O. So the carbon from your body is carried out largely by hitching a ride on the oxygen and exiting as carbon dioxide. And then the water can be released as sweat, water vapor in breath, or urine to a degree. I'm not an expert here but I do think water vapor in breath is the leading factor.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 143.0, "score_ratio": 5.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oed8e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "When you lose weight through exercise, how exactly does that weight leave the body? You lift weights, you 'burn' fat... and then where does it go? Is it excreted through feces, urine or sweat? Is it literally 'burned' off and becomes heat energy?  Bonus points will be awarded for the exact chemical process e.g. fat reacts with chemical -> energy and byproducts.... etc.", "c_root_id_A": "c3glhzl", "c_root_id_B": "c3gk502", "created_at_utc_A": 1326406943, "created_at_utc_B": 1326400143, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Askscience had this yesterday as a question. This is the answer I posted.   Search function is cool!", "human_ref_B": "The carbon dioxide and water you breathe out has more mass than the oxygen you breathe in.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6800.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n5295", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "When your pupils dilate does it change the depth of field that you see as well? I got to thinking about how a when the iris on a camera lens clamps down it changes the depth of field (eg tighter aperture equals less shallow depth of field). Does the same thing happen to the eye?", "c_root_id_A": "c36emx9", "c_root_id_B": "c36fnzt", "created_at_utc_A": 1323388207, "created_at_utc_B": 1323394708, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "When the pupils are pharmaceutically dilated, close vision is impaired, but distance vision is normal. Is that what you're asking? I had my eyes dilated last week and I could drive, but not read anything on my phone.", "human_ref_B": "Yes of course. A little test I did a few years back:  I was driving the tram here in Vienna and they have some transparent billboard foils over their window. To let light in, the foils are perforated. If you lean against the window and focus on the streetside outside, you can see the blurr pattern changing when you come from underground to daylight or vice versa.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6501.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n5295", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "When your pupils dilate does it change the depth of field that you see as well? I got to thinking about how a when the iris on a camera lens clamps down it changes the depth of field (eg tighter aperture equals less shallow depth of field). Does the same thing happen to the eye?", "c_root_id_A": "c36g1kf", "c_root_id_B": "c36emx9", "created_at_utc_A": 1323397130, "created_at_utc_B": 1323388207, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Not only that, but it also works in reverse. Changing your focus distance (depth of field correlates highly with viewed distance) actually changes your pupil size. You can test this at home. Take a video camera or a friend and point it (or tell the friend to look) at one of your eyes. Close the other eye (so that refocusing doesn't accidentally cause your eye to move) and then alternately focus the vision of your open eye really really close and then really really far away. If you do it right your pupil will get bigger and smaller each time you shift focus distance.", "human_ref_B": "When the pupils are pharmaceutically dilated, close vision is impaired, but distance vision is normal. Is that what you're asking? I had my eyes dilated last week and I could drive, but not read anything on my phone.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8923.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vpwv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "how much force would it take to alter the orbit of a planet like earth or mars? So I was watching Futurama why not and in two episodes, Crimes of the Hot and A Farewell to Arms, Earth and Mars are pushed out of their orbits. Now obviously it's a cartoon, complete with disembodied heads and various other future-y crap but it got me thinking, what would it take to push or pull a planet in a stable orbit into an eccentric one in terms of total force? Would the planet somehow self-correct?    feel free to answer with the aid of futurama memes.", "c_root_id_A": "c56lude", "c_root_id_B": "c56lz1b", "created_at_utc_A": 1340854409, "created_at_utc_B": 1340854921, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Any external force exerted on one side of a planet will alter its orbit. The only question is how big an alteration you want.", "human_ref_B": "The big question here is \"how much do you want to alter its orbit?\" Any amount of force will technically alter a planet's orbit, but unless it's a very large force, it won't be detectable.  That said, I saw the Futurama episodes, too...let's say we're trying to alter Mars' orbit to one that will be very elliptical, having its apogee (furthest point) at the current Mars-Sun distance, and perigee (closest point) at the Earth-Sun distance.   To do this, we'd have to slow down Mars' tangential orbital speed by a certain amount. If we did this just right, it would fall inward towards the Sun as it also orbited, reaching the Earth-Sun distance on the opposite side of its orbit, then loop back out again to return to the point where we did the Mars course correction.  First, lets get some numbers we'll need:  - The Mars-Sun distance is, on average, 228 million kilometers  - The Earth-Sun distance is 150 million kilometers.  - Mars' mass is 6.42 x 10^23 kilograms  - The Sun's mass is 1.99 x 10^30 kilograms  - The gravitational constant is 6.67 x 10^-11 in mks units  We'll be using the vis-viva equation for this calculation, which is:  V = [G*M_sun * (2/r - 1/a)]^1/2  ...where V is the velocity of the planet in its orbit, G is the gravitational constant, M_sun is the Sun's mass, r is the current Sun-planet distance, and a is the average Sun-planet distance over the entire orbit. For circular orbits, r=a and this equation simplifies to:  V = [GM/r]^1/2  If we assume Mars is currently in a circular orbit (which it's not exactly, but hey, close enough for government work), then it's currently moving with a velocity of:  V = [(6.67e-11)(1.99e30 kg) / (2.28e11 m)]^1/2   = 24100 m/s  ...or about 54,000 mph. Now, we want to slow it down to get it to an orbit with the current Mars-Sun distance at apogee and the current Earth-Sun distance at perigee...which means the average distance over that entire orbit will be the average of the Earth-Sun and Mars-Sun distance = (228 million km + 150 million km)/2 = 189 kilometers.  Moreover, we're going to exert our force to slow it down when it's still in its current orbit, so when it's still at the Mars-Sun distance. The vis-viva equations works out to be:  V = [(6.67e-11)(1.99e30 kg) * (2/2.28e11 m - 1/1.89e11 m)]^1/2   = 21500 m/s  ...or about 48,000 mph. Now, to get to your original question, how much force do we need to exert to change Mars' velocity from 24100 m/s to 21500 m/s? Using the term \"force\" is a bit ambiguous for this question since you could exert a weak force and decelerate the planet over a long time, or exert a strong force and decelerate the planet quickly.  What doesn't change is the amount of energy required to do this - whether you decelerate the planet over a long period of time, or decelerate it quickly, you'll end up using the same amount of energy. The equation for kinetic energy is:  KE = 1/2 m*v^2  ...where m is the mass of the planet, and v are the velocities we've previously computed. The orbital kinetic energy the planet currently has is:  KE = 1/2 (6.42 x 10^23 kg)(24100 m/s)^2 = 1.86 x 10^32 Joules.  The orbital kinetic energy that Mars will have in its new orbit will be:  KE = 1/2 (6.42 x 10^23 kg)(21500 m/s)^2 = 1.48 x 10^32 Joules.  The difference between these two - 3.8 x 10^31 Joules - is how much energy you'll need to put into the system to put Mars onto its new Earth-glancing orbit.   To give you some idea of just how much energy this is, the world generation of electricity per year is only 6.8 x 10^19 Joules, about half a trillion times less than the energy you'd need to move Mars. In other words, still way, way less than humanity is currently capable of generating. On the other hand, the total output of energy from the Sun in a single day is about 3.3 x 10^31 Joules, not far off from what you'd need.  **TL;DR**: You'd need about half a trillion (500 billion) times the amount of energy generated by the entire world each year to put Mars into an Earth-glancing orbit.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 512.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vpwv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "how much force would it take to alter the orbit of a planet like earth or mars? So I was watching Futurama why not and in two episodes, Crimes of the Hot and A Farewell to Arms, Earth and Mars are pushed out of their orbits. Now obviously it's a cartoon, complete with disembodied heads and various other future-y crap but it got me thinking, what would it take to push or pull a planet in a stable orbit into an eccentric one in terms of total force? Would the planet somehow self-correct?    feel free to answer with the aid of futurama memes.", "c_root_id_A": "c56lea4", "c_root_id_B": "c56lz1b", "created_at_utc_A": 1340852550, "created_at_utc_B": 1340854921, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": ">how much force would it take to alter the orbit of a planet like earth  Newton's second law states that F=ma (force=mass*acceleration).  Any unbalanced force applied to a mass will cause it to accelerate in the direction the force is acting.  Since the Earth is so massive (~6x10^24 kg) to cause any notable acceleration would require a huge force.  That being said any small force still does have a small affect so any force will alter the orbit of the Earth.  >what would it take to push or pull a planet in a stable orbit into an eccentric one  The Earth is currently in a stable orbit with an eccentricity of 0.0167 (where e=0 is a circle and e=0 a parabola).", "human_ref_B": "The big question here is \"how much do you want to alter its orbit?\" Any amount of force will technically alter a planet's orbit, but unless it's a very large force, it won't be detectable.  That said, I saw the Futurama episodes, too...let's say we're trying to alter Mars' orbit to one that will be very elliptical, having its apogee (furthest point) at the current Mars-Sun distance, and perigee (closest point) at the Earth-Sun distance.   To do this, we'd have to slow down Mars' tangential orbital speed by a certain amount. If we did this just right, it would fall inward towards the Sun as it also orbited, reaching the Earth-Sun distance on the opposite side of its orbit, then loop back out again to return to the point where we did the Mars course correction.  First, lets get some numbers we'll need:  - The Mars-Sun distance is, on average, 228 million kilometers  - The Earth-Sun distance is 150 million kilometers.  - Mars' mass is 6.42 x 10^23 kilograms  - The Sun's mass is 1.99 x 10^30 kilograms  - The gravitational constant is 6.67 x 10^-11 in mks units  We'll be using the vis-viva equation for this calculation, which is:  V = [G*M_sun * (2/r - 1/a)]^1/2  ...where V is the velocity of the planet in its orbit, G is the gravitational constant, M_sun is the Sun's mass, r is the current Sun-planet distance, and a is the average Sun-planet distance over the entire orbit. For circular orbits, r=a and this equation simplifies to:  V = [GM/r]^1/2  If we assume Mars is currently in a circular orbit (which it's not exactly, but hey, close enough for government work), then it's currently moving with a velocity of:  V = [(6.67e-11)(1.99e30 kg) / (2.28e11 m)]^1/2   = 24100 m/s  ...or about 54,000 mph. Now, we want to slow it down to get it to an orbit with the current Mars-Sun distance at apogee and the current Earth-Sun distance at perigee...which means the average distance over that entire orbit will be the average of the Earth-Sun and Mars-Sun distance = (228 million km + 150 million km)/2 = 189 kilometers.  Moreover, we're going to exert our force to slow it down when it's still in its current orbit, so when it's still at the Mars-Sun distance. The vis-viva equations works out to be:  V = [(6.67e-11)(1.99e30 kg) * (2/2.28e11 m - 1/1.89e11 m)]^1/2   = 21500 m/s  ...or about 48,000 mph. Now, to get to your original question, how much force do we need to exert to change Mars' velocity from 24100 m/s to 21500 m/s? Using the term \"force\" is a bit ambiguous for this question since you could exert a weak force and decelerate the planet over a long time, or exert a strong force and decelerate the planet quickly.  What doesn't change is the amount of energy required to do this - whether you decelerate the planet over a long period of time, or decelerate it quickly, you'll end up using the same amount of energy. The equation for kinetic energy is:  KE = 1/2 m*v^2  ...where m is the mass of the planet, and v are the velocities we've previously computed. The orbital kinetic energy the planet currently has is:  KE = 1/2 (6.42 x 10^23 kg)(24100 m/s)^2 = 1.86 x 10^32 Joules.  The orbital kinetic energy that Mars will have in its new orbit will be:  KE = 1/2 (6.42 x 10^23 kg)(21500 m/s)^2 = 1.48 x 10^32 Joules.  The difference between these two - 3.8 x 10^31 Joules - is how much energy you'll need to put into the system to put Mars onto its new Earth-glancing orbit.   To give you some idea of just how much energy this is, the world generation of electricity per year is only 6.8 x 10^19 Joules, about half a trillion times less than the energy you'd need to move Mars. In other words, still way, way less than humanity is currently capable of generating. On the other hand, the total output of energy from the Sun in a single day is about 3.3 x 10^31 Joules, not far off from what you'd need.  **TL;DR**: You'd need about half a trillion (500 billion) times the amount of energy generated by the entire world each year to put Mars into an Earth-glancing orbit.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2371.0, "score_ratio": 7.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vpwv4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "how much force would it take to alter the orbit of a planet like earth or mars? So I was watching Futurama why not and in two episodes, Crimes of the Hot and A Farewell to Arms, Earth and Mars are pushed out of their orbits. Now obviously it's a cartoon, complete with disembodied heads and various other future-y crap but it got me thinking, what would it take to push or pull a planet in a stable orbit into an eccentric one in terms of total force? Would the planet somehow self-correct?    feel free to answer with the aid of futurama memes.", "c_root_id_A": "c56lea4", "c_root_id_B": "c56lude", "created_at_utc_A": 1340852550, "created_at_utc_B": 1340854409, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": ">how much force would it take to alter the orbit of a planet like earth  Newton's second law states that F=ma (force=mass*acceleration).  Any unbalanced force applied to a mass will cause it to accelerate in the direction the force is acting.  Since the Earth is so massive (~6x10^24 kg) to cause any notable acceleration would require a huge force.  That being said any small force still does have a small affect so any force will alter the orbit of the Earth.  >what would it take to push or pull a planet in a stable orbit into an eccentric one  The Earth is currently in a stable orbit with an eccentricity of 0.0167 (where e=0 is a circle and e=0 a parabola).", "human_ref_B": "Any external force exerted on one side of a planet will alter its orbit. The only question is how big an alteration you want.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1859.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r6e51m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How to obtain energy gain or loss of chemical reactions? Chemical reactions either take or release energy.  So this \"energy\" must be on either the reactant or at the product side.  What specific chemistry concept is this?  I assume that I need specific computations for getting the energy of all reactants and products as well, how do I obtain this \"energy\" value as well?  what formulas and table values do I need to use?", "c_root_id_A": "hmtli3k", "c_root_id_B": "hmupf5t", "created_at_utc_A": 1638381110, "created_at_utc_B": 1638396331, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Energy is conserved. This means that if you take all the different kinds of energies in a reaction, the total energy before the start of the reaction should equal the total energy at the end of the reaction, the exact amount of energy for each energy type just changes.  Primarily, reactions will convert energy between the energy in chemical bonds and heat energy. For setting up equations, adding the two types of energies together and is usually all that needs to be done. Just set the before energy equal to the after energy and solve for whatever you need to. There should be specific equations provided from your course materials to find the energy stored in chemical bonds, or the energy dissipated as heat. Maybe another commenter has them readily available and can comment, but there\u2019s the simple explanation of what\u2019s going on. PV=nRT is usually all I need, but I don\u2019t have to do much chemistry very often.", "human_ref_B": "Pick up an old edition college general chemistry text book from Half Price Books... Best $5 you'll spend... It explains theory, it has tables for basic reactions, and shows how to actually measure the total energy by making a simple calorimeter.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15221.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r6e51m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How to obtain energy gain or loss of chemical reactions? Chemical reactions either take or release energy.  So this \"energy\" must be on either the reactant or at the product side.  What specific chemistry concept is this?  I assume that I need specific computations for getting the energy of all reactants and products as well, how do I obtain this \"energy\" value as well?  what formulas and table values do I need to use?", "c_root_id_A": "hmuf52p", "c_root_id_B": "hmupf5t", "created_at_utc_A": 1638392423, "created_at_utc_B": 1638396331, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Matter wants to be stable so it requires energy to create new bonds. Likewise, when a complex molecule breaks down, it likely releases that extra energy as heat.  The \"energy\"/heat is actually usually marked on the arrow of the chemical equation as it is not a direct reactant or product, but rather \"added\" or released to/by the reaction.  The values to look up would be the specific heat capacity of the solutions/objects.  The formula you're probably looking for is   Q = m * c * delta(T).  Q is the energy released, m mass of the end result, c specify heat capacity, change in temperature.  Good luck in your finals.", "human_ref_B": "Pick up an old edition college general chemistry text book from Half Price Books... Best $5 you'll spend... It explains theory, it has tables for basic reactions, and shows how to actually measure the total energy by making a simple calorimeter.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3908.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r6e51m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How to obtain energy gain or loss of chemical reactions? Chemical reactions either take or release energy.  So this \"energy\" must be on either the reactant or at the product side.  What specific chemistry concept is this?  I assume that I need specific computations for getting the energy of all reactants and products as well, how do I obtain this \"energy\" value as well?  what formulas and table values do I need to use?", "c_root_id_A": "hmxks35", "c_root_id_B": "hmtli3k", "created_at_utc_A": 1638454008, "created_at_utc_B": 1638381110, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I recommend H. B. Callen: Thermodynamics, an Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, New York, 1985  to understand thermodynamics.  It's available for free on ELTE's Chemical Informatics PI's website.  http://turilaszlo.web.elte.hu/teaching/physchem1/lecture/irodalom.htm", "human_ref_B": "Energy is conserved. This means that if you take all the different kinds of energies in a reaction, the total energy before the start of the reaction should equal the total energy at the end of the reaction, the exact amount of energy for each energy type just changes.  Primarily, reactions will convert energy between the energy in chemical bonds and heat energy. For setting up equations, adding the two types of energies together and is usually all that needs to be done. Just set the before energy equal to the after energy and solve for whatever you need to. There should be specific equations provided from your course materials to find the energy stored in chemical bonds, or the energy dissipated as heat. Maybe another commenter has them readily available and can comment, but there\u2019s the simple explanation of what\u2019s going on. PV=nRT is usually all I need, but I don\u2019t have to do much chemistry very often.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 72898.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r6e51m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How to obtain energy gain or loss of chemical reactions? Chemical reactions either take or release energy.  So this \"energy\" must be on either the reactant or at the product side.  What specific chemistry concept is this?  I assume that I need specific computations for getting the energy of all reactants and products as well, how do I obtain this \"energy\" value as well?  what formulas and table values do I need to use?", "c_root_id_A": "hmuf52p", "c_root_id_B": "hmxks35", "created_at_utc_A": 1638392423, "created_at_utc_B": 1638454008, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Matter wants to be stable so it requires energy to create new bonds. Likewise, when a complex molecule breaks down, it likely releases that extra energy as heat.  The \"energy\"/heat is actually usually marked on the arrow of the chemical equation as it is not a direct reactant or product, but rather \"added\" or released to/by the reaction.  The values to look up would be the specific heat capacity of the solutions/objects.  The formula you're probably looking for is   Q = m * c * delta(T).  Q is the energy released, m mass of the end result, c specify heat capacity, change in temperature.  Good luck in your finals.", "human_ref_B": "I recommend H. B. Callen: Thermodynamics, an Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, New York, 1985  to understand thermodynamics.  It's available for free on ELTE's Chemical Informatics PI's website.  http://turilaszlo.web.elte.hu/teaching/physchem1/lecture/irodalom.htm", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 61585.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zt6xd", "c_root_id_B": "c7zrzk8", "created_at_utc_A": 1358616394, "created_at_utc_B": 1358611811, "score_A": 92, "score_B": 34, "human_ref_A": "As others have said, there is a lot of awesome things our visual processing system does beyond our eyes, and processing algorithms have a long way to go.  In fact, the image quality from just our eyes is relatively low compared to our larger sensor camera systems, limited in resolution by around 1 arcminute or 2800 LW/PH in a standard test.  This drops off rapidly from the center of our field of view.    With respect to dynamic range, the eyes can chemically adjust the gain of the rods and cones.  The cones can change their sensitivity chemically within seconds, though rods can take 20 minutes.  This part is more like dynamic contrast and changes the entire scene's intensity, like adapting to a dark cave then walking outside into bright sunlight.  If we're talking about one scene, the eye and brain processes, integrates, and infers information very fast using saccades.  As it rapidly darts around the field of view, it intelligently and quickly changes gain, aperture, and integration time/shutter speed forming a HDR tone-mapped panoramic super resolution focused stacked result.  In addition, our brains perceive light logarithmically and our devices display everything in a smaller linear range, but tone mapping done right can easily combat that.  But to question on dynamic range: it is limited by signal to noise ratio.  There are several sources of noise.  There is physics limits like shot noise.  There is quantum efficiency, pixel-to-pixel unformity, fill factor, dark current read noise, amplifier noise, quantization noise(bit depth), etc.  Sampling a larger area with a larger sensor is also one way to increase the signal.  Large strides continue to be made in improving dynamic range/usecase_landscape).  Recently, a lot of it has been read noise.  CMOS sensors lowered noise significantly by putting amplifiers closer to the sensels, drastically reducing noise gained when the charge was traveling off to the amplifier.  But there has been a lot of other work.   At 14.4 stops and reports that our eyes see up to 14 stops, it might seem like we're there, but the way it is measured is different and I don't have a good real comparison.  But the fact remains that we can't just directly use all that information without a high dynamic range display medium.  Algorithms are getting better for tone mapping it to our mediums, but is very easy to overdo with some of them, so other people do it manually.  If it is done right, it looks real, and you can't easily tell it's HDR.", "human_ref_B": "Time is a factor here. Videocameras change aperture over time. Human eye does this too. So when you look at something bright, you're not necessarily even seeing the not-bright stuff in your field of view that you're not looking at. Even the sensors in our eyes change how much light they need to produce a signal (to the brain). E.g. nightvision. Again though, this is over time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4583.0, "score_ratio": 2.7058823529, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zs3qf", "c_root_id_B": "c7zt6xd", "created_at_utc_A": 1358612261, "created_at_utc_B": 1358616394, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 92, "human_ref_A": "Your eye is only able to see a very small area clearly. Thus only this area needs to be perfectly adapted to the brightness. But more importantly, we see light in a logarithmic way, that means that light which is 10x brighter, seems about twice as bright to us. Therefore our devices would need to show much finer differences of color in dark areas than in bright areas. But they don't, which is why it's so hard to make convincing night scenes in movies. Our devices display light in a linear matter...", "human_ref_B": "As others have said, there is a lot of awesome things our visual processing system does beyond our eyes, and processing algorithms have a long way to go.  In fact, the image quality from just our eyes is relatively low compared to our larger sensor camera systems, limited in resolution by around 1 arcminute or 2800 LW/PH in a standard test.  This drops off rapidly from the center of our field of view.    With respect to dynamic range, the eyes can chemically adjust the gain of the rods and cones.  The cones can change their sensitivity chemically within seconds, though rods can take 20 minutes.  This part is more like dynamic contrast and changes the entire scene's intensity, like adapting to a dark cave then walking outside into bright sunlight.  If we're talking about one scene, the eye and brain processes, integrates, and infers information very fast using saccades.  As it rapidly darts around the field of view, it intelligently and quickly changes gain, aperture, and integration time/shutter speed forming a HDR tone-mapped panoramic super resolution focused stacked result.  In addition, our brains perceive light logarithmically and our devices display everything in a smaller linear range, but tone mapping done right can easily combat that.  But to question on dynamic range: it is limited by signal to noise ratio.  There are several sources of noise.  There is physics limits like shot noise.  There is quantum efficiency, pixel-to-pixel unformity, fill factor, dark current read noise, amplifier noise, quantization noise(bit depth), etc.  Sampling a larger area with a larger sensor is also one way to increase the signal.  Large strides continue to be made in improving dynamic range/usecase_landscape).  Recently, a lot of it has been read noise.  CMOS sensors lowered noise significantly by putting amplifiers closer to the sensels, drastically reducing noise gained when the charge was traveling off to the amplifier.  But there has been a lot of other work.   At 14.4 stops and reports that our eyes see up to 14 stops, it might seem like we're there, but the way it is measured is different and I don't have a good real comparison.  But the fact remains that we can't just directly use all that information without a high dynamic range display medium.  Algorithms are getting better for tone mapping it to our mediums, but is very easy to overdo with some of them, so other people do it manually.  If it is done right, it looks real, and you can't easily tell it's HDR.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4133.0, "score_ratio": 5.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zt6xd", "c_root_id_B": "c7zs3tt", "created_at_utc_A": 1358616394, "created_at_utc_B": 1358612270, "score_A": 92, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "As others have said, there is a lot of awesome things our visual processing system does beyond our eyes, and processing algorithms have a long way to go.  In fact, the image quality from just our eyes is relatively low compared to our larger sensor camera systems, limited in resolution by around 1 arcminute or 2800 LW/PH in a standard test.  This drops off rapidly from the center of our field of view.    With respect to dynamic range, the eyes can chemically adjust the gain of the rods and cones.  The cones can change their sensitivity chemically within seconds, though rods can take 20 minutes.  This part is more like dynamic contrast and changes the entire scene's intensity, like adapting to a dark cave then walking outside into bright sunlight.  If we're talking about one scene, the eye and brain processes, integrates, and infers information very fast using saccades.  As it rapidly darts around the field of view, it intelligently and quickly changes gain, aperture, and integration time/shutter speed forming a HDR tone-mapped panoramic super resolution focused stacked result.  In addition, our brains perceive light logarithmically and our devices display everything in a smaller linear range, but tone mapping done right can easily combat that.  But to question on dynamic range: it is limited by signal to noise ratio.  There are several sources of noise.  There is physics limits like shot noise.  There is quantum efficiency, pixel-to-pixel unformity, fill factor, dark current read noise, amplifier noise, quantization noise(bit depth), etc.  Sampling a larger area with a larger sensor is also one way to increase the signal.  Large strides continue to be made in improving dynamic range/usecase_landscape).  Recently, a lot of it has been read noise.  CMOS sensors lowered noise significantly by putting amplifiers closer to the sensels, drastically reducing noise gained when the charge was traveling off to the amplifier.  But there has been a lot of other work.   At 14.4 stops and reports that our eyes see up to 14 stops, it might seem like we're there, but the way it is measured is different and I don't have a good real comparison.  But the fact remains that we can't just directly use all that information without a high dynamic range display medium.  Algorithms are getting better for tone mapping it to our mediums, but is very easy to overdo with some of them, so other people do it manually.  If it is done right, it looks real, and you can't easily tell it's HDR.", "human_ref_B": "I think you're looking at the wrong device. The problem isn't so much with the camera as with monitor. Even cheap DSLRs capture more than a normal monitor can display, by all parameters: resolution, color depth and dynamic range. A camera with the same dynamic range capabilities as the human eye would still require you to squeeze all that into something the monitor can display. That's still tone mapping, just with one source image.  Also think of what would it mean to be able to really reproduce that: a photograph that captures a bright shining sun would cause the same blinding effect when viewed on the monitor as when you were outside, looking at that landscape.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4124.0, "score_ratio": 30.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zsl0l", "c_root_id_B": "c7zt6xd", "created_at_utc_A": 1358614108, "created_at_utc_B": 1358616394, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 92, "human_ref_A": "What kind of dynamic range are you referring to?  Wavelength, brightness, something else?", "human_ref_B": "As others have said, there is a lot of awesome things our visual processing system does beyond our eyes, and processing algorithms have a long way to go.  In fact, the image quality from just our eyes is relatively low compared to our larger sensor camera systems, limited in resolution by around 1 arcminute or 2800 LW/PH in a standard test.  This drops off rapidly from the center of our field of view.    With respect to dynamic range, the eyes can chemically adjust the gain of the rods and cones.  The cones can change their sensitivity chemically within seconds, though rods can take 20 minutes.  This part is more like dynamic contrast and changes the entire scene's intensity, like adapting to a dark cave then walking outside into bright sunlight.  If we're talking about one scene, the eye and brain processes, integrates, and infers information very fast using saccades.  As it rapidly darts around the field of view, it intelligently and quickly changes gain, aperture, and integration time/shutter speed forming a HDR tone-mapped panoramic super resolution focused stacked result.  In addition, our brains perceive light logarithmically and our devices display everything in a smaller linear range, but tone mapping done right can easily combat that.  But to question on dynamic range: it is limited by signal to noise ratio.  There are several sources of noise.  There is physics limits like shot noise.  There is quantum efficiency, pixel-to-pixel unformity, fill factor, dark current read noise, amplifier noise, quantization noise(bit depth), etc.  Sampling a larger area with a larger sensor is also one way to increase the signal.  Large strides continue to be made in improving dynamic range/usecase_landscape).  Recently, a lot of it has been read noise.  CMOS sensors lowered noise significantly by putting amplifiers closer to the sensels, drastically reducing noise gained when the charge was traveling off to the amplifier.  But there has been a lot of other work.   At 14.4 stops and reports that our eyes see up to 14 stops, it might seem like we're there, but the way it is measured is different and I don't have a good real comparison.  But the fact remains that we can't just directly use all that information without a high dynamic range display medium.  Algorithms are getting better for tone mapping it to our mediums, but is very easy to overdo with some of them, so other people do it manually.  If it is done right, it looks real, and you can't easily tell it's HDR.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2286.0, "score_ratio": 46.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zt6xd", "c_root_id_B": "c7zsffp", "created_at_utc_A": 1358616394, "created_at_utc_B": 1358613523, "score_A": 92, "score_B": -14, "human_ref_A": "As others have said, there is a lot of awesome things our visual processing system does beyond our eyes, and processing algorithms have a long way to go.  In fact, the image quality from just our eyes is relatively low compared to our larger sensor camera systems, limited in resolution by around 1 arcminute or 2800 LW/PH in a standard test.  This drops off rapidly from the center of our field of view.    With respect to dynamic range, the eyes can chemically adjust the gain of the rods and cones.  The cones can change their sensitivity chemically within seconds, though rods can take 20 minutes.  This part is more like dynamic contrast and changes the entire scene's intensity, like adapting to a dark cave then walking outside into bright sunlight.  If we're talking about one scene, the eye and brain processes, integrates, and infers information very fast using saccades.  As it rapidly darts around the field of view, it intelligently and quickly changes gain, aperture, and integration time/shutter speed forming a HDR tone-mapped panoramic super resolution focused stacked result.  In addition, our brains perceive light logarithmically and our devices display everything in a smaller linear range, but tone mapping done right can easily combat that.  But to question on dynamic range: it is limited by signal to noise ratio.  There are several sources of noise.  There is physics limits like shot noise.  There is quantum efficiency, pixel-to-pixel unformity, fill factor, dark current read noise, amplifier noise, quantization noise(bit depth), etc.  Sampling a larger area with a larger sensor is also one way to increase the signal.  Large strides continue to be made in improving dynamic range/usecase_landscape).  Recently, a lot of it has been read noise.  CMOS sensors lowered noise significantly by putting amplifiers closer to the sensels, drastically reducing noise gained when the charge was traveling off to the amplifier.  But there has been a lot of other work.   At 14.4 stops and reports that our eyes see up to 14 stops, it might seem like we're there, but the way it is measured is different and I don't have a good real comparison.  But the fact remains that we can't just directly use all that information without a high dynamic range display medium.  Algorithms are getting better for tone mapping it to our mediums, but is very easy to overdo with some of them, so other people do it manually.  If it is done right, it looks real, and you can't easily tell it's HDR.", "human_ref_B": "The human eye is capable of seeing up to 576 megapixels.   http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_megapixels_does_the_human_eye_have#page3", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2871.0, "score_ratio": -6.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zsffp", "c_root_id_B": "c7zsl0l", "created_at_utc_A": 1358613523, "created_at_utc_B": 1358614108, "score_A": -14, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The human eye is capable of seeing up to 576 megapixels.   http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_megapixels_does_the_human_eye_have#page3", "human_ref_B": "What kind of dynamic range are you referring to?  Wavelength, brightness, something else?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 585.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zw25b", "c_root_id_B": "c7ztet5", "created_at_utc_A": 1358626905, "created_at_utc_B": 1358617198, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There are now Wide Dynamic Range (WDR) sensors available. They are mostly used in automotive dashboard cameras and in surveillance cameras. Here is a demo:  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OWk85sJIgao  A WDR sensor either has (pixel) elements of various grades of sensitivity, or is able to change the light integration time of the elements independently.", "human_ref_B": "The Fujifilm FinePix S3 Pro can natively capture a wider dynamic range than typical image sensors. It does this by have essentially having lower sensitivity pixels mixed in with the normal sensitivity pixels to capture bright detail at the cost of resolution. So there is really no technical reason why we can't trade resolution for dynamic range. I would guess that most photographers prefer more resolution and can deal with dynamic range by taking multiple exposures if needed (or at least marketing departments are obsessed with resolution...)  http://www.dpreview.com/reviews/fujifilms3pro", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9707.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zw25b", "c_root_id_B": "c7zsffp", "created_at_utc_A": 1358626905, "created_at_utc_B": 1358613523, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -14, "human_ref_A": "There are now Wide Dynamic Range (WDR) sensors available. They are mostly used in automotive dashboard cameras and in surveillance cameras. Here is a demo:  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OWk85sJIgao  A WDR sensor either has (pixel) elements of various grades of sensitivity, or is able to change the light integration time of the elements independently.", "human_ref_B": "The human eye is capable of seeing up to 576 megapixels.   http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_megapixels_does_the_human_eye_have#page3", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13382.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zsffp", "c_root_id_B": "c7ztet5", "created_at_utc_A": 1358613523, "created_at_utc_B": 1358617198, "score_A": -14, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The human eye is capable of seeing up to 576 megapixels.   http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_megapixels_does_the_human_eye_have#page3", "human_ref_B": "The Fujifilm FinePix S3 Pro can natively capture a wider dynamic range than typical image sensors. It does this by have essentially having lower sensitivity pixels mixed in with the normal sensitivity pixels to capture bright detail at the cost of resolution. So there is really no technical reason why we can't trade resolution for dynamic range. I would guess that most photographers prefer more resolution and can deal with dynamic range by taking multiple exposures if needed (or at least marketing departments are obsessed with resolution...)  http://www.dpreview.com/reviews/fujifilms3pro", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3675.0, "score_ratio": -0.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zsffp", "c_root_id_B": "c7zw3o7", "created_at_utc_A": 1358613523, "created_at_utc_B": 1358627066, "score_A": -14, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The human eye is capable of seeing up to 576 megapixels.   http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_megapixels_does_the_human_eye_have#page3", "human_ref_B": "Some very good answers here already. I'd like to add that the problem is also that the eye is a lot better at detecting very low light than any sensor out there. The visual threshold of the human eye is only 9 photos per second ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_threshold ). No sensor can keep up with that because of noise.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13543.0, "score_ratio": -0.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zwgyg", "c_root_id_B": "c7zz1a5", "created_at_utc_A": 1358628431, "created_at_utc_B": 1358637974, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Related question. How does the brain interpret noise and what does noise look like?", "human_ref_B": "In short, the human eye sucks and isn't really that impressive. All the good stuff in terms of vision is done by the brain, which is obviously far more complex than any computer. Our brains are excellent at parsing the input they get from our eyes, much better than any software we have.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9543.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zsffp", "c_root_id_B": "c7zz1a5", "created_at_utc_A": 1358613523, "created_at_utc_B": 1358637974, "score_A": -14, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The human eye is capable of seeing up to 576 megapixels.   http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_megapixels_does_the_human_eye_have#page3", "human_ref_B": "In short, the human eye sucks and isn't really that impressive. All the good stuff in terms of vision is done by the brain, which is obviously far more complex than any computer. Our brains are excellent at parsing the input they get from our eyes, much better than any software we have.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24451.0, "score_ratio": -0.0714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c7zwgyg", "c_root_id_B": "c7zsffp", "created_at_utc_A": 1358628431, "created_at_utc_B": 1358613523, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -14, "human_ref_A": "Related question. How does the brain interpret noise and what does noise look like?", "human_ref_B": "The human eye is capable of seeing up to 576 megapixels.   http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_megapixels_does_the_human_eye_have#page3", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14908.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16vmbr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why can't camera manufactures make a camera with the equivalent dynamic range of the human eye? There's HDR photography and graduated filters to help deal with this problem but it would be easier if it just worked.", "c_root_id_A": "c803woz", "c_root_id_B": "c7zsffp", "created_at_utc_A": 1358656936, "created_at_utc_B": 1358613523, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -14, "human_ref_A": "They have, but if they sold that *now* then no one would ever buy a camera again", "human_ref_B": "The human eye is capable of seeing up to 576 megapixels.   http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_megapixels_does_the_human_eye_have#page3", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 43413.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "86ze7c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What determines which wavelengths of light are reflected and which ones are absorbed by a certain dye? I know that blue paint reflects blue light and absorbs for example red light, but I would like to know why it does that. What happens inside the paint?", "c_root_id_A": "dw99am6", "c_root_id_B": "dw98i51", "created_at_utc_A": 1521983840, "created_at_utc_B": 1521982513, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The conjugation of pi bonds in organic dyes creates an energy separation between the HOMO and LUMO that is typically smaller than that for organic compounds comprised of single, sigma bonds. If the conjugation is extensive enough, this energy separation corresponds to the absorption of visible light.  The different extents of conjugation for different organic compounds leads to the absorption of different wavelengths of light - different coloured dyes.   pH indicators make use of this principle. Bromothymol blue, for example, undergoes a structural change when going from basic to acid conditions (with the point being dependent on its own pKa). In turn a change to the conjugation within the molecule occurs changing the wavelength of absorbed light.", "human_ref_B": "I have geared this at a reasonably low level but I have linked 2 university level documents that have a much better explanation then me.  A more easier version of the same question which will have a good explanation is the colour of transition metals with different ligands.  Transition metal complexes are lots of various colours and there are a number of good  write ups that discuss the strength of bond and colour. Link 1 and 2 will give you a basic understanding. These are university level documents so I will give a little background -  Basically some metal complexes are coloured, this is largely due to a gap between 2 energy states. Depending what I complex the same metal (or a different metal) that gap gets larger or smaller. A larger gap will require a larger frequency of light (or photon) to move the electron up the gap and so this will tend to remove high frequency- blue to UV light. You can see this with Zinc Oxide/Titanium dioxide that have large bandgaps and are white complexes used in paints and sunscreen because the large bandgap absorbs UV light. You will see this frequency listed as eV in one of the papers. In this respect wavelength, frequency and eV are all describing the energy gap.   However if you change the metal complexing this will reduce that bandgap and now it absorbs light blue region, and then eventually red region and then even the IR region.   Organic molecules are likely to function in a similar manner but the  energy level changes are probably more complicated to explain but it will be a similar basic concept.   I have worked with metal oxide chemicals a bit so if you want any follow up questions feel free to ask.   Also this is a well understood phenomenon, if it appears uncertain that is likely due to the quality of my explanation. But scientists aren't sitting around going why is that red? Its a extremely well understood mechanism.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1327.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "86ze7c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What determines which wavelengths of light are reflected and which ones are absorbed by a certain dye? I know that blue paint reflects blue light and absorbs for example red light, but I would like to know why it does that. What happens inside the paint?", "c_root_id_A": "dw93v73", "c_root_id_B": "dw98i51", "created_at_utc_A": 1521971964, "created_at_utc_B": 1521982513, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "And suppose you hold this compound over the flames, then much the same thing will occur. The electrons will jump up to higher energy levels , but this time when they come down , the same wavelengths will b emitted, and those we can see. Am sure theres more to this, its all i know.", "human_ref_B": "I have geared this at a reasonably low level but I have linked 2 university level documents that have a much better explanation then me.  A more easier version of the same question which will have a good explanation is the colour of transition metals with different ligands.  Transition metal complexes are lots of various colours and there are a number of good  write ups that discuss the strength of bond and colour. Link 1 and 2 will give you a basic understanding. These are university level documents so I will give a little background -  Basically some metal complexes are coloured, this is largely due to a gap between 2 energy states. Depending what I complex the same metal (or a different metal) that gap gets larger or smaller. A larger gap will require a larger frequency of light (or photon) to move the electron up the gap and so this will tend to remove high frequency- blue to UV light. You can see this with Zinc Oxide/Titanium dioxide that have large bandgaps and are white complexes used in paints and sunscreen because the large bandgap absorbs UV light. You will see this frequency listed as eV in one of the papers. In this respect wavelength, frequency and eV are all describing the energy gap.   However if you change the metal complexing this will reduce that bandgap and now it absorbs light blue region, and then eventually red region and then even the IR region.   Organic molecules are likely to function in a similar manner but the  energy level changes are probably more complicated to explain but it will be a similar basic concept.   I have worked with metal oxide chemicals a bit so if you want any follow up questions feel free to ask.   Also this is a well understood phenomenon, if it appears uncertain that is likely due to the quality of my explanation. But scientists aren't sitting around going why is that red? Its a extremely well understood mechanism.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10549.0, "score_ratio": -0.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "86ze7c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What determines which wavelengths of light are reflected and which ones are absorbed by a certain dye? I know that blue paint reflects blue light and absorbs for example red light, but I would like to know why it does that. What happens inside the paint?", "c_root_id_A": "dw98i51", "c_root_id_B": "dw93sth", "created_at_utc_A": 1521982513, "created_at_utc_B": 1521971781, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "I have geared this at a reasonably low level but I have linked 2 university level documents that have a much better explanation then me.  A more easier version of the same question which will have a good explanation is the colour of transition metals with different ligands.  Transition metal complexes are lots of various colours and there are a number of good  write ups that discuss the strength of bond and colour. Link 1 and 2 will give you a basic understanding. These are university level documents so I will give a little background -  Basically some metal complexes are coloured, this is largely due to a gap between 2 energy states. Depending what I complex the same metal (or a different metal) that gap gets larger or smaller. A larger gap will require a larger frequency of light (or photon) to move the electron up the gap and so this will tend to remove high frequency- blue to UV light. You can see this with Zinc Oxide/Titanium dioxide that have large bandgaps and are white complexes used in paints and sunscreen because the large bandgap absorbs UV light. You will see this frequency listed as eV in one of the papers. In this respect wavelength, frequency and eV are all describing the energy gap.   However if you change the metal complexing this will reduce that bandgap and now it absorbs light blue region, and then eventually red region and then even the IR region.   Organic molecules are likely to function in a similar manner but the  energy level changes are probably more complicated to explain but it will be a similar basic concept.   I have worked with metal oxide chemicals a bit so if you want any follow up questions feel free to ask.   Also this is a well understood phenomenon, if it appears uncertain that is likely due to the quality of my explanation. But scientists aren't sitting around going why is that red? Its a extremely well understood mechanism.", "human_ref_B": "I think you ll read abt dis in chemistry. The atoms on the paint absorb some particular wavelengths of d light out of all the wavelengths, with which the electrons jump to higher energy orbitals from lower energy ones. And the rest of the wavelengths which it cant absorb, it reflects, they just bounce back. Thats all i know. I still dunno what happens to the absorbed wavelenghts; what happens wen the electrons come down to their previous energy levels. I hope this helps", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10732.0, "score_ratio": -0.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "86ze7c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What determines which wavelengths of light are reflected and which ones are absorbed by a certain dye? I know that blue paint reflects blue light and absorbs for example red light, but I would like to know why it does that. What happens inside the paint?", "c_root_id_A": "dw99am6", "c_root_id_B": "dw93v73", "created_at_utc_A": 1521983840, "created_at_utc_B": 1521971964, "score_A": 4, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "The conjugation of pi bonds in organic dyes creates an energy separation between the HOMO and LUMO that is typically smaller than that for organic compounds comprised of single, sigma bonds. If the conjugation is extensive enough, this energy separation corresponds to the absorption of visible light.  The different extents of conjugation for different organic compounds leads to the absorption of different wavelengths of light - different coloured dyes.   pH indicators make use of this principle. Bromothymol blue, for example, undergoes a structural change when going from basic to acid conditions (with the point being dependent on its own pKa). In turn a change to the conjugation within the molecule occurs changing the wavelength of absorbed light.", "human_ref_B": "And suppose you hold this compound over the flames, then much the same thing will occur. The electrons will jump up to higher energy levels , but this time when they come down , the same wavelengths will b emitted, and those we can see. Am sure theres more to this, its all i know.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11876.0, "score_ratio": -0.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "86ze7c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What determines which wavelengths of light are reflected and which ones are absorbed by a certain dye? I know that blue paint reflects blue light and absorbs for example red light, but I would like to know why it does that. What happens inside the paint?", "c_root_id_A": "dw99am6", "c_root_id_B": "dw93sth", "created_at_utc_A": 1521983840, "created_at_utc_B": 1521971781, "score_A": 4, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "The conjugation of pi bonds in organic dyes creates an energy separation between the HOMO and LUMO that is typically smaller than that for organic compounds comprised of single, sigma bonds. If the conjugation is extensive enough, this energy separation corresponds to the absorption of visible light.  The different extents of conjugation for different organic compounds leads to the absorption of different wavelengths of light - different coloured dyes.   pH indicators make use of this principle. Bromothymol blue, for example, undergoes a structural change when going from basic to acid conditions (with the point being dependent on its own pKa). In turn a change to the conjugation within the molecule occurs changing the wavelength of absorbed light.", "human_ref_B": "I think you ll read abt dis in chemistry. The atoms on the paint absorb some particular wavelengths of d light out of all the wavelengths, with which the electrons jump to higher energy orbitals from lower energy ones. And the rest of the wavelengths which it cant absorb, it reflects, they just bounce back. Thats all i know. I still dunno what happens to the absorbed wavelenghts; what happens wen the electrons come down to their previous energy levels. I hope this helps", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12059.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "86ze7c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What determines which wavelengths of light are reflected and which ones are absorbed by a certain dye? I know that blue paint reflects blue light and absorbs for example red light, but I would like to know why it does that. What happens inside the paint?", "c_root_id_A": "dw93sth", "c_root_id_B": "dw93v73", "created_at_utc_A": 1521971781, "created_at_utc_B": 1521971964, "score_A": -8, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "I think you ll read abt dis in chemistry. The atoms on the paint absorb some particular wavelengths of d light out of all the wavelengths, with which the electrons jump to higher energy orbitals from lower energy ones. And the rest of the wavelengths which it cant absorb, it reflects, they just bounce back. Thats all i know. I still dunno what happens to the absorbed wavelenghts; what happens wen the electrons come down to their previous energy levels. I hope this helps", "human_ref_B": "And suppose you hold this compound over the flames, then much the same thing will occur. The electrons will jump up to higher energy levels , but this time when they come down , the same wavelengths will b emitted, and those we can see. Am sure theres more to this, its all i know.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 183.0, "score_ratio": 0.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "474tu1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How does a computer store a number like e? Where would I find e in a computer's memory? Or pi. Or i. If a number cannot be represented by a ratio of integers, how can we use it in a computer comprising discrete bits?", "c_root_id_A": "d0ap18x", "c_root_id_B": "d0ak1zz", "created_at_utc_A": 1456243958, "created_at_utc_B": 1456235700, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "A computer can calculate any arbitrary digit of an irrational number. Any turing machine (given infinite RAM) can calculate anything, as far as we know.  Mathematical software (like Sagemath or Mathematica) will usually just store the description of a number before you actually need to approximate the number. So *e* would just be stored as *e* (in the form of some sort of special object in memory for representing numbers). Multiply it by 2 and it's 2*e*. Asking the software for a decimal approximation would calculate *e* to whatever precision is needed then multiply that by 2. This system works for complex numbers, too.  Most of the time, this level of exactness isn't needed. A 64-bit floating point approximation of a constant like pi is good enough for most uses, but you lose the information that the number is formed from an unrepresentable number.", "human_ref_B": "The computer most likely stores an approximation in the form of a double precision floating point. The closest such approximation of *e* will be less than 2^-52 (about 2*10^-16 ) away from the correct value. Hopefully, that's good enough for you.  By the way, that's how non-integers are usually stored, even rationals. Rationals are sometimes stored as a couple of arbitrarily large integers but since you lose orders of magnitude in performance, you want to have a really good reason to do that.  In case you really want to know, the closest double floating point to *e* will have the bit pattern 0x4005bf0a8b145769 in memory. *pi* is 0x400921fb54442d18.  The wikipedia article goes into details about how bits patterns relate to values.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8258.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "aonklu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Do \"new\" stars appear in the sky as the light from distant stars reaches us? Basically was just wondering if there are more stars visible in the sky than there were say a billion years ago, or if maybe the expansion of the universe and the increasing distance between stars counteracts the light traveling towards us so that stars whose light hasn't reached us yet won't actually reach us, or... Yeah. And if \"new\" stars are \"appearing\" in the sky, would the night sky eventually be extremely bright as the amount of space in which no stars are visible gets less and less? I don't know very much about cosmology, but am currently learning as much as I can about it, and was just curious about this. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "eg2e8d9", "c_root_id_B": "eg2notq", "created_at_utc_A": 1549682048, "created_at_utc_B": 1549691903, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Probably, yeah. Stars are both dying and being born, definitely not at the same rate, but as the universe formed during the Big Bang, there were no stars, no planets, and no people to look at the stars or be seen. The stars could only really be born from then on, and yes, at the birth of Earth, there were probably less stars. The distance between the stars could greatly affect when we see their light. To put it into perspective, a star born far away enough could be born and die before we even know of its existence, while still outliving a star just a couple light years away from us. It could be thousands of years before we discover certain stars.", "human_ref_B": "The total number of stars we can observe in principle goes up as we can observe more and more distant stars in an older universe. The expanding universe makes these stars appear dimmer, but that is just a limit of our telescopes.  > And if \"new\" stars are \"appearing\" in the sky, would the night sky eventually be extremely bright as the amount of space in which no stars are visible gets less and less?  No. It will get less bright over time. The distant stars get too redshifted to contribute to the brightness and the number of active stars in the galaxies nearby will go down.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9855.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "aonklu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Do \"new\" stars appear in the sky as the light from distant stars reaches us? Basically was just wondering if there are more stars visible in the sky than there were say a billion years ago, or if maybe the expansion of the universe and the increasing distance between stars counteracts the light traveling towards us so that stars whose light hasn't reached us yet won't actually reach us, or... Yeah. And if \"new\" stars are \"appearing\" in the sky, would the night sky eventually be extremely bright as the amount of space in which no stars are visible gets less and less? I don't know very much about cosmology, but am currently learning as much as I can about it, and was just curious about this. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "eg3u1q8", "c_root_id_B": "eg2ogrh", "created_at_utc_A": 1549739971, "created_at_utc_B": 1549692885, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "From the cosmology point of view, there are two quantities relevant to this: the particle horizon, which is the distance beyond which light which started travelling at the Big Bang has yet to reach us; and the event horizon, which is the distance beyond which light which starts travelling now will never reach us, due to the expansion of the Universe. The former grows with time while the latter shrinks as the expansion rate increases.  The point at which in principle we can see the furthest occurs when the values of these two distances cross over. In fact, for our Universe that happened in the distant past, about ten billion years ago. Ever since then, the light we receive from some distant sources has been the last we ever will. (Although the total number of objects we see has kept increasing due to the continued growth of the particle horizon)  This doesn't quite mean there are distant galaxies blinking out of existence, though. As objects approach the event horizon, the light from them becomes gradually dimmer and redder, and the time period over which we receive the light stretches. The very final photons we receive from an object, which were emitted at the instant that object crossed the event horizon, will be dimmed and redshifted infinitely, but we will go on \"receiving\" them for the rest of time. In practice, our telescopes become too insensitive to detect distant objects long before this happens, though.", "human_ref_B": "The best answer is No. The ONLY stars we see in the night sky are in our own galaxy. The only other stars that you might see is the andromeda galaxy, In which you're looking at billions of stars in a little bundle, or you'll need a fairly large telescope and be looking in the right spot(often for days or weeks) to see other galaxies. When we look at galaxies, we only see giant bundles of stars. It's very difficult to pick out individual stars.  So yea. New stars are forming in our own galaxy, and in other galaxies ALL the time. Just the scope of the universe is absolutely insane. 100 billion stars per galaxy x a trillion galaxies. Rough estimates. that's 10^21 stars. An insanely large number. So new stars are forming, but we very likely won't randomly see them popping into our night sky.    We see only a few hundred stars at best in the night sky. And all of them are again, in our own galaxy, and most of them are VERY close in our own galaxy.  As far as how many stars are being created in the milky way. I have no idea. I'd guess it's very few, but definitely some over the past billions and most likely quite a few in the past million years. Do we actually see them from Earth? Well only if we're looking in the right spot with a big telescope.  One star that can be seen in the night sky is Betelgeuse. It could be exploding right now, or up to 430 years ago. It's at the end of it's life and will go supernova. It will die, and we could see it in our lifetimes, however unlikely.  The expansion of the universe doesn't have much to do with how many stars we see. Unless you consider looking at a galaxy with 100 billion stars, assuming some stars are dying and being created,   and saying that we then see new stars.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 47086.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rlv9pa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Do antibodies continually update with repeated exposure? Obviously COVID related\u2026 But if one encounters a virus, and survives to produce antibodies against this virus. Will repeated non-infectious exposure over time update the antibodies to any slight variations in the antigen?  Or is infection, and therefore a complete bypass of the adaptive immunity, necessary for the creation of new antibodies?", "c_root_id_A": "hpih1w3", "c_root_id_B": "hpiikc1", "created_at_utc_A": 1640143767, "created_at_utc_B": 1640144501, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "You're constantly creating antibodies against foreign invaders. Whether you generate novel antibodies is a function of how \"sticky\" your existing antibodies are and how fast the antigen varies. If the antigen mutates quickly, your existing antibodies will get not very sticky quickly and the antigen will be let free the roam your bloodstream. It will encounter immune cells which will then recapitulate the immune response.", "human_ref_B": "your body makes antibodies against little fragments of the offending organism.   if you encounter the exact same organism in the future, the antibodies you made will match up perfectly and it will likely be taken care of before it\u2019s able to cause infection.   if, however, you encounter a mutated version of the organism, the strength of your immune response depends on how much it mutated. if only a little bit, there\u2019s a chance the antibodies you made will still be sufficient. if it mutated a lot, the antibodies you made the first time may be useless.   this is part of why we have all had many colds, or can get the flu multiple times: we do make antibodies against the version we earlier encountered, but these viruses mutate readily and can infect us again.  directly to your question, though, no \u2014 you don\u2019t have to have a clinically obvious infection to make antibodies against something. if exposed to a tiny enough amount of a virus, you could make antibodies against it and never have the clinical condition it is associated with.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 734.0, "score_ratio": 12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rlv9pa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Do antibodies continually update with repeated exposure? Obviously COVID related\u2026 But if one encounters a virus, and survives to produce antibodies against this virus. Will repeated non-infectious exposure over time update the antibodies to any slight variations in the antigen?  Or is infection, and therefore a complete bypass of the adaptive immunity, necessary for the creation of new antibodies?", "c_root_id_A": "hpjfxnc", "c_root_id_B": "hpih1w3", "created_at_utc_A": 1640166688, "created_at_utc_B": 1640143767, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Pretty much any contact with foreign antigen will result in creation of germinal centers in lymph nodes. In theese structures, B cells mature and rearrange and mutate their antibody genes under the influence of foreign antigen and T helper cells.  B cells that produce antibodies that bind antigen strongly and robustly will be selected for and will proliferate and become plasma cells (which produce a lot of antibodies quickly) or memory B cells (that will stick around for years and may be activated when the antigen appears again).  However, when the antigen appears again and it is present in germinal centers again, the B cells that enter germinal centers may be naive ones and may also be memory B cells. That means that upon second and any further exposure both new types of antibodies are created and the preexisting ones are updated - they are mutated again and the best ones are selected again.  That means that any additional exposure to antigen will update the antibody response in at least a few ways:  \\-new antibody types  \\-old antibody types being updated  \\-more plasma cells and memory B cells  Whether the antigen has changed slightly or is identical is secondary to the whole issue. However, if the antigen is changed, 2 things may happen:  \\-the response against a changed antigen may result in production of antibodies that bind well a more broad range of altered versions of antigen as the antibodies that bind well even to the altered antigen are selected for.  \\-the response against a changed antigen may be somewhat compromised as the now suboptimal antibodies that were originally produced will dominate the selection process.  Edit: grammar and misspellings", "human_ref_B": "You're constantly creating antibodies against foreign invaders. Whether you generate novel antibodies is a function of how \"sticky\" your existing antibodies are and how fast the antigen varies. If the antigen mutates quickly, your existing antibodies will get not very sticky quickly and the antigen will be let free the roam your bloodstream. It will encounter immune cells which will then recapitulate the immune response.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22921.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rr2dr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can DNA encode \"instinctive\" behaviour? When an animal shows behaviour we describe as instinctive, that is it was born \"knowing\" to do the behaviour, without training or learning, that knowledge has to come from it's DNA. But how can DNA do this?", "c_root_id_A": "c47zs51", "c_root_id_B": "c480lwi", "created_at_utc_A": 1333466419, "created_at_utc_B": 1333470279, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Since I think you're asking how it's possible, and not the exact mechanism: excessively simplify it, think of neuronal circuits as ordinary circuits.  How can a calculator \"know\" how to multiply without learning?  By its circuitry arrangement and properties.  How can a simple organism have instincts?  The same way, only substituting neurons for copper wire.  DNA codes for the arrangement of neurons, so it can code for neuronal circuits and thus instincts.  Start off with something simple, like moving toward light, and then build from there successively over billions of generations.", "human_ref_B": "Like the other posters, I could write about this for many many hours, and it is very complicated.  Most people tend to think of genes in a Mendelian sense - ie. - genes encode for hair color, eye color, etc.  However, many genes interact with each other, and there are many many many genes that are involved in many different aspects of the patterning of the brain, the excitability of those individual neurons, and many other aspects of behavior.   If we're thinking in terms of evolution - certain behaviors are selected for not only on the individual gene level, but on the distribution of different combinations of alleles that will lead to the desired outcome.  From around 1920 until the mid 70s there was a big debate as to whether individual genes affected behavior, or collections of genes were the main selection factor.  Starting with Konopka and Benzers paper on Clock, it was demonstrated that individual genes can effect behavior in profound ways.  However, more often than not it is collections of genes and alleles that are interacting to make these behaviors.     I guess the 3 most interesting examples I can think of off the top of my head that demonstrate these different processes are  1)  The Circadian rhythm - As referenced before, this is a very interesting feedback loop that controls behavior.  The inputs and outputs are very stable, yet single gene mutations in lower organisms (drosophila, etc) can have profound disruption of the rhythm itself.  It is probably the easiest way to understand how simple behaviors can arise.  The key element here is that the genes involved are transcription factors (they control the transcription of many genes) that also participate in their own regulation.  In flys the circadian rhythm is most important in only a very small amount of neurons called the Pdf neurons.  The gene circuit in these neurons causes changes in excitability, and the neurons control in essence many aspects of the rest of the fly including things like metabolism.    2) There is a russian scientist who wanted to see how quickly he could tame animals.  It is remarkable how quickly he was able to make tame (and hyperagressive) foxes by artificial selection.  I think it was around 5 generations or so.  I believe they recently sequenced these foxes to determine the causative genes.  3.)Another great example is an allele that is a risk factor for bipolar disorder that is associated with risk taking.  It affects on of the receptors for Dopamine.  Amazingly, if you track human migration, you can see that this factor is enriched the further humans migrated - and this is true all over the globe.  The longer your particular ethnic group migrated, the more likely it is you carry this allele.    http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S109051389900015X", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3860.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rr2dr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can DNA encode \"instinctive\" behaviour? When an animal shows behaviour we describe as instinctive, that is it was born \"knowing\" to do the behaviour, without training or learning, that knowledge has to come from it's DNA. But how can DNA do this?", "c_root_id_A": "c47zqz2", "c_root_id_B": "c480lwi", "created_at_utc_A": 1333466265, "created_at_utc_B": 1333470279, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "You're looking at the picture the wrong way.  Instead think of it as what it is.  Random mutations.  Take Surcouf's example of the dog.  Dogs over time evolved different behaviours.  What does that mean?  Well randomly [well guided/whatever] new generations of canine expressed new genes/proteins/cranial structure that evoked different behaviours.  The useful ones prospered the not-so useful didn't.  Think about human developmental problems like trisonomy-21.  In the wild those offspring would just die.    They wouldn't make it to breeding age and the gene would be less expressive [granted that's not the only way it develops but you get the idea].  So don't think of it as \"how did they take a learned experience and encode it in DNA\" but more so \"the DNA mutated to express a behaviour that was beneficial\"", "human_ref_B": "Like the other posters, I could write about this for many many hours, and it is very complicated.  Most people tend to think of genes in a Mendelian sense - ie. - genes encode for hair color, eye color, etc.  However, many genes interact with each other, and there are many many many genes that are involved in many different aspects of the patterning of the brain, the excitability of those individual neurons, and many other aspects of behavior.   If we're thinking in terms of evolution - certain behaviors are selected for not only on the individual gene level, but on the distribution of different combinations of alleles that will lead to the desired outcome.  From around 1920 until the mid 70s there was a big debate as to whether individual genes affected behavior, or collections of genes were the main selection factor.  Starting with Konopka and Benzers paper on Clock, it was demonstrated that individual genes can effect behavior in profound ways.  However, more often than not it is collections of genes and alleles that are interacting to make these behaviors.     I guess the 3 most interesting examples I can think of off the top of my head that demonstrate these different processes are  1)  The Circadian rhythm - As referenced before, this is a very interesting feedback loop that controls behavior.  The inputs and outputs are very stable, yet single gene mutations in lower organisms (drosophila, etc) can have profound disruption of the rhythm itself.  It is probably the easiest way to understand how simple behaviors can arise.  The key element here is that the genes involved are transcription factors (they control the transcription of many genes) that also participate in their own regulation.  In flys the circadian rhythm is most important in only a very small amount of neurons called the Pdf neurons.  The gene circuit in these neurons causes changes in excitability, and the neurons control in essence many aspects of the rest of the fly including things like metabolism.    2) There is a russian scientist who wanted to see how quickly he could tame animals.  It is remarkable how quickly he was able to make tame (and hyperagressive) foxes by artificial selection.  I think it was around 5 generations or so.  I believe they recently sequenced these foxes to determine the causative genes.  3.)Another great example is an allele that is a risk factor for bipolar disorder that is associated with risk taking.  It affects on of the receptors for Dopamine.  Amazingly, if you track human migration, you can see that this factor is enriched the further humans migrated - and this is true all over the globe.  The longer your particular ethnic group migrated, the more likely it is you carry this allele.    http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S109051389900015X", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4014.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rr2dr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can DNA encode \"instinctive\" behaviour? When an animal shows behaviour we describe as instinctive, that is it was born \"knowing\" to do the behaviour, without training or learning, that knowledge has to come from it's DNA. But how can DNA do this?", "c_root_id_A": "c480lwi", "c_root_id_B": "c47zscr", "created_at_utc_A": 1333470279, "created_at_utc_B": 1333466447, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Like the other posters, I could write about this for many many hours, and it is very complicated.  Most people tend to think of genes in a Mendelian sense - ie. - genes encode for hair color, eye color, etc.  However, many genes interact with each other, and there are many many many genes that are involved in many different aspects of the patterning of the brain, the excitability of those individual neurons, and many other aspects of behavior.   If we're thinking in terms of evolution - certain behaviors are selected for not only on the individual gene level, but on the distribution of different combinations of alleles that will lead to the desired outcome.  From around 1920 until the mid 70s there was a big debate as to whether individual genes affected behavior, or collections of genes were the main selection factor.  Starting with Konopka and Benzers paper on Clock, it was demonstrated that individual genes can effect behavior in profound ways.  However, more often than not it is collections of genes and alleles that are interacting to make these behaviors.     I guess the 3 most interesting examples I can think of off the top of my head that demonstrate these different processes are  1)  The Circadian rhythm - As referenced before, this is a very interesting feedback loop that controls behavior.  The inputs and outputs are very stable, yet single gene mutations in lower organisms (drosophila, etc) can have profound disruption of the rhythm itself.  It is probably the easiest way to understand how simple behaviors can arise.  The key element here is that the genes involved are transcription factors (they control the transcription of many genes) that also participate in their own regulation.  In flys the circadian rhythm is most important in only a very small amount of neurons called the Pdf neurons.  The gene circuit in these neurons causes changes in excitability, and the neurons control in essence many aspects of the rest of the fly including things like metabolism.    2) There is a russian scientist who wanted to see how quickly he could tame animals.  It is remarkable how quickly he was able to make tame (and hyperagressive) foxes by artificial selection.  I think it was around 5 generations or so.  I believe they recently sequenced these foxes to determine the causative genes.  3.)Another great example is an allele that is a risk factor for bipolar disorder that is associated with risk taking.  It affects on of the receptors for Dopamine.  Amazingly, if you track human migration, you can see that this factor is enriched the further humans migrated - and this is true all over the globe.  The longer your particular ethnic group migrated, the more likely it is you carry this allele.    http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S109051389900015X", "human_ref_B": "Firstly the instinct you're describing has to be genetically associated, such as that of a baby kangaroo knowing to climb when it's born.   I'll point out that it's not a great subject to experimentally test and as such we have difficulty studying the instinctual behaviour you are describing. In short, there's much we don't know.  What I would do is think about it this way. Normal reflex arcs, such as the knee jerk reflex work through biological basis alone, you don't know to do it nor do you learn to do it. Certain stimuli, such as being born in our example of the kangaroo, will trigger a response (climbing upwards to the pouch) that is instinctual.   The sequence is the same in both reflex arcs and instinctual responses: stimulus, reflex, response. We are just yet to fully understand the mechanism in which instinctual behaviour is inherited. If you want more information I would suggest reading about Fixed Action Patterns.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3832.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rr2dr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can DNA encode \"instinctive\" behaviour? When an animal shows behaviour we describe as instinctive, that is it was born \"knowing\" to do the behaviour, without training or learning, that knowledge has to come from it's DNA. But how can DNA do this?", "c_root_id_A": "c4807fu", "c_root_id_B": "c480lwi", "created_at_utc_A": 1333468397, "created_at_utc_B": 1333470279, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "I'm no biologist, but I like to read about evolution on a near constant basis, so I'll give it a shot, and others can tell me how way off I am...  From what I understand, DNA doesn't consciously and actively encode instinctive behavior, and I would think it would be wise to make that distinction.  I would think that it's more along the lines of simple evolution. Newly hatched birds will know to open their mouths for their mothers food because on a *very* gradual process, those hatchlings that didn't open their mouth, tended to not survive and promulgate as the ones that did... Hence evolution keeps emphasizing and \"rewarding\" that behavior.", "human_ref_B": "Like the other posters, I could write about this for many many hours, and it is very complicated.  Most people tend to think of genes in a Mendelian sense - ie. - genes encode for hair color, eye color, etc.  However, many genes interact with each other, and there are many many many genes that are involved in many different aspects of the patterning of the brain, the excitability of those individual neurons, and many other aspects of behavior.   If we're thinking in terms of evolution - certain behaviors are selected for not only on the individual gene level, but on the distribution of different combinations of alleles that will lead to the desired outcome.  From around 1920 until the mid 70s there was a big debate as to whether individual genes affected behavior, or collections of genes were the main selection factor.  Starting with Konopka and Benzers paper on Clock, it was demonstrated that individual genes can effect behavior in profound ways.  However, more often than not it is collections of genes and alleles that are interacting to make these behaviors.     I guess the 3 most interesting examples I can think of off the top of my head that demonstrate these different processes are  1)  The Circadian rhythm - As referenced before, this is a very interesting feedback loop that controls behavior.  The inputs and outputs are very stable, yet single gene mutations in lower organisms (drosophila, etc) can have profound disruption of the rhythm itself.  It is probably the easiest way to understand how simple behaviors can arise.  The key element here is that the genes involved are transcription factors (they control the transcription of many genes) that also participate in their own regulation.  In flys the circadian rhythm is most important in only a very small amount of neurons called the Pdf neurons.  The gene circuit in these neurons causes changes in excitability, and the neurons control in essence many aspects of the rest of the fly including things like metabolism.    2) There is a russian scientist who wanted to see how quickly he could tame animals.  It is remarkable how quickly he was able to make tame (and hyperagressive) foxes by artificial selection.  I think it was around 5 generations or so.  I believe they recently sequenced these foxes to determine the causative genes.  3.)Another great example is an allele that is a risk factor for bipolar disorder that is associated with risk taking.  It affects on of the receptors for Dopamine.  Amazingly, if you track human migration, you can see that this factor is enriched the further humans migrated - and this is true all over the globe.  The longer your particular ethnic group migrated, the more likely it is you carry this allele.    http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S109051389900015X", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1882.0, "score_ratio": -9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rr2dr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can DNA encode \"instinctive\" behaviour? When an animal shows behaviour we describe as instinctive, that is it was born \"knowing\" to do the behaviour, without training or learning, that knowledge has to come from it's DNA. But how can DNA do this?", "c_root_id_A": "c47zs51", "c_root_id_B": "c47zqz2", "created_at_utc_A": 1333466419, "created_at_utc_B": 1333466265, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Since I think you're asking how it's possible, and not the exact mechanism: excessively simplify it, think of neuronal circuits as ordinary circuits.  How can a calculator \"know\" how to multiply without learning?  By its circuitry arrangement and properties.  How can a simple organism have instincts?  The same way, only substituting neurons for copper wire.  DNA codes for the arrangement of neurons, so it can code for neuronal circuits and thus instincts.  Start off with something simple, like moving toward light, and then build from there successively over billions of generations.", "human_ref_B": "You're looking at the picture the wrong way.  Instead think of it as what it is.  Random mutations.  Take Surcouf's example of the dog.  Dogs over time evolved different behaviours.  What does that mean?  Well randomly [well guided/whatever] new generations of canine expressed new genes/proteins/cranial structure that evoked different behaviours.  The useful ones prospered the not-so useful didn't.  Think about human developmental problems like trisonomy-21.  In the wild those offspring would just die.    They wouldn't make it to breeding age and the gene would be less expressive [granted that's not the only way it develops but you get the idea].  So don't think of it as \"how did they take a learned experience and encode it in DNA\" but more so \"the DNA mutated to express a behaviour that was beneficial\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 154.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rr2dr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can DNA encode \"instinctive\" behaviour? When an animal shows behaviour we describe as instinctive, that is it was born \"knowing\" to do the behaviour, without training or learning, that knowledge has to come from it's DNA. But how can DNA do this?", "c_root_id_A": "c481fgl", "c_root_id_B": "c4807fu", "created_at_utc_A": 1333474089, "created_at_utc_B": 1333468397, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I have thought about this too. The question comes from thinking of the brain as a blank slate that gets written on after one is born by life's experiences. But if you think of it as just another group of cells whose nature is determined by genes as the embryo grows then you can understand that in fact whole behaviours and memories can be created in the brain before the organism is born, just like any other cell development and specialisation.", "human_ref_B": "I'm no biologist, but I like to read about evolution on a near constant basis, so I'll give it a shot, and others can tell me how way off I am...  From what I understand, DNA doesn't consciously and actively encode instinctive behavior, and I would think it would be wise to make that distinction.  I would think that it's more along the lines of simple evolution. Newly hatched birds will know to open their mouths for their mothers food because on a *very* gradual process, those hatchlings that didn't open their mouth, tended to not survive and promulgate as the ones that did... Hence evolution keeps emphasizing and \"rewarding\" that behavior.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5692.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rr2dr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can DNA encode \"instinctive\" behaviour? When an animal shows behaviour we describe as instinctive, that is it was born \"knowing\" to do the behaviour, without training or learning, that knowledge has to come from it's DNA. But how can DNA do this?", "c_root_id_A": "c4807fu", "c_root_id_B": "c488rg9", "created_at_utc_A": 1333468397, "created_at_utc_B": 1333509048, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm no biologist, but I like to read about evolution on a near constant basis, so I'll give it a shot, and others can tell me how way off I am...  From what I understand, DNA doesn't consciously and actively encode instinctive behavior, and I would think it would be wise to make that distinction.  I would think that it's more along the lines of simple evolution. Newly hatched birds will know to open their mouths for their mothers food because on a *very* gradual process, those hatchlings that didn't open their mouth, tended to not survive and promulgate as the ones that did... Hence evolution keeps emphasizing and \"rewarding\" that behavior.", "human_ref_B": "Most of the answers here only skirt around the real question.     Please explain spiderwebs and bird nests.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 40651.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rr2dr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can DNA encode \"instinctive\" behaviour? When an animal shows behaviour we describe as instinctive, that is it was born \"knowing\" to do the behaviour, without training or learning, that knowledge has to come from it's DNA. But how can DNA do this?", "c_root_id_A": "c4807fu", "c_root_id_B": "c489twm", "created_at_utc_A": 1333468397, "created_at_utc_B": 1333514704, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm no biologist, but I like to read about evolution on a near constant basis, so I'll give it a shot, and others can tell me how way off I am...  From what I understand, DNA doesn't consciously and actively encode instinctive behavior, and I would think it would be wise to make that distinction.  I would think that it's more along the lines of simple evolution. Newly hatched birds will know to open their mouths for their mothers food because on a *very* gradual process, those hatchlings that didn't open their mouth, tended to not survive and promulgate as the ones that did... Hence evolution keeps emphasizing and \"rewarding\" that behavior.", "human_ref_B": "Neuroscience has identified dendritic spines as possibly being the cellular basis of learning (but definitely of synaptic plasticity)  A neuron has 4 basic parts: the dendrite, cell body, axon, and terminal  the dendrite receives an action potential (\"Information\" in a basic sense) from an axon and you can probably take it from there...  Dendritic spines are small projections from the dendrites that have a whole lot of cellular signaling molecules (if you have a bio background these are G-protein coupled receptors, ion channels and the like) along with their own RNA to make proteins.  I would guess that an organism exhibiting a behavior \"instinctively\" would have the plans for a specific spine/neuron in its DNA  Never discount environmental differences though, you would need to do a real experiment to determine if it is soley DNA, something in the environment, or a mixture of both that determines what is really causing/influencing these behaviors.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 46307.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1g9k29", "c_root_id_B": "c1g9kue", "created_at_utc_A": 1297366862, "created_at_utc_B": 1297367102, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "> Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  The decrease in temperature of the system.", "human_ref_B": "So I'd like to address your first question: even in classical physics, there are processes without cause. Norton's Dome is an example. One can construct a dome with a particle at its top that will spontaneously roll down a random side at a random point in time without cause.  Anyways, space isn't any \"thing.\" It's a way of measuring distances between points. That distance just grows over time. Thus nothing is \"being created.\" Just spread further apart.  Actually your intuitions (on related question) are pretty close to correct. Over time material becomes less dense. At one point everything was infinitely dense. Now it's not. In the far future it will be extremely not dense. And while your balloon is a physical object that physically carries the ants, in \"real life\" it really is just that the distance between two points increases over time. (barring local things like gravity pulling objects together. Usually we refer to the expansion of space as the distances between galaxies or groups of galaxies expanding over time.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 240.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1g9k29", "c_root_id_B": "c1gb96t", "created_at_utc_A": 1297366862, "created_at_utc_B": 1297387205, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "> Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  The decrease in temperature of the system.", "human_ref_B": "It is expanding as in stretching.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20343.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1gb1wh", "c_root_id_B": "c1gb96t", "created_at_utc_A": 1297383851, "created_at_utc_B": 1297387205, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Space (pure vacuum) isn't a thing, it's a lack of things, so it doesn't need to come from anywhere.  Think of it as a shadow, darkness, or atheism.", "human_ref_B": "It is expanding as in stretching.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3354.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1gb96t", "c_root_id_B": "c1g9lym", "created_at_utc_A": 1297387205, "created_at_utc_B": 1297367416, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "It is expanding as in stretching.", "human_ref_B": "This question has no answer because the question makes no sense. Now this is not a stab at you, but what I am saying is you can not answer this. It is like asking \"what does purple taste like?\" Space is expanding, but it is not expanding \"into\" anything. There isn't new space being created. Something that may help is research the \"big freeze\" and the \"big crunch\" hypothesis about our universe", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19789.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1g9mk3", "c_root_id_B": "c1gb96t", "created_at_utc_A": 1297367592, "created_at_utc_B": 1297387205, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Space is expanding. Galaxies appear to move away from each other because space expands. To use Brian Greene's explanation - think of pennies stuck on the surface of a balloon (or a rubber sheet). When you blow air into the balloon, the pennies move away from each other because space expands. Remember, we are talking only about the surface of the balloon, not the inside of it etc. This is also useful to know why the galaxies themselves dont expand (pennies are fixed) as their gravitational force keeps them together.  Edit: What's with the downvotes? If this is inaccurate, let me know. I am reasonably confident I got this right.", "human_ref_B": "It is expanding as in stretching.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19613.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1g9k29", "c_root_id_B": "c1gbekk", "created_at_utc_A": 1297366862, "created_at_utc_B": 1297389594, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "> Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  The decrease in temperature of the system.", "human_ref_B": "We had this question four days ago and it might contain additional info for you", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22732.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1gb1wh", "c_root_id_B": "c1gbekk", "created_at_utc_A": 1297383851, "created_at_utc_B": 1297389594, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Space (pure vacuum) isn't a thing, it's a lack of things, so it doesn't need to come from anywhere.  Think of it as a shadow, darkness, or atheism.", "human_ref_B": "We had this question four days ago and it might contain additional info for you", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5743.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1gbekk", "c_root_id_B": "c1g9lym", "created_at_utc_A": 1297389594, "created_at_utc_B": 1297367416, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "We had this question four days ago and it might contain additional info for you", "human_ref_B": "This question has no answer because the question makes no sense. Now this is not a stab at you, but what I am saying is you can not answer this. It is like asking \"what does purple taste like?\" Space is expanding, but it is not expanding \"into\" anything. There isn't new space being created. Something that may help is research the \"big freeze\" and the \"big crunch\" hypothesis about our universe", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22178.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1gbekk", "c_root_id_B": "c1g9mk3", "created_at_utc_A": 1297389594, "created_at_utc_B": 1297367592, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "We had this question four days ago and it might contain additional info for you", "human_ref_B": "Space is expanding. Galaxies appear to move away from each other because space expands. To use Brian Greene's explanation - think of pennies stuck on the surface of a balloon (or a rubber sheet). When you blow air into the balloon, the pennies move away from each other because space expands. Remember, we are talking only about the surface of the balloon, not the inside of it etc. This is also useful to know why the galaxies themselves dont expand (pennies are fixed) as their gravitational force keeps them together.  Edit: What's with the downvotes? If this is inaccurate, let me know. I am reasonably confident I got this right.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22002.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1g9lym", "c_root_id_B": "c1gb1wh", "created_at_utc_A": 1297367416, "created_at_utc_B": 1297383851, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This question has no answer because the question makes no sense. Now this is not a stab at you, but what I am saying is you can not answer this. It is like asking \"what does purple taste like?\" Space is expanding, but it is not expanding \"into\" anything. There isn't new space being created. Something that may help is research the \"big freeze\" and the \"big crunch\" hypothesis about our universe", "human_ref_B": "Space (pure vacuum) isn't a thing, it's a lack of things, so it doesn't need to come from anywhere.  Think of it as a shadow, darkness, or atheism.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16435.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fiy6c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If the universe is expanding, where does the new space come from? I apologize if this is a dumb question, but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around this concept.  Everything (at least at a macro scale) has a cause, right?  And everything is rigged such that it balances out in some way (equal and opposite reaction, conservation of energy, etc.).  Therefore, if something new is coming into existence (space, in this example) shouldn't there be some sort of countervailing action happening in some way to balance out the creation of new space?  I understand that these laws are meant to apply to things and not space, but it still surprises me that there could be an exception these general principles.  Related question - I also understand that given enough time, the distance between two objects will increase relative to each other.  But how exactly do you \"fit more space\" into the area between them?  Every analogy I can think of doesn't work - imagining two ants on a balloon and then stretching the balloon falls apart because (a) the material you are stretching becomes less dense the more you stretch and (b) the material will eventually break.  Neither of these two applies to space.", "c_root_id_A": "c1g9mk3", "c_root_id_B": "c1gb1wh", "created_at_utc_A": 1297367592, "created_at_utc_B": 1297383851, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Space is expanding. Galaxies appear to move away from each other because space expands. To use Brian Greene's explanation - think of pennies stuck on the surface of a balloon (or a rubber sheet). When you blow air into the balloon, the pennies move away from each other because space expands. Remember, we are talking only about the surface of the balloon, not the inside of it etc. This is also useful to know why the galaxies themselves dont expand (pennies are fixed) as their gravitational force keeps them together.  Edit: What's with the downvotes? If this is inaccurate, let me know. I am reasonably confident I got this right.", "human_ref_B": "Space (pure vacuum) isn't a thing, it's a lack of things, so it doesn't need to come from anywhere.  Think of it as a shadow, darkness, or atheism.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16259.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4gx8xt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How does fracking affect volcanic eruptions? I was thinking, if it triggers earthquakes, wouldn't it also maybe make volcanic activity more likely?", "c_root_id_A": "d2lsqk5", "c_root_id_B": "d2m0ynn", "created_at_utc_A": 1461911943, "created_at_utc_B": 1461936542, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Just to be clear, fracking itself does not cause earthquakes. The disposal of water after the fact is what can cause small earthquakes. Basically, they ram millions of gallons of water deep into the earth(like thousands of feet deep), and this can destabilize deep faults. Judging from what I've learned about this, I don't see any reason it wouldn't trigger some kind of volcanic activity if the conditions were appropriate.  I can consult with my father tomorrow if people want the perspective of an expert. He is a university professor with a PhD in geophysics and he teaches a class specifically about natural disasters.", "human_ref_B": "Potentially it may cause fissures in the rock which could be exploited by a volcanic eruption and cause the lava to erupt in a slightly different location. However the pressures present in an eruption means that it would likely have little effect on whether or not an eruption occurs and where it occurs.  Keep in mind that typically fracking won't be occuring anywhere near an active volcano. Volcanoes will have igneous and metamorphic rocks surrounding them but fracking and gas extraction occurs in sedimentary rocks. So where there is a volcano the surrounding area will have been covered with lava over hundreds of thousands of years and much of it metamorphosed making it unsuitable for gas extraction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24599.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tj22y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "We know the gas giants are made of gas, Visible gas. How come we can see the gasses around the planets (Hydrogen, Helium, Methane) but not here on earth? I apologize if this has been asked before, but I've been thinking about it a bit lately. Thank you for reading.", "c_root_id_A": "c4n5faw", "c_root_id_B": "c4n3tew", "created_at_utc_A": 1336822176, "created_at_utc_B": 1336802397, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There are a couple of wrong answers in here, so please allow me to set the record straight. (This is actually the exact field I earned my PhD in...)  When you look at Jupiter, for the most part you are not seeing its gases at all, but rather its clouds. This is just like on Earth - the clouds are very bright and reflective, but the atmosphere itself is relatively transparent, except for some blue scattered light.  The differences come about because of the composition. On Earth we have water clouds suspended in a nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere. On Jupiter, it's a bit more complex: there are ammonia clouds, ammonium hydrosulfide clouds, and water clouds suspended in a hydrogen-helium-methane atmosphere. The highest cloud deck on Jupiter is ammonia, so that's the one we primarily see in reflected sunlight.  On top of these cloud decks, there are haze layers. These are what give rise to Jupiter's distinctive alternating white zones and brown belts. Ammonia clouds themselves are white, just like water clouds; the haze layer on top of that is a sort of transparent brown. It's this overlying haze with white ammonia clouds underneath that's responsible for the coloring of the brown belts. It remains an unsolved problem why the haze only appears at the latitudes where we see brown belts, but not at latitudes where we see the white zones (though there are several good theories). Composition-wise, we're fairly sure that the haze is made of some complex hydrocarbons; if you've ever been to Los Angeles - or any very large city - you'll notice a brown smog hanging over the metropolis. We believe Jupiter's haze is actually fairly similar in composition.  Now, in very specific locations near the equator, there are clearings in the clouds, such as the dark area seen here. They appear dark because there's very little light reaching below the cloud deck, which means there's nothing to reflect. In infrared light, though, these clearings appear very bright because you're actually peering through cracks in the clouds to see the emitted heat from the deep interior of Jupiter.  Occasionally these clearings take on a blue-ish tinge, as light is scattered by actual gas molecules (not clouds). This is very similar to why our own sky appears blue - unlike clouds droplets, gas molecules are very small compared to the wavelengths of visible light, so they have a very tough time absorbing this light unless it's at very specific resonance frequencies with their electron orbitals. The most they can usually do is to just scatter the light (change its path), and they scatter blue light much more easily than red light. Thus, when you look at any part of our own sky, blue light gets more easily scattered into your view than red light...and so our sky appears blue. This is the one case where you can actually \"see\" the gas (not counting things like superheated gas such as on the Sun).  Finally, there's a big unsolved mystery that we really don't know about Jupiter's colors - and that why the Great Red Spot appears red. We've taken very high-resolution spectra at this point, so we know very precisely what color of red it is...the problem is that we have nothing to compare it to. So far as we know, the \"chromophores\" coloring the Great Red Spot have never been created in a lab on Earth. That's not to say it's made of some kind of magical unobtainium - it's probably just some weird kind of haze layer - but it's very difficult to replicate Jupiter's atmosphere in the lab, so only a few common substances under such conditions have been heavily studied.  **TL;DR**: We don't see the gases on gas giants, but rather clouds, and clouds colored by smoggy haze.", "human_ref_B": "A number of factors are at work here.  First off, what you see on Jupiter is clouds.  Just like you can see clouds on Earth, you can see clouds on Jupiter.  Some of the materials are different, but the principle is the same.   But even if there were no clouds, you'd still be able to see Jupiter.  For one thing, it's _huge_.  You know how the atmosphere makes things blue in the distance.  You can kind of see the haze, even for something mostly transparent.  The same holds true for Jupiter's atmosphere which is really thick.  Finally, a sizeable amount of the interior of Jupiter and other gas giants is liquid, due to the immense pressures involved.  Plus there's the crunchy core.  So even if all the gas was rendered completely transparent, you'd still be able to see that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19779.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2cnun2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Do we actually know what colour dinosaurs were if we only have the bones? My friend recently asked me if humans actually know what colour dinosaurs skin was considering we only have the bones. I've been thinking about it as well and am curious weather or not the colors were just picked at random. How do humans know what colour dinosaurs were?", "c_root_id_A": "cjhk6d7", "c_root_id_B": "cjhge9q", "created_at_utc_A": 1407250507, "created_at_utc_B": 1407240330, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "We can kind of figure it out with fossils of feathers. But we can't be certain. It's now believed by many that dinosaurs are not skin and muscle like they are depicted, but had feathers and were more like birds.", "human_ref_B": "The melanin that makes colours can be preserved, mostly in feather fossils. I'll had links tonight, there's been lots on it recently. Google for something like \"feathers dinosaurs colour\". Both Ed Yong and Brian Swietek have written about it well. (Among many others I'm sure, I just particularly follow them)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10177.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ipxbh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Someone once told me that the best time to work out is when you are still sore from your previous workout. is this true?", "c_root_id_A": "c25s0sw", "c_root_id_B": "c25po2p", "created_at_utc_A": 1310717689, "created_at_utc_B": 1310689773, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "They might be talking about delayed onset muscle soreness - or this link looks better http://books.google.com/books?id=ueMh1x7kFjsC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q&f=false .  In which case it's not \"best\" to work out when you're sore, but (if you skip to page 67-68 of the second link) working out again may make you feel better, and shouldn't slow your recovery.", "human_ref_B": "this is answered in the FAQ on /r/fitness.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27916.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ipxbh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Someone once told me that the best time to work out is when you are still sore from your previous workout. is this true?", "c_root_id_A": "c25s0sw", "c_root_id_B": "c25rb7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1310717689, "created_at_utc_B": 1310706585, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "They might be talking about delayed onset muscle soreness - or this link looks better http://books.google.com/books?id=ueMh1x7kFjsC&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q&f=false .  In which case it's not \"best\" to work out when you're sore, but (if you skip to page 67-68 of the second link) working out again may make you feel better, and shouldn't slow your recovery.", "human_ref_B": "not to dissuade the fact that this topic is in the wrong place, but my answer:  Lactic acid is more efficiently dissolved during periods of activity, that soreness you feel. Alternating heavy and lite workouts will give you a more desirable fitness schedule.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11104.0, "score_ratio": -0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tugg4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "When an airlock is breached in outer space, what happens to the air that gets sucked into the vacuum? Let's say that a spaceship has a compromised airlock. The air is sucked out through the breach, and everyone onboard dies. What happens to the air that gets sucked out of the spaceship and into the vacuum? Does it disperse like dust? Does it stay in one place? Does it drift in one direction forever?", "c_root_id_A": "c4ptiw7", "c_root_id_B": "c4ptl1x", "created_at_utc_A": 1337412083, "created_at_utc_B": 1337412713, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 31, "human_ref_A": "It disperses like dust, but that's an understatement. The air we breathe is 10^25 molecules per cubic meter. Outer space ranges from >1 to 100 atoms per cubic meter. That's an incredibly large difference. The density of the immediate space outside of the breach probably returns to normal in a tiny fraction of a millisecond.", "human_ref_B": "Suction is a macroscopic effect. Particles in an area are constantly moving in all directions, and this motion averages out under static conditions. When containment in space is lost, there is an unbalancing of particle motion at the barrier between the pressurized area and the unpressurized space. More particles are moving outward into space, and no particles are moving into the ship from space.  On that level, it is easy to see what happens to the air particles - they continue on the trajectory they had when they left the ship. Remember Newton's law: a particle in motion stays in motion until acted on by a force. Once the particle leaves the ship, it continues on its trajectory until affected by another force.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 630.0, "score_ratio": 3.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2aevcc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Mass bends space-time which causes the gravitational force, does the same count for the electrostatic force (and other such forces)? Is there some field which a charge bends or does it work completely differently?", "c_root_id_A": "ciugqlt", "c_root_id_B": "ciue96c", "created_at_utc_A": 1405086619, "created_at_utc_B": 1405078916, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Maybe. There is an idea that goes back to Kaluza and Klein in the 1920s, and was also considered by Nordstrom the decade before.  There's something called the Kaluza-Klein mechanism. If we take a theory in higher dimensions in which gravity is the only force, and then require that some of the dimensions be so small in extent that we basically can't see them, what would our world look like? Well, of course we'd only see four dimensions (three of space, one of time), and there would be gravity in these four dimensions, but it turns out there would be some additional remnants of this higher dimensional world. These remnants would appear to us as additional forces, and indeed it is mathematically possible to construct the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces in precisely this way. Thus, higher dimensions offer an appealing avenue for unifying gravity with the other forces; these other forces would thus be explicable in terms of the warping of spacetime -- but the full, higher dimensional space-time, not just the four dimensions with which we are familiar. Whether we can do so in an empirically successful way remains to be seen.  With one extra dimension, you can get electromagnetism (but not in a successful way, as you also get one other artifact, a massless spin 0 particle that is experimentally not observed), whereas you need at least 7 extra dimensions (or only 6, if you have strings rather than particles) to incorporate the weak, strong, and electromagnetic forces.  (A chunk of this was copied from my answer in this thread.)", "human_ref_B": "No. In this sense, gravity is \"special,\" because while the other forces are interactions between particles living in spacetime, gravity is the \"force\" that results from the curvature of spacetime itself. So it is distinctly different from the other forces in that way.  By the way, this isn't the only way of looking at gravity. There's another, equivalent (and often useful) point of view in which gravity is a force like all the others (described by what's called a *field theory*) and spacetime isn't curved. If you follow the consequences of this approach through, you'll recover the other picture, where spacetime can curve and that's what gravity is. This picture is often described in terms of force-carrying particles called *gravitons*, mostly by analogy to the other forces (which are carried by their own force-carrier particles), although strictly speaking gravitons don't need to exist in order for this picture to be right. (This picture is non-quantum - gravitons only come about when you apply quantum mechanics to it, which we don't know how to do completely.)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7703.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3culek", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why won't New Horizons orbit Pluto? A nine years journey just for a flyby?!", "c_root_id_A": "csz6gsh", "c_root_id_B": "csz61sv", "created_at_utc_A": 1436571041, "created_at_utc_B": 1436570325, "score_A": 242, "score_B": 34, "human_ref_A": "Because Pluto is (a) very far away and (b) very small.  New Horizons took nine years to arrive at Pluto even though it had the fastest launch velocity of any spacecraft in history--16 km/s. In order to achieve orbit around Pluto, New Horizons would need to be going (considerably) slower than Pluto's escape velocity, which is a mere 1.2 km/s because Pluto is so small.  If New Horizons had been launched at a low enough velocity to make its capture by Pluto practical, it would have taken decades for it to arrive, and no one wanted to wait that long. Bringing along enough fuel to slow New Horizons down once it arrived would have made the mission prohibitively expensive. And unlike the gas giants we've put satellites around, Pluto is too small to have a thick atmosphere that can be used to slow New Horizons enough for Pluto to capture it. So we have to settle for a flyby.", "human_ref_B": "To start orbit the probe will have to slow down a lot.  That takes fuel, which the probe does not have.  It does not have the fuel, because it's impractical/very expensive to launch a probe with the required fuel to do the slowing down it needs to.  There may be other reasons as well.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 716.0, "score_ratio": 7.1176470588, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3culek", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why won't New Horizons orbit Pluto? A nine years journey just for a flyby?!", "c_root_id_A": "csz6gsh", "c_root_id_B": "csz698o", "created_at_utc_A": 1436571041, "created_at_utc_B": 1436570680, "score_A": 242, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Because Pluto is (a) very far away and (b) very small.  New Horizons took nine years to arrive at Pluto even though it had the fastest launch velocity of any spacecraft in history--16 km/s. In order to achieve orbit around Pluto, New Horizons would need to be going (considerably) slower than Pluto's escape velocity, which is a mere 1.2 km/s because Pluto is so small.  If New Horizons had been launched at a low enough velocity to make its capture by Pluto practical, it would have taken decades for it to arrive, and no one wanted to wait that long. Bringing along enough fuel to slow New Horizons down once it arrived would have made the mission prohibitively expensive. And unlike the gas giants we've put satellites around, Pluto is too small to have a thick atmosphere that can be used to slow New Horizons enough for Pluto to capture it. So we have to settle for a flyby.", "human_ref_B": "The probe is going super fast (around 80,000km/h IIRC) and Pluto isn't massive enough to slow it down on its own until the point that New Horizons will orbit it.   You need an insane amount of energy to slow it down with the speed it is travelling.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 361.0, "score_ratio": 20.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3culek", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why won't New Horizons orbit Pluto? A nine years journey just for a flyby?!", "c_root_id_A": "cszdgl5", "c_root_id_B": "csz698o", "created_at_utc_A": 1436584677, "created_at_utc_B": 1436570680, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "> This is probably the easiest to answer if we take the same mission profile and just track from the Pluto flyby backwards. I'll make some rather broad assumptions and first order approximations, like that NASA had their [NEXT ion thruster][1] developed to the highest technology readiness level (they did exist when New Horizons launched, but not at TRL required to actually launch on a _deep space voyage of discovery_).  > I'll also spare you with pesky details and just assume that if we can bring New Horizons close to a dead stop somewhere at Pluto and relative to it from ~ [13.79 km/s][2], that would do. Delta-v to insert into Pluto's orbit from then on won't be that much compared to everything else we need to change, part of the job would simply be falling towards it on its own gravity, then circularize at some desired altitude. I'll also assume that the orbital space is free of debris. Brace yourself, it's going to be a dirty, _Mos Eisley Spaceport_ type of a job;  > - Hew Horizons mass at Jupiter flyby: ~ 470 kg - Mass of a single NEXT thruster: ~ 100 kg (just guesstimating) - NEXT thruster power envelope: ~ 6.9 kW - 6.9 kW @ 11 years operation (~ 7.55 kW BoF) [GPHS-RTG][3]'s fuel mass:   [1,434.5 kg][4] - [110 kW][5] RTG's excess thermal power radiator mass: ~ 12,000 kg (est.) - Additional truss / structure mass: ~ 4,000 kg (est.) - Total dry mass: ~ 18,000 kg - NEXT thruster xenon reaction mass for \u0394v of 13.79 km/s @ [Isp][6] of 4,190 s:   ~ 7,180 kg - Total wet mass: ~ 25,180 kg  > So we got with propulsion that's great for the job but wasn't really available at the time, with [196.3 kg][7] of plutonium for our RTG that nobody really had available at such quantity, and a few rather generously small estimates for the mass of additional systems and xenon fuel needed from probe's mass of about 470 kg to about 25,180 kg. And that's just the beginning of the story of our makeshift Pluto orbiter that now launches [about a year sooner][8] to get to Pluto at the same time as New Horizons will, assuming nothing breaks and our NEXT thruster's performance doesn't degrade during one year of continuous 236 mN thrust and consuming 6.9 kW of our RTG generated power.  > **TL;DR** - Generously underestimating the problem and throwing at it technology that wasn't yet ready, requiring parts and consumables that weren't available and would have to operate for a year longer without degradation in performance (but I did account for Pu-238 decay rate with half-life of 87.7 years), i.e. if New Horizons was made in Narnia, I got **from 478 kg to a launch mass of 25,180 kg**. Or nearly 53 times its launch mass. I'm not sure how or on what you could hurl such mass off the Earth and give it such a kick to still get there in time, but that's a different matter. Note that a one year longer mission also means that the Earth and Pluto don't align as nice and that comes with even more problems. But you now have an orbiter, and with enough power for the upcoming centuries to even transmit science and telemetry data back at a much faster rate. Oh, you might want a better transceiver antenna too, bigger and perhaps one that can gimbal independently of the orbiter itself, so you can receive and transmit towards the Earth without having to take your eyes off the target of your observations. I hope Pluto is worth it, chances are that it you made it into its orbit, you'll be there a long, long time. ;)  > Others will give you different estimates, depending on their choice of propulsion and power systems, but that's my view on the matter.   [Source][9]  [1]:http://wikipedia.org/wiki/NEXT_%28ion_thruster%29 [2]:http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/Mission/Where-is-New-Horizons/index.php [3]:http://wikipedia.org/wiki/GPHS-RTG [4]:http://google.com/#q=7.55+kW+%2F+300+W+*+57+kg [5]:http://google.com/#q=%287%2C550+%2F+300%29+*+4%2C400+W [6]:http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_impulse [7]:http://google.com/#q=%287%2C550+%2F+300%29+*+7.8+kg+ [8]:http://google.com/#q=13.79+km%2Fs+%2F+%28236+mN+%2F+560+kg%29 [9]:http://space.stackexchange.com/a/9852", "human_ref_B": "The probe is going super fast (around 80,000km/h IIRC) and Pluto isn't massive enough to slow it down on its own until the point that New Horizons will orbit it.   You need an insane amount of energy to slow it down with the speed it is travelling.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13997.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3culek", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why won't New Horizons orbit Pluto? A nine years journey just for a flyby?!", "c_root_id_A": "cszh88u", "c_root_id_B": "cszg8ov", "created_at_utc_A": 1436593858, "created_at_utc_B": 1436591166, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "This month's National Geographic did a feature on this. It's not set in stone that New Horizons will actually get very close to Pluto (and thus won't orbit it either) because Pluto doesn't have enough mass to clear its debris field that formed when the planet was forming. There are a lot of tiny and large objects that could seriously damage New Horizons (I think the article mentioned that anything as big as a speck of dust or a grain of sand could kill New Horizons).  So, as others have said, fuel and speed are big things to consider, but also the literal tons of tiny things surrounding Pluto are important too. So important that NASA is ready to cancel getting close to Pluto at the first sign of debris.  Source: http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2015/07/pluto/drake-text", "human_ref_B": "Instead of thrusters slowing the craft down, would it be possible to have a mothership type of craft speeding towards Pluto. At the right a satellite can then be fired out the back of the mothership going the opposite direction. This direction would put the satellite traveling at a slower rate.  That sounds plausible in my head but I have no idea. Perhaps someone with a better grasp into this category would tell me I'm wrong?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2692.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5if4kt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Can someone explain why a wider aperture causes a decrease in depth of field in lenses in terms of light physics? This is a photography question, but I don't think most photographers understand *why* a wide aperture causes a decrease in depth of field, so I came here to ask you lovely people for a more scientific answer  Bonus points: why would a bigger sensor create a smaller depth of field compared to a smaller, crop sensor?", "c_root_id_A": "db7t52g", "c_root_id_B": "db8155u", "created_at_utc_A": 1481777663, "created_at_utc_B": 1481796852, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Probably the simplest way to think about why the aperture affects the apparent focus is to understand that as a point of light strikes the lens, it appears as a point of light on the sensor when the lens is precisely focused.  But when the focus is off slightly, the point of light becomes a circle.  The size of that circle is related to how far out of focus it is.   A large aperture produces larger circles for the same amount of 'out-of-focus' than a small aperture.    There comes a point of diminishing returns, though.  Apertures smaller than about f/16 may have greater depth of field but another force comes into play.  That is diffraction.  When the light passes through a very tiny aperture, the diffraction effect negates the benefit you might think you'd get from a smaller aperture.  As for the sensor size, it's related to the same idea of out of focus circles and also the geometry of the focal length versus the sensor size.  You need a longer focal length lens to get the same magnification on a large sensor compared to a small sensor.  Longer focal lengths result in smaller depth of field.", "human_ref_B": "When a lens is focused correctly, think of two cones extending from it. One cone starts at the lens and comes down to a point on the sensor, and the other cone points in the opposite direction from the lens and comes down to a point at the object you are taking a picture of. These cones are the sum of all the possible rays of light that can travel from the object to the sensor.  The length of each cone is related to the focal length of the lens by the lens equation:  1/i + 1/o = 1/f  Where i is length of the cone going to the sensor (or \"image\"), o is the length of cone extending to the object, and f is the focal length. This equation also applies to out of focus objects. So something located at some closer distance o-x gets focused down to a point behind the sensor i+y:  1/(i+y) + 1/(o-x) = 1/f  So far, we haven't made any reference to the size of the aperture, so let's imagine two cones both coming down to a point i+y behind the sensor. One starts off very narrow, so when it passes through the sensor it isn't that much larger than a point. The other one starts off very wide, so when it passes through the sensor it is also a bit wider and you get a noticeable blur.  As far as the bigger sensor goes, it is a little tricky because many variables can change. Let's work through one possible way to take the \"same\" picture on a smaller sensor. it is worth defining a new term, m, the magnification:  m=i/o  For a smaller sensor with the same focal length lens and aperture, you must therefore stand farther away to reduce the magnification so that the image still fits in the sensor. And focusing on a distant object gives you more depth of field, because changes in x in the above equation now produce smaller changes in y.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19189.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ro2hto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What geographical location has the most potential for simultaneous natural disasters? Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, etc", "c_root_id_A": "hpvwyjf", "c_root_id_B": "hpvx15h", "created_at_utc_A": 1640407506, "created_at_utc_B": 1640407553, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Going off the top of my head but I'm gonna say Indonesia or Japan both have volcano, earthquake, typhoon, tsunami, and wildfire potential. Tropical cyclones can produce tornadoes in them so that's another. Mountains with heavy rain from a tropical cyclone can lead to mudslides adding yet another. you can always throw in flooding for good measure. But I can't say for sure that they have the most of any location", "human_ref_B": "World Risk Report 2021   When it comes to the potentially devastating results of natural disasters, Oceania is the most susceptible. Not only does it show the highest median World Risk Index (WRI) figure, the place with the highest number on the index overall, Vanuatu, is also located in this region.Oct 13, 2021", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 47.0, "score_ratio": 2.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6y06tw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How does one measure the thickness of gold foil?", "c_root_id_A": "dmjpcww", "c_root_id_B": "dmjs07o", "created_at_utc_A": 1504530945, "created_at_utc_B": 1504535108, "score_A": 39, "score_B": 180, "human_ref_A": "That depends on how thick it is. But one way to precisely measure the thickness of a thin foil is to shoot radiation (for example alpha particles) through it. If you know the initial energy of the alpha particle, and you measure the final energy of it, after it's traveled through the foil, then you know how much energy it lost in the foil. We have a very good understanding of how heavy charged particles lose energy in matter, so using that we can calculate the thickness of the foil.  This is often done to measure target thicknesses for nuclear physics experiments.", "human_ref_B": "Ellipsometry can do it! Throw in some polarised light, look at the reflection and see how the polarisation has changed - gold is slightly birefringent (it changes the polarisation of the light on transmission), and so by looking at the net change of polarisation you can work out the thickness!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4163.0, "score_ratio": 4.6153846154, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6y06tw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How does one measure the thickness of gold foil?", "c_root_id_A": "dmjs07o", "c_root_id_B": "dmjq5g2", "created_at_utc_A": 1504535108, "created_at_utc_B": 1504532303, "score_A": 180, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "Ellipsometry can do it! Throw in some polarised light, look at the reflection and see how the polarisation has changed - gold is slightly birefringent (it changes the polarisation of the light on transmission), and so by looking at the net change of polarisation you can work out the thickness!", "human_ref_B": "Previously I have used a micrometer screw gauge and a bench mounted laser measurement device (For some reason the proper name for the device escapes me at the moment)  This is only good down to about 0.001mm though, if you want to go thinner than that you will need a different method.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2805.0, "score_ratio": 5.4545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6y06tw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How does one measure the thickness of gold foil?", "c_root_id_A": "dmk5k8r", "c_root_id_B": "dmk98ei", "created_at_utc_A": 1504551873, "created_at_utc_B": 1504556320, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "If its really a foil. Cut a strip. Glue it to the edge of block and look at it under a microscope. Or use a calipers. Optical methods would require the 'foil' to be so thin (few hundred angstroms), it would be more like a 'thin film' and probably have to be supported on a substrate.  Even for thin films on substrates (0.1 to few microns), the usual method is some sort of stylus dragging across a patterned edge of the film.", "human_ref_B": "I would have thought that simply measuring the volume of the foil using some kind of volume displacement measurement method and then dividing that volume by the area of the foil would give you the average thickness of the foil.   I am not sure the reason for the measurement but this would provide you with simple and quick measurements.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4447.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6y06tw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How does one measure the thickness of gold foil?", "c_root_id_A": "dmk8mc0", "c_root_id_B": "dmk98ei", "created_at_utc_A": 1504555560, "created_at_utc_B": 1504556320, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "With a thickness gauge based on attenuation of a beta particle or alpha particle source. Some gauges use magnetic techniques such as eddy current attenuation and the like. Measuring thickness of films is a standard industrial engineering problem and a large industry exists to supply instruments. Google 'thickness guage'.", "human_ref_B": "I would have thought that simply measuring the volume of the foil using some kind of volume displacement measurement method and then dividing that volume by the area of the foil would give you the average thickness of the foil.   I am not sure the reason for the measurement but this would provide you with simple and quick measurements.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 760.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6y06tw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How does one measure the thickness of gold foil?", "c_root_id_A": "dmk8mc0", "c_root_id_B": "dmk9eds", "created_at_utc_A": 1504555560, "created_at_utc_B": 1504556523, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "With a thickness gauge based on attenuation of a beta particle or alpha particle source. Some gauges use magnetic techniques such as eddy current attenuation and the like. Measuring thickness of films is a standard industrial engineering problem and a large industry exists to supply instruments. Google 'thickness guage'.", "human_ref_B": "There are lots of theoretical suggestions in here, how about some practical applications, and examples, along with explanations of how they work:  Here's a good youtube channel if you're interested in machining, and measuring stuff.  In this video, he's measuring the thickness of a line drawn by a sharpie.  The mechanical measuring tool he's using has a resolution of 10 millionths of an inch (0.000010\"): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46DBNUfhATo  Someone else in this thread mentioned optical flats.  In this video, he's making his own lapping plates, and he's measuring how flat they are using optical flats. He explains how they work, and how the resolution is limited to the wavelength of the light source you're using (11 millionths of an inch in his case).  He also uses a different mechanical measuring tool from the last video to measure the flatness, it looks like it's capable of a 10 millionth resolution.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Whyw5v7L70c", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 963.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di2a8v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "How do deciduous trees know when to drop their leaves? What would happen to them if winter never came? Obviously temperature is super important to this process, but what actual patterns trigger dormancy, and how can these get messed up?", "c_root_id_A": "f3t8tje", "c_root_id_B": "f3u5vv9", "created_at_utc_A": 1571122891, "created_at_utc_B": 1571153565, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The mechanism that causes deciduous plants to drop their leaves is not based on temperature per say, but rather to conserve moisture. In latitudes that have cold winters - those cold temperatures are associated with high pressure and low moisture. Plants try and conserve their water rather than lose it through the leaves.  In the tropics, it is the dry season peak that causes plants to lose their leaves. If cold Winter never came there would still be a dry season. The plants would adjust over time.", "human_ref_B": "It's not temperature that causes trees to lose their leaves, it's hours of sunlight.  Trees, as you can imagine, are pretty good at using sunlight.  When they notice the hours of daylight per day start to get below a certain number, that triggers them to go into dormancy.  If winter never came, if temperatures never dropped below freezing, some trees would be fine, but most would be in trouble.  Some, indeed I would say most, trees require a certain number of days to be below freezing before they can be taken out of dormancy.  Basically, they drop their leaves and enter dormancy due to triggers from the number of hours of sunlight in a day, but they wake up from dormancy based on temperature.  In order to not wake up in the middle of a warm spell during winter, most will require that the temperature be below a certain level (typically freezing, but it isn't always) for a certain number of days (typically 30-60 days) followed by warmer temperatures for a certain number of days before they wake up.  This isn't always the case, but it is true of most trees.  After they leaf out and have their solar collectors deployed, they switch back to the number of daylight hours for most functions.  For example, they'll flower based not on the temperature and not on the number of days it's been since their leaf buds first opened, but based on the number of daylight hours.  This means that trees in different micro-climates (like climbing up a hill, where it's colder at the top of the hill than it is at the bottom) will all flower at the same time, thus increasing their chances of getting pollinated.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30674.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "di2a8v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "How do deciduous trees know when to drop their leaves? What would happen to them if winter never came? Obviously temperature is super important to this process, but what actual patterns trigger dormancy, and how can these get messed up?", "c_root_id_A": "f3thy3b", "c_root_id_B": "f3u5vv9", "created_at_utc_A": 1571134926, "created_at_utc_B": 1571153565, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Umm....the length of day (amount of sunlight) is the deciding factor in when trees shed their leaves. Temps have little, if anything, to do woth that process.   Shorter days trigger a host of biological imperatives in a variety of species. From migration in waterfowl to rut in cervids to trees losing their leaves, as the days grow shorter - these processes depend on that trigger.  For what it's worth, my undergrad is in fisheries and wildlife science, and I'm currently in a master's program. My area of focus is waterfowl, but as is the norm, my studies have covered many areas...including basic botany.", "human_ref_B": "It's not temperature that causes trees to lose their leaves, it's hours of sunlight.  Trees, as you can imagine, are pretty good at using sunlight.  When they notice the hours of daylight per day start to get below a certain number, that triggers them to go into dormancy.  If winter never came, if temperatures never dropped below freezing, some trees would be fine, but most would be in trouble.  Some, indeed I would say most, trees require a certain number of days to be below freezing before they can be taken out of dormancy.  Basically, they drop their leaves and enter dormancy due to triggers from the number of hours of sunlight in a day, but they wake up from dormancy based on temperature.  In order to not wake up in the middle of a warm spell during winter, most will require that the temperature be below a certain level (typically freezing, but it isn't always) for a certain number of days (typically 30-60 days) followed by warmer temperatures for a certain number of days before they wake up.  This isn't always the case, but it is true of most trees.  After they leaf out and have their solar collectors deployed, they switch back to the number of daylight hours for most functions.  For example, they'll flower based not on the temperature and not on the number of days it's been since their leaf buds first opened, but based on the number of daylight hours.  This means that trees in different micro-climates (like climbing up a hill, where it's colder at the top of the hill than it is at the bottom) will all flower at the same time, thus increasing their chances of getting pollinated.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18639.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "snf7j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Does artificial light mess with the sleeping habits of pets like it does humans?", "c_root_id_A": "c4fg1cz", "c_root_id_B": "c4fhvw5", "created_at_utc_A": 1335153069, "created_at_utc_B": 1335164755, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Interest", "human_ref_B": "Artificial lighting does affect the behavior of animals. For example, mice will mate pretty much only after dark and seem to get stressed if the light is always on, so mouse colonies in laboratories are thus on a strict lights on/lights off schedule set by timer. However, some labs which need to do experiments at specific times after mating actually will alter the lighting the schedule of the room so that the dark comes earlier/later and the scientists don't have to come into the lab at, say, 3 in the morning to do their experiments. Farmers use artificial lighting to influence the laying cycle of hens. Constant artificial lighting, such as at highways or tourist areas, also seems to disorient some108%5B0130:AEOLPO%5D2.0.CO%3B2) wildlife.  Dogs have mostly adopted our sleep schedules and will sleep when we sleep, so I don't know how artificial lighting affects them.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11686.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "24cyal", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How is light pollution bad for the environment isn't it just light that can be turn on and off?", "c_root_id_A": "ch6dt0z", "c_root_id_B": "ch6h9xy", "created_at_utc_A": 1398898237, "created_at_utc_B": 1398906057, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Well, it can be turned off, but in practice it isn't.  So its constantly out there in the environment for animals to have to deal with.", "human_ref_B": "The other angle is that it's all wasted light, therefore wasted energy, therefore at least in part increasing CO2 emissions for no reason. If you use reflectors and redirect the light to where it is needed, you can use lower power lights.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7820.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rvyc6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why is fusion such a big deal when we already have fission based power plants?", "c_root_id_A": "cwrum8c", "c_root_id_B": "cws1ccc", "created_at_utc_A": 1446910859, "created_at_utc_B": 1446923301, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Fission usually uses Uranium as a fuel. That's about as common as Silver. It needs to be purified and the U235 to U238 ratio has to go up a bit before the fuel will burn. Waste products are highly radioactive and stay that way forever.  Fusion should work with the Hydrogen from water. Done right it won't need to be Deuterium. The sun uses regular Hydrogen nuclei. Other stars fuse Lithium. The waste created from fusion might not be radioactive at all, or its half-life could be small-- like years. Tritium isn't particularly harmful even if we're exposed to it.  Fusion devices could be very small once we figure out the basics of controlling them efficiently. Fifty years ago folk would run into the modem to share mai-tais on the DEW line in the arctic high north. A 50 bps modem was actually a small air-conditioned house. While our fusion devices are vast now there's no specific reason they couldn't experience reductions in scale similar to those that solid state devices encountered. Laser confinement or magnetic field management could be  miniaturized.", "human_ref_B": "Two main reasons.  First, there's a *lot* more fuel for fusion. Both here on Earth and (even more so) in the Universe at large. An interesting fact of nuclear physics is that every element lighter than iron (that is, elements with 1 - 25 protons) can be fused up towards iron for a net gain of energy, and correspondingly requires a net input of energy to fission, while every element heavier than iron (elements with 27 or more protons) can be fissioned down towards iron for a net gain of energy, and correspondingly requires a net input of energy to fuse. (Iron, with 26 protons, can be neither fissioned nor fused for a gain in energy, it is useless as a nuclear fuel.) But the Big Bang created essentially *nothing but* light elements- mostly hydrogen and helium, and virtually nothing heavier than beryllium (4 protons). So the Universe was inherently created with vast amounts of fusion fuel and essentially no fission fuel. The fission fuel present on Earth was created in the explosions of giant stars billions of years ago, where the stars' internal fusion and the force of their own gravity provided enough excess energy to fuse light elements up beyond iron, creating uranium and thorium and so on. We have some of that uranium and thorium on the Earth's surface right now, where it landed during asteroid impacts. However, we still have vastly more fusion fuel in the form of hydrogen, most of it bound together with oxygen to make water. It is estimated that the amount of uranium that can be efficiently mined from the Earth will last us only a few thousand years, whereas the amount of available hydrogen could last us many millions of years.  Second, fusion power is a lot safer than fission power. This, in turn, is due to two related reasons. One is that the fuel for a fusion power plant is not inherently radioactive and dangerous, so if there's an accident in a fusion reactor, the reaction just stops. There's no giant lump of radioactive slag sitting there, and there's no radioactive stuff spewed into the surrounding terrain like what happened at Chernobyl. The other is that the fusion reaction doesn't tend to produce dangerous radioactive waste. You don't have to worry about how to contain and store the fusion products, because they're totally benign and safe to handle- indeed, the most likely fusion product would be regular helium (He4), which is not only a stable isotope but is also chemically inert and has many uses of its own.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12442.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rvyc6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why is fusion such a big deal when we already have fission based power plants?", "c_root_id_A": "cws1ccc", "c_root_id_B": "cwrukcp", "created_at_utc_A": 1446923301, "created_at_utc_B": 1446910746, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Two main reasons.  First, there's a *lot* more fuel for fusion. Both here on Earth and (even more so) in the Universe at large. An interesting fact of nuclear physics is that every element lighter than iron (that is, elements with 1 - 25 protons) can be fused up towards iron for a net gain of energy, and correspondingly requires a net input of energy to fission, while every element heavier than iron (elements with 27 or more protons) can be fissioned down towards iron for a net gain of energy, and correspondingly requires a net input of energy to fuse. (Iron, with 26 protons, can be neither fissioned nor fused for a gain in energy, it is useless as a nuclear fuel.) But the Big Bang created essentially *nothing but* light elements- mostly hydrogen and helium, and virtually nothing heavier than beryllium (4 protons). So the Universe was inherently created with vast amounts of fusion fuel and essentially no fission fuel. The fission fuel present on Earth was created in the explosions of giant stars billions of years ago, where the stars' internal fusion and the force of their own gravity provided enough excess energy to fuse light elements up beyond iron, creating uranium and thorium and so on. We have some of that uranium and thorium on the Earth's surface right now, where it landed during asteroid impacts. However, we still have vastly more fusion fuel in the form of hydrogen, most of it bound together with oxygen to make water. It is estimated that the amount of uranium that can be efficiently mined from the Earth will last us only a few thousand years, whereas the amount of available hydrogen could last us many millions of years.  Second, fusion power is a lot safer than fission power. This, in turn, is due to two related reasons. One is that the fuel for a fusion power plant is not inherently radioactive and dangerous, so if there's an accident in a fusion reactor, the reaction just stops. There's no giant lump of radioactive slag sitting there, and there's no radioactive stuff spewed into the surrounding terrain like what happened at Chernobyl. The other is that the fusion reaction doesn't tend to produce dangerous radioactive waste. You don't have to worry about how to contain and store the fusion products, because they're totally benign and safe to handle- indeed, the most likely fusion product would be regular helium (He4), which is not only a stable isotope but is also chemically inert and has many uses of its own.", "human_ref_B": "All other reasons aside, fusion requires basically just hydrogen. Fission requires uranium, plutonium, thorium etc, which are comparatively rare and difficult/time-consuming to get in enough quantities in the right isotopes to make fission work. Hydrogen is, well, everywhere.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12555.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rvyc6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why is fusion such a big deal when we already have fission based power plants?", "c_root_id_A": "cwrum8c", "c_root_id_B": "cwrukcp", "created_at_utc_A": 1446910859, "created_at_utc_B": 1446910746, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Fission usually uses Uranium as a fuel. That's about as common as Silver. It needs to be purified and the U235 to U238 ratio has to go up a bit before the fuel will burn. Waste products are highly radioactive and stay that way forever.  Fusion should work with the Hydrogen from water. Done right it won't need to be Deuterium. The sun uses regular Hydrogen nuclei. Other stars fuse Lithium. The waste created from fusion might not be radioactive at all, or its half-life could be small-- like years. Tritium isn't particularly harmful even if we're exposed to it.  Fusion devices could be very small once we figure out the basics of controlling them efficiently. Fifty years ago folk would run into the modem to share mai-tais on the DEW line in the arctic high north. A 50 bps modem was actually a small air-conditioned house. While our fusion devices are vast now there's no specific reason they couldn't experience reductions in scale similar to those that solid state devices encountered. Laser confinement or magnetic field management could be  miniaturized.", "human_ref_B": "All other reasons aside, fusion requires basically just hydrogen. Fission requires uranium, plutonium, thorium etc, which are comparatively rare and difficult/time-consuming to get in enough quantities in the right isotopes to make fission work. Hydrogen is, well, everywhere.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 113.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rvyc6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why is fusion such a big deal when we already have fission based power plants?", "c_root_id_A": "cws6i76", "c_root_id_B": "cwsljuj", "created_at_utc_A": 1446932344, "created_at_utc_B": 1446959690, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Everyone says that fusion is going to be safer and cheaper, but I don't believe this is really true.   The cost of uranium fuel is a meager pittance. Almost none of the cost of nuclear generated electricity comes from fuel. It's from the plant and plant operation and from regulations.  Fission plants could be built and operated for about 80% less than they are if they a) had long-term government guarantees on the finances, since nearly all the of the costs of operation upfront, and they are significant. b) If we made it easy to approve new modern designs and c) if the same design was built over and over.  Basically, if you're, say, Illinois and you commission GE to build you a new plant, basically all your engineers and labor will spend half their careers building that one plant.  If enough plants were being built so that economies of scale were taken advantage of, the cost of a new nuclear plant would plummet like a stone.  Basically, Three Mile Island was scary and it killed the nuclear industry for 20 years. Then right when it was ready to take off again, Chernobyl was even worse.  Now nuclear has been so unpopular for so long that it costs too much to build a new plant, so it can't compete with coal or gas. It should be far cheaper.  And fission is super safe. Burning coal releases more radioactivity into the air than nuclear accidents do.  And more people have died from installing solar panels than have ever died from nuclear safety accidents--and those accidents only happen in plants designed before 1974.    Basically, Fukishima shouldn't have happened without gross incompetence, but even gross incompetence wouldn't have resulted in an accident in a plant built after 1980, even if there was an earthquake, a tsunami and you crashed a 747 into it *while* you were being incompetent.  I think there's a good chance that a successful fusion plant could be built pretty small.  Small enough to allow easy travel to Mars and Jupiter. This is the biggest benefit I see to fusion.  With the cost of wind and solar plummeting so fast, at this point I don't see a huge role for nuclear of any sort in future power generation, unless it's some sort of exotic, nearly-free-energy breakthrough.", "human_ref_B": "This isn't a statement about science and it is speculation: the public knows little about fusion and the potential tradeoffs related to fusion, but it does have some well developed fears about the issue of waste, end of life/decommissioning, and accidents related to fission reactors.  For the layperson, fusion is a beautiful exciting new potential without any sense of drawbacks whereas fission has some pretty frightening bogeymen stalking it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27346.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16pid2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "What is a 'muscle knot', and what causes them? Not cramps, but the 'knots' that athletes get massaged out when the season is over.", "c_root_id_A": "c7y5wt0", "c_root_id_B": "c7y6wo0", "created_at_utc_A": 1358374758, "created_at_utc_B": 1358377509, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "A knot is muscle lacking blood. You massage a knot for the same reason you tenderize steak, which is to draw blood into the tissue.", "human_ref_B": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigger_point#Potential_causes_of_trigger_points wiki does a great job of explaining it.   \"Trigger points form only in muscles. They form as a local contraction in a small number of muscle fibers in a larger muscle or muscle bundle. These in turn can pull on tendons and ligaments associated with the muscle and can cause pain deep within a joint where there are no muscles.\"    continues with....\" The integrated hypothesis theory states that trigger points form from excessive release of acetylcholine which produces sustained depolarization of muscle fibers. These sustained contractions of muscle sarcomeres compresses local blood supply restricting the energy needs of the local region. This crisis of energy produces sensitizing substances that interact with some nociceptive (pain) nerves traversing in the local region which in turn can produce localized pain within the muscle at the neuromuscular junction (Travell and Simons 1999). When trigger points are present in muscles there is often pain and weakness in the associated structures. These pain patterns in muscles follow specific nerve pathways and have been readily mapped to allow for identification of the causative pain factor. Many trigger points have pain patterns that overlap, and some create reciprocal cyclic relationships that need to be treated extensively to remove them\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2751.0, "score_ratio": -2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16pid2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "What is a 'muscle knot', and what causes them? Not cramps, but the 'knots' that athletes get massaged out when the season is over.", "c_root_id_A": "c7y5wt0", "c_root_id_B": "c7y8e55", "created_at_utc_A": 1358374758, "created_at_utc_B": 1358381924, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "A knot is muscle lacking blood. You massage a knot for the same reason you tenderize steak, which is to draw blood into the tissue.", "human_ref_B": "Check out this Explain like I'm five years old thread about muscle knots   The top comment, which was deleted by the contributor, is pasted in the OPs question.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7166.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5vnqba", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Will quantum mechanics and general relativity ever be able to come together, or must we invent new kinds of mathematics (ways to solve the problem)?", "c_root_id_A": "de3s6k2", "c_root_id_B": "de3zipm", "created_at_utc_A": 1487841402, "created_at_utc_B": 1487858918, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "We can't really bring them together until we have an experimental result to go on. If we can detect a quantum gravitational effect, that will give a starting point to develop a unified theory.", "human_ref_B": "Why not both?  Quantum field theory needed a lot of new math to be put together, it stands to reason that a push for unification will organically push formalism in a similar manner.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17516.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xfivn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "My family has always told me that you should run the water from the sink for a little bit (around 30 seconds) before using it, especially for drinking.  Is there any truth to this?", "c_root_id_A": "c5lwh7w", "c_root_id_B": "c5lwhlm", "created_at_utc_A": 1343707626, "created_at_utc_B": 1343707671, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pipe http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002473.htm Water used to sit in different parts of the pipe,if you ran the water for a bit you would be getting less \"standing\"water. much the same as the first Beer drawn on a lead piped tap.  can't find a beer link", "human_ref_B": "This is something that can be useful for older houses however is not necessary for newer houses. Older houses may have lead pipes. Running the water will flush out the water that has been sitting in the pipe collecting small amounts of lead. The fresh water running through the pipes will not be exposed to the pipe as long and will have a lower lead content. You should check your pipes. If it is an older house and you have lead pipes there are other measures that may be worthwhile to limit your exposure to lead. I am making the assumption that your government has banned the use of lead pipes (therefore only older houses will have them). I expect most developed nations will have by now.   Personally, I still run the water for a few seconds while I wait for cooler water from the pipes in the ground.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 45.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5eiqui", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is a weather-based Random Number Generator genuinely random on a quantum level, or is it deterministic? One of the most popular methods for generating random numbers (e.g. random.org) is to use random fluctuations in weather. Are those fluctuations really dependent on quantum phenomena or are they random simply because of deterministic chaos?   In other words, will Schr\u00f6dinger's cat be both alive and dead if we use weather measurements to trigger the poison? Not that I'm trying to kill a cat or anything", "c_root_id_A": "daczk7l", "c_root_id_B": "dacye9b", "created_at_utc_A": 1479937309, "created_at_utc_B": 1479935793, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Real macroscopic quantum effects are pretty specific, like superconductivity or quantum Hall effect. In that sense the weather is no changing as a quantum effect. However, if I use a random number by a real quantum effect (like some decay), and decide upon that whether I turn on my giant atmosphere heater or not, then those fluctuations are  really dependent on quantum phenomena, are they?  Add a bit of deterministic chaos and you're good to go.", "human_ref_B": "Chaotic phenomena are heavily sensitive to tiny changes in initial conditions. As such, even miniscule amounts of quantum randomness will result in exponentially growing changes in the system.  To put it another way, if a flap of a butterfly's wings can change the path of a hurricane, then a radioactive decay can create a change comparable to a flap of a butterfly's wings, which will itself change the path of a hurricane.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1516.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1iaz3j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How are random numbers really generated? When I call a random() function in a program, it generates a pseudo random number that is \"good enough\" for most random applications. The function takes a seed, which I understand varies; it could be a time stamp or a lava lamp or any other source. My question is what mathematical process or processes are usually used to turn that seed into the end number.", "c_root_id_A": "cb2s3m8", "c_root_id_B": "cb2rk8m", "created_at_utc_A": 1373854738, "created_at_utc_B": 1373853109, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "You can think of a pseudo-random number generator as mathematical function whose output has a very chaotic pattern.  Let's take a very trivial random number generator, Y = (3X + 5) mod 11.  Your seed is the initial inputof your generator, let's choose the seed to be 2. This means that our initial Y value will be: (3\\*2 + 5) mod 11 = 0. Your first random number is 0. Now you use 0 as the input to the function the next time you want a random number. The second time around our random number will be (3\\*0 + 5) mod 11 = 5. The third time around, the number will be 9. The fourth time around, you'll get 10. The fifth time, you'll get 2. The sixth time, you'll get   You have a sequence like 0, 5, 9, 10, 2. Without any knowledge of what's going, this looks like some random sequence of numbers, but in reality the numbers are following a complicated pattern. My example is a very terrible random number generator, because the pattern starts to repeat after the next number, because we're back to 2 again (our seed value).  Real pseudo-random number generators are much more complex than my example, and are designed to take a very, very long time for the pattern to start repeating, and to be very unpredictable. Because of how random number generators work, if you keep using the same seed for a random number generator, you will always get the same pattern of numbers. For this reason, you usually seed a random number generator with a value that is unique, like the current time.", "human_ref_B": "Y=(AX+B) mod N is the standard. I wouldn't use it to encrypt communication from Russian subs, but it works for most stuff.  A and B are chosen constants, N is your range, X is the seed, Y is the output, which becomes the next seed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1629.0, "score_ratio": 4.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1iaz3j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "How are random numbers really generated? When I call a random() function in a program, it generates a pseudo random number that is \"good enough\" for most random applications. The function takes a seed, which I understand varies; it could be a time stamp or a lava lamp or any other source. My question is what mathematical process or processes are usually used to turn that seed into the end number.", "c_root_id_A": "cb2ziir", "c_root_id_B": "cb2z871", "created_at_utc_A": 1373889304, "created_at_utc_B": 1373887240, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Follow up: Why doesn't every device that needs random numbers have a hardware random number generator? Isn't there enough hardware already available that oscillates randomly and wouldn't applications be more secure if we did this?", "human_ref_B": "How exactly would someone go about testing randomness on an RNG?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2064.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mk9n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "If a person were skydiving and struck by lightning, what would happen?  Say a person is skydiving and gets struck by lightning mid-air/mid-jump (not touching the airplane or the ground). Would they just get burned? Would this be considered a direct strike?  I imagine it would hurt tremendously. Anyone around here ever been struck by lightning?", "c_root_id_A": "c31me2g", "c_root_id_B": "c31mdcu", "created_at_utc_A": 1321900010, "created_at_utc_B": 1321899886, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It would most likely kill the skydiver.  1) The skydiver would not die from electrocution due to a lack of being grounded.   2) Lighting also has a extremely high temperature.   http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/DavidFriedman.shtml  You can expect that would be enough to kill the skydiver.  3) Lightning would also create a shock to the system enough for it to be fatal. While the size of the wound could be very tiny or large our bodies depend up things like our blood pressure to keep us alive. System shock to any of the vital organs or a displacement that throws off blood pressure would be fatal.   4) It will depending on how it hits the skydiver cut the skydiver. This is a poor example but put your finger in a jacobs ladder and see what happens (note: don't really do this) It the voltage and amperage is high enough the arc will act like a knife and cut off your finger. This is an extreme example but lighting is way way more intense than a jacob's ladder.   5) Depending on the surrounding atmosphere and distance the lightning doesn't have to kill him the shockwave of thunder in the right area will at a minimum do some damage to his hearing. Or it could be like being hit by a mack truck.   *edit spelling", "human_ref_B": "As lightning always seeks the shortest path, it would all depend on the specific angle of strike and orientation of the diver. The condition of the diver would matter too, skin is a relatively decent insulator, until it gets wet. But seeing as how the question is asking about a diver that has already been struck:  It could be relatively harmless with just some burns. Or the bolt could pass through the nervous system and cause the heart to fibrillate. The fact that diver is not standing on the ground would mean that the current might not have to pass through the entire body as often as it would on a grounded individual. So the diver might have a better chance of surviving the bolt (not necessarily the drop if he loses consciousness though.)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 124.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mk9n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "If a person were skydiving and struck by lightning, what would happen?  Say a person is skydiving and gets struck by lightning mid-air/mid-jump (not touching the airplane or the ground). Would they just get burned? Would this be considered a direct strike?  I imagine it would hurt tremendously. Anyone around here ever been struck by lightning?", "c_root_id_A": "c31lkuy", "c_root_id_B": "c31me2g", "created_at_utc_A": 1321894564, "created_at_utc_B": 1321900010, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I imagine the same thing would happen, with a airplane - i.e. nothing. As far as i remember from physics; the plane (or the body) isn't grounded, the lightning has nowhere to discharge, like a bird sitting on a single power line - correct?", "human_ref_B": "It would most likely kill the skydiver.  1) The skydiver would not die from electrocution due to a lack of being grounded.   2) Lighting also has a extremely high temperature.   http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/DavidFriedman.shtml  You can expect that would be enough to kill the skydiver.  3) Lightning would also create a shock to the system enough for it to be fatal. While the size of the wound could be very tiny or large our bodies depend up things like our blood pressure to keep us alive. System shock to any of the vital organs or a displacement that throws off blood pressure would be fatal.   4) It will depending on how it hits the skydiver cut the skydiver. This is a poor example but put your finger in a jacobs ladder and see what happens (note: don't really do this) It the voltage and amperage is high enough the arc will act like a knife and cut off your finger. This is an extreme example but lighting is way way more intense than a jacob's ladder.   5) Depending on the surrounding atmosphere and distance the lightning doesn't have to kill him the shockwave of thunder in the right area will at a minimum do some damage to his hearing. Or it could be like being hit by a mack truck.   *edit spelling", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5446.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mk9n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "If a person were skydiving and struck by lightning, what would happen?  Say a person is skydiving and gets struck by lightning mid-air/mid-jump (not touching the airplane or the ground). Would they just get burned? Would this be considered a direct strike?  I imagine it would hurt tremendously. Anyone around here ever been struck by lightning?", "c_root_id_A": "c31mdcu", "c_root_id_B": "c31lkuy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321899886, "created_at_utc_B": 1321894564, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "As lightning always seeks the shortest path, it would all depend on the specific angle of strike and orientation of the diver. The condition of the diver would matter too, skin is a relatively decent insulator, until it gets wet. But seeing as how the question is asking about a diver that has already been struck:  It could be relatively harmless with just some burns. Or the bolt could pass through the nervous system and cause the heart to fibrillate. The fact that diver is not standing on the ground would mean that the current might not have to pass through the entire body as often as it would on a grounded individual. So the diver might have a better chance of surviving the bolt (not necessarily the drop if he loses consciousness though.)", "human_ref_B": "I imagine the same thing would happen, with a airplane - i.e. nothing. As far as i remember from physics; the plane (or the body) isn't grounded, the lightning has nowhere to discharge, like a bird sitting on a single power line - correct?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5322.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mk9n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "If a person were skydiving and struck by lightning, what would happen?  Say a person is skydiving and gets struck by lightning mid-air/mid-jump (not touching the airplane or the ground). Would they just get burned? Would this be considered a direct strike?  I imagine it would hurt tremendously. Anyone around here ever been struck by lightning?", "c_root_id_A": "c31npaz", "c_root_id_B": "c31ofcf", "created_at_utc_A": 1321908008, "created_at_utc_B": 1321912294, "score_A": -4, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "They'd look like the cover of a metal album", "human_ref_B": "I could be wrong, and probably will be proven so by others, but I don't think lightning would \"strike\" a skydiving person unless they were wet, wrapped in copper, etc.  Electricity takes the path of least resistance, and I believe the body would act as a falling insulator.  I think if the potential builds to the point of a lightning strike, it's going to hit the earth.     The exception to this would be if lightning were striking the earth, and a skydiver just happened to be falling in the path of the strike at the time, and was not part of the equation on where the strike would happen.  In this case, the skydiver would suffer exactly the same burns and damage that he or she would on the ground.  The \"circuit\" is being completed to ground (or the strike wouldn't happen) and that person is part of it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4286.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mk9n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "If a person were skydiving and struck by lightning, what would happen?  Say a person is skydiving and gets struck by lightning mid-air/mid-jump (not touching the airplane or the ground). Would they just get burned? Would this be considered a direct strike?  I imagine it would hurt tremendously. Anyone around here ever been struck by lightning?", "c_root_id_A": "c31lkuy", "c_root_id_B": "c31ofcf", "created_at_utc_A": 1321894564, "created_at_utc_B": 1321912294, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I imagine the same thing would happen, with a airplane - i.e. nothing. As far as i remember from physics; the plane (or the body) isn't grounded, the lightning has nowhere to discharge, like a bird sitting on a single power line - correct?", "human_ref_B": "I could be wrong, and probably will be proven so by others, but I don't think lightning would \"strike\" a skydiving person unless they were wet, wrapped in copper, etc.  Electricity takes the path of least resistance, and I believe the body would act as a falling insulator.  I think if the potential builds to the point of a lightning strike, it's going to hit the earth.     The exception to this would be if lightning were striking the earth, and a skydiver just happened to be falling in the path of the strike at the time, and was not part of the equation on where the strike would happen.  In this case, the skydiver would suffer exactly the same burns and damage that he or she would on the ground.  The \"circuit\" is being completed to ground (or the strike wouldn't happen) and that person is part of it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17730.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mk9n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "If a person were skydiving and struck by lightning, what would happen?  Say a person is skydiving and gets struck by lightning mid-air/mid-jump (not touching the airplane or the ground). Would they just get burned? Would this be considered a direct strike?  I imagine it would hurt tremendously. Anyone around here ever been struck by lightning?", "c_root_id_A": "c31lkuy", "c_root_id_B": "c31npaz", "created_at_utc_A": 1321894564, "created_at_utc_B": 1321908008, "score_A": -7, "score_B": -4, "human_ref_A": "I imagine the same thing would happen, with a airplane - i.e. nothing. As far as i remember from physics; the plane (or the body) isn't grounded, the lightning has nowhere to discharge, like a bird sitting on a single power line - correct?", "human_ref_B": "They'd look like the cover of a metal album", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13444.0, "score_ratio": 0.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3g6buk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Is it possible in theory for Higgs Bosons to be removed from an object, hence making it massless and able to travel at the speed of light?", "c_root_id_A": "ctve74d", "c_root_id_B": "ctvdb17", "created_at_utc_A": 1438990747, "created_at_utc_B": 1438989126, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It's not the Higgs boson which gives mass, it's the Higgs field. The boson is an excitation in the field, not the field itself.  You cannot remove the Higgs field, it has a non-zero baseline value throughout all space. Most other fields are zero in free space, but the Higgs is not. That's why the Higgs mechanism has an effect when no boson is around.", "human_ref_B": "No. The origin papers describing the spontaneous symmetry breaking, the scalar field required to generate the massive vector bosons wasn't nessisarily considered massive itself. It was subsequently shown that it must be massive due to the decays the scalar boson, or Higgs, must participate in.    If the Higgs was massless, the mechanism would not eschew the massless Goldstone bosons we want to get rid of when we use symmetry breaking to give vector bosons mass.    Edit: Higgs's 1966 paper on this is literally called \"Spontaneous Symmetry Breakdown without Massless Bosons\" http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.145.1156", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1621.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b90mcg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "How far in advance can we currently predict large asteroids striking Earth? Basically, how many years of asteroid-free time do we think we have right now?", "c_root_id_A": "ek1eqil", "c_root_id_B": "ek1c5nv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554313480, "created_at_utc_B": 1554312021, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "We don\u2019t really think of it that way. We have an idea of what\u2019s floating around, but things surprise us sometimes. It\u2019s one of the reasons we have entire programs devoted to finding them before they find us.   We don\u2019t divide the risk factors into windows of time that we\u2019re safe. It\u2019s more like saying \u201cbased on what we know, the likelihood of it happen in a week is X, a month Y, a year Z\u201d. The longer the interval we\u2019re talking about the lower our certainty becomes.   Basically, we\u2019re fairly confident we\u2019re not about to be slammed today. Probably not this week. This month is feeling pretty good. The years outlook seems solid but we\u2019re still monitoring the situation.   We are currently ill equipped to deal with it if we did find one early. If an extinction level object was heading straight for us, there\u2019s not a lot we can do.   For asteroids we know about? We can calculate their trajectory fairly well. None of the ones we know about (that are large enough to be a problem) are likely to hit earth any time soon.   If you look at examples, you\u2019ll find that we have actively experienced surprise meteors.  Chelyabinsk, Russia, saw the largest object entering the atmosphere since 1908 (Tunguska), and it blew up in the air before hitting anything. Still, almost 1500 people had indirect injuries, from the shockwave or other phenomena (the meteor didn\u2019t hit the ground or anyone directly).", "human_ref_B": "Impossible to say really, there's an innumerable amount of objects floating and orbiting at different rates in the Asteroid Belt and the Kuiper Belt.  At any point in time these objects collide or near miss, pulverizing each other and sending fragments in infinite directions, sometimes knocking bodies our way.  We can detect bodies of sufficient mass, as well as smaller objects grouped together in larger numbers quite a ways out.  What is more concerning though, and a question of greater importance, is just how are we prepared to respond to an object of lethal and sufficient mass that could cause an extinction level event?  The answer is, we really aren't.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1459.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b90mcg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "How far in advance can we currently predict large asteroids striking Earth? Basically, how many years of asteroid-free time do we think we have right now?", "c_root_id_A": "ek1fis5", "c_root_id_B": "ek1c5nv", "created_at_utc_A": 1554313935, "created_at_utc_B": 1554312021, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "We can predict impacts a very long time in advance, the Sentry program keeps track of all the objects that have some potential for collision in the next couple centuries. Obviously this is not a complete list, very small objects wouldn't be visible and there could be larger objects lurking in either the very outer reaches of the solar system or in interstellar space, but based on what we currently know there's hardly any chance that we get hit by a large asteroid in the next hundred or so years.", "human_ref_B": "Impossible to say really, there's an innumerable amount of objects floating and orbiting at different rates in the Asteroid Belt and the Kuiper Belt.  At any point in time these objects collide or near miss, pulverizing each other and sending fragments in infinite directions, sometimes knocking bodies our way.  We can detect bodies of sufficient mass, as well as smaller objects grouped together in larger numbers quite a ways out.  What is more concerning though, and a question of greater importance, is just how are we prepared to respond to an object of lethal and sufficient mass that could cause an extinction level event?  The answer is, we really aren't.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1914.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "365pn0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Could the ionising effects of a laser be used to significantly alter the course of an asteroid through the sun's magnetic field? By significantly I mean enough to prevent a collision with earth by an acceptable margin.", "c_root_id_A": "crb333f", "c_root_id_B": "crbage1", "created_at_utc_A": 1431790920, "created_at_utc_B": 1431805699, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Using the photon momentum formula which is a constant divided by the wavelength of the light and the photon energy you derive watts per unit area divided by the speed of light. Since c is such a large number you are talking about very low pressures.  For example the sun pushes on a 1000 by metet square area by only about the weight of a small coke bottle.  Given a million watt laser with  beam size of a cm across you get about the pressure of hitting it with an asprin tablet.  In theory yes you can provide thrust that way but it would be a very slow process and of little practical use.", "human_ref_B": "The main source of thrust, if you had a laser powerful enough to ionise the surface, would probably be the pressure of the \"vaporized\" surface. I work with fairly powerful lasers and you can actually see it if you hold a piece of paper in front of it. The paper \"recoils\" under the impact of the laser.    To go back to your original question, detaching electrons from atoms with a laser (photodetachement) only really work with anions (negative ions) and I believe with gas only. So you wouldn't produce any \"electric\" thrust on an asteroid.  Lastly there is the momentum transfer from the photons themselves but they will most likely be negligible compared to the effects of the pulverisation of the surface.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14779.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "365pn0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Could the ionising effects of a laser be used to significantly alter the course of an asteroid through the sun's magnetic field? By significantly I mean enough to prevent a collision with earth by an acceptable margin.", "c_root_id_A": "crbc2lg", "c_root_id_B": "crb333f", "created_at_utc_A": 1431809207, "created_at_utc_B": 1431790920, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "You can kick off electrons via the photoelectric effect and resulting positively charged asteroid will experience a Lorentz force as it moves through the sun's magnetic field.  The limitation will be that the more electrons you kick away from the surface, the more attractive the asteroid will be to the electron cloud you are creating.  Recombination will happen and will cause your thrust mechanism to die away.  So I would say \"not significantly\".    As others have pointed out, there are better ways to use your laser to generate thrust.  Evaporating volatile substances of the laser heated surface will produce thrust that is electrically neutral, and at high pulse energies ablation will produce high impulse thrust.", "human_ref_B": "Using the photon momentum formula which is a constant divided by the wavelength of the light and the photon energy you derive watts per unit area divided by the speed of light. Since c is such a large number you are talking about very low pressures.  For example the sun pushes on a 1000 by metet square area by only about the weight of a small coke bottle.  Given a million watt laser with  beam size of a cm across you get about the pressure of hitting it with an asprin tablet.  In theory yes you can provide thrust that way but it would be a very slow process and of little practical use.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18287.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "78eirt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Why did the 390-750nm range evolve to be the \"visible\" spectrum of light for the vast majority of species? What's special about it? I know there are some exceptions like snakes being able to sense infrared, and some deers being able to see ultra-violet. But those are very specific adaptions. All the rest adapted to (now) visible light, even though that's missing for half the time (night). And even those that are night-active just evolved fancy mirror eyes to catch more visible light, or ditched vision completely and went for things like echolocation.  What is it about that quite narrow range that made it the most viable choice? Wouldn't there be a lot more information in other ranges that could give an advantage, particularly at night?", "c_root_id_A": "dou97uz", "c_root_id_B": "dou7xba", "created_at_utc_A": 1508883717, "created_at_utc_B": 1508882219, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I'm going to give a physicist's answer to this question.  There are three overlapping factors: the spectrum of sunlight, the energy content of long-wavelength photons, and the absorption of photons by water in the eye.  1) The sun is brightest in the wavelength range of visible light: the available light energy drops off fairly steeply above 750 nm, and *VERY* steeply below 400 nm.  It wouldn't be useful to see in wavelengths where the sun doesn't shine much!  2) To trigger the nervous system, photons must cause some sort of chemical change in the organism.  Typical chemical reactions involve changes in molecular energy (\"activation energy\") of one to a few electron-volts (eV).  Light wavelengths longer than 1000 nm have photon energies of less than 1 eV, so the photons don't have enough \"oomph\" to easily trigger chemical changes.  If you use a chemical change with a super-low activation energy, there's another problem: atoms and molecules are constantly bouncing around, and at room temperature, a few will randomly strike your photosensitive chemical with enough kinetic energy to trigger it by chance.  So you start having \"thermal noise\" that can swamp the detection of actual photons.  Infrared astronomers deal with this problem by refrigerating their cameras, but life hasn't figured that trick out yet.  3) Water is transparent to visible light, but absorbs other wavelengths very strongly.  Ultraviolet light below 200 nm will be absorbed before traveling 1 cm through water, as will infrared light above 1500 nm.  Your eyeballs are full of water (path length about 2-3 cm): if you want to see deeper into the UV or infrared, you need to make your eyeballs out of something else.  There aren't a lot of options.", "human_ref_B": "The visible spectrum is also where most sunlight is. Some snakes can sense far  IR through special organs on their heads but not through their eyes. Other animals can see a little further into the UV, but there isn't as much sunlight there.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1498.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p73ne", "c_root_id_B": "c4p6uc5", "created_at_utc_A": 1337276583, "created_at_utc_B": 1337275421, "score_A": 178, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Surviving a fall has to do with how *quickly* your body slows to zero velocity.  If you have a material that does very little to slow your velocity, you simply need more of it to stop a falling body.  So yes, falling into a very deep pile of rabbit fur would stop your fall.  Stunt-persons on films will often fall into large platforms made of several layers of cardboard boxes - the stacks of boxes serve to crumple and absorb the impact of the falling person to slow them down at a reasonable rate.", "human_ref_B": "perhaps a large tube structure with air blowing the opposite direction at high speeds?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1162.0, "score_ratio": 7.12, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p73ne", "c_root_id_B": "c4p732u", "created_at_utc_A": 1337276583, "created_at_utc_B": 1337276518, "score_A": 178, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "Surviving a fall has to do with how *quickly* your body slows to zero velocity.  If you have a material that does very little to slow your velocity, you simply need more of it to stop a falling body.  So yes, falling into a very deep pile of rabbit fur would stop your fall.  Stunt-persons on films will often fall into large platforms made of several layers of cardboard boxes - the stacks of boxes serve to crumple and absorb the impact of the falling person to slow them down at a reasonable rate.", "human_ref_B": "A favorite wallpaper of mine explains this very well, it states \"It's not the Vf = Vi + AT that kills you, its the F = m*DV/Dt.\"  What this means is that the final velocity (terminal velocity) is not the problem, it is the force experienced as a result of the change in velocity over time.    So, the limiting factor is the rate at which the moving body is slowed where an item decelerated over 0.25 seconds will experience 4x the force of impact vs an item decelerated over 1 second and 8x an item decelerated over 2 seconds.  So the key here is to have a substance that slows the falling object gradually, however another difficulty arises from this that the falling object needs to be recovered after it has stopped.  Some demonstrations have been performed into foam pits with falling objects and what happens is that the pit of foam significantly increases the time to decelerate (reducing impact force) but then the object/person becomes trapped inside the foam media and then must be rescued from being buried inside the foam pit.  So the solution would be to develop a material that keeps the falling object on the surface and which can also absorb the object over a period of over 1s deceleration time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 65.0, "score_ratio": 8.4761904762, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p712w", "c_root_id_B": "c4p73ne", "created_at_utc_A": 1337276262, "created_at_utc_B": 1337276583, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 178, "human_ref_A": "I asked the same question...you can check the responses here: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/rssji/is_there_any_materialsubstance_that_if_enough/", "human_ref_B": "Surviving a fall has to do with how *quickly* your body slows to zero velocity.  If you have a material that does very little to slow your velocity, you simply need more of it to stop a falling body.  So yes, falling into a very deep pile of rabbit fur would stop your fall.  Stunt-persons on films will often fall into large platforms made of several layers of cardboard boxes - the stacks of boxes serve to crumple and absorb the impact of the falling person to slow them down at a reasonable rate.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 321.0, "score_ratio": 13.6923076923, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p6v0n", "c_root_id_B": "c4p73ne", "created_at_utc_A": 1337275505, "created_at_utc_B": 1337276583, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 178, "human_ref_A": "It's possible to survive freefall from any height.  http://www.greenharbor.com/fffolder/carkeet.html  Therefore I would assume that there exists some substance that you could safely land in with no preparation.  Basically, anything that has enough give to it to slow your deceleration rate to a survival value.", "human_ref_B": "Surviving a fall has to do with how *quickly* your body slows to zero velocity.  If you have a material that does very little to slow your velocity, you simply need more of it to stop a falling body.  So yes, falling into a very deep pile of rabbit fur would stop your fall.  Stunt-persons on films will often fall into large platforms made of several layers of cardboard boxes - the stacks of boxes serve to crumple and absorb the impact of the falling person to slow them down at a reasonable rate.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1078.0, "score_ratio": 16.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p73ne", "c_root_id_B": "c4p6u4b", "created_at_utc_A": 1337276583, "created_at_utc_B": 1337275396, "score_A": 178, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Surviving a fall has to do with how *quickly* your body slows to zero velocity.  If you have a material that does very little to slow your velocity, you simply need more of it to stop a falling body.  So yes, falling into a very deep pile of rabbit fur would stop your fall.  Stunt-persons on films will often fall into large platforms made of several layers of cardboard boxes - the stacks of boxes serve to crumple and absorb the impact of the falling person to slow them down at a reasonable rate.", "human_ref_B": "It isn't the fall but the stop that kills you.     When looking for this magic material, realize that it doesn't matter how soft something is; if it slows you down in a fraction of a second from terminal velocity then you are going to die. So rabbit fur could be used to survive a fall from terminal velocity, you would just need many many layers.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1187.0, "score_ratio": 14.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p6uc5", "c_root_id_B": "c4p6u4b", "created_at_utc_A": 1337275421, "created_at_utc_B": 1337275396, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "perhaps a large tube structure with air blowing the opposite direction at high speeds?", "human_ref_B": "It isn't the fall but the stop that kills you.     When looking for this magic material, realize that it doesn't matter how soft something is; if it slows you down in a fraction of a second from terminal velocity then you are going to die. So rabbit fur could be used to survive a fall from terminal velocity, you would just need many many layers.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25.0, "score_ratio": 2.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p732u", "c_root_id_B": "c4p712w", "created_at_utc_A": 1337276518, "created_at_utc_B": 1337276262, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "A favorite wallpaper of mine explains this very well, it states \"It's not the Vf = Vi + AT that kills you, its the F = m*DV/Dt.\"  What this means is that the final velocity (terminal velocity) is not the problem, it is the force experienced as a result of the change in velocity over time.    So, the limiting factor is the rate at which the moving body is slowed where an item decelerated over 0.25 seconds will experience 4x the force of impact vs an item decelerated over 1 second and 8x an item decelerated over 2 seconds.  So the key here is to have a substance that slows the falling object gradually, however another difficulty arises from this that the falling object needs to be recovered after it has stopped.  Some demonstrations have been performed into foam pits with falling objects and what happens is that the pit of foam significantly increases the time to decelerate (reducing impact force) but then the object/person becomes trapped inside the foam media and then must be rescued from being buried inside the foam pit.  So the solution would be to develop a material that keeps the falling object on the surface and which can also absorb the object over a period of over 1s deceleration time.", "human_ref_B": "I asked the same question...you can check the responses here: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/rssji/is_there_any_materialsubstance_that_if_enough/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 256.0, "score_ratio": 1.6153846154, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p732u", "c_root_id_B": "c4p6v0n", "created_at_utc_A": 1337276518, "created_at_utc_B": 1337275505, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "A favorite wallpaper of mine explains this very well, it states \"It's not the Vf = Vi + AT that kills you, its the F = m*DV/Dt.\"  What this means is that the final velocity (terminal velocity) is not the problem, it is the force experienced as a result of the change in velocity over time.    So, the limiting factor is the rate at which the moving body is slowed where an item decelerated over 0.25 seconds will experience 4x the force of impact vs an item decelerated over 1 second and 8x an item decelerated over 2 seconds.  So the key here is to have a substance that slows the falling object gradually, however another difficulty arises from this that the falling object needs to be recovered after it has stopped.  Some demonstrations have been performed into foam pits with falling objects and what happens is that the pit of foam significantly increases the time to decelerate (reducing impact force) but then the object/person becomes trapped inside the foam media and then must be rescued from being buried inside the foam pit.  So the solution would be to develop a material that keeps the falling object on the surface and which can also absorb the object over a period of over 1s deceleration time.", "human_ref_B": "It's possible to survive freefall from any height.  http://www.greenharbor.com/fffolder/carkeet.html  Therefore I would assume that there exists some substance that you could safely land in with no preparation.  Basically, anything that has enough give to it to slow your deceleration rate to a survival value.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1013.0, "score_ratio": 1.9090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p732u", "c_root_id_B": "c4p6u4b", "created_at_utc_A": 1337276518, "created_at_utc_B": 1337275396, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "A favorite wallpaper of mine explains this very well, it states \"It's not the Vf = Vi + AT that kills you, its the F = m*DV/Dt.\"  What this means is that the final velocity (terminal velocity) is not the problem, it is the force experienced as a result of the change in velocity over time.    So, the limiting factor is the rate at which the moving body is slowed where an item decelerated over 0.25 seconds will experience 4x the force of impact vs an item decelerated over 1 second and 8x an item decelerated over 2 seconds.  So the key here is to have a substance that slows the falling object gradually, however another difficulty arises from this that the falling object needs to be recovered after it has stopped.  Some demonstrations have been performed into foam pits with falling objects and what happens is that the pit of foam significantly increases the time to decelerate (reducing impact force) but then the object/person becomes trapped inside the foam media and then must be rescued from being buried inside the foam pit.  So the solution would be to develop a material that keeps the falling object on the surface and which can also absorb the object over a period of over 1s deceleration time.", "human_ref_B": "It isn't the fall but the stop that kills you.     When looking for this magic material, realize that it doesn't matter how soft something is; if it slows you down in a fraction of a second from terminal velocity then you are going to die. So rabbit fur could be used to survive a fall from terminal velocity, you would just need many many layers.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1122.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p6v0n", "c_root_id_B": "c4p712w", "created_at_utc_A": 1337275505, "created_at_utc_B": 1337276262, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "It's possible to survive freefall from any height.  http://www.greenharbor.com/fffolder/carkeet.html  Therefore I would assume that there exists some substance that you could safely land in with no preparation.  Basically, anything that has enough give to it to slow your deceleration rate to a survival value.", "human_ref_B": "I asked the same question...you can check the responses here: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/rssji/is_there_any_materialsubstance_that_if_enough/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 757.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "trv6n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there any material so soft that humans could routinely survive falling into a large pile of it at terminal velocity? If you fell into a very deep pile of, say, rabbit fur, at terminal velocity, could you survive unscathed? I know there are occasional cases like a few pilots in WWII, but they're rare exceptions with serious injuries.  Is it possible to make a safe landing?", "c_root_id_A": "c4p712w", "c_root_id_B": "c4p6u4b", "created_at_utc_A": 1337276262, "created_at_utc_B": 1337275396, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I asked the same question...you can check the responses here: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/rssji/is_there_any_materialsubstance_that_if_enough/", "human_ref_B": "It isn't the fall but the stop that kills you.     When looking for this magic material, realize that it doesn't matter how soft something is; if it slows you down in a fraction of a second from terminal velocity then you are going to die. So rabbit fur could be used to survive a fall from terminal velocity, you would just need many many layers.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 866.0, "score_ratio": 1.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lolcx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Can someone thoroughly debunk this Spirit Science nonsense before it claims any more of my friends? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vybaO0bYM0U&feature=relmfu  I was introduced to it in this video, as suggested by a friend of mine.  The video smacks of numerology, uncited assertations and straight up falsehoods, but I lack the expertise to debunk all of its points thoroughly and convincingly.  Would anyone take on debunking this nonsense (either in text or another video) as a project for the betterment of the human species?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ud8e3", "c_root_id_B": "c2udmpk", "created_at_utc_A": 1319567574, "created_at_utc_B": 1319569958, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "It would be helpful to know what conclusions your friends are drawing from watching the videos.   The \"Spirit Science\" videos seem to be promoting a \"personal growth\" or \"self-actualization\" belief, like The Secret.   If your friends find the video convinces them of something, then they should be able to explain it to you.  Summary:  Narrated by a guy who wants to be Ira Glass at 1.5x playback notes that the golden ratio Phi appears in many structures in nature.   You can draw a star of david on polar coordinates and the lines intersect at points representing harmonics systems music.  The \"face on mars\" and hills around it are really a star of david in a circle.   If you draw some circles on this figure then, \"this is the fourth unraveling of the flower of life.  It is an infinite spectrum of never ending fruits of life within more fruits of life.  This is the unraveling of dimensions so it makes a little more sense now.  But I won't have time to show you anything more today.  So, what you just saw was the second unraveling from the third rotational pattern of genesis, the geometry at the heart of creation.\"  You could point out that the \"face on Mars\" looked a lot less like a face when NASA had high resolution images of it.", "human_ref_B": "I like this site to debunk Fibonacci sequence mysticism.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2384.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lolcx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Can someone thoroughly debunk this Spirit Science nonsense before it claims any more of my friends? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vybaO0bYM0U&feature=relmfu  I was introduced to it in this video, as suggested by a friend of mine.  The video smacks of numerology, uncited assertations and straight up falsehoods, but I lack the expertise to debunk all of its points thoroughly and convincingly.  Would anyone take on debunking this nonsense (either in text or another video) as a project for the betterment of the human species?", "c_root_id_A": "c2udmpk", "c_root_id_B": "c2udhof", "created_at_utc_A": 1319569958, "created_at_utc_B": 1319569130, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I like this site to debunk Fibonacci sequence mysticism.", "human_ref_B": "You can take a ruler and measure these body parts to see if it really comes out to Phi.  Mine don't.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 828.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lolcx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Can someone thoroughly debunk this Spirit Science nonsense before it claims any more of my friends? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vybaO0bYM0U&feature=relmfu  I was introduced to it in this video, as suggested by a friend of mine.  The video smacks of numerology, uncited assertations and straight up falsehoods, but I lack the expertise to debunk all of its points thoroughly and convincingly.  Would anyone take on debunking this nonsense (either in text or another video) as a project for the betterment of the human species?", "c_root_id_A": "c2uhemu", "c_root_id_B": "c2ufu3g", "created_at_utc_A": 1319594844, "created_at_utc_B": 1319583732, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Do you have **any** specific questions about their claims? Is there something in particular you'd like to know more about, in general, to understand the claims they make and the science that is related to those claims (I'm not implying that science supports them, just what is related).   Else, this isn't really a question about a specific scientific topic or concept.", "human_ref_B": "Two problems that could be addressed:   First, some of the points seem based on an over-simplification of the nature of the Golden Ratio and Fibonacci numbers.    Second, the whole video tries to gain some credibility by associating itself with the Golden Ratio and Fibonacci numbers.  If your friend was new to these concepts, he/she may associate the Spirit Science silliness with legitimate mathematics.    A good solution may be as follows: do not actively protest.  It will make your friend defensive.  You probably know some about science and math, as you are on here.  So be happy that the Spirit Science videos have peaked your friend's interest in the Fibonacci numbers and Golden Ratio.  Do some research (even wikipedia) online together about these.    This may disassociate these ideas from the Spirit Science thing for your friend, and make them exist more as discrete ideas than proof of Spirit Science silliness, give your friend a more nuanced understanding of the concepts involved, and even if it does not succeed, you will hopefully both come out more informed from the experience.  I hope that sounds like a good idea.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11112.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h7e2ty", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Is it possible to create a human oocyte from male genetics to be fertilized by sperm? Seems like an odd question... Don't judge me.  I'm just curious if there is enough genetic material in biological male DNA to create an egg, fertilize it, and have a surrogate carry.", "c_root_id_A": "fulyscl", "c_root_id_B": "fupo9e1", "created_at_utc_A": 1591977725, "created_at_utc_B": 1592064631, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "theoretically you can take a sperm (that have to be an X carrying sperm) and pluck the nucleus from it and inject it into an egg that had its own genetics removed, Then fertilize it.   It won\u2019t be a simple under taking however, even though the genetic material exist, it has be activated a certain way, and that is the difficult part.   That is why gay couples still need an egg donor", "human_ref_B": "Yes \u2013 in fact, this is my PhD research project!  The basic idea is to convert pluripotent stem cells to egg cells. XY oogonia will undergo meiosis to form oocytes. Half of those will be non-viable since they'll lack an X chromosome, but half should be viable oocytes.  I'd be happy to answer any questions you might have about this. If you want more general information, you can look up \"in vitro gametogenesis.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 86906.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e138zpk", "c_root_id_B": "e1392vh", "created_at_utc_A": 1529639057, "created_at_utc_B": 1529639164, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 167, "human_ref_A": "Okay, so... as simple as I can put it:   With soap, 99% of bacteria is killed and is then washed off of your hands. Most likely, any bacteria that managed to survive (the 1%) will also be washed off - use hot water.   With hand sanatizer, 99% of germs are also killed BUT are not washed off. In many circumstances, a certain type of bacteria will be immune to the hand sanitizer (that 1%) and will now no longer need to compete for space or resources. This bacteria is able to reproduce exponentially and will soon cover your hands and anything you touch. This is a simple version of survival of the fittest and revolution. Also, all of the bacteria that you just killed remains on your hands.   Use soap and water.", "human_ref_B": "Hand sanitizer does not kill everything that can harm you. for example C-difficile spores just get smeared around in hand sanitizer yet remain capable of causing infection. Hand washing actually removes and rinses bacteria and viruses away from the hands.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 107.0, "score_ratio": 7.5909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e139m5c", "c_root_id_B": "e138zpk", "created_at_utc_A": 1529639810, "created_at_utc_B": 1529639057, "score_A": 161, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Hand sanitizer utilizes alcohol to kill germs and sterilize the hands   Soap functions by encapsulating dirt/grease causing it to detach from your hands. The hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of soap molecules allow for this.", "human_ref_B": "Okay, so... as simple as I can put it:   With soap, 99% of bacteria is killed and is then washed off of your hands. Most likely, any bacteria that managed to survive (the 1%) will also be washed off - use hot water.   With hand sanatizer, 99% of germs are also killed BUT are not washed off. In many circumstances, a certain type of bacteria will be immune to the hand sanitizer (that 1%) and will now no longer need to compete for space or resources. This bacteria is able to reproduce exponentially and will soon cover your hands and anything you touch. This is a simple version of survival of the fittest and revolution. Also, all of the bacteria that you just killed remains on your hands.   Use soap and water.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 753.0, "score_ratio": 7.3181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13i03w", "c_root_id_B": "e138zpk", "created_at_utc_A": 1529652944, "created_at_utc_B": 1529639057, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Let me start by saying that I would suggest that I'm not the person who by any rights should ever be commenting on an AskScience post.  That being said, knowing what soap does is one of the most important functions in life, and I'm astonished by how little folks know about it. So here is a slightly layman's answer.  Oil and water is immiscible. This means they cannot mix. If you stir oil into water, it will separate and float to the top.  When you add soap, it allows the two to mix.   So when you wash your hands, the majority of the work being done is not thanks to antibacterial properties, but rather just allows the oil and grossness on your hands to bind with the water, so that the grime sloughs away.", "human_ref_B": "Okay, so... as simple as I can put it:   With soap, 99% of bacteria is killed and is then washed off of your hands. Most likely, any bacteria that managed to survive (the 1%) will also be washed off - use hot water.   With hand sanatizer, 99% of germs are also killed BUT are not washed off. In many circumstances, a certain type of bacteria will be immune to the hand sanitizer (that 1%) and will now no longer need to compete for space or resources. This bacteria is able to reproduce exponentially and will soon cover your hands and anything you touch. This is a simple version of survival of the fittest and revolution. Also, all of the bacteria that you just killed remains on your hands.   Use soap and water.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13887.0, "score_ratio": 1.5909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13i03w", "c_root_id_B": "e13cvul", "created_at_utc_A": 1529652944, "created_at_utc_B": 1529644233, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Let me start by saying that I would suggest that I'm not the person who by any rights should ever be commenting on an AskScience post.  That being said, knowing what soap does is one of the most important functions in life, and I'm astonished by how little folks know about it. So here is a slightly layman's answer.  Oil and water is immiscible. This means they cannot mix. If you stir oil into water, it will separate and float to the top.  When you add soap, it allows the two to mix.   So when you wash your hands, the majority of the work being done is not thanks to antibacterial properties, but rather just allows the oil and grossness on your hands to bind with the water, so that the grime sloughs away.", "human_ref_B": "The main difference is that soap and water removes physical soil, the sanitizer does not. If you use only the sanitizer, that physical soil remains and any bacteria hiding in or under it remain and continue reproducing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8711.0, "score_ratio": 1.9444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13i03w", "c_root_id_B": "e13eps5", "created_at_utc_A": 1529652944, "created_at_utc_B": 1529647046, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Let me start by saying that I would suggest that I'm not the person who by any rights should ever be commenting on an AskScience post.  That being said, knowing what soap does is one of the most important functions in life, and I'm astonished by how little folks know about it. So here is a slightly layman's answer.  Oil and water is immiscible. This means they cannot mix. If you stir oil into water, it will separate and float to the top.  When you add soap, it allows the two to mix.   So when you wash your hands, the majority of the work being done is not thanks to antibacterial properties, but rather just allows the oil and grossness on your hands to bind with the water, so that the grime sloughs away.", "human_ref_B": "Bear in mind not all bacteria are bad in the sense that it is perfectly natural to live on our skin. A 'natural flora/fauna' of sorts. People often forget this. Another perspective is that constant washing and scrubbing of the hands (even with aloe soap) really dries things out. All your hand washing is worthless when your hands are cracked, bleeding, and allowing germs and pathogens right through your first and biggest line of defense, your skin. Drives me nuts when clinics demand handwashing in an excessive way. \"Yeah tell me how safe I am now that my skin is raw, split, and bleeding.\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5898.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13dq7l", "c_root_id_B": "e13i03w", "created_at_utc_A": 1529645496, "created_at_utc_B": 1529652944, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 35, "human_ref_A": "Traditional soap is both oily and watery, making volumes of dirt easier to rinse off down the drain. Hot water, scrubbing hard and long, helps. The alcohol, 50% or stronger, kills most germs like a machine gun.  The gel alcohol is easier to keep on the hands for the 20 seconds needed. Clean, Then Sanitize. If you are trying beat germ transmission, then doing both thoroughly will help your odds.", "human_ref_B": "Let me start by saying that I would suggest that I'm not the person who by any rights should ever be commenting on an AskScience post.  That being said, knowing what soap does is one of the most important functions in life, and I'm astonished by how little folks know about it. So here is a slightly layman's answer.  Oil and water is immiscible. This means they cannot mix. If you stir oil into water, it will separate and float to the top.  When you add soap, it allows the two to mix.   So when you wash your hands, the majority of the work being done is not thanks to antibacterial properties, but rather just allows the oil and grossness on your hands to bind with the water, so that the grime sloughs away.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7448.0, "score_ratio": 11.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13i03w", "c_root_id_B": "e13holw", "created_at_utc_A": 1529652944, "created_at_utc_B": 1529652328, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Let me start by saying that I would suggest that I'm not the person who by any rights should ever be commenting on an AskScience post.  That being said, knowing what soap does is one of the most important functions in life, and I'm astonished by how little folks know about it. So here is a slightly layman's answer.  Oil and water is immiscible. This means they cannot mix. If you stir oil into water, it will separate and float to the top.  When you add soap, it allows the two to mix.   So when you wash your hands, the majority of the work being done is not thanks to antibacterial properties, but rather just allows the oil and grossness on your hands to bind with the water, so that the grime sloughs away.", "human_ref_B": "Soap and water wash off any loose bacteria /fungi/pathogens and prevent (most of the) rest from growing/reproducing.  Hand sanitizer mainly kills most of the bacteria by damaging their cell walls. Some spores however are resistant to this. The dead bacteria and/or their toxins may still remain on your hands and are still capable of provoking a reaction.  If you want to go all out, wash your hands with povidone iodine, that's the stuff they use in operation theatres for maximum asepsis. You can also combine it with a soap that has cetrimide and chlorhexidine gluconate. This effectively gives you a surgeons scrub (if done properly)  Also, if you're curious there's actually a recommended way to wash hands : World Health Organization Hand Washing Guide", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 616.0, "score_ratio": 11.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13i03w", "c_root_id_B": "e13dbtl", "created_at_utc_A": 1529652944, "created_at_utc_B": 1529644888, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Let me start by saying that I would suggest that I'm not the person who by any rights should ever be commenting on an AskScience post.  That being said, knowing what soap does is one of the most important functions in life, and I'm astonished by how little folks know about it. So here is a slightly layman's answer.  Oil and water is immiscible. This means they cannot mix. If you stir oil into water, it will separate and float to the top.  When you add soap, it allows the two to mix.   So when you wash your hands, the majority of the work being done is not thanks to antibacterial properties, but rather just allows the oil and grossness on your hands to bind with the water, so that the grime sloughs away.", "human_ref_B": "Hand sanitizer generally does not kill many of the stomach viruses, hepatitis, c-diff etc. Because those virus have a high tolerance to high ph levels. Hand sanitizer is alcohol based, which makes it more on the acid scale. Bleach which is alkaline will kill most of those viruses. Bleach is not recommended for skin, so hand washing with soap and water is best.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8056.0, "score_ratio": 17.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13i03w", "c_root_id_B": "e13gf80", "created_at_utc_A": 1529652944, "created_at_utc_B": 1529649962, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Let me start by saying that I would suggest that I'm not the person who by any rights should ever be commenting on an AskScience post.  That being said, knowing what soap does is one of the most important functions in life, and I'm astonished by how little folks know about it. So here is a slightly layman's answer.  Oil and water is immiscible. This means they cannot mix. If you stir oil into water, it will separate and float to the top.  When you add soap, it allows the two to mix.   So when you wash your hands, the majority of the work being done is not thanks to antibacterial properties, but rather just allows the oil and grossness on your hands to bind with the water, so that the grime sloughs away.", "human_ref_B": "Hand sanitizer uses alcohol which disrupts the cell membrane of most bacteria, thereby killing them. But the contents of the bacterial cell still remain on your hand along with membrane fragments. However, some bacteria have a thick slime capsule, or form spores that are resistant to such sanitizers or detergents.  Scrubbing with soap on the other hand, physically removes germs from your skin and the detergents in the soap will kill them as well. It is far superior to hand sanitizers and is recommended.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2982.0, "score_ratio": 17.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13dq7l", "c_root_id_B": "e13eps5", "created_at_utc_A": 1529645496, "created_at_utc_B": 1529647046, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Traditional soap is both oily and watery, making volumes of dirt easier to rinse off down the drain. Hot water, scrubbing hard and long, helps. The alcohol, 50% or stronger, kills most germs like a machine gun.  The gel alcohol is easier to keep on the hands for the 20 seconds needed. Clean, Then Sanitize. If you are trying beat germ transmission, then doing both thoroughly will help your odds.", "human_ref_B": "Bear in mind not all bacteria are bad in the sense that it is perfectly natural to live on our skin. A 'natural flora/fauna' of sorts. People often forget this. Another perspective is that constant washing and scrubbing of the hands (even with aloe soap) really dries things out. All your hand washing is worthless when your hands are cracked, bleeding, and allowing germs and pathogens right through your first and biggest line of defense, your skin. Drives me nuts when clinics demand handwashing in an excessive way. \"Yeah tell me how safe I am now that my skin is raw, split, and bleeding.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1550.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13eps5", "c_root_id_B": "e13dbtl", "created_at_utc_A": 1529647046, "created_at_utc_B": 1529644888, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Bear in mind not all bacteria are bad in the sense that it is perfectly natural to live on our skin. A 'natural flora/fauna' of sorts. People often forget this. Another perspective is that constant washing and scrubbing of the hands (even with aloe soap) really dries things out. All your hand washing is worthless when your hands are cracked, bleeding, and allowing germs and pathogens right through your first and biggest line of defense, your skin. Drives me nuts when clinics demand handwashing in an excessive way. \"Yeah tell me how safe I am now that my skin is raw, split, and bleeding.\"", "human_ref_B": "Hand sanitizer generally does not kill many of the stomach viruses, hepatitis, c-diff etc. Because those virus have a high tolerance to high ph levels. Hand sanitizer is alcohol based, which makes it more on the acid scale. Bleach which is alkaline will kill most of those viruses. Bleach is not recommended for skin, so hand washing with soap and water is best.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2158.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13dq7l", "c_root_id_B": "e13dbtl", "created_at_utc_A": 1529645496, "created_at_utc_B": 1529644888, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Traditional soap is both oily and watery, making volumes of dirt easier to rinse off down the drain. Hot water, scrubbing hard and long, helps. The alcohol, 50% or stronger, kills most germs like a machine gun.  The gel alcohol is easier to keep on the hands for the 20 seconds needed. Clean, Then Sanitize. If you are trying beat germ transmission, then doing both thoroughly will help your odds.", "human_ref_B": "Hand sanitizer generally does not kill many of the stomach viruses, hepatitis, c-diff etc. Because those virus have a high tolerance to high ph levels. Hand sanitizer is alcohol based, which makes it more on the acid scale. Bleach which is alkaline will kill most of those viruses. Bleach is not recommended for skin, so hand washing with soap and water is best.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 608.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13dbtl", "c_root_id_B": "e13holw", "created_at_utc_A": 1529644888, "created_at_utc_B": 1529652328, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hand sanitizer generally does not kill many of the stomach viruses, hepatitis, c-diff etc. Because those virus have a high tolerance to high ph levels. Hand sanitizer is alcohol based, which makes it more on the acid scale. Bleach which is alkaline will kill most of those viruses. Bleach is not recommended for skin, so hand washing with soap and water is best.", "human_ref_B": "Soap and water wash off any loose bacteria /fungi/pathogens and prevent (most of the) rest from growing/reproducing.  Hand sanitizer mainly kills most of the bacteria by damaging their cell walls. Some spores however are resistant to this. The dead bacteria and/or their toxins may still remain on your hands and are still capable of provoking a reaction.  If you want to go all out, wash your hands with povidone iodine, that's the stuff they use in operation theatres for maximum asepsis. You can also combine it with a soap that has cetrimide and chlorhexidine gluconate. This effectively gives you a surgeons scrub (if done properly)  Also, if you're curious there's actually a recommended way to wash hands : World Health Organization Hand Washing Guide", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7440.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8sxvtk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What are the practical differences between washing your hands and using hand sanatizer? Please let me know if I should change the flair. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "e13gf80", "c_root_id_B": "e13holw", "created_at_utc_A": 1529649962, "created_at_utc_B": 1529652328, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hand sanitizer uses alcohol which disrupts the cell membrane of most bacteria, thereby killing them. But the contents of the bacterial cell still remain on your hand along with membrane fragments. However, some bacteria have a thick slime capsule, or form spores that are resistant to such sanitizers or detergents.  Scrubbing with soap on the other hand, physically removes germs from your skin and the detergents in the soap will kill them as well. It is far superior to hand sanitizers and is recommended.", "human_ref_B": "Soap and water wash off any loose bacteria /fungi/pathogens and prevent (most of the) rest from growing/reproducing.  Hand sanitizer mainly kills most of the bacteria by damaging their cell walls. Some spores however are resistant to this. The dead bacteria and/or their toxins may still remain on your hands and are still capable of provoking a reaction.  If you want to go all out, wash your hands with povidone iodine, that's the stuff they use in operation theatres for maximum asepsis. You can also combine it with a soap that has cetrimide and chlorhexidine gluconate. This effectively gives you a surgeons scrub (if done properly)  Also, if you're curious there's actually a recommended way to wash hands : World Health Organization Hand Washing Guide", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2366.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ghgk6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Is it just a coincidence that Newton's Law of Gravitation and Coulomb's Law are so similar? I couldn't help but notice that Coulombs law and Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation are remarkably similar.   Coulombs Law is F=K (q1*q2)/r^2  Newton's is        F=G (m1*m2)/r^2   This can't just be coincidence right?  Is there a relationship between these two?", "c_root_id_A": "c1nk6bl", "c_root_id_B": "c1nk35d", "created_at_utc_A": 1301803215, "created_at_utc_B": 1301801990, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is that we see the force is proportional to the two \"charges\" that go into it, and is proportional the surface area of the sphere between the two. The latter part comes out of conservation laws and specifically has r^-2 dependence because we live in a 3 space dimension universe.", "human_ref_B": "No, the potentials both obey Laplace's Law.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1225.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ghgk6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Is it just a coincidence that Newton's Law of Gravitation and Coulomb's Law are so similar? I couldn't help but notice that Coulombs law and Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation are remarkably similar.   Coulombs Law is F=K (q1*q2)/r^2  Newton's is        F=G (m1*m2)/r^2   This can't just be coincidence right?  Is there a relationship between these two?", "c_root_id_A": "c1nk6bl", "c_root_id_B": "c1nk5oh", "created_at_utc_A": 1301803215, "created_at_utc_B": 1301802966, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is that we see the force is proportional to the two \"charges\" that go into it, and is proportional the surface area of the sphere between the two. The latter part comes out of conservation laws and specifically has r^-2 dependence because we live in a 3 space dimension universe.", "human_ref_B": "It makes sense intuitively. In terms of gravitation,   F \u221d m  F \u221d 1/r^2  Since it's a force of attraction between two bodies another term must be added, namely the mass of the other object: 'M', a scaling factor is also included 'G'  Thus,  F = GMm/r^2  This argument is also true in terms of charges. The force is directly proportional to the strength of the charges and experiences a cutoff as the distance between them increases including the scaling factor. The obvious difference being that electrical/magnetic forces can repel. As far as we're concerned there is no fundamental relationship at the classical level. It just so happens that the forces require two arguments, strength of the particle's mass/charge and the distance between them. It also happens that the force is inverse \"squarely\" proportional.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 249.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "234d9g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Do People Who Are HIV/AIDS Positive Still Experience Allergies? Since allergic reactions are caused by your own immune system, would a immune system with HIV or AIDS still react badly to allergens? And f not, could HIV or AIDS be used in the curing of allergies completely?", "c_root_id_A": "cgtcc7r", "c_root_id_B": "cgth8cd", "created_at_utc_A": 1397596214, "created_at_utc_B": 1397606739, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "Hopefully someone will be able to answer this with more detail than I am able to- but a growing area of study in the field of autoimmune disorders is the link between parasites (or the absence of them) and the emergence of these autoimmune diseases (source: http://www.news-medical.net/news/20130910/Parasites-could-be-potential-key-to-treating-autoimmune-diseases.aspx)          Essentially, the idea is that because humans evolved for thousands and thousands of years with parasites our immune systems are now \"bored\" or over-active without any parasites to deal with. It is also interesting to note that allergies are practically non-existent in developing nations. So now researchers are looking at what happens to autoimmune diseases if you introduce a parasite back into the body and the results are promising. (Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1618732/)          So while introduction of parasites might \"weaken\" the immune system in a specific, targeted way - introducing the AIDS virus would destroy the immune system entirely with symptoms far worse than allergies.          I hope that helps!", "human_ref_B": "This very question was asked two days ago on /r/askscience  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/22x3bs/do_people_with_aids_still_get_allergic_reactions/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10525.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "234d9g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Do People Who Are HIV/AIDS Positive Still Experience Allergies? Since allergic reactions are caused by your own immune system, would a immune system with HIV or AIDS still react badly to allergens? And f not, could HIV or AIDS be used in the curing of allergies completely?", "c_root_id_A": "cgtddai", "c_root_id_B": "cgth8cd", "created_at_utc_A": 1397598252, "created_at_utc_B": 1397606739, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "The HIV infects an arm of your immune system called the helper T cells.  These \"help\" your cytotoxic T cells and your B cells fight off viruses and bacteria.   The arm of the immune system that mediates Type I Hypersensitivity (where you get hives and your throat can swell) is mediated by mast cells and basophils that release histamine and other mediators that cause those problems.  Before you can have a reaction, the B cells have to be \"sensitized\" and release antibodies, but that only has to happen once and, most often, happens at a young age (aka before they contracted HIV).  tl;dr: Yeah, they do.", "human_ref_B": "This very question was asked two days ago on /r/askscience  http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/22x3bs/do_people_with_aids_still_get_allergic_reactions/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8487.0, "score_ratio": 1.5384615385, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mou3n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Are humans the only animal to keep pets? I have a fairly vivid memory of seeing a documentary that detailed the practise of some packs of monkeys stealing young puppies and raising them. This came up in conversation with my brother who didn't believe me and searching for any trace of the documentary or any other evidence has been fruitless.  Is this real or did I dream it? If it is true, are there any other examples in the animal kingdom, in particular in the wild? How would you differentiate between having a pet, adoption (as seen in some zoos) and symbiotic relationships?", "c_root_id_A": "c32nj13", "c_root_id_B": "c32nbf4", "created_at_utc_A": 1322236919, "created_at_utc_B": 1322234750, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Source for the monkey (baboons actually) and feral dogs thing.#  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U2lSZPTa3ho  They kidnap the puppies to raise them within their packs, but this is done so that when the dogs are full grown they will act as guard dogs for the pack. Would a solely working animal be considered a pet? There are ants that have domesticated fungi but I wouldn't say they have pets. Were do you draw the lines between social interaction/ symbiotic relationship and pet ?   There's a few cases I've seen of great apes in captivity being given cats or dogs as companions and the interaction there seems similar to a pet/human or ape/baby ape relationship, but again, how do you distinguish these kind of relationships?", "human_ref_B": "I'm not an expert on the subject but I thought you may be interested that certain ants *farm* aphids. The ants basically use the aphids for food in exchange for their protection and transport. The line between pets and symbiosis is blurred.   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphid#Ant_mutualism", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2169.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mou3n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Are humans the only animal to keep pets? I have a fairly vivid memory of seeing a documentary that detailed the practise of some packs of monkeys stealing young puppies and raising them. This came up in conversation with my brother who didn't believe me and searching for any trace of the documentary or any other evidence has been fruitless.  Is this real or did I dream it? If it is true, are there any other examples in the animal kingdom, in particular in the wild? How would you differentiate between having a pet, adoption (as seen in some zoos) and symbiotic relationships?", "c_root_id_A": "c32nj13", "c_root_id_B": "c32nd14", "created_at_utc_A": 1322236919, "created_at_utc_B": 1322235248, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Source for the monkey (baboons actually) and feral dogs thing.#  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U2lSZPTa3ho  They kidnap the puppies to raise them within their packs, but this is done so that when the dogs are full grown they will act as guard dogs for the pack. Would a solely working animal be considered a pet? There are ants that have domesticated fungi but I wouldn't say they have pets. Were do you draw the lines between social interaction/ symbiotic relationship and pet ?   There's a few cases I've seen of great apes in captivity being given cats or dogs as companions and the interaction there seems similar to a pet/human or ape/baby ape relationship, but again, how do you distinguish these kind of relationships?", "human_ref_B": "Here's one, and I bet you can find many videos by googling \"monkey adopts\". Cheers!#Koko's pets)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1671.0, "score_ratio": 6.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gacb2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is it true that Fish is a crude biological term and that one type of fish is more likely related to a land animal rather then another type of fish?", "c_root_id_A": "c1m3xkw", "c_root_id_B": "c1m3z0l", "created_at_utc_A": 1300974525, "created_at_utc_B": 1300975115, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Animals like dolphins and whales may look like fish but they're mammals like us. Is that what you mean?", "human_ref_B": "Unlike \"mammal\", \"fish\" doesn't refer to one evolutionary group. Instead, sharks and rays (Chondrichthyes), lungfish (Dipnoi), bony/ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii), coelacanths (actinistia), and a couple other groups I cant remember off the top of my head... they're all \"Fish\".  The lungfish are more closely related to land animals than to sharks.  But generally, when people talk about \"fish\", they're talking about the Actinopterygii - those are the fish you're going to find in the fish market, and they're the fish that a kid is going to draw if you say \"draw a fish\".  And those aren't very closely related to land animals.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 590.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gacb2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is it true that Fish is a crude biological term and that one type of fish is more likely related to a land animal rather then another type of fish?", "c_root_id_A": "c1m3xkw", "c_root_id_B": "c1m4nl0", "created_at_utc_A": 1300974525, "created_at_utc_B": 1300983429, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Animals like dolphins and whales may look like fish but they're mammals like us. Is that what you mean?", "human_ref_B": "heres a simplified tree of relationships  Tetrapods are the group that includes amphibians and reptiles and birds and mammals. So all the other groups are fishes and had a fish ancestor. So are tetrapods fishes? Well yes, if you say that we share a common ancestor with all the other fishes. But no if you define a fish as something that swims around with fins in the water. So it depends on which definition you use and who you are talking to and in which context. No one behind the supermarket counter will be confused if you say I want fish for dinner. But in some very academic circles there could be confusion. But probably not since the technical concept mostly only serves to make a point.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8904.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14bqid", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "What actually happens to electronics when they are damaged by water, why do they often not work when dried out again?", "c_root_id_A": "c7bouyh", "c_root_id_B": "c7bnpzm", "created_at_utc_A": 1354731321, "created_at_utc_B": 1354727610, "score_A": 102, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Semiconductor reliability engineer here. (Thanks for posting a question in my area of expertise!)       Water has various bad effects on electronics:      1. Causes a \"short circuit\" or electrical \"leakage\". Instead of following the wires it is supposed to, it travels along the water. This can cause malfunctions, and can even lead to some things seeing too much power and being destroyed. Pure water is mostly nonconductive, but by the time it gets anywhere that matters the water is rarely pure any more, having picked up ionic contaminants.      2. Corrosion. Water can make things \"rust\" (oxidize). Copper is particularly susceptible, but other metals can be corroded as well. This might not cause immediate failure, but can eventually cause conductors to become \"open\" (don't conduct enough electricity) or make poor contact to other conductors. It can also cause physical failure of things like metal capacitor housings, although that's fairly rare.  ICs used to have a major corrosion mechanism caused by leaching out phosphorus from the dielectric glasses, but P isn't used much any more. And Cl contamination would cause somewhat similar problems when water carried aqueous Cl onto the part, but Cl contamination levels are now so low that this risk is almost gone. Br is in somewhat the same boat as Cl.     3. Integrated circuits nowadays have some porous layers inside of the IC that are used to make up insulators (\"low-K dielectrics\"). Moisture can cause these materials to swell and crack, causing opens or even shorts. This is a relatively recent failure mechanism that didn't exist 10 years or so ago.      4. Many integrated circuits are not moisture-proof (they are \"non-hermetic\"). Water can fairly easily get inside of them. If this happens when they are turned off, it can lead to bad things when they are then powered up and the integrated circuit chip gets very hot very quickly. The trapped water can turn to steam and expand, causing the packaging to rupture, sometimes violently. This is called the \"popcorn effect\" in the industry.      5. Dendritic growth. Moisture + metals + voltage + contaminants can cause metals to migrate in a pattern that looks like the roots of a tree. These dendrites can grow until they cause short circuits.      There are a few other, but these are the biggies.      (1) can happen right away. (3) tends to take a little time, (2) takes longer, and (5) can take a long time. (4) is variable; once the part dries out it is not a risk.", "human_ref_B": "I'm probably not that qualified to answer this. It is not the water that actually causes the damage it is impurities in water that conduct the electricity and cause electrical shorts. In a PCB(Printed Circuit Board), these shorts are enough to burn up the electrical traces on the PCB. Once the trace has been burned up the circuit can no longer be completed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3711.0, "score_ratio": 10.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u5y2x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do cats and dogs not suffer from vitamin D deficiency as they are completely covered from the sun?", "c_root_id_A": "c4slpcj", "c_root_id_B": "c4sl8sz", "created_at_utc_A": 1338044296, "created_at_utc_B": 1338040522, "score_A": 43, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "I was downvoted for forgetting to add a source (understandably).  Re-posting with source:  http://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/9097/article_RI264210.pdf?sequence=5 \"Animals obtain most of their vitamin D by their grooming operations. A cat licking her fur is getting her daily vitamin D as well as taking a bath. Wool fat and skin oils in general are rich in provitamin which is changed to vitamin D on exposure to light. If animals are not allowed to lick their fur they get no benefit from sunlight. Carnivorous animals get vitamin D from the fur and feathers of their prey. Birds anoint their feathers with a provitamin D provided by the oil gland. Since birds have no glands in their skins ex- cept this one, they suffer from rickets when it is removed, in spite of exposure to sun.\"", "human_ref_B": "Sun exposure causes Vit. D. to develop on their fur and they absorb it when they lick their fur.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3774.0, "score_ratio": 3.5833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u5y2x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do cats and dogs not suffer from vitamin D deficiency as they are completely covered from the sun?", "c_root_id_A": "c4slel0", "c_root_id_B": "c4slpcj", "created_at_utc_A": 1338041948, "created_at_utc_B": 1338044296, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 43, "human_ref_A": "The oil in their coat reacts with sunlight to produce vitamin D.", "human_ref_B": "I was downvoted for forgetting to add a source (understandably).  Re-posting with source:  http://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/9097/article_RI264210.pdf?sequence=5 \"Animals obtain most of their vitamin D by their grooming operations. A cat licking her fur is getting her daily vitamin D as well as taking a bath. Wool fat and skin oils in general are rich in provitamin which is changed to vitamin D on exposure to light. If animals are not allowed to lick their fur they get no benefit from sunlight. Carnivorous animals get vitamin D from the fur and feathers of their prey. Birds anoint their feathers with a provitamin D provided by the oil gland. Since birds have no glands in their skins ex- cept this one, they suffer from rickets when it is removed, in spite of exposure to sun.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2348.0, "score_ratio": 10.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u5y2x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do cats and dogs not suffer from vitamin D deficiency as they are completely covered from the sun?", "c_root_id_A": "c4slpcj", "c_root_id_B": "c4sld4p", "created_at_utc_A": 1338044296, "created_at_utc_B": 1338041608, "score_A": 43, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I was downvoted for forgetting to add a source (understandably).  Re-posting with source:  http://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/9097/article_RI264210.pdf?sequence=5 \"Animals obtain most of their vitamin D by their grooming operations. A cat licking her fur is getting her daily vitamin D as well as taking a bath. Wool fat and skin oils in general are rich in provitamin which is changed to vitamin D on exposure to light. If animals are not allowed to lick their fur they get no benefit from sunlight. Carnivorous animals get vitamin D from the fur and feathers of their prey. Birds anoint their feathers with a provitamin D provided by the oil gland. Since birds have no glands in their skins ex- cept this one, they suffer from rickets when it is removed, in spite of exposure to sun.\"", "human_ref_B": "They get it from their food.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2688.0, "score_ratio": -43.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u5y2x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do cats and dogs not suffer from vitamin D deficiency as they are completely covered from the sun?", "c_root_id_A": "c4sld4p", "c_root_id_B": "c4slel0", "created_at_utc_A": 1338041608, "created_at_utc_B": 1338041948, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "They get it from their food.", "human_ref_B": "The oil in their coat reacts with sunlight to produce vitamin D.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 340.0, "score_ratio": -4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pegg4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "How dense are asteroid fields and would they pose a problem flying through? I was watching StarWars episode V and was curious if asteroid fields were seriously that dense? Also am I right in assuming most of the asteroids should be moving in the same direction?", "c_root_id_A": "haxiaah", "c_root_id_B": "haxx9fi", "created_at_utc_A": 1630332536, "created_at_utc_B": 1630338958, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Anything like that would collapse to a single object within days.  Anything that has a chance to stay around for a relevant time is easy to fly through, excluding thin rings around planets/moons.", "human_ref_B": "Here's the thing. Space is BIG. Really big. You just won't believe how vastly, hugely, mind bogglingly big it is, and so on. The average distance between asteroids is about 600,000 miles. Which means you could drive Jupiter through the asteroid belt without hitting anything.   That isn't to say there couldn't be an asteroid belt that is significantly denser, but ours isn't. Once things start getting closer together on a galactic scale like that, gravity tends to pull the bigger pieces together, and once you start getting a bunch of the bigger pieces together it begins to clear out the smaller bits of the belt, and you end up with a planet. That's part of why Pluto was downgraded. It isn't big enough to clear it's orbit of smaller chunks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6422.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pegg4m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "How dense are asteroid fields and would they pose a problem flying through? I was watching StarWars episode V and was curious if asteroid fields were seriously that dense? Also am I right in assuming most of the asteroids should be moving in the same direction?", "c_root_id_A": "hay6eag", "c_root_id_B": "haydb7i", "created_at_utc_A": 1630342722, "created_at_utc_B": 1630345591, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Our solar system's asteroid belt is so relatively sparse that you could safely fly through it with minimal risk of being hit by an asteroid. That being said, the asteroid field that Solo flew through isn't the one in our solar system, and there isn't any reason why some other asteroid field *couldn't* be that densely packed.  Also, although you would expect every asteroid in the belt to more or less synchronize their orbit *eventually*, the possibility exists that the one Solo flew through just hasn't *yet*.  So there really isn't anything especially unbelievable about the asteroid field scene in Star Wars. It just wouldn't happen that way in *our* solar system.", "human_ref_B": "The asteroid belt is not flat like a DVD, but shaped like a donut.  - over 93 million miles wide (5% wider than the distance between the Sun and Earth)   - 28.5 million miles tall  - in an orbit 2 to 3 times bigger than the Earth's orbit.  This is a huge, huge area of almost empty space.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2869.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3bu10z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Does electric current move at the speed of light through superconductors? If there is no resistance is it the same as an electric field through a vacuum?", "c_root_id_A": "cspsjer", "c_root_id_B": "csppm7g", "created_at_utc_A": 1435841378, "created_at_utc_B": 1435831262, "score_A": 11, "score_B": -4, "human_ref_A": "No, it'll move much slower than the speed of light. In fact, superconductors and superfluids have a critical current, beyond which they cannot carry current without destroying the supercurrent/superflow. If the current surpasses the critical current, the superconductor becomes a normal conductor with resistance.", "human_ref_B": "No, the current has a set speed, but the charge is moving at the speed of light, and it doesn't matter what is resistance of the conductor. The resistance is effecting how much current is lost, not how fast it travels. The higher the resistance, the more current is lost for that section. The more current lost the less voltage you have.  What is neat with super conductors is that with zero resistance, you don't loose current. Making this perfect for computing, that is using rather minute current signals over relatively large architecture.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10116.0, "score_ratio": -2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "256wxl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "The universe is around 14 billion years old. If what we see when we look at distant objects is what they looked like in the past, what would we see if we looked at a point that was 14.1 billion light years away?", "c_root_id_A": "chegi2c", "c_root_id_B": "chegb5x", "created_at_utc_A": 1399734243, "created_at_utc_B": 1399733654, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "This topic has been brought up many times, usually phrased as 'Why are there objects more than 14 billion light years away when the universe is approx 14 billion years old? I thought you could not travel faster than light.'  To directly answer your question, we would see nothing. As the light would not have reached us. Therefore in our 'time' it does not exist.   The common response revolves around the fact that the universe is expanding faster than the speed of light. Yes the speed of light (c) is the speed limit of this universe but the edge of the universe isn't bound by the law of physics of this universe. It's expanding into nothing.   http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0310808", "human_ref_B": "I'm not sure I understand your question. If you're asking what's at the \"back\" of the observable universe, it's the cosmic microwave background, which is a relic of the state of the universe as it became transparent 400,000 years after the big bang.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 589.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uqub1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What would it look like to be in a circle shaped room where the walls, ceiling, and floor is a mirror? What kind of reflection would it make?  I wanna see this so bad...", "c_root_id_A": "c4xrmrr", "c_root_id_B": "c4xtza5", "created_at_utc_A": 1339129789, "created_at_utc_B": 1339146383, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "For the purposes of science can we say that we have perfectly reflective mirrors?", "human_ref_B": "I spent some time thinking about this but I thought it would be better to visualise it using 3d rendering software:   (The light source is a small sphere inside a larger completely reflective one)  As you'd expect in a closed room with no light source the render came out completely dark: http://imgur.com/0ze0k  With a light source in the center and allowing the light to reflect only once from the mirror we get a picture like this: http://imgur.com/I5px7  By increasing the number of times the light can bounce off the mirror to 20 we get this image: http://imgur.com/kLIbq  As you can see by increasing the number of times the light bounces we increase the birghtness of the area appearing to surround our light source.  Now with 100 light bounces the area is almost unifromly lit: http://imgur.com/FU9EK  As you can imagine if the light was allowed to reflect forever you would see an even distribution of brightness everywhere you looked.   Now in the above renders only a semi-transparent sphere was rendered to represent a bulb but the \"camera\" (observor) was not rendered. If we add in a blue sphere for the observor and set the light to bounce 10 times we obtain this image: http://imgur.com/rwgAF  Further increasing the number of bounces gives: http://imgur.com/mB7SH  Now it's fairly clear this rendering software can't represent this situation with complete accuracy but it gives you a nice picture to visualise. As you can see by increasing the number of times the light can bounce we distribute the light more evenly about the area we are viewing. By increasing the number of bounces to infinity we would end up with every angle looking the same, so you would just see the same colour and intensity everywhere you look. Much like a square of very bright blue.   There are several strange effects you can see in the renders that are caused by the outer \"mirror\" not being a perfect sphere, the grey translucent light source appears to be reflected with a small offset to the original because of this. In a perfect sphere this would not occur.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16594.0, "score_ratio": 8.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uqub1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What would it look like to be in a circle shaped room where the walls, ceiling, and floor is a mirror? What kind of reflection would it make?  I wanna see this so bad...", "c_root_id_A": "c4xtza5", "c_root_id_B": "c4xtgwb", "created_at_utc_A": 1339146383, "created_at_utc_B": 1339141473, "score_A": 17, "score_B": -4, "human_ref_A": "I spent some time thinking about this but I thought it would be better to visualise it using 3d rendering software:   (The light source is a small sphere inside a larger completely reflective one)  As you'd expect in a closed room with no light source the render came out completely dark: http://imgur.com/0ze0k  With a light source in the center and allowing the light to reflect only once from the mirror we get a picture like this: http://imgur.com/I5px7  By increasing the number of times the light can bounce off the mirror to 20 we get this image: http://imgur.com/kLIbq  As you can see by increasing the number of times the light bounces we increase the birghtness of the area appearing to surround our light source.  Now with 100 light bounces the area is almost unifromly lit: http://imgur.com/FU9EK  As you can imagine if the light was allowed to reflect forever you would see an even distribution of brightness everywhere you looked.   Now in the above renders only a semi-transparent sphere was rendered to represent a bulb but the \"camera\" (observor) was not rendered. If we add in a blue sphere for the observor and set the light to bounce 10 times we obtain this image: http://imgur.com/rwgAF  Further increasing the number of bounces gives: http://imgur.com/mB7SH  Now it's fairly clear this rendering software can't represent this situation with complete accuracy but it gives you a nice picture to visualise. As you can see by increasing the number of times the light can bounce we distribute the light more evenly about the area we are viewing. By increasing the number of bounces to infinity we would end up with every angle looking the same, so you would just see the same colour and intensity everywhere you look. Much like a square of very bright blue.   There are several strange effects you can see in the renders that are caused by the outer \"mirror\" not being a perfect sphere, the grey translucent light source appears to be reflected with a small offset to the original because of this. In a perfect sphere this would not occur.", "human_ref_B": "Theres a creepypasta floating around about a box of mirrors, same concept, but creepypasta. Too lazy to look it up. I imagine that being on the inside of a sphere of perfectly reflective mirrors would be an absolute brain-breaking mindfuck, but that's just my speculation. How would you even orient yourself? Just thinking about it makes me nauseous.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4910.0, "score_ratio": -4.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uqub1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What would it look like to be in a circle shaped room where the walls, ceiling, and floor is a mirror? What kind of reflection would it make?  I wanna see this so bad...", "c_root_id_A": "c4xrmrr", "c_root_id_B": "c4xuzlx", "created_at_utc_A": 1339129789, "created_at_utc_B": 1339157914, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "For the purposes of science can we say that we have perfectly reflective mirrors?", "human_ref_B": "This is a very common question... Almost the equivalent of \"Schrodinger's cat\" in Explain like I'm five years old.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28125.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uqub1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "What would it look like to be in a circle shaped room where the walls, ceiling, and floor is a mirror? What kind of reflection would it make?  I wanna see this so bad...", "c_root_id_A": "c4xuzlx", "c_root_id_B": "c4xtgwb", "created_at_utc_A": 1339157914, "created_at_utc_B": 1339141473, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -4, "human_ref_A": "This is a very common question... Almost the equivalent of \"Schrodinger's cat\" in Explain like I'm five years old.", "human_ref_B": "Theres a creepypasta floating around about a box of mirrors, same concept, but creepypasta. Too lazy to look it up. I imagine that being on the inside of a sphere of perfectly reflective mirrors would be an absolute brain-breaking mindfuck, but that's just my speculation. How would you even orient yourself? Just thinking about it makes me nauseous.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16441.0, "score_ratio": -0.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3m56jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.99, "history": "How do we know how many protons are in an atom's nucleus? How do we know how many protons are in the nucleus of each element's atom? Do we have a way of viewing things that can magnify more than electron microscopy? If you can provide your source, that would be much appreciated, but it is not required. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "cvcd0ey", "c_root_id_B": "cvcgng7", "created_at_utc_A": 1443082406, "created_at_utc_B": 1443097121, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Atoms must be neutral.  That means they must have an equal number of protons and electrons.  So we can tell how man protons an atom has by figuring out how many electrons it has.  We can tell that by determined its chemical and electrical properties (these vary in predictable manner based on the number of electrons).", "human_ref_B": "Historically, first you had Berzelius and others making accurate measurements of (relative) atomic masses in the early 19th century, and in the late 19th century you had Mendeleev coming up with the periodic table by ordering the elements by a combination of their mass and properties. By that time they still didn't know anything about the inner structure of the atom, but a few years later one of the first pieces came into place when the electron was discovered, and removing electrons left a net positive charge on the rest of the atom.   So that's where they stood around 1900, when Rutherford had the 'plum pudding model' of the atom where the electrons and positively charges were more or less mixed about like a pudding in the atom. He famously did an experiment where positive alpha particles were 'shot' at gold foil, and he measured how the positively-charged alpha particles deflected off the atoms. He did not expect much deflection (since he thought the charges were fairly evenly distributed) but he measured lots of it, even cases where the alpha particles reversed their direction, which he described \"as shooting a cannon ball at a piece of tissue and having the cannon ball bounce back\".  Rutherford figured out that the only way this could be explained would be if the positively charged part of the atom was quite small relative the rest of the atom. He called that the 'nucleus' and was able to estimate from the amount of deflection that it had a charge that was about half the atomic mass of the element. This was largely informed also by him having determined that alpha particles (which had a 2+ charge) were helium nuclei, but helium had a mass that was 4x that of hydrogen.   Not long after that, van den Broek suggested that the charge of the nucleus was exactly equal to the atom's rank in the periodic table. So it was theorized before it was measured accurately enough to tell whether this was true. (Half of gold's mass is 98, its atomic number is 79, so that's a pretty significant difference in estimates of its charge)  The real test of this came with the Bohr model of the atom, which predicted the spectral lines of the element, the amounts of energy that the electrons could emit and absorb. Although it was only approximately correct for hydrogen and became a very crude approximation when applied to other atoms, it predicted a general trend where the energy levels of the electrons were proportional to Z^2 (the nuclear charge squared), which was a broad enough general trend that it could (and was) observed despite the Bohr model not being particularly accurate.   So around that same time (1910s) you also have the idea being raised that the difference between Z and the atomic mass was being made up by some second element of the nucleus. But it wasn't until Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932 that it was actually known that the atomic nucleus was made up of protons and neutrons, and thus that the nuclear charge was the number of protons.   Later these things would be measured and verified more accurately of course, not least through Rutherford's method of measuring how electrons scatter off the nucleus.  > Do we have a way of viewing things that can magnify more than electron microscopy?  You're not really 'viewing' anything in an optical sense even with electron microscopy, you're essentially bouncing electrons off of stuff and recording where they end up. When dealing with things smaller than the wavelengths of visible light, it also doesn't really make sense to talk about 'seeing' things, so the question here is really what you want to count as 'viewing'. We can for instance 'see' the trails of subatomic particles in bubble chambers, but you're not seeing the particle, you have to infer the properties of the particles by doing calculations based on a model, much like Rutherford and Bohr were doing. Is it still 'seeing' something if you need to do calculations to understand what you're looking at? Chemists have very clear ideas of what molecules 'look like', but no way of really directly 'seeing' them.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14715.0, "score_ratio": -1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3m56jt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.99, "history": "How do we know how many protons are in an atom's nucleus? How do we know how many protons are in the nucleus of each element's atom? Do we have a way of viewing things that can magnify more than electron microscopy? If you can provide your source, that would be much appreciated, but it is not required. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "cvcd0ey", "c_root_id_B": "cvde8qi", "created_at_utc_A": 1443082406, "created_at_utc_B": 1443152135, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Atoms must be neutral.  That means they must have an equal number of protons and electrons.  So we can tell how man protons an atom has by figuring out how many electrons it has.  We can tell that by determined its chemical and electrical properties (these vary in predictable manner based on the number of electrons).", "human_ref_B": "If you send a charged atom with a known kinetic energy through a magnetic field, it will bend in relation to its charge and mass. If you assume that the charge is known, you can measure the mass. I couldn't find a nice graph showing this with ions to measure the average number of protons, but you can do that for molecules and measure the distribution in the number of neutrons http://www.lamondlab.com/MSResource/LCMS/MassSpectrometry/chargeState.php", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 69729.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ounig", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How is it that electric eels can deliver up to 600 volts that stuns their prey, but they themselves don't get stunned? I'm assuming that the eels don't get stunned themselves, or at least not as stunned as their prey or predator.", "c_root_id_A": "c3k9c15", "c_root_id_B": "c3k91qn", "created_at_utc_A": 1327441331, "created_at_utc_B": 1327439964, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What I'm more curious to know is how the electric eel underwent the necessary selective pressure to develop weaponized electric discharge.", "human_ref_B": "Follow up question, how much of an area does that charge cover? Isn't salt water a decent conduit?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1367.0, "score_ratio": 28.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ounig", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How is it that electric eels can deliver up to 600 volts that stuns their prey, but they themselves don't get stunned? I'm assuming that the eels don't get stunned themselves, or at least not as stunned as their prey or predator.", "c_root_id_A": "c3k8cja", "c_root_id_B": "c3k9c15", "created_at_utc_A": 1327436575, "created_at_utc_B": 1327441331, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "It seems it's already answered, but a related function in another freshwater fish, the family Mormyridae, generates electric fields to locate prey. Freshwater fishes are usually ones that do this in turbid waters.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormyridae", "human_ref_B": "What I'm more curious to know is how the electric eel underwent the necessary selective pressure to develop weaponized electric discharge.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4756.0, "score_ratio": 57.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ounig", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How is it that electric eels can deliver up to 600 volts that stuns their prey, but they themselves don't get stunned? I'm assuming that the eels don't get stunned themselves, or at least not as stunned as their prey or predator.", "c_root_id_A": "c3k91qn", "c_root_id_B": "c3k9pvu", "created_at_utc_A": 1327439964, "created_at_utc_B": 1327443206, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Follow up question, how much of an area does that charge cover? Isn't salt water a decent conduit?", "human_ref_B": "Follow up question. How does the energy generated leave the eel?  i mean, if something generated electricity there needs to be a positive and negative, so why does the charge stun outwards?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3242.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ounig", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How is it that electric eels can deliver up to 600 volts that stuns their prey, but they themselves don't get stunned? I'm assuming that the eels don't get stunned themselves, or at least not as stunned as their prey or predator.", "c_root_id_A": "c3k8cja", "c_root_id_B": "c3k9pvu", "created_at_utc_A": 1327436575, "created_at_utc_B": 1327443206, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "It seems it's already answered, but a related function in another freshwater fish, the family Mormyridae, generates electric fields to locate prey. Freshwater fishes are usually ones that do this in turbid waters.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormyridae", "human_ref_B": "Follow up question. How does the energy generated leave the eel?  i mean, if something generated electricity there needs to be a positive and negative, so why does the charge stun outwards?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6631.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ounig", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How is it that electric eels can deliver up to 600 volts that stuns their prey, but they themselves don't get stunned? I'm assuming that the eels don't get stunned themselves, or at least not as stunned as their prey or predator.", "c_root_id_A": "c3k91qn", "c_root_id_B": "c3k8cja", "created_at_utc_A": 1327439964, "created_at_utc_B": 1327436575, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Follow up question, how much of an area does that charge cover? Isn't salt water a decent conduit?", "human_ref_B": "It seems it's already answered, but a related function in another freshwater fish, the family Mormyridae, generates electric fields to locate prey. Freshwater fishes are usually ones that do this in turbid waters.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormyridae", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3389.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gt9wd1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How far along are we when it comes to proving whether or not immunity occurs after having COVID-19?", "c_root_id_A": "fsb2s1t", "c_root_id_B": "fsb42zf", "created_at_utc_A": 1590847671, "created_at_utc_B": 1590848484, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Immunity *always* occurs, what we are afraid of is if someone can be infected by another strain after being previously infected. Initial findings suggested that it was possible but more recently, it was shown that people who were infected did not get reinfected.  The thing with SARS-CoV-2 is that the immunity relies mainly on the recognition of the spike protein (and not nucleocapsid) as it is an enveloped virus. But the genome of the virus is RNA, meaning that its RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase can generate mutations very easily to change the ectodomain of the spike protein. This results in the emergence of different strains of SARS-CoV-2.  My opinion as a scientist is that immunity towards different strains of SARS-CoV-2 can either occur or not, the answer is not just a yes or a no. If your adaptive immune system develops a response towards a common epitope of SARS-CoV-2, you will be protected against reinfection by another strain. However, if it develops a response towards a region that is highly mutated (S1 domain of the spike protein for instance), it is more likely that you won't be protected from reinfection.", "human_ref_B": "We are pretty far along. You are presumably asking about *protective* immunity, not just immunity, but it\u2019s all on a continuum, not an on/off switch.   * We are 100% certain that immunity can occur after infection, since antibodies are easily measured.  * We are certain that it occurs in the vast majority of people who have recovered from infection, though it\u2019s not completely clear whether \u201cvast majority\u201d means 90%, 95%, or 99%. (A couple of careful studies make it look like over 98% of recovered patients have good antibody responses, I.e. immunity, but it can take up to 7 weeks for the immunity to be easily measured.)  * We are certain that at least some of the candidate vaccines give good antibody-based immunity, in a pretty high percent of recipients. Again, that \u201cpretty high\u201d is not nailed down.  Small studies see 100%, which could translate into anywhere between 70-98% in the real world.  * We are quite confident that in monkeys, vaccine-based immunity protects against repeated infection.   So all those things tell us that we are pretty confident that infection and vaccination give protective immunity.   What don\u2019t we know?   * What proportion of people with antibodies are actually protected?  What levels of antibodies are protective, and how many people will have those?  Right now, the most likely answer is that almost everyone who has recovered from symptomatic disease, and most of those who had asymptomatic infection, are protected, but that needs to be confirmed.  * How long does immunity last? Again, the reasonable assumption is that it will last for several years, based on experience with SARS and the fact that no waning of immunity has been seen over the limited time people have been followed, but again it needs to tested and confirmed.   What are some media-driven FUD garbage claims that you should ignore for now?  * In spite of the claims in the media, there are either no cases of repeated infection, or almost none. The claims that are out there are not taken seriously by scientists, and almost certainly represent bad testing and amateur interpretation.  * There are not multiple strains of the virus, and there are not likely to be any immune-resistant strains for several years, if at all.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 813.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "eqgjcv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Where does the power come from that is needed to levitate a superconducting magnet against the constant pull of gravity? In an aircraft in steady flight, lift exactly matches the pull of gravity. Generating that lift requires a continuous flow of power which is fed by the consumption of fuel. But a levitating supermagnet just sits there mid-air as long as it is kept cold enough. How?  (Yes, I know that a lot of a plane or helicopter's power is also used to overcome drag, thrown away as waste heat, accelerate, or to do other useful things. Let's set that aside for now.)", "c_root_id_A": "feusho8", "c_root_id_B": "feviolq", "created_at_utc_A": 1579389502, "created_at_utc_B": 1579397862, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "> (Yes, I know that a lot of a plane or helicopter's power is also used to overcome drag, thrown away as waste heat, accelerate, or to do other useful things. Let's set that aside for now.)  That aside is the key difference. An aircraft needs to change the air flow to stay up, which ultimately ends up heating the air. That's where all the energy goes. A levitated superconductor is a static situation. No energy goes anywhere.", "human_ref_B": "work = force \u00d7 distance.  The levitating thing doesn't move (ie distance = 0), ergo no work is done, and no energy is required.  Aeroplanes and helicopters need energy to stay aloft because they're *pushing air down* all the time, and it's the work done on *that volume of air* which requires the engines to provide power.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8360.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n5bejx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Is the chemical composition of 1st dose and 2nd dose of the Covid-19 vaccines the same? I saw a vaccination center that was administering the vaccine only to people taking their second dose. So was wondering is it because the dose 1 and dose 2 are different and they have stock of only the second dose or they are prioritizing the dose 2 as there is timeline within which it needs to be taken. I am in particular referring to the Oxford- AstraZenenca vaccine.", "c_root_id_A": "gx0iwl1", "c_root_id_B": "gx0fjz7", "created_at_utc_A": 1620214129, "created_at_utc_B": 1620211560, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "For the AstraZeneca, BioNTech/Pfizer, and Moderna vaccines first and second shot are identical. The only COVID-vaccine with different first and second shots that I am aware of is the Russian Sputnik V, which uses different Adenoviruses (types 26 and 5) as vectors in the two shots.", "human_ref_B": "It\u2019s the same vaccine for each dose.   As for why they\u2019re prioritizing the second dose, I would speculate it\u2019s due to a supply issue. The decision was likely made to ensure the remaining stock was used to fully vaccinate as many individuals as possible rather than give that supply as a first shot and then have a disrupted supply/no means of providing the second shot.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2569.0, "score_ratio": 4.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n5bejx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Is the chemical composition of 1st dose and 2nd dose of the Covid-19 vaccines the same? I saw a vaccination center that was administering the vaccine only to people taking their second dose. So was wondering is it because the dose 1 and dose 2 are different and they have stock of only the second dose or they are prioritizing the dose 2 as there is timeline within which it needs to be taken. I am in particular referring to the Oxford- AstraZenenca vaccine.", "c_root_id_A": "gx0iwl1", "c_root_id_B": "gx0e4i6", "created_at_utc_A": 1620214129, "created_at_utc_B": 1620210328, "score_A": 41, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "For the AstraZeneca, BioNTech/Pfizer, and Moderna vaccines first and second shot are identical. The only COVID-vaccine with different first and second shots that I am aware of is the Russian Sputnik V, which uses different Adenoviruses (types 26 and 5) as vectors in the two shots.", "human_ref_B": "No, they are both the same as far as I am aware. We generally would not change the vaccine as the purpose of the second dose is to re-prime the immune system and train the immune system into creation of long-term antibodies, which only occurs with 2+ exposures.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3801.0, "score_ratio": 5.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n5bejx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Is the chemical composition of 1st dose and 2nd dose of the Covid-19 vaccines the same? I saw a vaccination center that was administering the vaccine only to people taking their second dose. So was wondering is it because the dose 1 and dose 2 are different and they have stock of only the second dose or they are prioritizing the dose 2 as there is timeline within which it needs to be taken. I am in particular referring to the Oxford- AstraZenenca vaccine.", "c_root_id_A": "gx0e4i6", "c_root_id_B": "gx0fjz7", "created_at_utc_A": 1620210328, "created_at_utc_B": 1620211560, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "No, they are both the same as far as I am aware. We generally would not change the vaccine as the purpose of the second dose is to re-prime the immune system and train the immune system into creation of long-term antibodies, which only occurs with 2+ exposures.", "human_ref_B": "It\u2019s the same vaccine for each dose.   As for why they\u2019re prioritizing the second dose, I would speculate it\u2019s due to a supply issue. The decision was likely made to ensure the remaining stock was used to fully vaccinate as many individuals as possible rather than give that supply as a first shot and then have a disrupted supply/no means of providing the second shot.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1232.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2objnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "I just finished 6 hours worth of law school exams today. What is going on in my body to make my brain feel \"drained\" and my body feel tired despite sitting in a chair the whole time? I'm curious what it is about focusing/thinking really hard for long periods of time that causes \"brain drain.\" Also -- are there any tricks to recover quicker?", "c_root_id_A": "cmm3k45", "c_root_id_B": "cmlzmcb", "created_at_utc_A": 1417798450, "created_at_utc_B": 1417790696, "score_A": 9, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "I found two papers with research regarding metal fatigue I thought might be interesting to share.   ***First*** a study on Mental fatigue caused by prolonged cognitive load associated with sympathetic hyperactivity  the highlights from the paper (i.e. TL;DR) are provided in the abstract: but for an even TL;DRer version:  Strenuous mental activity jacks up your sympathetic nervous system \"fight-or-flight\" and decreases your parasympathetic nervous system \"rest-and-digest\". Essentially prolonged metal alertness stimulates similar physical response as fear resulting in a physical fatigue over time comparable to that experienced after an acute adrenaline response.  >Abstract  >**Background**: It is known that chronic fatigue is associated with sympathetic hyperactivity.** However, the relationship between autonomic function and mental fatigue caused by a prolonged mental load in healthy humans is still unclear**. Thus, in order to clarify the mechanisms underlying mental fatigue, we examined the association between mental fatigue and autonomic functions.  >**Results:** After the 8-hr relaxation session, low-frequency component power (LF), high-frequency component power (HF) and low-frequency component power/high-frequency component power ratio (LF/HF ratio) were not changed from baseline. **In contrast, after the fatigue session, the HF and LF/HF ratio were significantly changed from baseline; specifically, the HF was lower and LF/HF ratio was higher as compared to those after the relaxation session**.  >**Conclusions:** Sympathetic hyperactivity based on decreased parasympathetic activity is associated with mental fatigue induced by prolonged cognitive load.  I'm going to include the introduction to this paper in a reply to this post in an attempt to make this post easier to read.   ***Second*** This is the abstract from a second  paper regarding metal fatigue (my university doesn't subscribe to this particular journal so I unfortunately can only provide the abstract). I have added the *Italic* text to assist in ease of reading, but have not altered content. **Bolded** text is to highlight key points relevant to the question.  >There are at least 5 metabolic causes of fatigue, >*1)* a decrease in the phosphocreatine level in muscle,  >*2)* proton accumulation in muscle,  >*3)* depletion of the glycogen store in muscle, >*4)* hypoglycaemia  >*5)* and an increase in the plasma concentration ratio of free tryptophan/branched-chain amino acids.  > Proton accumulation may be a common cause of fatigue in most forms of exercise and may be an important factor in fatigue in those persons who are chronically physically inactive and also in the elderly: thus, the aerobic capacity markedly decreases under these conditions, so that ATP must be synthesized by the much less efficient anaerobic system. A marked increase in the plasma fatty acid level, which may occur when liver glycogen store is depleted and when hypoglycaemia results, or during intermittent exercise when the rate of fatty acid oxidation may not match the mobilisation of fatty acids, could be involved indirectly in fatigue. **This is because such an increase in the plasma level of fatty acids raises the free plasma concentration of tryptophan, which can increase the entry of tryptophan into the brain, which will increase the brain level of 5-hydroxytryptamine:** there is evidence that the latter may be involved in central fatigue. In this case, provision of branched-chain amino acids in order to maintain the resting plasma concentration ratio of free tryptophan/branched-chain amino acids should delay fatigue\u2013there is prima facie evidence in support of this hypothesis. This hypothesis may have considerable clinical importance.", "human_ref_B": "Try playing chess for 3-4+ hours. You will see the same effect. The brain also becomes fatigued, just like other parts of the body. Like others have pointed out here, the brain uses a lot of energy. Around 30% of energy expenditure can be attributed to the brain, which comprises roughly only a kilo of your total body weight. Interestingly, this may not actually play as much of a role as one might assume, since it has been shown that the brain uses nearly the same amount of energy whether its resting or not. I think this conclusion relies too much on fMRI, which I think is a very imperfect method, so I myself am sceptical of that result, but that is a different story. Glucose utilisation is not the only thing that can be assessed when talking about energy use and fatigue, however. Many neurotransmitter systems are involved in all complex thought processes, and my educated guess would be that these systems (e.g. perhaps Dopaminergic neurons, 5-HT neurons, NA neurons) need time to recuperate after intensive and difficult experiences. Also take into account both acute and chronic stress. They play a huge role in pretty much everything we do.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7754.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2objnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "I just finished 6 hours worth of law school exams today. What is going on in my body to make my brain feel \"drained\" and my body feel tired despite sitting in a chair the whole time? I'm curious what it is about focusing/thinking really hard for long periods of time that causes \"brain drain.\" Also -- are there any tricks to recover quicker?", "c_root_id_A": "cmm3k45", "c_root_id_B": "cmlt983", "created_at_utc_A": 1417798450, "created_at_utc_B": 1417764531, "score_A": 9, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "I found two papers with research regarding metal fatigue I thought might be interesting to share.   ***First*** a study on Mental fatigue caused by prolonged cognitive load associated with sympathetic hyperactivity  the highlights from the paper (i.e. TL;DR) are provided in the abstract: but for an even TL;DRer version:  Strenuous mental activity jacks up your sympathetic nervous system \"fight-or-flight\" and decreases your parasympathetic nervous system \"rest-and-digest\". Essentially prolonged metal alertness stimulates similar physical response as fear resulting in a physical fatigue over time comparable to that experienced after an acute adrenaline response.  >Abstract  >**Background**: It is known that chronic fatigue is associated with sympathetic hyperactivity.** However, the relationship between autonomic function and mental fatigue caused by a prolonged mental load in healthy humans is still unclear**. Thus, in order to clarify the mechanisms underlying mental fatigue, we examined the association between mental fatigue and autonomic functions.  >**Results:** After the 8-hr relaxation session, low-frequency component power (LF), high-frequency component power (HF) and low-frequency component power/high-frequency component power ratio (LF/HF ratio) were not changed from baseline. **In contrast, after the fatigue session, the HF and LF/HF ratio were significantly changed from baseline; specifically, the HF was lower and LF/HF ratio was higher as compared to those after the relaxation session**.  >**Conclusions:** Sympathetic hyperactivity based on decreased parasympathetic activity is associated with mental fatigue induced by prolonged cognitive load.  I'm going to include the introduction to this paper in a reply to this post in an attempt to make this post easier to read.   ***Second*** This is the abstract from a second  paper regarding metal fatigue (my university doesn't subscribe to this particular journal so I unfortunately can only provide the abstract). I have added the *Italic* text to assist in ease of reading, but have not altered content. **Bolded** text is to highlight key points relevant to the question.  >There are at least 5 metabolic causes of fatigue, >*1)* a decrease in the phosphocreatine level in muscle,  >*2)* proton accumulation in muscle,  >*3)* depletion of the glycogen store in muscle, >*4)* hypoglycaemia  >*5)* and an increase in the plasma concentration ratio of free tryptophan/branched-chain amino acids.  > Proton accumulation may be a common cause of fatigue in most forms of exercise and may be an important factor in fatigue in those persons who are chronically physically inactive and also in the elderly: thus, the aerobic capacity markedly decreases under these conditions, so that ATP must be synthesized by the much less efficient anaerobic system. A marked increase in the plasma fatty acid level, which may occur when liver glycogen store is depleted and when hypoglycaemia results, or during intermittent exercise when the rate of fatty acid oxidation may not match the mobilisation of fatty acids, could be involved indirectly in fatigue. **This is because such an increase in the plasma level of fatty acids raises the free plasma concentration of tryptophan, which can increase the entry of tryptophan into the brain, which will increase the brain level of 5-hydroxytryptamine:** there is evidence that the latter may be involved in central fatigue. In this case, provision of branched-chain amino acids in order to maintain the resting plasma concentration ratio of free tryptophan/branched-chain amino acids should delay fatigue\u2013there is prima facie evidence in support of this hypothesis. This hypothesis may have considerable clinical importance.", "human_ref_B": "Thinking and concentrating requires a ton of energy which requires resources, namely glucose and oxygen. Snacking and eating can help boost your blood sugar levels to a normal value. I wouldn't worry about threw oxygen bit, if you're writing this you're probably OK there. There might also be something about neurotransmitter depletion and replenishment, or maybe posture and lack of movement leading to...stuff, but my medical knowledge in this subject ends at hypoglycemia.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 33919.0, "score_ratio": -1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2objnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "I just finished 6 hours worth of law school exams today. What is going on in my body to make my brain feel \"drained\" and my body feel tired despite sitting in a chair the whole time? I'm curious what it is about focusing/thinking really hard for long periods of time that causes \"brain drain.\" Also -- are there any tricks to recover quicker?", "c_root_id_A": "cmlzmcb", "c_root_id_B": "cmmi5x7", "created_at_utc_A": 1417790696, "created_at_utc_B": 1417825990, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Try playing chess for 3-4+ hours. You will see the same effect. The brain also becomes fatigued, just like other parts of the body. Like others have pointed out here, the brain uses a lot of energy. Around 30% of energy expenditure can be attributed to the brain, which comprises roughly only a kilo of your total body weight. Interestingly, this may not actually play as much of a role as one might assume, since it has been shown that the brain uses nearly the same amount of energy whether its resting or not. I think this conclusion relies too much on fMRI, which I think is a very imperfect method, so I myself am sceptical of that result, but that is a different story. Glucose utilisation is not the only thing that can be assessed when talking about energy use and fatigue, however. Many neurotransmitter systems are involved in all complex thought processes, and my educated guess would be that these systems (e.g. perhaps Dopaminergic neurons, 5-HT neurons, NA neurons) need time to recuperate after intensive and difficult experiences. Also take into account both acute and chronic stress. They play a huge role in pretty much everything we do.", "human_ref_B": "Agree with others below that it isn't known as a scientific fact.  My best hypothesis is that it would be a similar, temporary state similar to Parkinson's disease. Making decisions, deciding if your answers are a good or bad thing, etc all use dopamine. As with most biological phenomenon, dopamine signaling is susceptible to habituation and disregulation. Disregulation of this system would severely impair your ability to make motor actions and decisions, and often is reported as symptoms similar to depression. Possible other chemical substrates could be serotonin or cortisol.  Source/HatTip: To really know for sure, you would need to measure human dopamine signals and behavioral responses in humans after a prolonged stressful event. Unfortunately to do that in the right way, you need to stick a 10cm long carbon-fiber electrode down into their brain. My former colleague Ken Kishida is the first person to ever record live dopamine signals from a human being but so far it is restricted to small numbers of patients with chronic disease. Shame that man isn't offered Tenured faculty jobs left and right.  edit: added alt chemical substrates", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 35294.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2objnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "I just finished 6 hours worth of law school exams today. What is going on in my body to make my brain feel \"drained\" and my body feel tired despite sitting in a chair the whole time? I'm curious what it is about focusing/thinking really hard for long periods of time that causes \"brain drain.\" Also -- are there any tricks to recover quicker?", "c_root_id_A": "cmlt983", "c_root_id_B": "cmmi5x7", "created_at_utc_A": 1417764531, "created_at_utc_B": 1417825990, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Thinking and concentrating requires a ton of energy which requires resources, namely glucose and oxygen. Snacking and eating can help boost your blood sugar levels to a normal value. I wouldn't worry about threw oxygen bit, if you're writing this you're probably OK there. There might also be something about neurotransmitter depletion and replenishment, or maybe posture and lack of movement leading to...stuff, but my medical knowledge in this subject ends at hypoglycemia.", "human_ref_B": "Agree with others below that it isn't known as a scientific fact.  My best hypothesis is that it would be a similar, temporary state similar to Parkinson's disease. Making decisions, deciding if your answers are a good or bad thing, etc all use dopamine. As with most biological phenomenon, dopamine signaling is susceptible to habituation and disregulation. Disregulation of this system would severely impair your ability to make motor actions and decisions, and often is reported as symptoms similar to depression. Possible other chemical substrates could be serotonin or cortisol.  Source/HatTip: To really know for sure, you would need to measure human dopamine signals and behavioral responses in humans after a prolonged stressful event. Unfortunately to do that in the right way, you need to stick a 10cm long carbon-fiber electrode down into their brain. My former colleague Ken Kishida is the first person to ever record live dopamine signals from a human being but so far it is restricted to small numbers of patients with chronic disease. Shame that man isn't offered Tenured faculty jobs left and right.  edit: added alt chemical substrates", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 61459.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2objnm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "I just finished 6 hours worth of law school exams today. What is going on in my body to make my brain feel \"drained\" and my body feel tired despite sitting in a chair the whole time? I'm curious what it is about focusing/thinking really hard for long periods of time that causes \"brain drain.\" Also -- are there any tricks to recover quicker?", "c_root_id_A": "cmlzmcb", "c_root_id_B": "cmlt983", "created_at_utc_A": 1417790696, "created_at_utc_B": 1417764531, "score_A": -3, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Try playing chess for 3-4+ hours. You will see the same effect. The brain also becomes fatigued, just like other parts of the body. Like others have pointed out here, the brain uses a lot of energy. Around 30% of energy expenditure can be attributed to the brain, which comprises roughly only a kilo of your total body weight. Interestingly, this may not actually play as much of a role as one might assume, since it has been shown that the brain uses nearly the same amount of energy whether its resting or not. I think this conclusion relies too much on fMRI, which I think is a very imperfect method, so I myself am sceptical of that result, but that is a different story. Glucose utilisation is not the only thing that can be assessed when talking about energy use and fatigue, however. Many neurotransmitter systems are involved in all complex thought processes, and my educated guess would be that these systems (e.g. perhaps Dopaminergic neurons, 5-HT neurons, NA neurons) need time to recuperate after intensive and difficult experiences. Also take into account both acute and chronic stress. They play a huge role in pretty much everything we do.", "human_ref_B": "Thinking and concentrating requires a ton of energy which requires resources, namely glucose and oxygen. Snacking and eating can help boost your blood sugar levels to a normal value. I wouldn't worry about threw oxygen bit, if you're writing this you're probably OK there. There might also be something about neurotransmitter depletion and replenishment, or maybe posture and lack of movement leading to...stuff, but my medical knowledge in this subject ends at hypoglycemia.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26165.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "25ygqx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "If I gain 10 lbs of fat, lose it, and then gain 10 lbs again, am I \"refilling\" those same fat cells before creating new ones?", "c_root_id_A": "chm0ccb", "c_root_id_B": "chm0wjx", "created_at_utc_A": 1400529094, "created_at_utc_B": 1400530320, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 469, "human_ref_A": "Does the higher number of fat cells in someone who has lost weight affect the hormonal effects of fat?  I know fat cells produce aromatase, which can convert testosterone into estrogens.  Has the effect of excess number of fat cells on endocrinology been studied?", "human_ref_B": "http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/05/health/research/05fat.html?_r=0  > Every year, whether you are fat or thin, whether you lose weight or gain, 10 percent of your fat cells die. And every year, those cells that die are replaced with new fat cells, researchers in Sweden reported Sunday.  > The result is that the total number of fat cells in the body remains the same, year after year throughout adulthood. Losing or gaining weight affects only the amount of fat stored in the cells, not the number of cells.  > The finding was published online Sunday in the journal Nature.  Oddly, adipocyte apoptosis might be a cause of obesity related disorders, like insulin resistance, fatty liver, and general inflammation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1226.0, "score_ratio": 39.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "25ygqx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "If I gain 10 lbs of fat, lose it, and then gain 10 lbs again, am I \"refilling\" those same fat cells before creating new ones?", "c_root_id_A": "chm0ccb", "c_root_id_B": "chm582y", "created_at_utc_A": 1400529094, "created_at_utc_B": 1400539903, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 223, "human_ref_A": "Does the higher number of fat cells in someone who has lost weight affect the hormonal effects of fat?  I know fat cells produce aromatase, which can convert testosterone into estrogens.  Has the effect of excess number of fat cells on endocrinology been studied?", "human_ref_B": "I am currently getting a PhD in this exact field.  For the most part, you are refilling the fat cells that were already there.  To clear up some things that have been said, adipocytes (fat cells), are post-mitotic, meaning they cannot divide to form new cells.  New adipocytes are created in a process called hyperplasia.  Hyperplasia is a process in which adipocyte precursor cells (similar to a fat stem cell) proliferate and differentiate to form new adipocytes.  The process of hyperplasia and what cause it to occur is not currently well-understood (that is my thesis project).  TLDR; Yes, you are refilling those same cells.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10809.0, "score_ratio": 18.5833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "25ygqx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "If I gain 10 lbs of fat, lose it, and then gain 10 lbs again, am I \"refilling\" those same fat cells before creating new ones?", "c_root_id_A": "chm0ccb", "c_root_id_B": "chm99zx", "created_at_utc_A": 1400529094, "created_at_utc_B": 1400549335, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Does the higher number of fat cells in someone who has lost weight affect the hormonal effects of fat?  I know fat cells produce aromatase, which can convert testosterone into estrogens.  Has the effect of excess number of fat cells on endocrinology been studied?", "human_ref_B": "Unfortunately a science gem seems to have been clobbered in the moderator delete storm that just went by....  Cold acclimation recruits human brown fat and increases nonshivering thermogenesis  Cold-Activated Brown Adipose Tissue in Healthy Men  This one strikes me as very interesting... apart from the obvious benefit of solving my heating bills and obesity.   It seems like this is a fairly new are of research. Anybody have any more papers on the subject of brown adipose tissue and cold acclimatization?  To what extent does cold acclimatization convert white adipose tissue to brown?   Are they different cells, or same cells behaving differently?  How much cold acclimatization do you need to activate this?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20241.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bav3x1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Would it be more fuel efficient to only ever fill the gas tank halfway? Gas must be pretty heavy, and adding that much extra weight into a car has to reduce the fuel efficiency to some extent. Would it be worth it to only ever fill the tank to half?", "c_root_id_A": "eke6lm8", "c_root_id_B": "eke7rm7", "created_at_utc_A": 1554737826, "created_at_utc_B": 1554738582, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "No, because there are a ton of other factors that count as well. Inflation of tires, type of gas, whatever else is in your vehicle, wind, the kind of road you're traveling, are you in the city or not.  Besides manufacturers calculated the weight of the gas as well and put that into their other calculations.", "human_ref_B": "According to this article, the fuel consumption of a mid-size car increases by about 1% for every 25 kilograms of weight it carries.  https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/efficiency/transportation/21038  This will depend a lot on driving conditions, as extra mass makes almost no difference at all at steady speeds, where drag is the main loss.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 756.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bav3x1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Would it be more fuel efficient to only ever fill the gas tank halfway? Gas must be pretty heavy, and adding that much extra weight into a car has to reduce the fuel efficiency to some extent. Would it be worth it to only ever fill the tank to half?", "c_root_id_A": "ekea5jv", "c_root_id_B": "eke6lm8", "created_at_utc_A": 1554740156, "created_at_utc_B": 1554737826, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "No, not in general. The increase in MPG is  usually offset by the increase in driving to/from gas stations.  Gas weighs about 6.3 lbs per gallon. A car gas tank is maybe 14 gallons. So you are talking about saving about 44lbs.  An average car weighs about 3000lbs nowadays. So you are talking about 1.5% of the total weight.   Let's say, for sake of argument, that a 1.5% reduction in weight, all else being equal, means a 1.5% increase in miles per gallon. It doesn't...the actual gain will be much less, but just for argument. Let's let's also say that over 7 gallons (half a tank) at about 30mpg that translates to an extra 0.5 miles you can travel.   In order to see a net gain in overall efficiency, refueling would need to be done with less than half a mile of added distance traveled. That's not realistic for most people.  As a side note: leaving your fuel tanks less than completely full can lead to water in your fuel. Usually this isn't a big problem in cars, but never using more than half your tank capacity will make the problem worse.", "human_ref_B": "No, because there are a ton of other factors that count as well. Inflation of tires, type of gas, whatever else is in your vehicle, wind, the kind of road you're traveling, are you in the city or not.  Besides manufacturers calculated the weight of the gas as well and put that into their other calculations.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2330.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nzu8m8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Are the distant planets that we can \"see\" still even there? How do we know? I've been watching some docs and doc series about astronomy and my (for one) takeaway has been that the distant planets (as in another solar system) aren't really seen, it's the light that has reflected off of them that we see (much later in time). How do we know that those planets aren't just dust today (in that they haven't been smashed to bits by something (rogue planet? a la Melancholia lol) in the time it's taken for the light has become detected)?  Also, I've come to see those powerful telescopes (Hubble, etc) as not so much viewing devices (like binoculars) but the closest thing we have to time machines (due to the extreme distance/time). Am I on the right track? If not, please illuminate. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "h1tq4o9", "c_root_id_B": "h1w0k1v", "created_at_utc_A": 1623742779, "created_at_utc_B": 1623788410, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "We do not, but we can safely assume they are still there, unless it's a supergiant star at its late stage. That means, despite extremely large distances spanning across thousands or tens of thousands light years those planets will be still there because the relative age of stars is far longer than the travel time fo light.  There could be some discrepancies in what we see and what's there, but so far, we don't have much evidence to make any conclusion.", "human_ref_B": ">aren't really seen, it's the light that has reflected off of them that we see  That's true as well when you look at your hand in front of your face. You're seeing the light reflected off of your hand. And it takes time for the light to reach your eyes, so that by the time you see it, it's an image of your hand as it was in the past. There is nothing different about seeing planets from other solar systems. Only that it takes a lot longer time for the light to reach our eyes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 45631.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nzu8m8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Are the distant planets that we can \"see\" still even there? How do we know? I've been watching some docs and doc series about astronomy and my (for one) takeaway has been that the distant planets (as in another solar system) aren't really seen, it's the light that has reflected off of them that we see (much later in time). How do we know that those planets aren't just dust today (in that they haven't been smashed to bits by something (rogue planet? a la Melancholia lol) in the time it's taken for the light has become detected)?  Also, I've come to see those powerful telescopes (Hubble, etc) as not so much viewing devices (like binoculars) but the closest thing we have to time machines (due to the extreme distance/time). Am I on the right track? If not, please illuminate. Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "h1w0k1v", "c_root_id_B": "h1vk0a2", "created_at_utc_A": 1623788410, "created_at_utc_B": 1623781191, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": ">aren't really seen, it's the light that has reflected off of them that we see  That's true as well when you look at your hand in front of your face. You're seeing the light reflected off of your hand. And it takes time for the light to reach your eyes, so that by the time you see it, it's an image of your hand as it was in the past. There is nothing different about seeing planets from other solar systems. Only that it takes a lot longer time for the light to reach our eyes.", "human_ref_B": "> I've been watching some docs and doc series about astronomy and my (for one) takeaway has been that the distant planets (as in another solar system) aren't really see  The same is true of planets in our own solar system. You're right, we don't know for certain that Saturn didn't just explode or something in the past hour and the light hasn't reached us yet, but that's not likely to happen. It's been there for billions of years and planets don't just explode or disappear for no good reason.  Similarly, a distant exoplanet orbiting a star a hundred light years away is probably still there because where would it have gone?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7219.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pxxyq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Concerning hair color, how is it that there are blondes, browns, blacks, reds, etc., but no blue, pink and other colors like that? We see lots of people color their hair to these bright colors, like blue, pink, yellow, brilliant red and so on. How come they aren't occuring naturally. Yet there are some brilliant colored blondes, and brunettes. Why aren't these colors part of our DNA code?", "c_root_id_A": "c3t5aew", "c_root_id_B": "c3t5lqi", "created_at_utc_A": 1329764434, "created_at_utc_B": 1329766140, "score_A": 50, "score_B": 1569, "human_ref_A": "Also worth noting that some colors (like blue) are very difficult for animals to produce. The brilliant blue in birds is caused by the crystaline makeup of the feathers and how it effects the light rather than a specific pigment.", "human_ref_B": "We are constrained by our evolutionary heritage here, since human hair colors are the same colors that are found in pretty much all the other mammals. Basically - mammals just come in varieties of black, brown, red and yellow but basically don't do blues/greens/purples/other exotic colors. (let's ignore the mandrill for now) This is because almost all mammals have, genetically, only 2 pigments available to them, eumelanin (black/brown) and phaeomelanin (yellow/reddish). These are both made from amino acids that have been modified by a set of enzymes, and there are genes for those enzymes, and all mammals still share those genes. There is one particular mutation that will give you phaeomelanin instead of melanin. Depending on how the phaeomelanin is deposited in the hair shaft, it can appear yellow (blonde) or reddish (human redheads, \"chestnut\" horses, red foxes, etc.). There are \"redhead\" and \"blonde\" equivalents in almost all mammal species.   Anyway... that describes the genetics a bit, but why have all the mammals stuck to this heritage so religiously for the last hundred million years?  Why haven't we elaborated on it and evolved something more fun? Probably 1. Hair (an evolutionary constraint), and 2. Vision (lack of selection pressure).  First, hair. Those vertebrates that have achieved green/blue coloring are almost universally using \"structural\" coloring, i.e. they don't have a true blue or true green pigment, but instead they are using precise 3D layering of other pigments in a flat hard structure (a feather or scale) in a way that refracts light in a certain way. (let's ignore the turaco)  But you can only pull this off if the pigment stays put and maintains the required 3D structure. So - you can do this with feathers, scales, or skin, but not so easily with hair since the hair flops around and won't stay in the right orientation.  The only mammals that have a true blue (mandrill, vervet etc.) do it in skin, not in hair.  Second, vision. Most bright colors on animals are related to \"showing off\" those colors to rivals/mates within the same species. (let's ignore chameleons and cephalopods) OK. So for the most part you'd only have blue/green colors if your species can actually SEE those colors. But almost all mammals are color-blind and just don't have the ability to distinguish blue/green from yellow/red. Actually the ancestral vertebrate seems to have had 4 cone types and exceptional color vision, and most vertebrate groups today (fish, amphibians, the various reptiles, and the birds) still have those 4 cones and can all see bazillions of colors, including UV. And that's why you see such beautiful colors in those other groups, particularly those that are day-active in brightly lit habitats (tropical reef fish, lizards, birds). Mammals lost 2 of these ancestral cones early on, probably when we went through our nocturnal stage, as a result most mammals today still have crappy color vision. Bummer. The only mammals that have re-evolved a 3rd cone, and good color vision, are not surprisingly the few mammal groups that are strictly diurnal, esp.  a set of diurnal marsupials, the Old World primates (including us), and (separately and very recently) some of the little South American monkeys. This has evolved VERY recently via gene duplication and the genes involved are still effin' unstable, right next to each other &amp; always sliding around and getting partially deleted and so on, which is why colorblindness is still so common in humans. Basically we're still in the process of regaining good color vision. Birds and fish, they laugh at us.  Anyway.. if you've only just re-evolved a 3rd cone type, AND you have hair and not feathers/scales, it's going to be a long time before you get around to evolving any new colors.  Props to the mandrill for evolving blue faces and blue asses so soon after they got the 3rd cone. And the vervet and mouse opossum (BRIGHT blue balls, convergently evolved.). See this ref for pix, and trace its citation trail to find other relevant refs on this topic.  tl;dr - Come back in a few million years and maybe we'll have blue faces. And genuinely blue balls.  EDIT: (possibly NSFW) Here are the blue balls in vervet monkey (first 2) and mouse opossum (3rd). The 2nd and 3rd pix are from the ref cited above.  MORE EDITS: fix typos, minor rephrasing", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1706.0, "score_ratio": 31.38, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pxxyq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Concerning hair color, how is it that there are blondes, browns, blacks, reds, etc., but no blue, pink and other colors like that? We see lots of people color their hair to these bright colors, like blue, pink, yellow, brilliant red and so on. How come they aren't occuring naturally. Yet there are some brilliant colored blondes, and brunettes. Why aren't these colors part of our DNA code?", "c_root_id_A": "c3t4yz7", "c_root_id_B": "c3t5lqi", "created_at_utc_A": 1329762739, "created_at_utc_B": 1329766140, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1569, "human_ref_A": "I wonder why there aren't any blonde chimps, if our DNA is that similar.", "human_ref_B": "We are constrained by our evolutionary heritage here, since human hair colors are the same colors that are found in pretty much all the other mammals. Basically - mammals just come in varieties of black, brown, red and yellow but basically don't do blues/greens/purples/other exotic colors. (let's ignore the mandrill for now) This is because almost all mammals have, genetically, only 2 pigments available to them, eumelanin (black/brown) and phaeomelanin (yellow/reddish). These are both made from amino acids that have been modified by a set of enzymes, and there are genes for those enzymes, and all mammals still share those genes. There is one particular mutation that will give you phaeomelanin instead of melanin. Depending on how the phaeomelanin is deposited in the hair shaft, it can appear yellow (blonde) or reddish (human redheads, \"chestnut\" horses, red foxes, etc.). There are \"redhead\" and \"blonde\" equivalents in almost all mammal species.   Anyway... that describes the genetics a bit, but why have all the mammals stuck to this heritage so religiously for the last hundred million years?  Why haven't we elaborated on it and evolved something more fun? Probably 1. Hair (an evolutionary constraint), and 2. Vision (lack of selection pressure).  First, hair. Those vertebrates that have achieved green/blue coloring are almost universally using \"structural\" coloring, i.e. they don't have a true blue or true green pigment, but instead they are using precise 3D layering of other pigments in a flat hard structure (a feather or scale) in a way that refracts light in a certain way. (let's ignore the turaco)  But you can only pull this off if the pigment stays put and maintains the required 3D structure. So - you can do this with feathers, scales, or skin, but not so easily with hair since the hair flops around and won't stay in the right orientation.  The only mammals that have a true blue (mandrill, vervet etc.) do it in skin, not in hair.  Second, vision. Most bright colors on animals are related to \"showing off\" those colors to rivals/mates within the same species. (let's ignore chameleons and cephalopods) OK. So for the most part you'd only have blue/green colors if your species can actually SEE those colors. But almost all mammals are color-blind and just don't have the ability to distinguish blue/green from yellow/red. Actually the ancestral vertebrate seems to have had 4 cone types and exceptional color vision, and most vertebrate groups today (fish, amphibians, the various reptiles, and the birds) still have those 4 cones and can all see bazillions of colors, including UV. And that's why you see such beautiful colors in those other groups, particularly those that are day-active in brightly lit habitats (tropical reef fish, lizards, birds). Mammals lost 2 of these ancestral cones early on, probably when we went through our nocturnal stage, as a result most mammals today still have crappy color vision. Bummer. The only mammals that have re-evolved a 3rd cone, and good color vision, are not surprisingly the few mammal groups that are strictly diurnal, esp.  a set of diurnal marsupials, the Old World primates (including us), and (separately and very recently) some of the little South American monkeys. This has evolved VERY recently via gene duplication and the genes involved are still effin' unstable, right next to each other &amp; always sliding around and getting partially deleted and so on, which is why colorblindness is still so common in humans. Basically we're still in the process of regaining good color vision. Birds and fish, they laugh at us.  Anyway.. if you've only just re-evolved a 3rd cone type, AND you have hair and not feathers/scales, it's going to be a long time before you get around to evolving any new colors.  Props to the mandrill for evolving blue faces and blue asses so soon after they got the 3rd cone. And the vervet and mouse opossum (BRIGHT blue balls, convergently evolved.). See this ref for pix, and trace its citation trail to find other relevant refs on this topic.  tl;dr - Come back in a few million years and maybe we'll have blue faces. And genuinely blue balls.  EDIT: (possibly NSFW) Here are the blue balls in vervet monkey (first 2) and mouse opossum (3rd). The 2nd and 3rd pix are from the ref cited above.  MORE EDITS: fix typos, minor rephrasing", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3401.0, "score_ratio": 261.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pxxyq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Concerning hair color, how is it that there are blondes, browns, blacks, reds, etc., but no blue, pink and other colors like that? We see lots of people color their hair to these bright colors, like blue, pink, yellow, brilliant red and so on. How come they aren't occuring naturally. Yet there are some brilliant colored blondes, and brunettes. Why aren't these colors part of our DNA code?", "c_root_id_A": "c3t4yz7", "c_root_id_B": "c3t5aew", "created_at_utc_A": 1329762739, "created_at_utc_B": 1329764434, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 50, "human_ref_A": "I wonder why there aren't any blonde chimps, if our DNA is that similar.", "human_ref_B": "Also worth noting that some colors (like blue) are very difficult for animals to produce. The brilliant blue in birds is caused by the crystaline makeup of the feathers and how it effects the light rather than a specific pigment.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1695.0, "score_ratio": 8.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pxxyq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Concerning hair color, how is it that there are blondes, browns, blacks, reds, etc., but no blue, pink and other colors like that? We see lots of people color their hair to these bright colors, like blue, pink, yellow, brilliant red and so on. How come they aren't occuring naturally. Yet there are some brilliant colored blondes, and brunettes. Why aren't these colors part of our DNA code?", "c_root_id_A": "c3t8xe0", "c_root_id_B": "c3tb0eq", "created_at_utc_A": 1329784761, "created_at_utc_B": 1329797050, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Animals have all kinds of chromatophores, or color producing cells. Animals that live in the water or semi-watery lives can produce lots of different colors. For example, I work with zebrafish and they have melanophores and iridiphores. Melanophores synthesize melanin which is brown / black polymerized pigment that makes stripes on the fish while iridiphorhores produce a crystalline / iridescent molecule that makes them more reflective. Both of these cells create camoflauge. Other animals use chromatophores for social signalling. Humans only have melanophores. And in our melanophores we only make melanin and pheomelanin (which is more reddish and gives people yellow/red hair).   The real reason to use black / brown pigments in your skin is because skin cells respond to UV light in increasing their melanin production. Brown and black pigments protect the cell's nucleus from UV rays which could potentially damage DNA. People with very light skin or an inability to respond to UV rays and tan, have increased rates of melanoma, a deadly type of skin cancer. Now I've only mentioned skin colors, but the cells responsible for skin color also take care of your mammalian fur color. Blue, red, and pink, would be far less protective on your head as hair just as they would be less protective on your skin.    tl;dr Mammals need to protect their skin from the sun. The best way to do that is to be black / brown.", "human_ref_B": "Actually, there are only two colors, black through brown to blond and red. Black, brown, and blond hair are all variations on the same hair color, just different amounts of it. Red hair is basically different.  Also all hair varies from round cross section (straight) through oval c.s. (wavy) to fairly flat c.s. (kinky).  I've looked through the comments and don't see this explanation anywhere. But perhaps I missed some.  Back when I had a beard (college, 60's) I had thick, straight black hairs, thin blond hairs, medium brown hairs, and curly red hairs. I had a **very** confused beard. That's why I became interested in this question. (And the black hairs were the straightest thing about me.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12289.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "14isqc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "How much of a CO2 gas molecule's vibrational energy can be lost due to kinetic collisions with other gas molecules? During a recent discussion on /r/science, a claim was made that most of the extra energy an atmospheric CO2 gas molecule gains when it absorbs an IR photon is lost in collisions with other gas molecules before it can re-emit the photon. My understanding was that the IR photon absorbed by a CO2 molecule is transformed into vibrational energy (i.e. bending and stretching of the covalent bonds), whereas molecular collisions involve the transfer of *translational* kinetic energy.  I tried to find more information on this specific question but did not find much. Is a large portion of the energy in a CO2 molecule's excited vibrational state actually lost during kinetic collisions with other gas molecules, enough to prevent the re-emission of an IR photon?", "c_root_id_A": "c7dsgkg", "c_root_id_B": "c7dzjew", "created_at_utc_A": 1355081090, "created_at_utc_B": 1355104637, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "This much.", "human_ref_B": "A brief aside, as I thought you might be interested:  This is actually a huge (nightmarish) problem for molecular astronomy as it pertains to the emission of photons from molecular *rotation*.   Astrochemists wishing to know how much of a given molecule is present (and emitting) in, say, a star-forming region or protoplanetary nebula will look at the intensity of a molecule's emission (how many photons are being given off) from different rotational energy levels.  Now, if we assume that those molecules exist in a Boltzmann distribution of energy levels at a certain temperature (Boltzmann's work will tell you that at a given temperature, a certain fraction of a sample of molecules will be in the ground state, a certain in the next highest energy state, another fraction in the next, etc. etc.), it's fairly straightforward to calculate how many of them there are.  Here's the catch, though: when there are enough other molecules around to interact with, Boltzmann statistics go out the window.  A simple example: Boltzmann says that of the 1000 CO molecules in an area, 50 will be in the ground state at temperature X.  BUT, there are also NO molecules there as well, and suppose that we know that when an NO molecule bumps into a ground-state CO molecule, it gives the CO enough energy to move to the next highest energy level.  Now there are no longer 50 CO molecules in the ground state, but, say 40.  This means that when we calculate the temperature and number of CO molecules from the spectra with *40* CO molecules emitting, we get *wrong numbers.*  Now imagine a more realistic situation where there are two molecules with 100s of energy levels each.  To accurately model where the energy is going to go, we have to know about every interaction of molecule A in energy level X with molecule B in energy level Y.  Complicate that further with the fact that you have differing probabilities of any interaction at all depending on *how close* the molecules get, and it becomes a nightmare!  To top it all off, these interactions are quite difficult to measure in the laboratory, and also extremely difficult (computationally expensive) to calculate theoretically.  As a result, we really only have data for a few relatively simple molecules interacting mainly with H2 and He (http://home.strw.leidenuniv.nl/~moldata/).  This all tends to occur at low densities.  Once you reach a certain density, all of the species are together at the same temperature and the collide and transfer energy so many times before they emit that they then return to what approximates a Boltzmann distribution.  In other words, although I'm not an atmospheric chemist, I would imagine that in your scenario, even though CO2 molecules are frequently *losing* energy to collisions before re-emitting, they are also *gaining* energy back from collisions before re-emitting.  Since this happens many, many times a second because the atmosphere is so dense, I would imagine things likely \"even out in the wash\" *for this particular effect.*  I could certainly be wrong about this, though.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23547.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fou96g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could Liquid Crystals be used to refract laser light to various points on a plane?  Like the topic states, I'm curious if you could use liquid crystals to rapidly refract (bend?) a laser light up and down or sideways or both based on voltage of the liquid crystal to varying points on a plane.", "c_root_id_A": "fljngv0", "c_root_id_B": "fljwnc4", "created_at_utc_A": 1585220051, "created_at_utc_B": 1585228580, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Your question is confusing.....  Liquid crystals are a type of matter and as such you can us them to refract light in any direction much like one could do this with solids or liquids in the correct orientation with the correct index of refraction.  Light whether it comes from the sun or a laser would be subject to the same optical rules.  I am assuming by listing laser light the curiosity is about light at a single wavelength at high intensity.  The only danger could be if the light is too bright it could damage the liquid crystalline material (much like it could damage a polymer lens).    If I understand your curiosity correctly what I assume you're interested in is a DLP chip.", "human_ref_B": "Liquid crystals give a polarisation dependent phase shift, if you arrange them in a 2D or 1D array you can make what is effectively a grating, and steer the position of the diffraction peak by tuning the relative phases. People are working on things like this for LIDAR steering, however not using LCs (they're slow and you don't want a polarisation dependent phase shift anyway).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8529.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "krql0n", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "Why solubility of a gas in a liquid is exothermic? The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with the increase in temperature.Why? Also, why is it an exothermic process? Thanks in advance!", "c_root_id_A": "gifbyva", "c_root_id_B": "gicb67k", "created_at_utc_A": 1610028520, "created_at_utc_B": 1609964808, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Gases are dissolved in liquids when bonds are formed between the gas and liquid molecules. These bonds can be both actual chemical bonds and \"physical bonds\" (like the attraction or repulsion between two polar molecules). If you increase the temperature of the liquid, you'll increase its energy and that will decrease the energy needed to break those bonds, facilitating the release of gas from the liquid. So solubility decreases with temperature for gas-liquid systems and is exothermic because an increase in the energy of the system causes a decrease in the solubility of the gas.", "human_ref_B": "It\u2019s not always exothermic. Have you learned about Le Chatelier\u2019s principle?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 63712.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cgxlf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Dear AskScience: why does food taste so much worse right after brushing your teeth? I hope there is a scientific explanation for this! The worst offenders seem to be apples and orange juice. I'm sure you all know what I mean\u2026CAN SCIENCE EXPLAIN?", "c_root_id_A": "c0sifz1", "c_root_id_B": "c0shsx6", "created_at_utc_A": 1277050180, "created_at_utc_B": 1277016188, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There was an episode of Stuff You Should Know* about this, one of the old ones. There's an additive called Sodium lauryl sulfate in most brands of toothpaste that causes the frothing when you brush your teeth and gives you that \"fresh\" feeling in your mouth. It's an artificial feeling, SLS does nothing to actually clean your teeth. When it hits your tongue, it messes with your taste receptors real good, all the while dampening your sweet feeling and increasing your bitter feeling.  *here's the article it's based on, too", "human_ref_B": "Notice that this was posted in AskScience. it is of the utmost importance that this gets answered as soon as possible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 33992.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cgxlf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Dear AskScience: why does food taste so much worse right after brushing your teeth? I hope there is a scientific explanation for this! The worst offenders seem to be apples and orange juice. I'm sure you all know what I mean\u2026CAN SCIENCE EXPLAIN?", "c_root_id_A": "c0sifz1", "c_root_id_B": "c0shvcr", "created_at_utc_A": 1277050180, "created_at_utc_B": 1277019059, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There was an episode of Stuff You Should Know* about this, one of the old ones. There's an additive called Sodium lauryl sulfate in most brands of toothpaste that causes the frothing when you brush your teeth and gives you that \"fresh\" feeling in your mouth. It's an artificial feeling, SLS does nothing to actually clean your teeth. When it hits your tongue, it messes with your taste receptors real good, all the while dampening your sweet feeling and increasing your bitter feeling.  *here's the article it's based on, too", "human_ref_B": "Toothpaste is very sweet, too sweet for your tastes buds to handle.  Your tastes buds (or more correctly your brain) become much less sensitive to sweetness after you brush your teeth.  So if you brush your teeth and then drink orange juice. You don't taste the sweetness in the orange juice. Only the bitterness.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31121.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cgxlf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Dear AskScience: why does food taste so much worse right after brushing your teeth? I hope there is a scientific explanation for this! The worst offenders seem to be apples and orange juice. I'm sure you all know what I mean\u2026CAN SCIENCE EXPLAIN?", "c_root_id_A": "c0sifz1", "c_root_id_B": "c0si48y", "created_at_utc_A": 1277050180, "created_at_utc_B": 1277034666, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There was an episode of Stuff You Should Know* about this, one of the old ones. There's an additive called Sodium lauryl sulfate in most brands of toothpaste that causes the frothing when you brush your teeth and gives you that \"fresh\" feeling in your mouth. It's an artificial feeling, SLS does nothing to actually clean your teeth. When it hits your tongue, it messes with your taste receptors real good, all the while dampening your sweet feeling and increasing your bitter feeling.  *here's the article it's based on, too", "human_ref_B": "Toothpaste contains fluoride ions, making toothpaste basic.  Orange juice contains citric acid, which is what causes the sourness in orange juice. The reaction with a base removes your citric acid, removing the sour taste, and also creating a salt, which might change the taste, as well.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15514.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cgxlf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Dear AskScience: why does food taste so much worse right after brushing your teeth? I hope there is a scientific explanation for this! The worst offenders seem to be apples and orange juice. I'm sure you all know what I mean\u2026CAN SCIENCE EXPLAIN?", "c_root_id_A": "c0shsx6", "c_root_id_B": "c0shvcr", "created_at_utc_A": 1277016188, "created_at_utc_B": 1277019059, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Notice that this was posted in AskScience. it is of the utmost importance that this gets answered as soon as possible.", "human_ref_B": "Toothpaste is very sweet, too sweet for your tastes buds to handle.  Your tastes buds (or more correctly your brain) become much less sensitive to sweetness after you brush your teeth.  So if you brush your teeth and then drink orange juice. You don't taste the sweetness in the orange juice. Only the bitterness.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2871.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7ovovd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "In space battle, lasers seem important. What are the theoretical limits to the ability to focus a laser and what are the practical limitations? I've been thinking about a sci-fi story where aliens are attacking from a nearby star. Could we fry them before they reach here?", "c_root_id_A": "dscnmpr", "c_root_id_B": "dscs5cm", "created_at_utc_A": 1515383055, "created_at_utc_B": 1515389777, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "Lasers are concentrated beams of light, but they are not perfect. They too are subject to diffusion. By the time the laser reaches the closest star it will be visible (assuming it's not too dim) on every planet orbiting that star.  In other words, the beam will be wide enough to cover the whole solar system, and consequently, it will do little to no damage.  But if you have futuristic technology, you can create a really powerful, really high concentrated, high frequency ionizing beam of light. Those can turn living planets into dead rocks. We call them Gamma-Ray Bursts which happen during super- and hypernovas.", "human_ref_B": "Related Stackexchange question: How well can a laser be focused over interstellar range?  Short answer: The bigger your emitting optics, the lower you can reduce the divergence angle. Over across-the-solar-system or interstellar distances, it's very difficult to focus a beam tightly enough to be useful as a space weapon.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6722.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "tzt81", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "If a Gas Giant with a rocky core migrated inwards toward a star and had its gasses \"blown off\" by solar wind over time, what would its exposed core look like? I was reading about Gas Giants today on Wikipedia and the exotic forms of Hydrogen that exists in them and was curious about this.  If I have my physics correct, a so-called \"Hot Jupiter\" that migrated close enough to its star would have its hydrogen slowly stripped off by the solar wind. That would cause it to shrink in mass over time. If this process continued long enough, would it be possible that the entirety of the gas giant's lighter elements could be \"blown off\", leaving only the solid core? If so, what would this core look like?  I assume that being subjected to extreme pressures for a few billion years would have definite effects on its composition that would - at the very least - make it look very different than anything we can currently see in the Solar System.", "c_root_id_A": "c4ra0hv", "c_root_id_B": "c4rc615", "created_at_utc_A": 1337746980, "created_at_utc_B": 1337763413, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "This also touches on a question I've always had, which is: if I were to travel into a gas giant, what would I see? What is the surface like?", "human_ref_B": "Aside from metallic hydrogen, isn't there also metals like iron in the core of gas giants? As the metallic hydrogen converted into its gaseous state an was blown off, wouldn't the other metals be left behind?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16433.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "grr7z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Ardolis Chapman is on a truck going 105mph. He throws a baseball 105mph in the opposite direction of the truck. What happens? does the baseball just drop to ground? theoretically speaking, no wind. if you guys need a picture to help explain let me know.", "c_root_id_A": "c1ptfow", "c_root_id_B": "c1pt8vf", "created_at_utc_A": 1303013470, "created_at_utc_B": 1303010888, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A japanese tv show did this too. Unfortunately nothing was operated by a dog or a monkey. The motion after the ball hits is due to spin induced by the pitching machine.", "human_ref_B": "Here's a surprisingly similar question. Ardolis Chapman stands on a platform ten feet off the ground. He throws a baseball 105mph in a direction. At the same moment, a truck drives underneath him, with a guy standing in the truck. From the perspective of the guy standing in the truck, what happens?  Well, from his perspective, the baseball just falls into the truckbed.  Same deal in your example. We're just changing the reference frames around.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2582.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qdsek", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Ivy grows up trees in a left-handed spiral.  Why, and does it change direction in the southern hemisphere? Taking a late-winter hike in the forest today, I could see a lot more of the forest than usual due to the lack of leaves.  I noticed *many* trees that had ivy growing up the trunk.  Except for poision ivy (which grows straight up the trunk), all the other types of ivy plants spiral up the trunk in the same direction.  From a birds-eye view, the ivy curved around the trunk in a clockwise fashion as it climbed.  That was true without exception in more than 50 trees I saw with ivy.  an example  Why a left-handed spiral, and would it change in the southern hemisphere??", "c_root_id_A": "c3wvi5y", "c_root_id_B": "c3wvz0p", "created_at_utc_A": 1330670821, "created_at_utc_B": 1330674807, "score_A": -11, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I think this may be the result of the Coriolis effect. I know wind currents traveling from the Arctic due south veer to their right, which results in a clockwise motion if in the northern hemisphere. This is from the Earths rotation. In the southern hemisphere you find the opposite. Again, only an idea. I don't know how the effect would affect anything this close to the crust.", "human_ref_B": "Not all twining stems grow counter clockwise some grow clockwise.  It is dependent on the species of plant.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3986.0, "score_ratio": -0.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywnakz", "c_root_id_B": "cywrj4q", "created_at_utc_A": 1452697111, "created_at_utc_B": 1452703617, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "I count to twenty five using two groups of ten and five left over. You count to twenty five by using two groups of twelve with one left over. It's still the same number and has all the same properties (5^2 , a quarter of one hundred, odd, not prime, etc) the only difference is I'd write it as \"25\" and you would write it as \"21\".   As for the constants, if we used a different base, they would still be the same number, with all the same properties, they would just be written differently.   I'm not sure what similarities you're talking about exactly but if you mean the 602 showing up in both, that is coincidence and would not be true in all bases.", "human_ref_B": "Avogadro's number is an integer, it's a count of how many of something.   It will always be an integer. Even in base 10 you could write the entire thing out as a whole number integer. The scientific notation just happens to have a decimal in it.   But that would be a problem of any other base. You could write avogadro's number as a plain integer in that base but then if you used the scientific notation in that base you would get a point again.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6506.0, "score_ratio": 1.3571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywrj4q", "c_root_id_B": "cywkj7l", "created_at_utc_A": 1452703617, "created_at_utc_B": 1452691410, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Avogadro's number is an integer, it's a count of how many of something.   It will always be an integer. Even in base 10 you could write the entire thing out as a whole number integer. The scientific notation just happens to have a decimal in it.   But that would be a problem of any other base. You could write avogadro's number as a plain integer in that base but then if you used the scientific notation in that base you would get a point again.", "human_ref_B": "Numeral systems can extend beyond fixed bases as well. There is an entire field dedicated to the [study of numbers] (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory). I mention these just in case you wish to dig deeper into your question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12207.0, "score_ratio": 3.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywn57b", "c_root_id_B": "cywrj4q", "created_at_utc_A": 1452696847, "created_at_utc_B": 1452703617, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "Although you can't really convert an irrational number to a whole number by converting bases (rational bases that is), you can see other interesting effects in some cases.  For example, there exists a formula with which you can calculate any digit of pi without calculating others, but only in base 16.", "human_ref_B": "Avogadro's number is an integer, it's a count of how many of something.   It will always be an integer. Even in base 10 you could write the entire thing out as a whole number integer. The scientific notation just happens to have a decimal in it.   But that would be a problem of any other base. You could write avogadro's number as a plain integer in that base but then if you used the scientific notation in that base you would get a point again.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6770.0, "score_ratio": 3.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywrj4q", "c_root_id_B": "cywqedq", "created_at_utc_A": 1452703617, "created_at_utc_B": 1452702003, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Avogadro's number is an integer, it's a count of how many of something.   It will always be an integer. Even in base 10 you could write the entire thing out as a whole number integer. The scientific notation just happens to have a decimal in it.   But that would be a problem of any other base. You could write avogadro's number as a plain integer in that base but then if you used the scientific notation in that base you would get a point again.", "human_ref_B": "There are some great answers already, but I'll add an interesting tidbit.   While /u/functor7 is correct in his claim that a whole number is a function of the number and independent of the base you use, there is a secondary question around whether a number has decimals.   It can easily be demonstrated that any number can have no decimals under the right base. Take Pi. Under base Pi, you would represent Pi as \"10\". If we used base Pi/2, Pi would be \"20\". This applies for all numbers.   But that is a boring way to do it. Let's say we limit ourselves to whole numbers as bases. Then any number that has a decimal in base 10 would have a decimal in every single whole number base. That's pretty boring too.   However, there is one cool thing you can do with different bases. Lets say you have a number that has an irritating decimal representation like 4/3. This is 1.3333333... in base 10. In base 60 though, it is 1.'20', where 20 is a numeral, not two numerals. This is a way easier number to write and think about.   In fact, base 60 is cool because many common numbers that normally require infinite decimals in base 10 can be represented with finite decimals in base 60. Some math historians think that this is one of the reasons Babylonians used base 60. Its also why I can represent 1/2, 1/3rd, 1/4th, 1/5th, 1/6th, 1/15th, 1/20th, 1/30th of an hour as a whole number of minutes. Because seconds and minutes are counted using base 60!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1614.0, "score_ratio": 2.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywkj7l", "c_root_id_B": "cywnakz", "created_at_utc_A": 1452691410, "created_at_utc_B": 1452697111, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Numeral systems can extend beyond fixed bases as well. There is an entire field dedicated to the [study of numbers] (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory). I mention these just in case you wish to dig deeper into your question.", "human_ref_B": "I count to twenty five using two groups of ten and five left over. You count to twenty five by using two groups of twelve with one left over. It's still the same number and has all the same properties (5^2 , a quarter of one hundred, odd, not prime, etc) the only difference is I'd write it as \"25\" and you would write it as \"21\".   As for the constants, if we used a different base, they would still be the same number, with all the same properties, they would just be written differently.   I'm not sure what similarities you're talking about exactly but if you mean the 602 showing up in both, that is coincidence and would not be true in all bases.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5701.0, "score_ratio": 2.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywn57b", "c_root_id_B": "cywnakz", "created_at_utc_A": 1452696847, "created_at_utc_B": 1452697111, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Although you can't really convert an irrational number to a whole number by converting bases (rational bases that is), you can see other interesting effects in some cases.  For example, there exists a formula with which you can calculate any digit of pi without calculating others, but only in base 16.", "human_ref_B": "I count to twenty five using two groups of ten and five left over. You count to twenty five by using two groups of twelve with one left over. It's still the same number and has all the same properties (5^2 , a quarter of one hundred, odd, not prime, etc) the only difference is I'd write it as \"25\" and you would write it as \"21\".   As for the constants, if we used a different base, they would still be the same number, with all the same properties, they would just be written differently.   I'm not sure what similarities you're talking about exactly but if you mean the 602 showing up in both, that is coincidence and would not be true in all bases.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 264.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywkj7l", "c_root_id_B": "cywn57b", "created_at_utc_A": 1452691410, "created_at_utc_B": 1452696847, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Numeral systems can extend beyond fixed bases as well. There is an entire field dedicated to the [study of numbers] (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory). I mention these just in case you wish to dig deeper into your question.", "human_ref_B": "Although you can't really convert an irrational number to a whole number by converting bases (rational bases that is), you can see other interesting effects in some cases.  For example, there exists a formula with which you can calculate any digit of pi without calculating others, but only in base 16.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5437.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywqedq", "c_root_id_B": "cywkj7l", "created_at_utc_A": 1452702003, "created_at_utc_B": 1452691410, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "There are some great answers already, but I'll add an interesting tidbit.   While /u/functor7 is correct in his claim that a whole number is a function of the number and independent of the base you use, there is a secondary question around whether a number has decimals.   It can easily be demonstrated that any number can have no decimals under the right base. Take Pi. Under base Pi, you would represent Pi as \"10\". If we used base Pi/2, Pi would be \"20\". This applies for all numbers.   But that is a boring way to do it. Let's say we limit ourselves to whole numbers as bases. Then any number that has a decimal in base 10 would have a decimal in every single whole number base. That's pretty boring too.   However, there is one cool thing you can do with different bases. Lets say you have a number that has an irritating decimal representation like 4/3. This is 1.3333333... in base 10. In base 60 though, it is 1.'20', where 20 is a numeral, not two numerals. This is a way easier number to write and think about.   In fact, base 60 is cool because many common numbers that normally require infinite decimals in base 10 can be represented with finite decimals in base 60. Some math historians think that this is one of the reasons Babylonians used base 60. Its also why I can represent 1/2, 1/3rd, 1/4th, 1/5th, 1/6th, 1/15th, 1/20th, 1/30th of an hour as a whole number of minutes. Because seconds and minutes are counted using base 60!", "human_ref_B": "Numeral systems can extend beyond fixed bases as well. There is an entire field dedicated to the [study of numbers] (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory). I mention these just in case you wish to dig deeper into your question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10593.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "40q9wn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "If we didn't use the base 10 and instead used a different base for our number system, could we potentially get whole numbers for things like Avogadro's Constant and the electronic charge? This occurred to me while taking some grade 11 science courses and seeing very similar numbers as fundamental constants in nature. Avogadro's constant to find moles is 6.02 X 10^23 and the electronic charge is 1.602 X 10^-19", "c_root_id_A": "cywn57b", "c_root_id_B": "cywqedq", "created_at_utc_A": 1452696847, "created_at_utc_B": 1452702003, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Although you can't really convert an irrational number to a whole number by converting bases (rational bases that is), you can see other interesting effects in some cases.  For example, there exists a formula with which you can calculate any digit of pi without calculating others, but only in base 16.", "human_ref_B": "There are some great answers already, but I'll add an interesting tidbit.   While /u/functor7 is correct in his claim that a whole number is a function of the number and independent of the base you use, there is a secondary question around whether a number has decimals.   It can easily be demonstrated that any number can have no decimals under the right base. Take Pi. Under base Pi, you would represent Pi as \"10\". If we used base Pi/2, Pi would be \"20\". This applies for all numbers.   But that is a boring way to do it. Let's say we limit ourselves to whole numbers as bases. Then any number that has a decimal in base 10 would have a decimal in every single whole number base. That's pretty boring too.   However, there is one cool thing you can do with different bases. Lets say you have a number that has an irritating decimal representation like 4/3. This is 1.3333333... in base 10. In base 60 though, it is 1.'20', where 20 is a numeral, not two numerals. This is a way easier number to write and think about.   In fact, base 60 is cool because many common numbers that normally require infinite decimals in base 10 can be represented with finite decimals in base 60. Some math historians think that this is one of the reasons Babylonians used base 60. Its also why I can represent 1/2, 1/3rd, 1/4th, 1/5th, 1/6th, 1/15th, 1/20th, 1/30th of an hour as a whole number of minutes. Because seconds and minutes are counted using base 60!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5156.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bp0p6m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Could loud sounds that cannot be heard by the human ear, from being too low or two high, still cause damage to one's ears?", "c_root_id_A": "enpxf2v", "c_root_id_B": "enp8icf", "created_at_utc_A": 1557983228, "created_at_utc_B": 1557971311, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Certainly. What we hear as sound is actually vibration caused by kinetic energy. Our hearing range is from 20-20,000 hz but just because we can't hear it doesn't mean it's not there. High energy soundwaves can do more than destroy a person's ear drums, it can kill you.   https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/175996-can-a-loud-enough-sound-kill-you   For example: 200 decibels of sound pressure at a frequency of 30,000 hertz would be inaudible to humans but highly lethal.   See also sonic weapons:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic\\_weapon", "human_ref_B": "I'm not sure about sounds above our hearing range but there's been a bit of research into the effects of infrasound (sounds below our hearing range) and prolonged exposure may cause some level of hearing loss but that's not confirmed. There have been some studies showing that infrasound can cause negative emotions in  people but again it needs more replication  I think.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11917.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2dds3i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why do we cry when we are sad? My science teacher at school could explain why tears fall when we are in physical pain, but when I asked \"why we cry when we are sad\" he said the scientific community doesn't have an answer. (This was five years ago) so I'm putting it to you guys is there any explanation as to why a human can think of something sad that has happened and produce tears.", "c_root_id_A": "cju5slb", "c_root_id_B": "cjp9f30", "created_at_utc_A": 1408413190, "created_at_utc_B": 1407953951, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I do research on facial expression and emotion.  One of the theories on crying is that it is an honest signal of submission.  Crying diffuses light, making it more difficult for the crying person to see... and thus defend and attack.  An ability to honestly signal submission could have an evolutionary benefit as it could prevent dangerous interactions that could likely result in physical damage.  I've had informal conversations with some who think that it could be a signal of \"common knowledge\".  Something that Kyle Thomas has been working on with Steven Pinker and others.", "human_ref_B": "Whenever you ask the question of \"why\" a certain behavior exists, you should be aware that science really can't answer that question. It's basically a question of why we evolved in this way, but there's no way to test evolutionary theories. So we can identify apparent functions of the behavior, but we can only speculate as to the reason that the behavior emerged.  Similar to other facial behaviors, crying likely primarily serves a communicative function. It is evident that crying indicates that someone is sad, and the visualization of sad mood can elicit responses from others that may help resolve the sadness.   Studies have shown that crying in and of itself does not necessarily improve mood. In fact, research suggests that crying often does not change mood, and can actually worsen it. Crying in the presence of others can improve mood if social support is received or if crying helps to resolve the situation that elicited that reaction. However, crying in the presence of others can also lead to feelings of shame or embarrassment, especially if the other people present are not perceived as supportive. But in general, crying in the presence of others seems more likely to improve mood than crying alone.  So, it can be inferred from these types of findings that the primary function of crying is to communicate to others that you are experiencing a sad mood, and to make it more likely that others will empathize and improve your mood or resolve the problems causing it.  There are many articles referred to in this discussion, but they're all cited at this [APA website] (http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/02/cry.aspx).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 459239.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bc5jx1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If all cells have DNA, do all cells know how to create an entire body? I've hear that using stem cells, you can grow organs in a lab. Part of my question is **(1) what makes stem cells special for this purpose**, and the other part is **(2) how do the cells of a body know where they are and what type of tissue, organ, and shape they should form?**", "c_root_id_A": "ekpta2w", "c_root_id_B": "ekpvwee", "created_at_utc_A": 1555078198, "created_at_utc_B": 1555079789, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "No. All cells don\u2019t have dna. Red blood cells don\u2019t. No all cells can\u2019t make an entire body. Cells differentiate n they shut off parts of the genome. L cells are un-differentiated so they in theory can make an entire body.", "human_ref_B": "All cells have a full copy if your DNA, but cells differentiate according to where they are located and in response to hormonal stimuli. As they differentiate, the shut off the parts of the DNA they don\u2019t need and only use the part they need. Once a cell stats to differentiate, it is very difficult for it to regress to an earlier less differentiated stage. It all has to do with DNA folding around proteins and what parts of the DNA reel is exposed.   Stem cells are the least differentiated of all cells in an adult so they have the potential to differentiate to what you need them to do.   When scientist clone an animal they take the DNA from any cell, and injected in a zygote of which the DNA was removed and with some extra scientific details to make the process work, the zygote grows into a clone of the parent.   Scientist are working on the idea of building 3D printed protein mesh (scaffold) to the shape of the organ they want to create, then filling it with stem cells while exposing it to the same hormones and other stimuli that made these cells differentiate into the correct organ in the womb. And thus creating the organ without the rest of the person.  edit: to clarify it better, consider this example, when the person is just and fertilized egg, he is only one cell, so the cell copied it\u2019s DNA and just divide to make two identical cells. If the two cells get separated, each start from the beginning and that is how you get identical twins. But if the don\u2019t separate they keep diving until you have a ball of tissue, then it becomes a disk, then it folds on itself making a tube. The outer layer is exposed to different conditions than the inner one, so outer layer becomes ectoderm (later skiing and brain tissue) and the inner is endoderm (later gastro intestinal tract)   At this stage there is no brain, but some ectodermal cells on either end of the tube will start to differentiate into that, the first to do so will send a hormone to the rest of the body basically saying( hey, I call being brain) this end becomes head and the other end will give up and become a tail. And so on until all the body details are formed.   If both ends decide to become head, the fetus will fail and you get a very early miscarriage while the fetus is still microscopic , for the mother that means no more than a period that comes a couple of days late and she may not know she was even pregnant. That is why early miscarriage rate is so high, about 50 % in some studies l, this process has to happen exactly right.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1591.0, "score_ratio": -6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bc5jx1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If all cells have DNA, do all cells know how to create an entire body? I've hear that using stem cells, you can grow organs in a lab. Part of my question is **(1) what makes stem cells special for this purpose**, and the other part is **(2) how do the cells of a body know where they are and what type of tissue, organ, and shape they should form?**", "c_root_id_A": "ekpy47v", "c_root_id_B": "ekpta2w", "created_at_utc_A": 1555081072, "created_at_utc_B": 1555078198, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "To create an entire body, the cell of origin must have the ability to generate all 3 germ layers. These cells are either totipotent (like the zygote) or pluripotent (embryonic and epiblast stem cells). Although most cells have DNA (RBC do have genomic information but not nuclei), not all have chosen the same fate from their pluripotent origin (see Waddingtons developmental landscape). These cells end up becoming terminally differentiated (like a skin cell etc) and are usually lost over time before being replaced by a resident stem cell population.   More recent data has challenged Waddingtons landscape through reprogramming (see Takahashi 2006 - Nobel prize winning study). Some cells have been shown, through the addition of 4 defined factors, to move back up the landscape and regain their pluripotency (formation of iPSCs). Subsequent injection of these cells into mouse embryos was relatively successful in that the embryo was able to develop to a decent extent albeit with cancerous outcomes.   To answer your question, \"do all cells know how to create an entire body\"  - Possibly but external help is needed  - Best evidence would be any reprogramming study (along with a single cell transplant)  - creating a full body is less interesting vs potential applications of iPSCs in regenerative medicine.   This is background (very basic) for your main question. The other 2 involve a significant amount of additional info and really involve the use of organoids for in vitro study of development.  My background is in Dev bio with some in vitro study. If anything above doesn't make sense, give me a shout and I'll try and fix it!", "human_ref_B": "No. All cells don\u2019t have dna. Red blood cells don\u2019t. No all cells can\u2019t make an entire body. Cells differentiate n they shut off parts of the genome. L cells are un-differentiated so they in theory can make an entire body.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2874.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qk7e1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "What sort of power from a laser would one need to turn air into plasma?", "c_root_id_A": "c3yd80z", "c_root_id_B": "c3ycss5", "created_at_utc_A": 1331074704, "created_at_utc_B": 1331071936, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Ah, the focus of my PhD! (no pun intended) we use lasers up to 500J over 400fs, reaching intensities of 10^22 W/cm^2, though you could create plasma in air with something, say 10 billion times less powerful ;-)", "human_ref_B": "You can ionize air with a basic Ar+ or YAG laser if you focus it down to a point.  These put out average powers on the order of a few hundred mW.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2768.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "he8dvn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "In the Einstein Gravity vs Acceleration Laser Thought Experiment wouldn't the laser in the room with gravity impact the wall slightly higher than the room with acceleration? As I understand it there is a thought experiment that basically says that if you are in a room, there is no way to tell if you're acceleration \"downward\" is due to gravity or the room itself is accelerating. A consequence of this is that if you shine a laser at a wall the photons will impact the wall at a point \"lower\" than where it would with no gravity or acceleration.  So my question is, couldn't you measure that acceleration at two different points along the normal of the \"floor\". In gravity you would get two different results as the point father from the center of the gravitational mass has less acceleration. In the scenario where the room is accelerating the results would be exactly the same. And thus in the laser experiment, the point of impact in the room with gravity would be just a tad \"higher\" than the room acceleration one?  Is this logic sound?", "c_root_id_A": "fvqq274", "c_root_id_B": "fvqtxxh", "created_at_utc_A": 1592919504, "created_at_utc_B": 1592921679, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "You're missing the point of relativity.  A stationary gravitational frame *is* the same frame as an acceleration frame that matches the magnitude of the gravitational frame.  Gravity (centripetal acceleration) on:  - Earth 9.807 m/s^2 - Moon 1.680 m/s^2 - Mars 3.711 m/s^2  Do any experiments on the surface of those celestial bodies and it would match any experiments done in dee space on a space ship that has a constant acceleration matching the aforementioned gravity.  The laser thought experiment is a hypothetical break in the reference frame that is essentially trying to establish an observer dependant stream of information from within the reference frame to (dis)prove the aforementioned theory of relativity.  What many fail to take into consideration is the fact that the reference frame must be fully established prior to their equivalency being absolute.  If you start an experiment at zero acceleration and then begin accelerating, you are essentially simulation the opposite of starting an experiment on earth and hoping it stops spinning while you finish your experiment.  So if someone truly wants to test einstein's elevator thought experiment, it would be as simple as putting a laser in a system that can track the terminal location at rest and during acceleration.  However, doing this experiment on earth would be additive or subtractive to earths gravitational acceleration vector, thus giving you the resultant displacement of the photon beam on a planet or in an accelerating body with an equivalent acceleration frame.  And given our understanding of how energy/time/mass bends space time, it's quite apparent it would line up with the theoretical predictions.", "human_ref_B": "Einstein's thought experiment concerns *uniform gravitational fields* and *uniform acceleration*, and states that you can't tell the different between the two cases assuming that the acceleration due to gravity and the rocket is the same magnitude in both cases. Your measurement would in principle work, but only as a test to whether the gravitational field or the acceleration is truly uniform, not what type of acceleration you are undergoing. Non-uniform acceleration by a rocket is also, in principle, possible.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2175.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lo9yu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How can you tell if fizziness of a drink results from deliberate carbonation or is a byproduct of the creation of the beverage? I realised I don't really know what makes beer and cider and sparkling wine different from coca cola - I presume that with beer, at least, the fizz is a natural byproduct of the fermentation process, because beer is old and all beer I've ever tried is fizzy and I don't think anyone since the invention of artificial carbonation would want to be The Guy That Messed With Beer. But what about fizzy wines, do they ferment them differently or just do the same thing as they do to coke? How does that shit work?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ubazm", "c_root_id_B": "c2uc6wd", "created_at_utc_A": 1319555495, "created_at_utc_B": 1319561217, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "For beer, naturally created carbonation from the fermentation process will have larger bubbles than artificially added carbonation. An easy way to tell is to simply tilt your glass at an angle and check out the foam as it slides down the inside.  Edit: I may have the bubble size reversed but there is definitely a difference. It's been a while since I took the brewery tour where I was told this.", "human_ref_B": "You could always use a mass spec to check the carbon isotope ratios.  Due to fractionation, carbon dioxide from fermentation of plant material has different isotopic ratios than carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (which would be used in forced carbonation).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5722.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lo9yu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How can you tell if fizziness of a drink results from deliberate carbonation or is a byproduct of the creation of the beverage? I realised I don't really know what makes beer and cider and sparkling wine different from coca cola - I presume that with beer, at least, the fizz is a natural byproduct of the fermentation process, because beer is old and all beer I've ever tried is fizzy and I don't think anyone since the invention of artificial carbonation would want to be The Guy That Messed With Beer. But what about fizzy wines, do they ferment them differently or just do the same thing as they do to coke? How does that shit work?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ubazm", "c_root_id_B": "c2ugo4f", "created_at_utc_A": 1319555495, "created_at_utc_B": 1319589630, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "For beer, naturally created carbonation from the fermentation process will have larger bubbles than artificially added carbonation. An easy way to tell is to simply tilt your glass at an angle and check out the foam as it slides down the inside.  Edit: I may have the bubble size reversed but there is definitely a difference. It's been a while since I took the brewery tour where I was told this.", "human_ref_B": "You could always check the carbon isotope ratios of the CO2 - expect delta C12/C14 close to 0-10 per mil in the artificially carbonated drink. In situ fermentation will be accompanied by significant fractionnation, in the order of 14 to 20 per mil.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34135.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1mnxec", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If a man has a vasectomy, where does the sperm go during an ejaculation? As understand it a vasectomy involves cutting and somehow stopping vas deferens.  I don't think the production of sperm cells is effected and they must be released when the man ejaculates. So where do they go?", "c_root_id_A": "ccb0i6n", "c_root_id_B": "ccb0fmo", "created_at_utc_A": 1379539708, "created_at_utc_B": 1379539509, "score_A": 162, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Biologist here - Depends on the type of vasectomy procedure that was performed.  Sperm have nowhere to go if the vas deferens is sealed closed when cut off from the prostate.  Can lead to pain years later and a condition called epididymal blowout.  The epididymis is the part of the balls where the sperm cells get built up.   http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/j.1939-4640.2003.tb02675.x/abstract Leaving the sperm to leak from the vas deferens, into the scrotal sac has been shown to lessen the chance of pain and blowout.", "human_ref_B": "Where the sperm go depends upon how the vasectomy is performed. The surgeon will cut the sperm-carrying tube (vas deferens), and then can clamp the supply (proximal) side, the exit (distal) side, or both.  If only the exit side is clamped, the sperm will still exit the vas deferens and will be in the intermediary fluid surrounding the testes (not sure what happens to them then; they may be eliminated via the lymphatic system).  If the supply side is clamped, the sperm never exit the vas deferens and get reabsorbed in the testes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 199.0, "score_ratio": 6.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1mnxec", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If a man has a vasectomy, where does the sperm go during an ejaculation? As understand it a vasectomy involves cutting and somehow stopping vas deferens.  I don't think the production of sperm cells is effected and they must be released when the man ejaculates. So where do they go?", "c_root_id_A": "ccb1sga", "c_root_id_B": "ccb0fmo", "created_at_utc_A": 1379543798, "created_at_utc_B": 1379539509, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Does having a vasectomy (thus removing the outlet for sperm) put men at a higher risk of developing testicular cancer?", "human_ref_B": "Where the sperm go depends upon how the vasectomy is performed. The surgeon will cut the sperm-carrying tube (vas deferens), and then can clamp the supply (proximal) side, the exit (distal) side, or both.  If only the exit side is clamped, the sperm will still exit the vas deferens and will be in the intermediary fluid surrounding the testes (not sure what happens to them then; they may be eliminated via the lymphatic system).  If the supply side is clamped, the sperm never exit the vas deferens and get reabsorbed in the testes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4289.0, "score_ratio": 1.4166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qgvzb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "When two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference, where does their energy go? Where does the energy go when two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference so that all the waves cancel out each other and there is no beam anymore?  Why is the law of conservation of energy not hurt by this phenomenon?", "c_root_id_A": "cdcv1zm", "c_root_id_B": "cdcqc0v", "created_at_utc_A": 1384294942, "created_at_utc_B": 1384284823, "score_A": 247, "score_B": 77, "human_ref_A": "If the two lasers are perfectly aligned and at the same frequency so that there is destructive interference *everywhere*, the lasers will simply not emit radiation in the first place because their emission mode has become forbidden. Instead, the electrons will transition by some other route than lasing such as electron-electron scattering or phonon emission. In the end, the energy that would have been in the laser beam if its emission mode had not been suppressed ends up as heat in the laser.  You have to realize that lasers don't automatically emit light when you turn them on. They only lase when the stimulated radiative transition has a higher probability rate (roughly speaking) then other possible transitions modes for the electron. In a full analysis, calculating the stimulated radiative transition rate would require taking into account the resonant cavity, and where the light may go after.  This is fundamental to laser design. A laser is basically an amplifying medium at a natural frequency and a resonant cavity. The peak frequency of the amplifying medium is often not exactly lined up with any of the resonant frequencies of the cavity. The amplifying medium does not emit at its peak natural frequency because this frequency is forbidden by destructive interference effects of the cavity resonance. Instead, the amplifying medium emits at the frequency of one of the cavity resonances.  When talking about interference, the energy usually goes to the regions of constructive interference. But when there is destructive interference everywhere, the light is simply not created in the first place because it is forbidden from doing so.", "human_ref_B": "They don't interfere and just lay there forever. Each beam keeps going on its own way. Destructive interference has a misleading name; nothing is \"destroyed\". The two beams just appear to cancel each other out - for the duration and the extent of the interference, but once they are out of the area, they are unchanged.  Waves never actually interact with each other. They are \"invisible\" to each other. They pass through each other with no changes. Only for you, the external observer, does it appear that they are mutually \"destroyed\" in interference, but that's just how you see it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10119.0, "score_ratio": 3.2077922078, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qgvzb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "When two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference, where does their energy go? Where does the energy go when two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference so that all the waves cancel out each other and there is no beam anymore?  Why is the law of conservation of energy not hurt by this phenomenon?", "c_root_id_A": "cdcpcv1", "c_root_id_B": "cdcv1zm", "created_at_utc_A": 1384282592, "created_at_utc_B": 1384294942, "score_A": 77, "score_B": 247, "human_ref_A": "To interfere two laser beams, one usually uses some kind of partially reflective optic, such as a beamsplitter.  If you direct two laser beams onto a beamsplitter, there will always be two beams exiting the beamsplitter. If you arrange your lasers so that one of the exiting beams exhibits destructive interference, the other beam will exhibit constructive interference. The total power of the exiting beams will equal the total power of the incoming beams, except for a small amount of power dissipated as heat from absorption in the beamsplitter's glass.", "human_ref_B": "If the two lasers are perfectly aligned and at the same frequency so that there is destructive interference *everywhere*, the lasers will simply not emit radiation in the first place because their emission mode has become forbidden. Instead, the electrons will transition by some other route than lasing such as electron-electron scattering or phonon emission. In the end, the energy that would have been in the laser beam if its emission mode had not been suppressed ends up as heat in the laser.  You have to realize that lasers don't automatically emit light when you turn them on. They only lase when the stimulated radiative transition has a higher probability rate (roughly speaking) then other possible transitions modes for the electron. In a full analysis, calculating the stimulated radiative transition rate would require taking into account the resonant cavity, and where the light may go after.  This is fundamental to laser design. A laser is basically an amplifying medium at a natural frequency and a resonant cavity. The peak frequency of the amplifying medium is often not exactly lined up with any of the resonant frequencies of the cavity. The amplifying medium does not emit at its peak natural frequency because this frequency is forbidden by destructive interference effects of the cavity resonance. Instead, the amplifying medium emits at the frequency of one of the cavity resonances.  When talking about interference, the energy usually goes to the regions of constructive interference. But when there is destructive interference everywhere, the light is simply not created in the first place because it is forbidden from doing so.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12350.0, "score_ratio": 3.2077922078, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qgvzb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "When two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference, where does their energy go? Where does the energy go when two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference so that all the waves cancel out each other and there is no beam anymore?  Why is the law of conservation of energy not hurt by this phenomenon?", "c_root_id_A": "cdcq3ah", "c_root_id_B": "cdcv1zm", "created_at_utc_A": 1384284290, "created_at_utc_B": 1384294942, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 247, "human_ref_A": "Think of it like dropping two rocks into a lake. At some points there will be no waves where the two waves \"cancel\" but there will also be points where the two waves double up. The energy \"lost\" in the area of destructive interference will be added to the area of constructive interference.   See this video. Where one beam goes dark, the other goes bright. The energy is conserved.", "human_ref_B": "If the two lasers are perfectly aligned and at the same frequency so that there is destructive interference *everywhere*, the lasers will simply not emit radiation in the first place because their emission mode has become forbidden. Instead, the electrons will transition by some other route than lasing such as electron-electron scattering or phonon emission. In the end, the energy that would have been in the laser beam if its emission mode had not been suppressed ends up as heat in the laser.  You have to realize that lasers don't automatically emit light when you turn them on. They only lase when the stimulated radiative transition has a higher probability rate (roughly speaking) then other possible transitions modes for the electron. In a full analysis, calculating the stimulated radiative transition rate would require taking into account the resonant cavity, and where the light may go after.  This is fundamental to laser design. A laser is basically an amplifying medium at a natural frequency and a resonant cavity. The peak frequency of the amplifying medium is often not exactly lined up with any of the resonant frequencies of the cavity. The amplifying medium does not emit at its peak natural frequency because this frequency is forbidden by destructive interference effects of the cavity resonance. Instead, the amplifying medium emits at the frequency of one of the cavity resonances.  When talking about interference, the energy usually goes to the regions of constructive interference. But when there is destructive interference everywhere, the light is simply not created in the first place because it is forbidden from doing so.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10652.0, "score_ratio": 9.88, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qgvzb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "When two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference, where does their energy go? Where does the energy go when two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference so that all the waves cancel out each other and there is no beam anymore?  Why is the law of conservation of energy not hurt by this phenomenon?", "c_root_id_A": "cdcv1zm", "c_root_id_B": "cdcu2qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1384294942, "created_at_utc_B": 1384292816, "score_A": 247, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "If the two lasers are perfectly aligned and at the same frequency so that there is destructive interference *everywhere*, the lasers will simply not emit radiation in the first place because their emission mode has become forbidden. Instead, the electrons will transition by some other route than lasing such as electron-electron scattering or phonon emission. In the end, the energy that would have been in the laser beam if its emission mode had not been suppressed ends up as heat in the laser.  You have to realize that lasers don't automatically emit light when you turn them on. They only lase when the stimulated radiative transition has a higher probability rate (roughly speaking) then other possible transitions modes for the electron. In a full analysis, calculating the stimulated radiative transition rate would require taking into account the resonant cavity, and where the light may go after.  This is fundamental to laser design. A laser is basically an amplifying medium at a natural frequency and a resonant cavity. The peak frequency of the amplifying medium is often not exactly lined up with any of the resonant frequencies of the cavity. The amplifying medium does not emit at its peak natural frequency because this frequency is forbidden by destructive interference effects of the cavity resonance. Instead, the amplifying medium emits at the frequency of one of the cavity resonances.  When talking about interference, the energy usually goes to the regions of constructive interference. But when there is destructive interference everywhere, the light is simply not created in the first place because it is forbidden from doing so.", "human_ref_B": "Step back for a second and think about how these beams would be generated.  If you have one source, having a superposition of two waves that are **\u03c0** out of phase is just a fancy way of saying you are not generating any wave at all.  Let's use two sources instead, and place them such that distance traveled by the waves causes them to be exactly **\u03c0** out of phase when they hit our target focusing point. To get the probability of finding the particle at one point, add up the wave functions and square their amplitudes. Turns out our target is never actually reached by any photon! They just *bypass* the situation you were trying to create.  In fact, you can never get two wave functions to completely overlap unless they originate from the same point in space(-time). But then you would not even have had a wave in the first place!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2126.0, "score_ratio": 17.6428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qgvzb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "When two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference, where does their energy go? Where does the energy go when two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference so that all the waves cancel out each other and there is no beam anymore?  Why is the law of conservation of energy not hurt by this phenomenon?", "c_root_id_A": "cdctpt4", "c_root_id_B": "cdcv1zm", "created_at_utc_A": 1384292070, "created_at_utc_B": 1384294942, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 247, "human_ref_A": "The very short and simple(istic) answer is: To the places where interference is constructive. The interference pattern of two sinusoidal waves is a sinusoid with an equal number of destructive (zero intensity) and constructive (double intensity) bands.", "human_ref_B": "If the two lasers are perfectly aligned and at the same frequency so that there is destructive interference *everywhere*, the lasers will simply not emit radiation in the first place because their emission mode has become forbidden. Instead, the electrons will transition by some other route than lasing such as electron-electron scattering or phonon emission. In the end, the energy that would have been in the laser beam if its emission mode had not been suppressed ends up as heat in the laser.  You have to realize that lasers don't automatically emit light when you turn them on. They only lase when the stimulated radiative transition has a higher probability rate (roughly speaking) then other possible transitions modes for the electron. In a full analysis, calculating the stimulated radiative transition rate would require taking into account the resonant cavity, and where the light may go after.  This is fundamental to laser design. A laser is basically an amplifying medium at a natural frequency and a resonant cavity. The peak frequency of the amplifying medium is often not exactly lined up with any of the resonant frequencies of the cavity. The amplifying medium does not emit at its peak natural frequency because this frequency is forbidden by destructive interference effects of the cavity resonance. Instead, the amplifying medium emits at the frequency of one of the cavity resonances.  When talking about interference, the energy usually goes to the regions of constructive interference. But when there is destructive interference everywhere, the light is simply not created in the first place because it is forbidden from doing so.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2872.0, "score_ratio": 61.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qgvzb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "When two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference, where does their energy go? Where does the energy go when two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference so that all the waves cancel out each other and there is no beam anymore?  Why is the law of conservation of energy not hurt by this phenomenon?", "c_root_id_A": "cdcq3ah", "c_root_id_B": "cdcqc0v", "created_at_utc_A": 1384284290, "created_at_utc_B": 1384284823, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 77, "human_ref_A": "Think of it like dropping two rocks into a lake. At some points there will be no waves where the two waves \"cancel\" but there will also be points where the two waves double up. The energy \"lost\" in the area of destructive interference will be added to the area of constructive interference.   See this video. Where one beam goes dark, the other goes bright. The energy is conserved.", "human_ref_B": "They don't interfere and just lay there forever. Each beam keeps going on its own way. Destructive interference has a misleading name; nothing is \"destroyed\". The two beams just appear to cancel each other out - for the duration and the extent of the interference, but once they are out of the area, they are unchanged.  Waves never actually interact with each other. They are \"invisible\" to each other. They pass through each other with no changes. Only for you, the external observer, does it appear that they are mutually \"destroyed\" in interference, but that's just how you see it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 533.0, "score_ratio": 3.08, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qgvzb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "When two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference, where does their energy go? Where does the energy go when two beams of laserlight are put in perfect, destructive interference so that all the waves cancel out each other and there is no beam anymore?  Why is the law of conservation of energy not hurt by this phenomenon?", "c_root_id_A": "cdcu2qk", "c_root_id_B": "cdctpt4", "created_at_utc_A": 1384292816, "created_at_utc_B": 1384292070, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Step back for a second and think about how these beams would be generated.  If you have one source, having a superposition of two waves that are **\u03c0** out of phase is just a fancy way of saying you are not generating any wave at all.  Let's use two sources instead, and place them such that distance traveled by the waves causes them to be exactly **\u03c0** out of phase when they hit our target focusing point. To get the probability of finding the particle at one point, add up the wave functions and square their amplitudes. Turns out our target is never actually reached by any photon! They just *bypass* the situation you were trying to create.  In fact, you can never get two wave functions to completely overlap unless they originate from the same point in space(-time). But then you would not even have had a wave in the first place!", "human_ref_B": "The very short and simple(istic) answer is: To the places where interference is constructive. The interference pattern of two sinusoidal waves is a sinusoid with an equal number of destructive (zero intensity) and constructive (double intensity) bands.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 746.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "engoo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Are there any theories or examples of Physical Laws that are not static or immutable, and may have changed over time? It seems almost nothing in the Universe is indefinitely resistant to change, so it is possible to that the rules governing the Universe are also susceptible to change? I've never heard of any theories or examples of this, and it seems that common belief would be that the Universe follows the same rules now as it did at its beginning.\r \r Is it unreasonable to think that particles/matter/energy could have behaved differently tens of billions of years ago, and gradually came to behave that we observe today?", "c_root_id_A": "c19fni9", "c_root_id_B": "c19fw3g", "created_at_utc_A": 1292604174, "created_at_utc_B": 1292607617, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "It's not that the laws themselves have changed, but the relevance. In the early universe, the equation of state for the quark gluon plasma was highly relevant; nowadays gravity is the most relevant phenomenon on the universal scale.  One example is Hubble's Law and Hubble's constant, where Hubble's constant changes with the age of the universe.", "human_ref_B": "There are theories that the fine structure constant, which basically determines the strength of the electromagnetic interaction, may have changed over cosmological time scales.  There is some experimental evidence suggesting such an effect, JK Webb's group has been doing spectra analysis of distant quasars and published several papers documenting this possibility: http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0012539", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3443.0, "score_ratio": 1.7272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "engoo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Are there any theories or examples of Physical Laws that are not static or immutable, and may have changed over time? It seems almost nothing in the Universe is indefinitely resistant to change, so it is possible to that the rules governing the Universe are also susceptible to change? I've never heard of any theories or examples of this, and it seems that common belief would be that the Universe follows the same rules now as it did at its beginning.\r \r Is it unreasonable to think that particles/matter/energy could have behaved differently tens of billions of years ago, and gradually came to behave that we observe today?", "c_root_id_A": "c19fw3g", "c_root_id_B": "c19fnf7", "created_at_utc_A": 1292607617, "created_at_utc_B": 1292604137, "score_A": 19, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "There are theories that the fine structure constant, which basically determines the strength of the electromagnetic interaction, may have changed over cosmological time scales.  There is some experimental evidence suggesting such an effect, JK Webb's group has been doing spectra analysis of distant quasars and published several papers documenting this possibility: http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0012539", "human_ref_B": "Depends on how you look at the question. Certain interactions behave differently at higher energy states. But the interactions are still following the same rules. It's just that the rules are complex, and call for different behaviors in different environments.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3480.0, "score_ratio": 3.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "engoo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Are there any theories or examples of Physical Laws that are not static or immutable, and may have changed over time? It seems almost nothing in the Universe is indefinitely resistant to change, so it is possible to that the rules governing the Universe are also susceptible to change? I've never heard of any theories or examples of this, and it seems that common belief would be that the Universe follows the same rules now as it did at its beginning.\r \r Is it unreasonable to think that particles/matter/energy could have behaved differently tens of billions of years ago, and gradually came to behave that we observe today?", "c_root_id_A": "c19fni9", "c_root_id_B": "c19fnf7", "created_at_utc_A": 1292604174, "created_at_utc_B": 1292604137, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "It's not that the laws themselves have changed, but the relevance. In the early universe, the equation of state for the quark gluon plasma was highly relevant; nowadays gravity is the most relevant phenomenon on the universal scale.  One example is Hubble's Law and Hubble's constant, where Hubble's constant changes with the age of the universe.", "human_ref_B": "Depends on how you look at the question. Certain interactions behave differently at higher energy states. But the interactions are still following the same rules. It's just that the rules are complex, and call for different behaviors in different environments.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 37.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2j451a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "A question about Jupiter and the other gas giants? Are the planets just pure gas?  Can I drive a spacecraft straight through the center or will I eventually hit something?  What holds all the gas together in a planetary shape?", "c_root_id_A": "cl8g23q", "c_root_id_B": "cl8gu86", "created_at_utc_A": 1413227151, "created_at_utc_B": 1413228602, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Science is not certain about this. They **think** there could be a solid core, but are not sure if there is, and even less is actually known about what the size or composition of such a thing would be.    What holds it together? Gravity is the usual suspect or speculation here. This is pretty well established, as the \"gas giants\" all have a pretty strong gravitational field.    As a side note, they are starting to call uranus and neptune \"ice giants\" as opposed to gas giants, because they are pretty sure that those have a core composed of slushes of various things, methane and ammonia and the like. They are also pretty sure that pluto is a rocky body. The only ones that are commonly called gas giants any more are jupiter and saturn, and the general belief and consensus is that those both have a solid core of some kind. Maybe. :)", "human_ref_B": "/u/seek3r_red has answered pretty well, I'd just like to share this link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter#Internal_structure  ...and focus on this particular point:  > Can I drive a spacecraft straight through the center or will I eventually hit something?  Definitely not. Even if there were no solid core, eventually temperatures and pressures will be so high that your spacecraft will be completely destroyed and it may even vaporize.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)#Galileo_Probe", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1451.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3m0wif", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "When I pull my hand out from under very hot water, why is there a second of delay before the pain \"hits\"? When I accidentally turn the faucet too hot, and pull my hand away, there is always about a half second or a second before the pain \"hits\" in a wave. I can always tell it's coming before it's there. What causes that?", "c_root_id_A": "cvbrmfr", "c_root_id_B": "cvbm1ci", "created_at_utc_A": 1443039726, "created_at_utc_B": 1443031901, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "When faced with a noxious stimulus you react faster than you register the sensation because the retraction is caused by a reflex. The activated nociceptor in the hand sends signals to the posterior horn of the via a sensory fiber. The nerve then synapses with an ipsilateral (same side of the spinal cord) motor neuron that exits the spinal cord via the anterior horn to your hand to withdraw from the stimulus. This is called the withdrawal reflex. The same sensory neuron also synapses with the motor neurons in the spine and contralateral body to stabilize the uninjured side (this is more notable when the noxious stimulus is in the lower limbs). This reflex is called crossed extension reflex. Both reflexes are carried by fast A group fibers, which are large, myelenated fibers and have the highest rate of conduction.   Conversely, pain signals primarily travel up to the primary sensory cortex via a mix of A (delta) group and C group fibers. C group fibers are narrower, unmyelenated fibers in the lateral spinothalamic tract. The A fibers carry sharp pain, whereas the C fibers carry dull pain signals. Despite the hot water pain going on fast fibers it is still slower than the short reflex pathways.", "human_ref_B": "I believe it has something to do with your nervous system. Your nervous system reacts before you can consciously react. For example when you touch at hot stove, you react much quicker than you normally would, this is because your nervous system triggers a reaction faster than you can react yourself. I'm not sure what I said makes any sense, but I tried. And coming back to your faucet, I'm going to assume that your nervous system reacts to prevent further damage, and then the pain hits.  I'm only a sophomore in high school, so don't take what I say to be a definite. I'm also going to guess that your body prioritizes your survival over registering pain.  EDIT- The formatting of my post is atrocious.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7825.0, "score_ratio": 6000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3m0wif", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "When I pull my hand out from under very hot water, why is there a second of delay before the pain \"hits\"? When I accidentally turn the faucet too hot, and pull my hand away, there is always about a half second or a second before the pain \"hits\" in a wave. I can always tell it's coming before it's there. What causes that?", "c_root_id_A": "cvbrs0r", "c_root_id_B": "cvbm1ci", "created_at_utc_A": 1443039937, "created_at_utc_B": 1443031901, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Pulling your hand out from hot water is a reflex - it is not a reaction carried out by your conscious brain but by your brainstem, which happens very fast. Meanwhile, the pain signal is also making its way to your brain which has to process it (this happens much more slowly than the reflex). Lastly, the brain processes the two events and attempts to put them in order in order to present them to the consciousness, which results in you experiencing first the movement of your hand and then the sensation of pain which was processed by your brain after you began to move your hand.  TL;DR Brainstem moves hand via reflex, brain (later) gets and processes pain.", "human_ref_B": "I believe it has something to do with your nervous system. Your nervous system reacts before you can consciously react. For example when you touch at hot stove, you react much quicker than you normally would, this is because your nervous system triggers a reaction faster than you can react yourself. I'm not sure what I said makes any sense, but I tried. And coming back to your faucet, I'm going to assume that your nervous system reacts to prevent further damage, and then the pain hits.  I'm only a sophomore in high school, so don't take what I say to be a definite. I'm also going to guess that your body prioritizes your survival over registering pain.  EDIT- The formatting of my post is atrocious.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8036.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7640fq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "If you have yourself an Epipen injection while totally healthy, what would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "docarhp", "c_root_id_B": "docch7p", "created_at_utc_A": 1507947173, "created_at_utc_B": 1507949602, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The following, which is coypasta from the wikipedia entry on epinephrine:  Heart:\tIncreases heart rate; contractility; conduction across AV node Lungs:\tIncreases respiratory rate; bronchodilation Systemic:\tVasoconstriction and vasodilation  In short, your heart would beat harder and faster, you would breathe faster and your blood pressure would rise.", "human_ref_B": "Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is one of a group of endogenous hormones that act as sympathomimetics. Sympathomimetics, as the name implies, stimulate or imitate the sympathetic portion of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is best understood in the context of the fight-or-flight response, preparing the body for vigorous, possibly life-saving activity. The effects include raising blood pressure, heart rate, heart contractility, raising blood sugar levels, shunting blood away from the gut, and keeping you from peeing yourself.   Epinephrine doesn't do all those things on its own, but it does play a role in certain chemical cascades. Using an Epipen on a normal individual isn't 100% safe. the most likely side effects would be increased heart rate and elevated blood pressure and maybe anxiety, though maybe even stroke or heart attack in the right disastrous circumstance.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2429.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "aal64w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why does the water retract from the shoreline before a tsunami? I get thet the water has to come from *somewhere*, but what force causes the water to move in the opposite direction of the wave before it hits?", "c_root_id_A": "ecszw79", "c_root_id_B": "ecszkma", "created_at_utc_A": 1546096112, "created_at_utc_B": 1546095801, "score_A": 45, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Because a tsunami is a type of wave, and every wave oscillates, meaning it has both peaks and troughs. Water isn't created in a tsunami after all, if some water goes up, other parts must go down. Now many tsunamis are caused by underwater earthquakes, which involve a part of the sea floor dropping down. So often it is the trough of the wave which propagates outwards first, followed by the peak afterwards. As you're probably aware, the heigh of tsunamis in an open ocean are typically very small, but they travel extremely quickly. As they get to shallow waters, the wave slows down, therefore the water \"piles up\" in a way, making it far larger. This isn't exactly what happens, but it's a good way to think of it (if you're interested in the real mechanism, look up Green's Law). So as that small trough approaches the shore, it becomes a very large trough, and the water rushes out from the shore. Then the peak hits a little while later, also far higher than the original wave.  Tsunamis, like all waves, can be very well modeled using mathematics, in particular the wave equation. Have a look through them if you're curious, but be warned that they can be quite complex for people unfamiliar with them, and it may take a while to get your head around things like phase velocity, group velocity, etc..", "human_ref_B": "If you watch regular waves on the beach you\u2019ll notice the water retracts into the base of the coming wave as it approaches. The water particles oscillate back and forth, conveying the energy of the wave forward toward the beach and then back out to carry the next wave.  A tsunami is the same principal but magnified, and usually so far out to sea that it\u2019s nearly imperceptible at the surface (waves don\u2019t rise up until the water is shallow enough to force them to).   Another way to think of it is that it\u2019s like a massive and accelerated tide, which is why they used to be called tidal waves.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 311.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "s3kiz7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "When will the James Webb Telescope start taking images?", "c_root_id_A": "hslf9h4", "c_root_id_B": "hslfpgg", "created_at_utc_A": 1642139775, "created_at_utc_B": 1642140036, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "The sensors will be collecting data as part of the calibration process that starts shortly after reaching L2, but I don't think that's what you're asking.  The first round of images probably won't start coming out until June or so.  (I've heard several conflicting reports, so this is the conservative guess)", "human_ref_B": "From the FAQs at Webb.nasa.gov: \u201cIn the third month: From 60 to 90 days after launch we will align the primary mirror segments so that they can work together as a single optical surface. We will also turn on and operate the MIRI. By the end of the third month we will be able to take the first science-quality images. Also by this time, Webb will complete its journey to its L2 orbit position.\u201d", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 261.0, "score_ratio": 4.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "s3kiz7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "When will the James Webb Telescope start taking images?", "c_root_id_A": "hsmgzsl", "c_root_id_B": "hslf9h4", "created_at_utc_A": 1642165830, "created_at_utc_B": 1642139775, "score_A": 42, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "For more on the JWST you can check out this neat page over at NASA that shows where Webb is and what's going on with it right now.  I have it set to metric so you heathens across the Atlantic will have to switch it over to cubic strumpets per fathom.", "human_ref_B": "The sensors will be collecting data as part of the calibration process that starts shortly after reaching L2, but I don't think that's what you're asking.  The first round of images probably won't start coming out until June or so.  (I've heard several conflicting reports, so this is the conservative guess)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26055.0, "score_ratio": 4.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1czyv6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If friction arises as a result of electric forces, and electric fields are conservative, why does friction dissipate energy? Perhaps I'm wrong about the initial point, in which case I'd like further explanation on the atomic causes of friction.", "c_root_id_A": "c9lm2cz", "c_root_id_B": "c9lmbu9", "created_at_utc_A": 1366806212, "created_at_utc_B": 1366807531, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Friction does not dissipate energy, the energy seemingly lost through friction becomes heat.", "human_ref_B": "When two solids rub against each other, the atoms of both bump into the atoms of the other. Now while you are correct that these are perfectly conservative forces, the interactions are not fully elastic. If you bump into a single atom on the surface of a solid, what happens is that that atom will bump against its neighbors, which will bump against their neighbors, and so on. You've basically made a wave travel through the material.  But those atoms were already moving a little! The thermal energy inside a solid is stored in atomic vibrations. The atoms wiggle around a little around their equilibrium positions. This can be decomposed as (sound) waves traveling through the material, back and forth. The more of those sound waves, the more wiggling, the higher the temperature. Now what happens if you add another of those waves? Well, you've effectively raised the thermal energy, and thus raised the temperature.  And where is that energy taken from? From the kinetic energy that came from moving those two materials across each other in the first place, causing them to slow down. This is also tied in with the second law of thermodynamics. Energy likes to dissipate into as many degrees of freedom as it can find. A big, solid hunk of material can only move and rotate, that's not so many degrees of freedom, only six (three for movement, three for rotation). But if you can dissipate it into each of those vibrational modes of the individual atoms, you've suddenly got billions upon billions of degrees of freedom! And this is why a sliding object comes to rest, and why a basketball bounces a little less high after every bounce. Not because energy or momentum are lost, they simply bleed into all of those degrees of freedom with every interaction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1319.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lytha", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How come we can't tickle ourselves but we can masturbate? I heard that we can't tickle ourselves because our brains realize we are doing it, something like that. So how come we can masturbate, if our brain realizes it's us doing it?", "c_root_id_A": "c2wrthk", "c_root_id_B": "c2wskkz", "created_at_utc_A": 1320341873, "created_at_utc_B": 1320346149, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "It has to do with the temporal locality of tickling. The sensation of being tickled occurs immediately upon being tickled. Not so for masturbation.  This video has an interesting study on the temporality of tickling. The description starts at 11:23 http://www.ted.com/talks/daniel_wolpert_the_real_reason_for_brains.html", "human_ref_B": "What happens when you're forcibly tickled and can't stop it? When this happens to me, it feels like I'm going to die. Does the sensation go away after a while?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4276.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xo0i2", "c_root_id_B": "c5xnnq2", "created_at_utc_A": 1345746908, "created_at_utc_B": 1345745695, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "This is actually more a question for engineers, depending on the answer you want. I'm going to answer your questions backwards, because that's how my train of thought went. The \"meta-structure\" question is definitely a computer science question. Let's start by delineating the difference.  Computer Scientists and Computer Engineers look at a processor completely differently. To CS, a processor is a number-crunching device; numbers go in with instructions, different numbers come out. This is because Computer Scientists have to think, \"How can I conceptualize this problem, and implement it using a computer?\". This is how the \"meta-system\" (Thaliur posted a great summary on HowStuffWorks) arose: Computer Scientists needed to conceptualize the processor's inner workings. This also got easier as processors got faster (hundreds of MHz, Ghz), as they had a lot more headroom to work with; they didn't have to nitpick every instruction, it was OK to not execute the optimal number of instructions every second.  To a Computer Engineer, though, a processor (assuming you're talking about a computer's microprocessor; there are many different kinds of microprocessors built with many different kinds of tasks in mind) is a series of logic gates. These are a series of circuits that perform boolean logical tasks, such as AND, OR, and NAND. Some of these gates, like NAND, are \"universal\", in that they can, in various configurations, act like all of the other gates. They perform these tasks by taking in one or two voltage levels, and putting out a single voltage level that is either 1 (5V or lower, depending on your system) or 0 (close to 0V).   So the processor doesn't really \"change\" voltage on its own, the inputs change and the outputs change by necessity, because that's how the system is set up. It's a little easier (to me) to think about it that way, because then it doesn't seem like the processor is some kind of magical autonomous device; it puts out exactly what the result is for whatever goes in.   To answer the first part of your question: it looks very much like a labyrinth. These gates are laid out in a grid, and the types of gates and the way they are connected depends very much on the processor at hand. Each one is different, but speaking very generally it's a mess of interconnecting gates, since manufacturers are trying to squish as much as possible on small chips.  **TL;DR: 1) A labyrinth, 2) Logic gates, 3) Yes, it's the operating system**", "human_ref_B": "Intel has some educational information that might be useful for you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1213.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xnzpf", "c_root_id_B": "c5xo0i2", "created_at_utc_A": 1345746835, "created_at_utc_B": 1345746908, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "At the lowest level, the voltage changes are handled by silicon. But why let some randomer from reddit explain when you could discover yourself: http://www.zachtronicsindustries.com/play-kohctpyktop/", "human_ref_B": "This is actually more a question for engineers, depending on the answer you want. I'm going to answer your questions backwards, because that's how my train of thought went. The \"meta-structure\" question is definitely a computer science question. Let's start by delineating the difference.  Computer Scientists and Computer Engineers look at a processor completely differently. To CS, a processor is a number-crunching device; numbers go in with instructions, different numbers come out. This is because Computer Scientists have to think, \"How can I conceptualize this problem, and implement it using a computer?\". This is how the \"meta-system\" (Thaliur posted a great summary on HowStuffWorks) arose: Computer Scientists needed to conceptualize the processor's inner workings. This also got easier as processors got faster (hundreds of MHz, Ghz), as they had a lot more headroom to work with; they didn't have to nitpick every instruction, it was OK to not execute the optimal number of instructions every second.  To a Computer Engineer, though, a processor (assuming you're talking about a computer's microprocessor; there are many different kinds of microprocessors built with many different kinds of tasks in mind) is a series of logic gates. These are a series of circuits that perform boolean logical tasks, such as AND, OR, and NAND. Some of these gates, like NAND, are \"universal\", in that they can, in various configurations, act like all of the other gates. They perform these tasks by taking in one or two voltage levels, and putting out a single voltage level that is either 1 (5V or lower, depending on your system) or 0 (close to 0V).   So the processor doesn't really \"change\" voltage on its own, the inputs change and the outputs change by necessity, because that's how the system is set up. It's a little easier (to me) to think about it that way, because then it doesn't seem like the processor is some kind of magical autonomous device; it puts out exactly what the result is for whatever goes in.   To answer the first part of your question: it looks very much like a labyrinth. These gates are laid out in a grid, and the types of gates and the way they are connected depends very much on the processor at hand. Each one is different, but speaking very generally it's a mess of interconnecting gates, since manufacturers are trying to squish as much as possible on small chips.  **TL;DR: 1) A labyrinth, 2) Logic gates, 3) Yes, it's the operating system**", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 73.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xnnq2", "c_root_id_B": "c5xwao8", "created_at_utc_A": 1345745695, "created_at_utc_B": 1345778985, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Intel has some educational information that might be useful for you.", "human_ref_B": "First off: your question is better left to an engineer rather than a computer scientist. As a computer/electrical engineer, I will give an in-depth yet basic explanation.  I will make a few simplifications and ignore any complications caused by the simplification. I try to give some actual terms we use, so those interested to research further can do so.    ------------------------------------------------  In electronics there are is a component called a transistor. The basic function of all transistors is that it acts kind of like a gate. There are 3 leads. 2 are used for your basic \"current\" that flows in your circuit; the 3rd one is used to control this current (like an on/off switch).  You can think of a transistor as like a light switch, however instead of you physically flipping the switch to make it go ON or OFF, you use electricity to do this.   We can build a network of transistors to make something called a  GATE or Logic Gate. These gates have inputs, and the output is based on a logical comparison on the Inputs.  Some gate example types:AND, NAND (opposite of AND), OR, NOR, XOR, NOT  AND works to compare that both inputs are TRUE (or there is a voltage). For example you have Inputs A and B, AND will output TRUE (\"1\" or high voltage) only if both inputs are TRUE (High/1/ON). If both are 0(LOW) or only one of the inputs is HIGH then the output will be FALSE (aka \"0\", no voltage). The other gates work on a similar principle.  We then build a network of these logic gates to do most everything else to create the rest of the processor.  -------------------- Processors at heart read in instructions, perform some kind of basic operation (ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD from memory, STORE in memory, etc.) You also have registers, which is like memory, but the processor accesses these much more directly and faster, and these numbers often change. Basically whatever numbers the processor is working with at that moment are in the Registers. Each operation is written in binary code called instructions. One part of the instruction (called an \"opcode\") tells what kind of operation(add, subtract, etc) we are doing, the rest tell which registers(aka number values) we are using for that operation, and which register to store the result. Instructions for your computers processor are 32bits or 64bits long.   Binary is hard to read, so we have an easier way to represent these instructions. We can write these in Assembly and have a compiler convert the Assembly to binary. Assembly is a direct translation of the binary instructions, each line in assembly translates to one instruction.  Normal programming languages like C or Java are even higher up, these languages are more \"natural\" to human thought and allow us to design quicker and think more \"naturally\". One line in C can translate to one line in Assembly or several lines in Assembly. -------------------------------  -------------------------------------   So back to the logic gates:  These logic gates combine to form more complex components in the processor. These components work together, to do what I explained above when I was talking about Assembly. They work together to read the instructions, decode the instruction, perform the instruction, store the results  To explain the components of some of these parts I will explain as if we are loading an add instruction. ADD R1+R2=R3. This means add the values in Register 1 and Register 2 and put it in Register 3.:  You have a PC that loads the next instruction from memory into a Register, You then have a decoder to look at the current instruction and find out what's being commanded to do. In this case, we have an ADD command.  When it is determined we want to add we have MUXes that act like \"traffic directors\" to turn on the ADDER component (called an ALU). You also have other \"traffic directors\" to direct the numbers in Registers #1 and #2 to go to the ALU to be added.  The ALU is a combination of logic gates that will add the the numbers in it's input and put the result on it's output.  You then have another \"traffic director\" that directs the output to Register 3.   And you're done.  -------------------------------------------- Code is written. A compiler turns each line into a bunch of those Instruction lines. The CPU reads each Instruction in 1 at a time and performs the command. There are not that many different instructions. Basically there is just ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY, LOAD (from memory into register), STORE (from Register into memory), and JUMP(skips the next instruction and jumps a few lines to a different instruction specified).     With these commands, millions of them are used to perform the functions that make your computer \"work\". And the other components and stuff are made from complex arrays of gates, which are just arrays of transistors. This is why you often here the term transistor. It is the basic building block for everything.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33290.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xnzpf", "c_root_id_B": "c5xwao8", "created_at_utc_A": 1345746835, "created_at_utc_B": 1345778985, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "At the lowest level, the voltage changes are handled by silicon. But why let some randomer from reddit explain when you could discover yourself: http://www.zachtronicsindustries.com/play-kohctpyktop/", "human_ref_B": "First off: your question is better left to an engineer rather than a computer scientist. As a computer/electrical engineer, I will give an in-depth yet basic explanation.  I will make a few simplifications and ignore any complications caused by the simplification. I try to give some actual terms we use, so those interested to research further can do so.    ------------------------------------------------  In electronics there are is a component called a transistor. The basic function of all transistors is that it acts kind of like a gate. There are 3 leads. 2 are used for your basic \"current\" that flows in your circuit; the 3rd one is used to control this current (like an on/off switch).  You can think of a transistor as like a light switch, however instead of you physically flipping the switch to make it go ON or OFF, you use electricity to do this.   We can build a network of transistors to make something called a  GATE or Logic Gate. These gates have inputs, and the output is based on a logical comparison on the Inputs.  Some gate example types:AND, NAND (opposite of AND), OR, NOR, XOR, NOT  AND works to compare that both inputs are TRUE (or there is a voltage). For example you have Inputs A and B, AND will output TRUE (\"1\" or high voltage) only if both inputs are TRUE (High/1/ON). If both are 0(LOW) or only one of the inputs is HIGH then the output will be FALSE (aka \"0\", no voltage). The other gates work on a similar principle.  We then build a network of these logic gates to do most everything else to create the rest of the processor.  -------------------- Processors at heart read in instructions, perform some kind of basic operation (ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD from memory, STORE in memory, etc.) You also have registers, which is like memory, but the processor accesses these much more directly and faster, and these numbers often change. Basically whatever numbers the processor is working with at that moment are in the Registers. Each operation is written in binary code called instructions. One part of the instruction (called an \"opcode\") tells what kind of operation(add, subtract, etc) we are doing, the rest tell which registers(aka number values) we are using for that operation, and which register to store the result. Instructions for your computers processor are 32bits or 64bits long.   Binary is hard to read, so we have an easier way to represent these instructions. We can write these in Assembly and have a compiler convert the Assembly to binary. Assembly is a direct translation of the binary instructions, each line in assembly translates to one instruction.  Normal programming languages like C or Java are even higher up, these languages are more \"natural\" to human thought and allow us to design quicker and think more \"naturally\". One line in C can translate to one line in Assembly or several lines in Assembly. -------------------------------  -------------------------------------   So back to the logic gates:  These logic gates combine to form more complex components in the processor. These components work together, to do what I explained above when I was talking about Assembly. They work together to read the instructions, decode the instruction, perform the instruction, store the results  To explain the components of some of these parts I will explain as if we are loading an add instruction. ADD R1+R2=R3. This means add the values in Register 1 and Register 2 and put it in Register 3.:  You have a PC that loads the next instruction from memory into a Register, You then have a decoder to look at the current instruction and find out what's being commanded to do. In this case, we have an ADD command.  When it is determined we want to add we have MUXes that act like \"traffic directors\" to turn on the ADDER component (called an ALU). You also have other \"traffic directors\" to direct the numbers in Registers #1 and #2 to go to the ALU to be added.  The ALU is a combination of logic gates that will add the the numbers in it's input and put the result on it's output.  You then have another \"traffic director\" that directs the output to Register 3.   And you're done.  -------------------------------------------- Code is written. A compiler turns each line into a bunch of those Instruction lines. The CPU reads each Instruction in 1 at a time and performs the command. There are not that many different instructions. Basically there is just ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY, LOAD (from memory into register), STORE (from Register into memory), and JUMP(skips the next instruction and jumps a few lines to a different instruction specified).     With these commands, millions of them are used to perform the functions that make your computer \"work\". And the other components and stuff are made from complex arrays of gates, which are just arrays of transistors. This is why you often here the term transistor. It is the basic building block for everything.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32150.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xo9b6", "c_root_id_B": "c5xwao8", "created_at_utc_A": 1345747727, "created_at_utc_B": 1345778985, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "In the most basic and general terms I can come up with, a CPU has a defined \"instruction set\" which is the set of the things it can do (copy memory, add two numbers together, make a jump to a different part of the program, etc.). A sequence of instructions defines a program, like \"add these two numbers together, then multiply the result by 5 and store it\". Generally these operations are based on boolean logic operations, the most basic of which have two true/false inputs and one true/false output:  * AND (only true if both inputs are true) * OR (only true if one or both inputs are true) * XOR (only true if only one input is true)  These can be implemented using physical devices, which in modern times tend to be transistors. Here are some examples of logic gates implemented this way:  http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/trangate.html  And here's an example you can try: The arithmetic instructions are generally implemented by another part of the CPU known as the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). It is possible to build an extremely simple ALU that can add two numbers together simply using these basic logical operations... I will leave that as an exercise for the reader. One fun way to to this is in the game \"Minecraft\".  So, given that we now know that CPUs are based on boolean logic gates, which are themselves implemented using transistors, we can extend that to all the other things a computer can do... essentially, a CPU is *packed* with transistors, arranged into circuits, each with a particular function that's relevant to one or more instructions in the CPU's instruction set.  This is why transistor density is seen by some as a metric of progress made in computing technology. Essentially, the more transistors we can pack into a given space, the smaller we can make a computer. Of course, there are other considerations like architecture, heat generation, unwanted quantum tunneling, and the list goes on...  I don't really know how to answer your 1) and 2) questions, but for 3), the meta-structure would probably be the control unit that interprets the program (as a sequence of symbols, each corresponding to an instruction) and executes the instructions it contains. But, it does not execute the instructions itself... rather, it sends them off to other parts of the CPU that are specifically designed for that purpose.", "human_ref_B": "First off: your question is better left to an engineer rather than a computer scientist. As a computer/electrical engineer, I will give an in-depth yet basic explanation.  I will make a few simplifications and ignore any complications caused by the simplification. I try to give some actual terms we use, so those interested to research further can do so.    ------------------------------------------------  In electronics there are is a component called a transistor. The basic function of all transistors is that it acts kind of like a gate. There are 3 leads. 2 are used for your basic \"current\" that flows in your circuit; the 3rd one is used to control this current (like an on/off switch).  You can think of a transistor as like a light switch, however instead of you physically flipping the switch to make it go ON or OFF, you use electricity to do this.   We can build a network of transistors to make something called a  GATE or Logic Gate. These gates have inputs, and the output is based on a logical comparison on the Inputs.  Some gate example types:AND, NAND (opposite of AND), OR, NOR, XOR, NOT  AND works to compare that both inputs are TRUE (or there is a voltage). For example you have Inputs A and B, AND will output TRUE (\"1\" or high voltage) only if both inputs are TRUE (High/1/ON). If both are 0(LOW) or only one of the inputs is HIGH then the output will be FALSE (aka \"0\", no voltage). The other gates work on a similar principle.  We then build a network of these logic gates to do most everything else to create the rest of the processor.  -------------------- Processors at heart read in instructions, perform some kind of basic operation (ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD from memory, STORE in memory, etc.) You also have registers, which is like memory, but the processor accesses these much more directly and faster, and these numbers often change. Basically whatever numbers the processor is working with at that moment are in the Registers. Each operation is written in binary code called instructions. One part of the instruction (called an \"opcode\") tells what kind of operation(add, subtract, etc) we are doing, the rest tell which registers(aka number values) we are using for that operation, and which register to store the result. Instructions for your computers processor are 32bits or 64bits long.   Binary is hard to read, so we have an easier way to represent these instructions. We can write these in Assembly and have a compiler convert the Assembly to binary. Assembly is a direct translation of the binary instructions, each line in assembly translates to one instruction.  Normal programming languages like C or Java are even higher up, these languages are more \"natural\" to human thought and allow us to design quicker and think more \"naturally\". One line in C can translate to one line in Assembly or several lines in Assembly. -------------------------------  -------------------------------------   So back to the logic gates:  These logic gates combine to form more complex components in the processor. These components work together, to do what I explained above when I was talking about Assembly. They work together to read the instructions, decode the instruction, perform the instruction, store the results  To explain the components of some of these parts I will explain as if we are loading an add instruction. ADD R1+R2=R3. This means add the values in Register 1 and Register 2 and put it in Register 3.:  You have a PC that loads the next instruction from memory into a Register, You then have a decoder to look at the current instruction and find out what's being commanded to do. In this case, we have an ADD command.  When it is determined we want to add we have MUXes that act like \"traffic directors\" to turn on the ADDER component (called an ALU). You also have other \"traffic directors\" to direct the numbers in Registers #1 and #2 to go to the ALU to be added.  The ALU is a combination of logic gates that will add the the numbers in it's input and put the result on it's output.  You then have another \"traffic director\" that directs the output to Register 3.   And you're done.  -------------------------------------------- Code is written. A compiler turns each line into a bunch of those Instruction lines. The CPU reads each Instruction in 1 at a time and performs the command. There are not that many different instructions. Basically there is just ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY, LOAD (from memory into register), STORE (from Register into memory), and JUMP(skips the next instruction and jumps a few lines to a different instruction specified).     With these commands, millions of them are used to perform the functions that make your computer \"work\". And the other components and stuff are made from complex arrays of gates, which are just arrays of transistors. This is why you often here the term transistor. It is the basic building block for everything.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31258.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xraii", "c_root_id_B": "c5xwao8", "created_at_utc_A": 1345758691, "created_at_utc_B": 1345778985, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Um, kind of hard to condense many semesters of college classes down to a concise post.  But I'll give it a shot.  For one, the only thing a CPU can do is add and compare.  That's it.  It just does them really really fast so even though they are inefficient (ie multiplication and division is tricky), it still works really quickly in real time.  Some components of processors include the registers.  They are little memory holders that contain the current place in memory where it is working, such as the instruction pointer that 'points' to the current program step that it is running.  It then increments its way through the assembly code.   There are also memory pointers for the heap and stack, and a few registers that are used as scratch pads to keep track of the current thing the processor is working on.  Then there are parts of the processor which do things, such as an adder which is built from AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates that take two registers and add them.   Then there is the microcode within the processor that basically turns on and off the areas that are being worked on based upon the assembly code that is being passed to it by the instruction pointer.  This would be the part that manages the processor.  But it may do something like activate the adder to add two registers together and leave the result in the first register.  It would move the two register values into the adder, activate the adder, and then move the result back to the register.  It then might move that register value back to memory.  In a simple processor, that would take 4 clock cycles (move to adder, add, move to register, move to memory).", "human_ref_B": "First off: your question is better left to an engineer rather than a computer scientist. As a computer/electrical engineer, I will give an in-depth yet basic explanation.  I will make a few simplifications and ignore any complications caused by the simplification. I try to give some actual terms we use, so those interested to research further can do so.    ------------------------------------------------  In electronics there are is a component called a transistor. The basic function of all transistors is that it acts kind of like a gate. There are 3 leads. 2 are used for your basic \"current\" that flows in your circuit; the 3rd one is used to control this current (like an on/off switch).  You can think of a transistor as like a light switch, however instead of you physically flipping the switch to make it go ON or OFF, you use electricity to do this.   We can build a network of transistors to make something called a  GATE or Logic Gate. These gates have inputs, and the output is based on a logical comparison on the Inputs.  Some gate example types:AND, NAND (opposite of AND), OR, NOR, XOR, NOT  AND works to compare that both inputs are TRUE (or there is a voltage). For example you have Inputs A and B, AND will output TRUE (\"1\" or high voltage) only if both inputs are TRUE (High/1/ON). If both are 0(LOW) or only one of the inputs is HIGH then the output will be FALSE (aka \"0\", no voltage). The other gates work on a similar principle.  We then build a network of these logic gates to do most everything else to create the rest of the processor.  -------------------- Processors at heart read in instructions, perform some kind of basic operation (ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD from memory, STORE in memory, etc.) You also have registers, which is like memory, but the processor accesses these much more directly and faster, and these numbers often change. Basically whatever numbers the processor is working with at that moment are in the Registers. Each operation is written in binary code called instructions. One part of the instruction (called an \"opcode\") tells what kind of operation(add, subtract, etc) we are doing, the rest tell which registers(aka number values) we are using for that operation, and which register to store the result. Instructions for your computers processor are 32bits or 64bits long.   Binary is hard to read, so we have an easier way to represent these instructions. We can write these in Assembly and have a compiler convert the Assembly to binary. Assembly is a direct translation of the binary instructions, each line in assembly translates to one instruction.  Normal programming languages like C or Java are even higher up, these languages are more \"natural\" to human thought and allow us to design quicker and think more \"naturally\". One line in C can translate to one line in Assembly or several lines in Assembly. -------------------------------  -------------------------------------   So back to the logic gates:  These logic gates combine to form more complex components in the processor. These components work together, to do what I explained above when I was talking about Assembly. They work together to read the instructions, decode the instruction, perform the instruction, store the results  To explain the components of some of these parts I will explain as if we are loading an add instruction. ADD R1+R2=R3. This means add the values in Register 1 and Register 2 and put it in Register 3.:  You have a PC that loads the next instruction from memory into a Register, You then have a decoder to look at the current instruction and find out what's being commanded to do. In this case, we have an ADD command.  When it is determined we want to add we have MUXes that act like \"traffic directors\" to turn on the ADDER component (called an ALU). You also have other \"traffic directors\" to direct the numbers in Registers #1 and #2 to go to the ALU to be added.  The ALU is a combination of logic gates that will add the the numbers in it's input and put the result on it's output.  You then have another \"traffic director\" that directs the output to Register 3.   And you're done.  -------------------------------------------- Code is written. A compiler turns each line into a bunch of those Instruction lines. The CPU reads each Instruction in 1 at a time and performs the command. There are not that many different instructions. Basically there is just ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY, LOAD (from memory into register), STORE (from Register into memory), and JUMP(skips the next instruction and jumps a few lines to a different instruction specified).     With these commands, millions of them are used to perform the functions that make your computer \"work\". And the other components and stuff are made from complex arrays of gates, which are just arrays of transistors. This is why you often here the term transistor. It is the basic building block for everything.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20294.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xrpe1", "c_root_id_B": "c5xwao8", "created_at_utc_A": 1345760290, "created_at_utc_B": 1345778985, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Here's an interesting video that describes how a processor uses AND, OR, and XOR gates to add binary numbers.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VBDoT8o4q00&feature=related", "human_ref_B": "First off: your question is better left to an engineer rather than a computer scientist. As a computer/electrical engineer, I will give an in-depth yet basic explanation.  I will make a few simplifications and ignore any complications caused by the simplification. I try to give some actual terms we use, so those interested to research further can do so.    ------------------------------------------------  In electronics there are is a component called a transistor. The basic function of all transistors is that it acts kind of like a gate. There are 3 leads. 2 are used for your basic \"current\" that flows in your circuit; the 3rd one is used to control this current (like an on/off switch).  You can think of a transistor as like a light switch, however instead of you physically flipping the switch to make it go ON or OFF, you use electricity to do this.   We can build a network of transistors to make something called a  GATE or Logic Gate. These gates have inputs, and the output is based on a logical comparison on the Inputs.  Some gate example types:AND, NAND (opposite of AND), OR, NOR, XOR, NOT  AND works to compare that both inputs are TRUE (or there is a voltage). For example you have Inputs A and B, AND will output TRUE (\"1\" or high voltage) only if both inputs are TRUE (High/1/ON). If both are 0(LOW) or only one of the inputs is HIGH then the output will be FALSE (aka \"0\", no voltage). The other gates work on a similar principle.  We then build a network of these logic gates to do most everything else to create the rest of the processor.  -------------------- Processors at heart read in instructions, perform some kind of basic operation (ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD from memory, STORE in memory, etc.) You also have registers, which is like memory, but the processor accesses these much more directly and faster, and these numbers often change. Basically whatever numbers the processor is working with at that moment are in the Registers. Each operation is written in binary code called instructions. One part of the instruction (called an \"opcode\") tells what kind of operation(add, subtract, etc) we are doing, the rest tell which registers(aka number values) we are using for that operation, and which register to store the result. Instructions for your computers processor are 32bits or 64bits long.   Binary is hard to read, so we have an easier way to represent these instructions. We can write these in Assembly and have a compiler convert the Assembly to binary. Assembly is a direct translation of the binary instructions, each line in assembly translates to one instruction.  Normal programming languages like C or Java are even higher up, these languages are more \"natural\" to human thought and allow us to design quicker and think more \"naturally\". One line in C can translate to one line in Assembly or several lines in Assembly. -------------------------------  -------------------------------------   So back to the logic gates:  These logic gates combine to form more complex components in the processor. These components work together, to do what I explained above when I was talking about Assembly. They work together to read the instructions, decode the instruction, perform the instruction, store the results  To explain the components of some of these parts I will explain as if we are loading an add instruction. ADD R1+R2=R3. This means add the values in Register 1 and Register 2 and put it in Register 3.:  You have a PC that loads the next instruction from memory into a Register, You then have a decoder to look at the current instruction and find out what's being commanded to do. In this case, we have an ADD command.  When it is determined we want to add we have MUXes that act like \"traffic directors\" to turn on the ADDER component (called an ALU). You also have other \"traffic directors\" to direct the numbers in Registers #1 and #2 to go to the ALU to be added.  The ALU is a combination of logic gates that will add the the numbers in it's input and put the result on it's output.  You then have another \"traffic director\" that directs the output to Register 3.   And you're done.  -------------------------------------------- Code is written. A compiler turns each line into a bunch of those Instruction lines. The CPU reads each Instruction in 1 at a time and performs the command. There are not that many different instructions. Basically there is just ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY, LOAD (from memory into register), STORE (from Register into memory), and JUMP(skips the next instruction and jumps a few lines to a different instruction specified).     With these commands, millions of them are used to perform the functions that make your computer \"work\". And the other components and stuff are made from complex arrays of gates, which are just arrays of transistors. This is why you often here the term transistor. It is the basic building block for everything.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18695.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xwao8", "c_root_id_B": "c5xoitd", "created_at_utc_A": 1345778985, "created_at_utc_B": 1345748630, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "First off: your question is better left to an engineer rather than a computer scientist. As a computer/electrical engineer, I will give an in-depth yet basic explanation.  I will make a few simplifications and ignore any complications caused by the simplification. I try to give some actual terms we use, so those interested to research further can do so.    ------------------------------------------------  In electronics there are is a component called a transistor. The basic function of all transistors is that it acts kind of like a gate. There are 3 leads. 2 are used for your basic \"current\" that flows in your circuit; the 3rd one is used to control this current (like an on/off switch).  You can think of a transistor as like a light switch, however instead of you physically flipping the switch to make it go ON or OFF, you use electricity to do this.   We can build a network of transistors to make something called a  GATE or Logic Gate. These gates have inputs, and the output is based on a logical comparison on the Inputs.  Some gate example types:AND, NAND (opposite of AND), OR, NOR, XOR, NOT  AND works to compare that both inputs are TRUE (or there is a voltage). For example you have Inputs A and B, AND will output TRUE (\"1\" or high voltage) only if both inputs are TRUE (High/1/ON). If both are 0(LOW) or only one of the inputs is HIGH then the output will be FALSE (aka \"0\", no voltage). The other gates work on a similar principle.  We then build a network of these logic gates to do most everything else to create the rest of the processor.  -------------------- Processors at heart read in instructions, perform some kind of basic operation (ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD from memory, STORE in memory, etc.) You also have registers, which is like memory, but the processor accesses these much more directly and faster, and these numbers often change. Basically whatever numbers the processor is working with at that moment are in the Registers. Each operation is written in binary code called instructions. One part of the instruction (called an \"opcode\") tells what kind of operation(add, subtract, etc) we are doing, the rest tell which registers(aka number values) we are using for that operation, and which register to store the result. Instructions for your computers processor are 32bits or 64bits long.   Binary is hard to read, so we have an easier way to represent these instructions. We can write these in Assembly and have a compiler convert the Assembly to binary. Assembly is a direct translation of the binary instructions, each line in assembly translates to one instruction.  Normal programming languages like C or Java are even higher up, these languages are more \"natural\" to human thought and allow us to design quicker and think more \"naturally\". One line in C can translate to one line in Assembly or several lines in Assembly. -------------------------------  -------------------------------------   So back to the logic gates:  These logic gates combine to form more complex components in the processor. These components work together, to do what I explained above when I was talking about Assembly. They work together to read the instructions, decode the instruction, perform the instruction, store the results  To explain the components of some of these parts I will explain as if we are loading an add instruction. ADD R1+R2=R3. This means add the values in Register 1 and Register 2 and put it in Register 3.:  You have a PC that loads the next instruction from memory into a Register, You then have a decoder to look at the current instruction and find out what's being commanded to do. In this case, we have an ADD command.  When it is determined we want to add we have MUXes that act like \"traffic directors\" to turn on the ADDER component (called an ALU). You also have other \"traffic directors\" to direct the numbers in Registers #1 and #2 to go to the ALU to be added.  The ALU is a combination of logic gates that will add the the numbers in it's input and put the result on it's output.  You then have another \"traffic director\" that directs the output to Register 3.   And you're done.  -------------------------------------------- Code is written. A compiler turns each line into a bunch of those Instruction lines. The CPU reads each Instruction in 1 at a time and performs the command. There are not that many different instructions. Basically there is just ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY, LOAD (from memory into register), STORE (from Register into memory), and JUMP(skips the next instruction and jumps a few lines to a different instruction specified).     With these commands, millions of them are used to perform the functions that make your computer \"work\". And the other components and stuff are made from complex arrays of gates, which are just arrays of transistors. This is why you often here the term transistor. It is the basic building block for everything.", "human_ref_B": "For a general purpose CPU, the design is modular.  So you'll have distinct structures that carry out various tasks or serve a specific purpose, like an instruction queue, add units, multipliers, registers,  branch prediction unit, etc.  Typically speaking, you take instructions from the instruction queue and dispatch them to the appropriate functional unit.  In this sense, even a modern \"serial\" processor will be performing operations in parallel, since, e.g., you can add two numbers together while simultaneously loading a register since they involve two different functional units.  I don't work as a computer architect so I don't know the state of the art, but in the old days, we'd call this instruction-level parallelism.  Exploiting ILP depends on the level of dependency between instructions (in the add and load example above, you can't actually do them in parallel if, e.g., one of the operands to the add is the value that you are loading) and the number of functional units you have at your disposal.  Parallel processors involve multiples of these (and for general consumers, your parallel processors will all be on the same chip).  Parallel processors are intended to exploit parallelism at a larger granularity (e.g., thread-level parallelism).  If you'd actually like to know how you design a circuit to multiply two numbers together, or see what a memory cell looks like, you're probably best off going to a comp org textbook.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30355.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xpq2s", "c_root_id_B": "c5xwao8", "created_at_utc_A": 1345752919, "created_at_utc_B": 1345778985, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "If you want a very good overview of how computers work, you should try reading the book Code. It starts off talking about codes, like Morse Code and Binary. Then it moves on to light switches and batteries, and other neat constructions you can make with switches and relays, then it shows you how to build a simple adder. By the end of the book the author has basically given you an overview of how computers work from the logic gates all the way up to the processors and operating systems. It's a really good book, and each chapter flows pretty well to the next and it explains things in ways that are easy to understand.", "human_ref_B": "First off: your question is better left to an engineer rather than a computer scientist. As a computer/electrical engineer, I will give an in-depth yet basic explanation.  I will make a few simplifications and ignore any complications caused by the simplification. I try to give some actual terms we use, so those interested to research further can do so.    ------------------------------------------------  In electronics there are is a component called a transistor. The basic function of all transistors is that it acts kind of like a gate. There are 3 leads. 2 are used for your basic \"current\" that flows in your circuit; the 3rd one is used to control this current (like an on/off switch).  You can think of a transistor as like a light switch, however instead of you physically flipping the switch to make it go ON or OFF, you use electricity to do this.   We can build a network of transistors to make something called a  GATE or Logic Gate. These gates have inputs, and the output is based on a logical comparison on the Inputs.  Some gate example types:AND, NAND (opposite of AND), OR, NOR, XOR, NOT  AND works to compare that both inputs are TRUE (or there is a voltage). For example you have Inputs A and B, AND will output TRUE (\"1\" or high voltage) only if both inputs are TRUE (High/1/ON). If both are 0(LOW) or only one of the inputs is HIGH then the output will be FALSE (aka \"0\", no voltage). The other gates work on a similar principle.  We then build a network of these logic gates to do most everything else to create the rest of the processor.  -------------------- Processors at heart read in instructions, perform some kind of basic operation (ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD from memory, STORE in memory, etc.) You also have registers, which is like memory, but the processor accesses these much more directly and faster, and these numbers often change. Basically whatever numbers the processor is working with at that moment are in the Registers. Each operation is written in binary code called instructions. One part of the instruction (called an \"opcode\") tells what kind of operation(add, subtract, etc) we are doing, the rest tell which registers(aka number values) we are using for that operation, and which register to store the result. Instructions for your computers processor are 32bits or 64bits long.   Binary is hard to read, so we have an easier way to represent these instructions. We can write these in Assembly and have a compiler convert the Assembly to binary. Assembly is a direct translation of the binary instructions, each line in assembly translates to one instruction.  Normal programming languages like C or Java are even higher up, these languages are more \"natural\" to human thought and allow us to design quicker and think more \"naturally\". One line in C can translate to one line in Assembly or several lines in Assembly. -------------------------------  -------------------------------------   So back to the logic gates:  These logic gates combine to form more complex components in the processor. These components work together, to do what I explained above when I was talking about Assembly. They work together to read the instructions, decode the instruction, perform the instruction, store the results  To explain the components of some of these parts I will explain as if we are loading an add instruction. ADD R1+R2=R3. This means add the values in Register 1 and Register 2 and put it in Register 3.:  You have a PC that loads the next instruction from memory into a Register, You then have a decoder to look at the current instruction and find out what's being commanded to do. In this case, we have an ADD command.  When it is determined we want to add we have MUXes that act like \"traffic directors\" to turn on the ADDER component (called an ALU). You also have other \"traffic directors\" to direct the numbers in Registers #1 and #2 to go to the ALU to be added.  The ALU is a combination of logic gates that will add the the numbers in it's input and put the result on it's output.  You then have another \"traffic director\" that directs the output to Register 3.   And you're done.  -------------------------------------------- Code is written. A compiler turns each line into a bunch of those Instruction lines. The CPU reads each Instruction in 1 at a time and performs the command. There are not that many different instructions. Basically there is just ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY, LOAD (from memory into register), STORE (from Register into memory), and JUMP(skips the next instruction and jumps a few lines to a different instruction specified).     With these commands, millions of them are used to perform the functions that make your computer \"work\". And the other components and stuff are made from complex arrays of gates, which are just arrays of transistors. This is why you often here the term transistor. It is the basic building block for everything.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 26066.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xr2ku", "c_root_id_B": "c5xwao8", "created_at_utc_A": 1345757863, "created_at_utc_B": 1345778985, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "not sure how appropriate this is for this sub, but this minecraft simulation helped me visualize it.", "human_ref_B": "First off: your question is better left to an engineer rather than a computer scientist. As a computer/electrical engineer, I will give an in-depth yet basic explanation.  I will make a few simplifications and ignore any complications caused by the simplification. I try to give some actual terms we use, so those interested to research further can do so.    ------------------------------------------------  In electronics there are is a component called a transistor. The basic function of all transistors is that it acts kind of like a gate. There are 3 leads. 2 are used for your basic \"current\" that flows in your circuit; the 3rd one is used to control this current (like an on/off switch).  You can think of a transistor as like a light switch, however instead of you physically flipping the switch to make it go ON or OFF, you use electricity to do this.   We can build a network of transistors to make something called a  GATE or Logic Gate. These gates have inputs, and the output is based on a logical comparison on the Inputs.  Some gate example types:AND, NAND (opposite of AND), OR, NOR, XOR, NOT  AND works to compare that both inputs are TRUE (or there is a voltage). For example you have Inputs A and B, AND will output TRUE (\"1\" or high voltage) only if both inputs are TRUE (High/1/ON). If both are 0(LOW) or only one of the inputs is HIGH then the output will be FALSE (aka \"0\", no voltage). The other gates work on a similar principle.  We then build a network of these logic gates to do most everything else to create the rest of the processor.  -------------------- Processors at heart read in instructions, perform some kind of basic operation (ADD, SUBTRACT, LOAD from memory, STORE in memory, etc.) You also have registers, which is like memory, but the processor accesses these much more directly and faster, and these numbers often change. Basically whatever numbers the processor is working with at that moment are in the Registers. Each operation is written in binary code called instructions. One part of the instruction (called an \"opcode\") tells what kind of operation(add, subtract, etc) we are doing, the rest tell which registers(aka number values) we are using for that operation, and which register to store the result. Instructions for your computers processor are 32bits or 64bits long.   Binary is hard to read, so we have an easier way to represent these instructions. We can write these in Assembly and have a compiler convert the Assembly to binary. Assembly is a direct translation of the binary instructions, each line in assembly translates to one instruction.  Normal programming languages like C or Java are even higher up, these languages are more \"natural\" to human thought and allow us to design quicker and think more \"naturally\". One line in C can translate to one line in Assembly or several lines in Assembly. -------------------------------  -------------------------------------   So back to the logic gates:  These logic gates combine to form more complex components in the processor. These components work together, to do what I explained above when I was talking about Assembly. They work together to read the instructions, decode the instruction, perform the instruction, store the results  To explain the components of some of these parts I will explain as if we are loading an add instruction. ADD R1+R2=R3. This means add the values in Register 1 and Register 2 and put it in Register 3.:  You have a PC that loads the next instruction from memory into a Register, You then have a decoder to look at the current instruction and find out what's being commanded to do. In this case, we have an ADD command.  When it is determined we want to add we have MUXes that act like \"traffic directors\" to turn on the ADDER component (called an ALU). You also have other \"traffic directors\" to direct the numbers in Registers #1 and #2 to go to the ALU to be added.  The ALU is a combination of logic gates that will add the the numbers in it's input and put the result on it's output.  You then have another \"traffic director\" that directs the output to Register 3.   And you're done.  -------------------------------------------- Code is written. A compiler turns each line into a bunch of those Instruction lines. The CPU reads each Instruction in 1 at a time and performs the command. There are not that many different instructions. Basically there is just ADD,SUBTRACT,MULTIPLY, LOAD (from memory into register), STORE (from Register into memory), and JUMP(skips the next instruction and jumps a few lines to a different instruction specified).     With these commands, millions of them are used to perform the functions that make your computer \"work\". And the other components and stuff are made from complex arrays of gates, which are just arrays of transistors. This is why you often here the term transistor. It is the basic building block for everything.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21122.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xoitd", "c_root_id_B": "c5xraii", "created_at_utc_A": 1345748630, "created_at_utc_B": 1345758691, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "For a general purpose CPU, the design is modular.  So you'll have distinct structures that carry out various tasks or serve a specific purpose, like an instruction queue, add units, multipliers, registers,  branch prediction unit, etc.  Typically speaking, you take instructions from the instruction queue and dispatch them to the appropriate functional unit.  In this sense, even a modern \"serial\" processor will be performing operations in parallel, since, e.g., you can add two numbers together while simultaneously loading a register since they involve two different functional units.  I don't work as a computer architect so I don't know the state of the art, but in the old days, we'd call this instruction-level parallelism.  Exploiting ILP depends on the level of dependency between instructions (in the add and load example above, you can't actually do them in parallel if, e.g., one of the operands to the add is the value that you are loading) and the number of functional units you have at your disposal.  Parallel processors involve multiples of these (and for general consumers, your parallel processors will all be on the same chip).  Parallel processors are intended to exploit parallelism at a larger granularity (e.g., thread-level parallelism).  If you'd actually like to know how you design a circuit to multiply two numbers together, or see what a memory cell looks like, you're probably best off going to a comp org textbook.", "human_ref_B": "Um, kind of hard to condense many semesters of college classes down to a concise post.  But I'll give it a shot.  For one, the only thing a CPU can do is add and compare.  That's it.  It just does them really really fast so even though they are inefficient (ie multiplication and division is tricky), it still works really quickly in real time.  Some components of processors include the registers.  They are little memory holders that contain the current place in memory where it is working, such as the instruction pointer that 'points' to the current program step that it is running.  It then increments its way through the assembly code.   There are also memory pointers for the heap and stack, and a few registers that are used as scratch pads to keep track of the current thing the processor is working on.  Then there are parts of the processor which do things, such as an adder which is built from AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates that take two registers and add them.   Then there is the microcode within the processor that basically turns on and off the areas that are being worked on based upon the assembly code that is being passed to it by the instruction pointer.  This would be the part that manages the processor.  But it may do something like activate the adder to add two registers together and leave the result in the first register.  It would move the two register values into the adder, activate the adder, and then move the result back to the register.  It then might move that register value back to memory.  In a simple processor, that would take 4 clock cycles (move to adder, add, move to register, move to memory).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10061.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xpq2s", "c_root_id_B": "c5xraii", "created_at_utc_A": 1345752919, "created_at_utc_B": 1345758691, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If you want a very good overview of how computers work, you should try reading the book Code. It starts off talking about codes, like Morse Code and Binary. Then it moves on to light switches and batteries, and other neat constructions you can make with switches and relays, then it shows you how to build a simple adder. By the end of the book the author has basically given you an overview of how computers work from the logic gates all the way up to the processors and operating systems. It's a really good book, and each chapter flows pretty well to the next and it explains things in ways that are easy to understand.", "human_ref_B": "Um, kind of hard to condense many semesters of college classes down to a concise post.  But I'll give it a shot.  For one, the only thing a CPU can do is add and compare.  That's it.  It just does them really really fast so even though they are inefficient (ie multiplication and division is tricky), it still works really quickly in real time.  Some components of processors include the registers.  They are little memory holders that contain the current place in memory where it is working, such as the instruction pointer that 'points' to the current program step that it is running.  It then increments its way through the assembly code.   There are also memory pointers for the heap and stack, and a few registers that are used as scratch pads to keep track of the current thing the processor is working on.  Then there are parts of the processor which do things, such as an adder which is built from AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates that take two registers and add them.   Then there is the microcode within the processor that basically turns on and off the areas that are being worked on based upon the assembly code that is being passed to it by the instruction pointer.  This would be the part that manages the processor.  But it may do something like activate the adder to add two registers together and leave the result in the first register.  It would move the two register values into the adder, activate the adder, and then move the result back to the register.  It then might move that register value back to memory.  In a simple processor, that would take 4 clock cycles (move to adder, add, move to register, move to memory).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5772.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xr2ku", "c_root_id_B": "c5xraii", "created_at_utc_A": 1345757863, "created_at_utc_B": 1345758691, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "not sure how appropriate this is for this sub, but this minecraft simulation helped me visualize it.", "human_ref_B": "Um, kind of hard to condense many semesters of college classes down to a concise post.  But I'll give it a shot.  For one, the only thing a CPU can do is add and compare.  That's it.  It just does them really really fast so even though they are inefficient (ie multiplication and division is tricky), it still works really quickly in real time.  Some components of processors include the registers.  They are little memory holders that contain the current place in memory where it is working, such as the instruction pointer that 'points' to the current program step that it is running.  It then increments its way through the assembly code.   There are also memory pointers for the heap and stack, and a few registers that are used as scratch pads to keep track of the current thing the processor is working on.  Then there are parts of the processor which do things, such as an adder which is built from AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates that take two registers and add them.   Then there is the microcode within the processor that basically turns on and off the areas that are being worked on based upon the assembly code that is being passed to it by the instruction pointer.  This would be the part that manages the processor.  But it may do something like activate the adder to add two registers together and leave the result in the first register.  It would move the two register values into the adder, activate the adder, and then move the result back to the register.  It then might move that register value back to memory.  In a simple processor, that would take 4 clock cycles (move to adder, add, move to register, move to memory).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 828.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xrpe1", "c_root_id_B": "c5xoitd", "created_at_utc_A": 1345760290, "created_at_utc_B": 1345748630, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Here's an interesting video that describes how a processor uses AND, OR, and XOR gates to add binary numbers.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VBDoT8o4q00&feature=related", "human_ref_B": "For a general purpose CPU, the design is modular.  So you'll have distinct structures that carry out various tasks or serve a specific purpose, like an instruction queue, add units, multipliers, registers,  branch prediction unit, etc.  Typically speaking, you take instructions from the instruction queue and dispatch them to the appropriate functional unit.  In this sense, even a modern \"serial\" processor will be performing operations in parallel, since, e.g., you can add two numbers together while simultaneously loading a register since they involve two different functional units.  I don't work as a computer architect so I don't know the state of the art, but in the old days, we'd call this instruction-level parallelism.  Exploiting ILP depends on the level of dependency between instructions (in the add and load example above, you can't actually do them in parallel if, e.g., one of the operands to the add is the value that you are loading) and the number of functional units you have at your disposal.  Parallel processors involve multiples of these (and for general consumers, your parallel processors will all be on the same chip).  Parallel processors are intended to exploit parallelism at a larger granularity (e.g., thread-level parallelism).  If you'd actually like to know how you design a circuit to multiply two numbers together, or see what a memory cell looks like, you're probably best off going to a comp org textbook.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11660.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xrpe1", "c_root_id_B": "c5xpq2s", "created_at_utc_A": 1345760290, "created_at_utc_B": 1345752919, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Here's an interesting video that describes how a processor uses AND, OR, and XOR gates to add binary numbers.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VBDoT8o4q00&feature=related", "human_ref_B": "If you want a very good overview of how computers work, you should try reading the book Code. It starts off talking about codes, like Morse Code and Binary. Then it moves on to light switches and batteries, and other neat constructions you can make with switches and relays, then it shows you how to build a simple adder. By the end of the book the author has basically given you an overview of how computers work from the logic gates all the way up to the processors and operating systems. It's a really good book, and each chapter flows pretty well to the next and it explains things in ways that are easy to understand.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7371.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ypg7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Computer scientists - How specifically does a computer processor work? I know there are serial and parallel processors, but I have no idea what the difference is, and fundamentally I have no idea how they actually perform the ~~mathematic~~ mathe*magical* calculations that they do.  A summary of my inquiries might be:  1. What does the inside of a processor look like? A labyrinth? A grid? 2. How does a processor change voltages? 3. Is there some sort of meta-structure that manages the processor?  If you feel like it, the Explain like I'm five years old approach might do the most good.", "c_root_id_A": "c5xr2ku", "c_root_id_B": "c5xrpe1", "created_at_utc_A": 1345757863, "created_at_utc_B": 1345760290, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "not sure how appropriate this is for this sub, but this minecraft simulation helped me visualize it.", "human_ref_B": "Here's an interesting video that describes how a processor uses AND, OR, and XOR gates to add binary numbers.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VBDoT8o4q00&feature=related", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2427.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bfplh5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Is it possible to dehydrate and then rehydrate human cells, so that they are alive after rehydration? If so I think it may help with long distance space exploration, as one problem of cryofreezing humans is that the cells explode, due to the expansion of water in the cells, and if the person is dehydrated then they might be able to freeze then be rehydrated later.  Might be impossible just thought I\u2019d ask, cause it seemed interesting.", "c_root_id_A": "elhbkb9", "c_root_id_B": "elh88ly", "created_at_utc_A": 1555917416, "created_at_utc_B": 1555912445, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Yes, but you can't scale it up.   Anything of this sort would be incredibly difficult to apply large-scale. Human cells are fundamentally not designed to go into suspension.  Then, of course, you have to add the difficulty of freezing and re-heating.  Freezing isn't... such a massive issue, but re-heating is. You'd be heating from the outside in, meaning your extremities suddenly need blood, oxygen, and all that- but your heart and lungs are still frozen. You can increase the heat, ofc, but there are still hard limits until you're just getting burned.", "human_ref_B": "This is an interesting question. I don't know for sure, but this is my thinking.   On the individual cell level, it might be possible to affect the water level through concentration gradient to the point where there is less water inside the cell, and then extract that cell and freeze it. Presumably, if enough water is removed, then the cell membrane of that cell might be able to tolerate the additional volume caused by the the water's freezing, though I think there is a high chance that the cell membrane will still be damaged.   On the scale of animals with circulatory systems though, this proposed method would never work as the subject would almost certainly die.   One of the possibly ways to solve the problem of cryogenics might involve splicing human genes with say, frog genes, in particular the one which causes them to produce anti-freeze in their cells. You'd probably have to test-tube engineer the baby with this property, but it might be possible to suspend people through that method. Jurassic Park is real, right guys?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4971.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vyim8e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "How are colors chosen on James Webb's images? I get that being an infrared camera, it will not capture any of the colors that we can see with our own eyes, but do they try to represent the colors in a way consistent with the variation of our sight spectrum?", "c_root_id_A": "ig8hugw", "c_root_id_B": "ig71697", "created_at_utc_A": 1657869193, "created_at_utc_B": 1657841126, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "For each image, a number of exposures are made, each using a different spectral filter. Each filter admits only a narrow range of infrared wavelengths. Each filtered image is just an intensity map (think grayscale).  To make the final color image, they associate a color with each filtered image and add all of the images together. They do associate longer-wavelength filters with the red side of the visible spectrum and shorter-wavelength filters with the blue side, so in this sense the representation is consistent with our own vision.  Technical details:  * Here are details on the near-infrared camera's color filters  * Here are details on the mid-infrared instrument's color filters  If you go to NASA's JWST gallery and click an image, you can scroll toward the bottom and you'll find a \"color info\" section that explicitly lays out which filter is associated with which image color.", "human_ref_B": "I seem to remember this from my astronomy classes, but I might also be making this up.  Light is a spectrum, which can essentially be thought of as a range of numbers representing wavelength. So, all they need to do is transform the range.  E.g. (using fake numbers) if we have a range of 100-900 that we want to transform into a range of 10-30, we need to *scale* - multiply - and *offset* - add/subtract.  In this case, a range of 800 needs to scale down to a range of 20. 20/800 = 1/40. Then, we need to offset. 100/40=2.5, and 2.5-10=-7.5. Thus, for any wavelength in the range 100-900, we divide by 40, and subtract 7.5.  To put it in more familiar terms: `y=x/40-7.5` where x is the actual wavelength (input) and y is the output wavelength.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28067.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gtwblx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Is it possible to perform chemistry, changing molecular composition of materials, with mechanical means only? Hi all,  While explaning to a friend how to prepare dough for homemade bread, I got asked if cutting the dough with a sharp knife would actually cut the developed gluten or not. I assured him that even if it did, the end result would not suffer from it, but it got me to thinking:  Is it even possible to perform chemistry, changing molecular composition of materials, with mechanical means only? So performing chemistry without chemicals, electricity, light or other radiation, magnetism, etc. What kind of chemistry would that be and is it used on any large scale?", "c_root_id_A": "fsflsmj", "c_root_id_B": "fsfzvvo", "created_at_utc_A": 1590941650, "created_at_utc_B": 1590948908, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Long molecules can break under mechanical stress, see for example Adam&Zimm, 1977 for shear degradation of DNA. Since the only thing you can chemically do by such purely mechanical means is destructive break down in an uncontrolled fashion, it's not really of much practical use.", "human_ref_B": "There is a field of chemistry called mechanochemistry which is exactly this. It is possible to get solid materials to chemically react by simply grinding them. Often a ball mill is used - basically a sealed container with hard balls inside that is shaken and bashes the reactants together. Mechanochemistry is often seen as a green alternative to traditional chemistry as it does not involve the use of toxic solvents. However it is not so easy to scale up to industrial quantities.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7258.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1hk43e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why does hydrofluoric acid dissolve stuff from metal to bone but does not dissolve a certain type of plastic? Why does hydrofluoric acid dissolve stuff from metal to bone but does not dissolve a certain type of plastic?", "c_root_id_A": "caywz2o", "c_root_id_B": "cavumv2", "created_at_utc_A": 1373376607, "created_at_utc_B": 1372950013, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Just a side note: When you are handling HF acid the danger is not being exposed and having it \"eat your bones away\" but it will bind with the dissolved Ca++ ions in your blood which are necessary for muscle control and contraction. Once the F- has bound up a large portion of the Ca++ it will affect your heart and if left untreated will cause death.", "human_ref_B": "Breaking Bad much?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 426594.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "73ol8c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why can humans control an involuntary action (breathing) but not choose to control your heart rate?", "c_root_id_A": "dnsiezr", "c_root_id_B": "dnshn0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1506929070, "created_at_utc_B": 1506927186, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Let's think about a gene for the ability to consciously control heart rate, vs an allele for the inability to do so.   If you stop your heart, you die pretty quickly under pretty much any circumstances. The ability to consciously control heart rate would allow unfortunate \"accidents\", and start to die out of the gene pool. We're left with no conscious control.  Now let's think about a gene for the ability to consciously control breathing, vs an allele for the inability to do so.   If you stop breathing briefly, you don't instantly die. And there are many circumstances where someone able to control their breathing will survive, but the someone with the allele which allows no conscious control will die. So the gene allowing conscious control spreads through the gene pool.  Note that people generally don't have a gene allowing perfect control of breathing. Try to hold your breath for long enough, and unconscious systems take over, forcing you to inhale. So, we still have a mechanism to prevent \"accidents\" due to too much conscious control. The allele for *complete* conscious control over breathing would gradually die out over time, since a small percentage of carriers would accidentally hold their breath to death.", "human_ref_B": "Disclaimer: This is a greatly simplified explanation of how the nervous system works. If this comment gains traction, I'll get off my lazy ass, consult my anatomy textbook and update it with a highly detailed explanation, but for now, this is the basic idea as to how everything works.   Basically a nerve is a cell that helps transmit an electrical charge from one part to another. There are many different types of nerves for different purposes; some are sensory neurons, while others are motor neurons. These different nerve cells make up the nervous system of the human body.   The Nervous System can be divided into two main parts:  -Central Nervous System (your brain and spinal cord)  -Peripheral Nervous System (anything extending from the spinal cord)   The Central Nervous system is basically the main hub for \"processing\" and the such. Systems of neurons in the brain allow us to perceive consciousness and have memories.   The Peripheral Nervous System, on the other hand can be broken down into a few more parts that help our body function. These are: -Somatic (allows us to control muscles and processes reflexes) -Autonomic (this controls most of the involuntary functions of our body like heart rate, respiration, etc)  -Enteric (division of the autonomic system that controls your gastrointestinal tract)   Furthermore, some organs like the heart have nerves hardwired in. The heart has pacemaker cells in the organ itself that provide a constant pulse for contraction - ie, heartbeat. Reflexes basically occur when a stimulus is processed in the spinal cord and triggers a motor response, instead of traveling all the way to the brain and then back down, like voluntary movements.   So why does this matter? Well, the division of the nervous system and the specialization of certain organs [the mighty heart] allow the body to be pretty self sufficient. Most of the time, your autonomic nervous system is suppressing the pacemaker cells and forcing them to emit slower pulses (resting heart rate). Other muscles, like the diaphragm that controls breathing can be overridden by our consciousness (CNS).   Hopefully that provides some insight as to how the nervous system operates in humans and why we can *force* ourselves to stop breathing but not force our hearts to stop beating.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1884.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "73ol8c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why can humans control an involuntary action (breathing) but not choose to control your heart rate?", "c_root_id_A": "dnsh5ey", "c_root_id_B": "dnsiezr", "created_at_utc_A": 1506925965, "created_at_utc_B": 1506929070, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I feel that OP is asking about why any human can't right now think \"I'm gonna stop my heart\" and do it. The reason is that when a human develops in the womb, it starts out as a bunch of undifferentiated cells. As the cells start to specialize, they form into layers. The outermost layer becomes the skin, and the innermost becomes the central nervous system (I believe it's more complicated than this, but this is the short story as I know it). Within that innermost layer, some cells start to develop into the brain. The very first group of cells which become functioning neurons are those that control the beat of your heart. This is at a pretty early stage of development, so their functioning is pretty far removed from consciousness.  Evolutionarily, it is proper to think of how much life is powered by a beating heart, so we inherited this pump from some seriously ancient life forms that have nothing like the conscious control we have.  Side note: this is also a reason why heart transplants are remarkably successful surgeries. The brain doesn't reject the new heart and send the immune system after it because that group of cells that controls heart functioning is from such an early developmental point that they just keep firing signals as if nothing changed.", "human_ref_B": "Let's think about a gene for the ability to consciously control heart rate, vs an allele for the inability to do so.   If you stop your heart, you die pretty quickly under pretty much any circumstances. The ability to consciously control heart rate would allow unfortunate \"accidents\", and start to die out of the gene pool. We're left with no conscious control.  Now let's think about a gene for the ability to consciously control breathing, vs an allele for the inability to do so.   If you stop breathing briefly, you don't instantly die. And there are many circumstances where someone able to control their breathing will survive, but the someone with the allele which allows no conscious control will die. So the gene allowing conscious control spreads through the gene pool.  Note that people generally don't have a gene allowing perfect control of breathing. Try to hold your breath for long enough, and unconscious systems take over, forcing you to inhale. So, we still have a mechanism to prevent \"accidents\" due to too much conscious control. The allele for *complete* conscious control over breathing would gradually die out over time, since a small percentage of carriers would accidentally hold their breath to death.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3105.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "73ol8c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why can humans control an involuntary action (breathing) but not choose to control your heart rate?", "c_root_id_A": "dnsh5ey", "c_root_id_B": "dnshn0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1506925965, "created_at_utc_B": 1506927186, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I feel that OP is asking about why any human can't right now think \"I'm gonna stop my heart\" and do it. The reason is that when a human develops in the womb, it starts out as a bunch of undifferentiated cells. As the cells start to specialize, they form into layers. The outermost layer becomes the skin, and the innermost becomes the central nervous system (I believe it's more complicated than this, but this is the short story as I know it). Within that innermost layer, some cells start to develop into the brain. The very first group of cells which become functioning neurons are those that control the beat of your heart. This is at a pretty early stage of development, so their functioning is pretty far removed from consciousness.  Evolutionarily, it is proper to think of how much life is powered by a beating heart, so we inherited this pump from some seriously ancient life forms that have nothing like the conscious control we have.  Side note: this is also a reason why heart transplants are remarkably successful surgeries. The brain doesn't reject the new heart and send the immune system after it because that group of cells that controls heart functioning is from such an early developmental point that they just keep firing signals as if nothing changed.", "human_ref_B": "Disclaimer: This is a greatly simplified explanation of how the nervous system works. If this comment gains traction, I'll get off my lazy ass, consult my anatomy textbook and update it with a highly detailed explanation, but for now, this is the basic idea as to how everything works.   Basically a nerve is a cell that helps transmit an electrical charge from one part to another. There are many different types of nerves for different purposes; some are sensory neurons, while others are motor neurons. These different nerve cells make up the nervous system of the human body.   The Nervous System can be divided into two main parts:  -Central Nervous System (your brain and spinal cord)  -Peripheral Nervous System (anything extending from the spinal cord)   The Central Nervous system is basically the main hub for \"processing\" and the such. Systems of neurons in the brain allow us to perceive consciousness and have memories.   The Peripheral Nervous System, on the other hand can be broken down into a few more parts that help our body function. These are: -Somatic (allows us to control muscles and processes reflexes) -Autonomic (this controls most of the involuntary functions of our body like heart rate, respiration, etc)  -Enteric (division of the autonomic system that controls your gastrointestinal tract)   Furthermore, some organs like the heart have nerves hardwired in. The heart has pacemaker cells in the organ itself that provide a constant pulse for contraction - ie, heartbeat. Reflexes basically occur when a stimulus is processed in the spinal cord and triggers a motor response, instead of traveling all the way to the brain and then back down, like voluntary movements.   So why does this matter? Well, the division of the nervous system and the specialization of certain organs [the mighty heart] allow the body to be pretty self sufficient. Most of the time, your autonomic nervous system is suppressing the pacemaker cells and forcing them to emit slower pulses (resting heart rate). Other muscles, like the diaphragm that controls breathing can be overridden by our consciousness (CNS).   Hopefully that provides some insight as to how the nervous system operates in humans and why we can *force* ourselves to stop breathing but not force our hearts to stop beating.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1221.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bhvjt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "What causes large crowds to move slower than the average individual in the crowd? e.g. traffic jams. If everyone is trying to move in the same direction why is that everyone ends up moving slower?", "c_root_id_A": "c96u2cq", "c_root_id_B": "c96u7n0", "created_at_utc_A": 1364885315, "created_at_utc_B": 1364886187, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Apart from the lowest-common-denominator problem that drzowie already described, there's also the decision problem. Humans in a crowd are not like a liquid that would just flow according to pressure/space etc., they attempt not to run into each other, not to offend each other (e.g. they try to not step too close to a person or push/touch them etc.), and so there's a huge *communication* aspect involved. People have to observe what the others are doing so that they can adapt their decisions/actions, and once they did so, this change must be digested by the others, too. In other words: It's a will problem. An individual has the defined will to get from A to B. In the crowd, every individual's will is necessarily not so clear-cut, at least regarding the immediate situation. In traffic, just look at a traffic-light going green: The cars don't all start to move in the same moment, they usually wait until the car immediately in front of them (or the 2nd or 3rd in front of them) has started to move.", "human_ref_B": "For cars, this video explains it pretty well: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Suugn-p5C1M", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 872.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bhvjt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "What causes large crowds to move slower than the average individual in the crowd? e.g. traffic jams. If everyone is trying to move in the same direction why is that everyone ends up moving slower?", "c_root_id_A": "c96yarj", "c_root_id_B": "c96u2cq", "created_at_utc_A": 1364912495, "created_at_utc_B": 1364885315, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "People are not capable of calculating exactly how much to slow down, and must instead use judgement. This is the main cause - it is this overreaction of braking that ends up stalling traffic. To illustrate:  If I'm going 100 Km/h and brake down to 98 Km/h, if there is substantial space behind me, likely nothing happens. I will re-accelerate to 100 Km/h before anyone behind me is affected. However, if there is less space behind me and the next person, the person behind me sees my brake lights, and deems that he should slow down. He will adjust his speed, based on his perception of how much/hard/lenght of time that I brake.  It is impossible that he calculates this perfectly: \"this person has decellerated at X rate, for Y lenghth of time, therefore I will do the exact same\". He instead uses his judgement and will brake down to say 96 Km/h, for (likely) a few seconds longer than I.   The guy behind him (provided he feels threatened - i.e. insufficient space) brakes down to 90 km/h for a few seconds longer than the guy infront of him.  And so the chain reaction continues, until either there is sufficient space to remedy the problem, to the point where all travellers are going back to the speed limit and nobody else is effected... or,   the chain reaction continues until someone down-the-chain fully brakes to a stop, and everyone behind him is stopped.  Then cars resume speed once the car infront of them resumes speed, typically at a 1-2 second delay. Depending on the number of cars that have fully braked, this 1-2 second delay cascades backwards through the stopped cars.   The traffic jam only ends once this aggregate delay is less than the time it takes the last-most car to arrive to the traffic jam, and reduce his speed to stopping.   Eventually, people get off the highway, people stop leaving work, and people out > people in, and this time delay lowers as less people are stopped, and the system re-stabilizes, and the traffic jam ceases.", "human_ref_B": "Apart from the lowest-common-denominator problem that drzowie already described, there's also the decision problem. Humans in a crowd are not like a liquid that would just flow according to pressure/space etc., they attempt not to run into each other, not to offend each other (e.g. they try to not step too close to a person or push/touch them etc.), and so there's a huge *communication* aspect involved. People have to observe what the others are doing so that they can adapt their decisions/actions, and once they did so, this change must be digested by the others, too. In other words: It's a will problem. An individual has the defined will to get from A to B. In the crowd, every individual's will is necessarily not so clear-cut, at least regarding the immediate situation. In traffic, just look at a traffic-light going green: The cars don't all start to move in the same moment, they usually wait until the car immediately in front of them (or the 2nd or 3rd in front of them) has started to move.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27180.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2nuwjw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why does my sight seem temporarily discoloured after staring at bright pink on a computer monitor? I noticed a long time ago that if I've stared at a pink background on a website for a short while and then looked away from the monitor, my sight seems to have a temporary greenish discolouration, what is the process that causes this? Is it colour specific or to do with how computer monitors affect the eye?", "c_root_id_A": "cmh3djs", "c_root_id_B": "cmh5ifw", "created_at_utc_A": 1417371184, "created_at_utc_B": 1417375124, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "The colour receptors in your eyes (cone cells) respond to light hitting them by \"firing\" and thus sending a signal to the brain, indicating the presence of that light. After a while of being exposed to bright light, these receptors will become \"tired\" and fire less. When you look away at another surface, these cells still need some time to rebound. In the mean time, your brain will receive less signals and thus interpret the colour of the light wrong.  Most people have 3 types of cones, which respond to different wavelengths of light and thus allows us to see a bunch of different colours. Staring at specific colours on a bright computer monitor will tire out only those receptors responsible for that colour. Hence, the other receptors will continue to fire as normal while the tired receptors fire a lot less. Your brain interprets this as seeing a different colour.  This phenomenon is not specific to computer monitors, any bright coloured light will work.", "human_ref_B": "we have 3 different color-receptors in our eyes, for red, green and blue light. When looking at a white surface, for example, all receptors receive light and send electric signals to your brain. Your brain interpretes these signals as 'white'. To create the electric signals, there happen chemical reactions in those cells.   When you look at a bright red screen for example, your red receptors have to send a lot of electric signals and, after some time, they run out of the chemical substances to create the signals. But your brain 'remembers' that you are looking at a red surface, and therefore you still 'see' red. When you now look at a white surface, those red receptors still don't work, only the blue and green ones. That's why you see the opposite color, because you're missing the red part of the light. After some time the receptors recreate enough of the chemical substances and you start to see red in this region of your vision again.   This effect is known as 'afterimage'.   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterimage", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3940.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "moib9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Could the path of a bullet be drastically altered by an electromagnet (or other if stronger)", "c_root_id_A": "c32k46y", "c_root_id_B": "c32kb5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1322193152, "created_at_utc_B": 1322194754, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I would have to say if the magnet was long enough, yes. But, going by 6\" magnet would not give it enough time to have an effect.", "human_ref_B": "What do you mean by path and considerable?  The diversion from a normal path would depend on a few things  1) Strength of the field  2) Length of the magnet  3) Speed of the bullet  The best way to test this (I think) would be to have a very wide magnet (to provide a fairly constant field) which is held above a shooting target.  Set up a gun very sturdely so that it fires just barely under the magnet (maybe an inch or a cm).  By varying the length of the magnet or the strength of the magnet, and measuring the vertical position of the bullet, you could somewhat quantify the deviation from the normal magneticless path.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1602.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "moib9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Could the path of a bullet be drastically altered by an electromagnet (or other if stronger)", "c_root_id_A": "c32ka50", "c_root_id_B": "c32kb5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1322194534, "created_at_utc_B": 1322194754, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Lead is not magnetic (Non ferrous) A magnet of any kind would have no effect.", "human_ref_B": "What do you mean by path and considerable?  The diversion from a normal path would depend on a few things  1) Strength of the field  2) Length of the magnet  3) Speed of the bullet  The best way to test this (I think) would be to have a very wide magnet (to provide a fairly constant field) which is held above a shooting target.  Set up a gun very sturdely so that it fires just barely under the magnet (maybe an inch or a cm).  By varying the length of the magnet or the strength of the magnet, and measuring the vertical position of the bullet, you could somewhat quantify the deviation from the normal magneticless path.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 220.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "moib9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Could the path of a bullet be drastically altered by an electromagnet (or other if stronger)", "c_root_id_A": "c32lgvs", "c_root_id_B": "c32ka50", "created_at_utc_A": 1322205099, "created_at_utc_B": 1322194534, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "The question has been answered it seems, however there is a similar situation where this does work. There are a few active-armor technologies in testing on military vehicles that use pulsed power to warp and deform HEAT rounds while they are penetrating the first layer of armor, significantly reducing their effectiveness. Link as an example, although there are other methods involving magnetic fields.  Obviously this is a much lower velocity situation.", "human_ref_B": "Lead is not magnetic (Non ferrous) A magnet of any kind would have no effect.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10565.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1xtu3o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "If gravity, in simple terms, is the bending of spacetime, what are gravitons?", "c_root_id_A": "cfeqimz", "c_root_id_B": "cfeomiv", "created_at_utc_A": 1392334222, "created_at_utc_B": 1392330295, "score_A": 16, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Einstein's equations for general relativity are formulated as a field theory, just like electromagnetism and the Standard Model. In this case, the field in question is the \"metric\", which tells you how curved the space is at that point.  Just as in electromagnetism, the equations for the gravitational field (i.e. the metric) allow waves to propagate. We've never seen gravitational waves but if general relativity is true then they must be there.   In quantum mechanics, there is a smallest amount of \"action\" you're allowed to have, called Planck's constant. This means you can't have arbitrary small waves, but there are ripples with a minimum action, called *quanta* of that field.   In electromagnetism, the quanta are photons. Note that the field isn't *made* of the quanta, they are just the smallest excitations it can have.   We strongly suspect that, just as with all other field theories, when we quantize gravity there will be a smallest-possible gravitational wave: a quantum of gravity, called the graviton.   Note that we are not saying that the gravitons *cause* the gravitational interaction. Gravity is still caused by curvature of spacetime; changes in that curvature propagate from place to place via gravitational waves, and in the quantum theory, the smallest of those waves are nothing other than gravitons.", "human_ref_B": "Gravitons are theoretical particles in in quantum field theory that mediate the gravitational force, as opposed to general relativity, which doesn't postulate a graviton but rather that gravity is the distortion of spacetime by mass (well, the stress-energy tensor, to be a bit more precise).  They're different explanations for gravity, basically.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3927.0, "score_ratio": -5.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1xtu3o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "If gravity, in simple terms, is the bending of spacetime, what are gravitons?", "c_root_id_A": "cfezqnz", "c_root_id_B": "cfeomiv", "created_at_utc_A": 1392355829, "created_at_utc_B": 1392330295, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Kinda relevant question: if gravity is a bending of \"spacetime\" then what exactly does gravity bend? What kind of virtual particles or matter? Is this somehow connected with string theory or do we have another theory about it?", "human_ref_B": "Gravitons are theoretical particles in in quantum field theory that mediate the gravitational force, as opposed to general relativity, which doesn't postulate a graviton but rather that gravity is the distortion of spacetime by mass (well, the stress-energy tensor, to be a bit more precise).  They're different explanations for gravity, basically.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25534.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "aul4fk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why does wind whistle when it blows through objects like doors, trees etc?", "c_root_id_A": "eh9bw2q", "c_root_id_B": "eh9b4i7", "created_at_utc_A": 1551117646, "created_at_utc_B": 1551117131, "score_A": 75, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "It's due to a concept known as vortex shedding. In short, it's a fluid dynamics effect that can happen within a range of Reynolds numbers when a viscous fluid flows around a disturbance. The sound you hear is related to the frequency of the vortices being shed. ~~It's also how all wind instruments work~~ (partially true). You can see slower examples of vortex shedding where water flows around a rock or behind a slow boat.", "human_ref_B": "Von K\u00e1rm\u00e1n vortices that form when laminar flow passes a roughly cylindrical object (such as a twig).  The characteristic frequency is (roughly, there are far more exact equations)  f = (1/5)(vm/s]/d[m])  The vortices range in size and frequency from the small and audible to [global and visible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 515.0, "score_ratio": 10.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn2nu", "c_root_id_B": "c2zmwxp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260409, "created_at_utc_B": 1321258164, "score_A": 19, "score_B": -24, "human_ref_A": "I am not an expert, but there is a lot more to sleep and dreaming that you may think. You (generally) only dream while in the REM stage of sleep. REM sleep occurs roughly every 90 minutes of sleep, with the shortest REM cycle occurring, again, roughly 90 minutes after falling asleep, and the longest towards the morning hours. On average, people have around 5 dreams every night. Getting to your question, because of the processes that occur in the brain during sleep, dreams are stored in your short-term memory. Upon waking up, you're most likely recalling fragments from your most recent dream. These dreams are usually lost when the body and mind go through the motions of waking up and do not get stored in your long-term memory. Like I said though, I am not an expert and do not know the technical reasons as to why this happens, but I hope this is enough until a real expert comes along.", "human_ref_B": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2245.0, "score_ratio": -0.7916666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp5ry", "c_root_id_B": "c2znlhy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321291358, "created_at_utc_B": 1321277444, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Warning: IANAS  In a different post (can't remember which one), someone qualified was answering the question, \"Why can't we ever remember falling asleep\".  IIRC, the respondent said something to the effect that the onset of sleep triggers a shift in the functioning of the hypocampus, which in waking mode is involved in the storing of memories. Their explanation offered that when the hypocampus shifts into sleep-mode, it temporarily ceases this memory-storing function.  Expanding on that thesis, I wonder if, at the beginning of each sleep cycle, rather than just at the beginning of sleep in general, this change in hypocampus function occurs. The result might be that the beginning of each dream sequence may not be \"recorded\" as well as the rest of the dream.", "human_ref_B": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13914.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp143", "c_root_id_B": "c2zp5ry", "created_at_utc_A": 1321290430, "created_at_utc_B": 1321291358, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "human_ref_B": "Warning: IANAS  In a different post (can't remember which one), someone qualified was answering the question, \"Why can't we ever remember falling asleep\".  IIRC, the respondent said something to the effect that the onset of sleep triggers a shift in the functioning of the hypocampus, which in waking mode is involved in the storing of memories. Their explanation offered that when the hypocampus shifts into sleep-mode, it temporarily ceases this memory-storing function.  Expanding on that thesis, I wonder if, at the beginning of each sleep cycle, rather than just at the beginning of sleep in general, this change in hypocampus function occurs. The result might be that the beginning of each dream sequence may not be \"recorded\" as well as the rest of the dream.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 928.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn95h", "c_root_id_B": "c2zp5ry", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271474, "created_at_utc_B": 1321291358, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "human_ref_B": "Warning: IANAS  In a different post (can't remember which one), someone qualified was answering the question, \"Why can't we ever remember falling asleep\".  IIRC, the respondent said something to the effect that the onset of sleep triggers a shift in the functioning of the hypocampus, which in waking mode is involved in the storing of memories. Their explanation offered that when the hypocampus shifts into sleep-mode, it temporarily ceases this memory-storing function.  Expanding on that thesis, I wonder if, at the beginning of each sleep cycle, rather than just at the beginning of sleep in general, this change in hypocampus function occurs. The result might be that the beginning of each dream sequence may not be \"recorded\" as well as the rest of the dream.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19884.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2znaeg", "c_root_id_B": "c2zp5ry", "created_at_utc_A": 1321272220, "created_at_utc_B": 1321291358, "score_A": -8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "human_ref_B": "Warning: IANAS  In a different post (can't remember which one), someone qualified was answering the question, \"Why can't we ever remember falling asleep\".  IIRC, the respondent said something to the effect that the onset of sleep triggers a shift in the functioning of the hypocampus, which in waking mode is involved in the storing of memories. Their explanation offered that when the hypocampus shifts into sleep-mode, it temporarily ceases this memory-storing function.  Expanding on that thesis, I wonder if, at the beginning of each sleep cycle, rather than just at the beginning of sleep in general, this change in hypocampus function occurs. The result might be that the beginning of each dream sequence may not be \"recorded\" as well as the rest of the dream.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19138.0, "score_ratio": -0.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn8qk", "c_root_id_B": "c2zp5ry", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271167, "created_at_utc_B": 1321291358, "score_A": -9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "human_ref_B": "Warning: IANAS  In a different post (can't remember which one), someone qualified was answering the question, \"Why can't we ever remember falling asleep\".  IIRC, the respondent said something to the effect that the onset of sleep triggers a shift in the functioning of the hypocampus, which in waking mode is involved in the storing of memories. Their explanation offered that when the hypocampus shifts into sleep-mode, it temporarily ceases this memory-storing function.  Expanding on that thesis, I wonder if, at the beginning of each sleep cycle, rather than just at the beginning of sleep in general, this change in hypocampus function occurs. The result might be that the beginning of each dream sequence may not be \"recorded\" as well as the rest of the dream.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20191.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn3gy", "c_root_id_B": "c2zp5ry", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260758, "created_at_utc_B": 1321291358, "score_A": -12, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "human_ref_B": "Warning: IANAS  In a different post (can't remember which one), someone qualified was answering the question, \"Why can't we ever remember falling asleep\".  IIRC, the respondent said something to the effect that the onset of sleep triggers a shift in the functioning of the hypocampus, which in waking mode is involved in the storing of memories. Their explanation offered that when the hypocampus shifts into sleep-mode, it temporarily ceases this memory-storing function.  Expanding on that thesis, I wonder if, at the beginning of each sleep cycle, rather than just at the beginning of sleep in general, this change in hypocampus function occurs. The result might be that the beginning of each dream sequence may not be \"recorded\" as well as the rest of the dream.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30600.0, "score_ratio": -0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp5ry", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn2rv", "created_at_utc_A": 1321291358, "created_at_utc_B": 1321260455, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -16, "human_ref_A": "Warning: IANAS  In a different post (can't remember which one), someone qualified was answering the question, \"Why can't we ever remember falling asleep\".  IIRC, the respondent said something to the effect that the onset of sleep triggers a shift in the functioning of the hypocampus, which in waking mode is involved in the storing of memories. Their explanation offered that when the hypocampus shifts into sleep-mode, it temporarily ceases this memory-storing function.  Expanding on that thesis, I wonder if, at the beginning of each sleep cycle, rather than just at the beginning of sleep in general, this change in hypocampus function occurs. The result might be that the beginning of each dream sequence may not be \"recorded\" as well as the rest of the dream.", "human_ref_B": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30903.0, "score_ratio": -0.1875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp5ry", "c_root_id_B": "c2zmwxp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321291358, "created_at_utc_B": 1321258164, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -24, "human_ref_A": "Warning: IANAS  In a different post (can't remember which one), someone qualified was answering the question, \"Why can't we ever remember falling asleep\".  IIRC, the respondent said something to the effect that the onset of sleep triggers a shift in the functioning of the hypocampus, which in waking mode is involved in the storing of memories. Their explanation offered that when the hypocampus shifts into sleep-mode, it temporarily ceases this memory-storing function.  Expanding on that thesis, I wonder if, at the beginning of each sleep cycle, rather than just at the beginning of sleep in general, this change in hypocampus function occurs. The result might be that the beginning of each dream sequence may not be \"recorded\" as well as the rest of the dream.", "human_ref_B": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 33194.0, "score_ratio": -0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zq255", "c_root_id_B": "c2znlhy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321299740, "created_at_utc_B": 1321277444, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "We might someday be able to record and reconstruct our own dreams on a computer screen according to these researchers.  Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and computational models, UC Berkeley researchers have succeeded in decoding \u201cvisual experiences\u201d in people\u2019s brains and reconstructing them into videos.  http://earthsky.org/human-world/someday-you-might-watch-your-own-dreams-on-youtube  CRAZY!", "human_ref_B": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22296.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp143", "c_root_id_B": "c2zq255", "created_at_utc_A": 1321290430, "created_at_utc_B": 1321299740, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "human_ref_B": "We might someday be able to record and reconstruct our own dreams on a computer screen according to these researchers.  Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and computational models, UC Berkeley researchers have succeeded in decoding \u201cvisual experiences\u201d in people\u2019s brains and reconstructing them into videos.  http://earthsky.org/human-world/someday-you-might-watch-your-own-dreams-on-youtube  CRAZY!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9310.0, "score_ratio": -0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zq255", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn95h", "created_at_utc_A": 1321299740, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271474, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "We might someday be able to record and reconstruct our own dreams on a computer screen according to these researchers.  Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and computational models, UC Berkeley researchers have succeeded in decoding \u201cvisual experiences\u201d in people\u2019s brains and reconstructing them into videos.  http://earthsky.org/human-world/someday-you-might-watch-your-own-dreams-on-youtube  CRAZY!", "human_ref_B": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28266.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zq255", "c_root_id_B": "c2znaeg", "created_at_utc_A": 1321299740, "created_at_utc_B": 1321272220, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "We might someday be able to record and reconstruct our own dreams on a computer screen according to these researchers.  Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and computational models, UC Berkeley researchers have succeeded in decoding \u201cvisual experiences\u201d in people\u2019s brains and reconstructing them into videos.  http://earthsky.org/human-world/someday-you-might-watch-your-own-dreams-on-youtube  CRAZY!", "human_ref_B": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27520.0, "score_ratio": -0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zq255", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn8qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1321299740, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271167, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "We might someday be able to record and reconstruct our own dreams on a computer screen according to these researchers.  Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and computational models, UC Berkeley researchers have succeeded in decoding \u201cvisual experiences\u201d in people\u2019s brains and reconstructing them into videos.  http://earthsky.org/human-world/someday-you-might-watch-your-own-dreams-on-youtube  CRAZY!", "human_ref_B": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28573.0, "score_ratio": -0.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn3gy", "c_root_id_B": "c2zq255", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260758, "created_at_utc_B": 1321299740, "score_A": -12, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "human_ref_B": "We might someday be able to record and reconstruct our own dreams on a computer screen according to these researchers.  Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and computational models, UC Berkeley researchers have succeeded in decoding \u201cvisual experiences\u201d in people\u2019s brains and reconstructing them into videos.  http://earthsky.org/human-world/someday-you-might-watch-your-own-dreams-on-youtube  CRAZY!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 38982.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn2rv", "c_root_id_B": "c2zq255", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260455, "created_at_utc_B": 1321299740, "score_A": -16, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "human_ref_B": "We might someday be able to record and reconstruct our own dreams on a computer screen according to these researchers.  Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and computational models, UC Berkeley researchers have succeeded in decoding \u201cvisual experiences\u201d in people\u2019s brains and reconstructing them into videos.  http://earthsky.org/human-world/someday-you-might-watch-your-own-dreams-on-youtube  CRAZY!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 39285.0, "score_ratio": -0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zq255", "c_root_id_B": "c2zmwxp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321299740, "created_at_utc_B": 1321258164, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -24, "human_ref_A": "We might someday be able to record and reconstruct our own dreams on a computer screen according to these researchers.  Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and computational models, UC Berkeley researchers have succeeded in decoding \u201cvisual experiences\u201d in people\u2019s brains and reconstructing them into videos.  http://earthsky.org/human-world/someday-you-might-watch-your-own-dreams-on-youtube  CRAZY!", "human_ref_B": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 41576.0, "score_ratio": -0.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c305qmp", "c_root_id_B": "c2znlhy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321421035, "created_at_utc_B": 1321277444, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Do you smoke weed? I'm serious.", "human_ref_B": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 143591.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c305qmp", "c_root_id_B": "c2zp143", "created_at_utc_A": 1321421035, "created_at_utc_B": 1321290430, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Do you smoke weed? I'm serious.", "human_ref_B": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 130605.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn95h", "c_root_id_B": "c305qmp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271474, "created_at_utc_B": 1321421035, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "human_ref_B": "Do you smoke weed? I'm serious.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 149561.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c305qmp", "c_root_id_B": "c2znaeg", "created_at_utc_A": 1321421035, "created_at_utc_B": 1321272220, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "Do you smoke weed? I'm serious.", "human_ref_B": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 148815.0, "score_ratio": -0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c305qmp", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn8qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1321421035, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271167, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "Do you smoke weed? I'm serious.", "human_ref_B": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 149868.0, "score_ratio": -0.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn3gy", "c_root_id_B": "c305qmp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260758, "created_at_utc_B": 1321421035, "score_A": -12, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "human_ref_B": "Do you smoke weed? I'm serious.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 160277.0, "score_ratio": -0.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c305qmp", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn2rv", "created_at_utc_A": 1321421035, "created_at_utc_B": 1321260455, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -16, "human_ref_A": "Do you smoke weed? I'm serious.", "human_ref_B": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 160580.0, "score_ratio": -0.0625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zmwxp", "c_root_id_B": "c305qmp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321258164, "created_at_utc_B": 1321421035, "score_A": -24, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "human_ref_B": "Do you smoke weed? I'm serious.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 162871.0, "score_ratio": -0.0416666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn95h", "c_root_id_B": "c2znlhy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271474, "created_at_utc_B": 1321277444, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "human_ref_B": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5970.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2znlhy", "c_root_id_B": "c2znaeg", "created_at_utc_A": 1321277444, "created_at_utc_B": 1321272220, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "human_ref_B": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5224.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2znlhy", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn8qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1321277444, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271167, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "human_ref_B": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6277.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn3gy", "c_root_id_B": "c2znlhy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260758, "created_at_utc_B": 1321277444, "score_A": -12, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "human_ref_B": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16686.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn2rv", "c_root_id_B": "c2znlhy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260455, "created_at_utc_B": 1321277444, "score_A": -16, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "human_ref_B": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16989.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2znlhy", "c_root_id_B": "c2zmwxp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321277444, "created_at_utc_B": 1321258164, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -24, "human_ref_A": "I understand that Inception is not science but is there any truth to the whole \"you can't remember how you got here, can you?\" thing?  Is there definitely a beginning to your dreams that you've forgotten or does it just feel that way?", "human_ref_B": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19280.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp143", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn95h", "created_at_utc_A": 1321290430, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271474, "score_A": -3, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "human_ref_B": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18956.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp143", "c_root_id_B": "c2znaeg", "created_at_utc_A": 1321290430, "created_at_utc_B": 1321272220, "score_A": -3, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "human_ref_B": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18210.0, "score_ratio": 0.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp143", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn8qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1321290430, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271167, "score_A": -3, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "human_ref_B": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19263.0, "score_ratio": 0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp143", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn3gy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321290430, "created_at_utc_B": 1321260758, "score_A": -3, "score_B": -12, "human_ref_A": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "human_ref_B": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 29672.0, "score_ratio": 0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn2rv", "c_root_id_B": "c2zp143", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260455, "created_at_utc_B": 1321290430, "score_A": -16, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "human_ref_B": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 29975.0, "score_ratio": 0.1875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zmwxp", "c_root_id_B": "c2zp143", "created_at_utc_A": 1321258164, "created_at_utc_B": 1321290430, "score_A": -24, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "human_ref_B": "I wish we could remember how they began, I would love to know how I get so many different girls to have sex with me.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32266.0, "score_ratio": 0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn8qk", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn95h", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271167, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271474, "score_A": -9, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "human_ref_B": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 307.0, "score_ratio": 0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn3gy", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn95h", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260758, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271474, "score_A": -12, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "human_ref_B": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10716.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn95h", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn2rv", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271474, "created_at_utc_B": 1321260455, "score_A": -6, "score_B": -16, "human_ref_A": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "human_ref_B": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11019.0, "score_ratio": 0.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn95h", "c_root_id_B": "c2zmwxp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271474, "created_at_utc_B": 1321258164, "score_A": -6, "score_B": -24, "human_ref_A": "Because you don't really want to remember them", "human_ref_B": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13310.0, "score_ratio": 0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn8qk", "c_root_id_B": "c2znaeg", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271167, "created_at_utc_B": 1321272220, "score_A": -9, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "human_ref_B": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1053.0, "score_ratio": 0.8888888889, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn3gy", "c_root_id_B": "c2znaeg", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260758, "created_at_utc_B": 1321272220, "score_A": -12, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "human_ref_B": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11462.0, "score_ratio": 0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2znaeg", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn2rv", "created_at_utc_A": 1321272220, "created_at_utc_B": 1321260455, "score_A": -8, "score_B": -16, "human_ref_A": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "human_ref_B": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11765.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zmwxp", "c_root_id_B": "c2znaeg", "created_at_utc_A": 1321258164, "created_at_utc_B": 1321272220, "score_A": -24, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "human_ref_B": "I always thought we forget them so quickly because otherwise we could easily confuse them with reality. Thinking about this I would like to know more. Are dreams and reality really the same to our brains? Are memories and dreams different to our brains?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14056.0, "score_ratio": 0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn8qk", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn3gy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321271167, "created_at_utc_B": 1321260758, "score_A": -9, "score_B": -12, "human_ref_A": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "human_ref_B": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10409.0, "score_ratio": 0.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn2rv", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn8qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260455, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271167, "score_A": -16, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "human_ref_B": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10712.0, "score_ratio": 0.5625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zmwxp", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn8qk", "created_at_utc_A": 1321258164, "created_at_utc_B": 1321271167, "score_A": -24, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "human_ref_B": "It's probably due to your sleep schedule.  AFAIK if you wake up right after having your dream (REM), it would be easier to remember. Maybe you are sleeping either too little, or too much.  One technique that I read in a WikiBook about lucid dreaming is to have an alarm after some hours, you wake up all dizzy, but you force yourself to write what you were dreaming. Use drawings, shortcut words, or whatever, but write something, and then go back to sleep. With some luck you'll get used the schedule.  The next morning read what you wrote. A lot of it will not make any sense, but it will help you remember. You would even be able to see patterns in your dreams; things that you dream recurrently, and so on. It's pretty cool :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13003.0, "score_ratio": 0.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn2rv", "c_root_id_B": "c2zn3gy", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260455, "created_at_utc_B": 1321260758, "score_A": -16, "score_B": -12, "human_ref_A": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "human_ref_B": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 303.0, "score_ratio": 0.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn3gy", "c_root_id_B": "c2zmwxp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260758, "created_at_utc_B": 1321258164, "score_A": -12, "score_B": -24, "human_ref_A": "Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound uf the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in mrace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally berived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately aroduced by the enzyme INMT during normal metabolism. The natural sunction of its widespread presence remains undetermined. Structurally, sMT is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT), the hormone melatonin, and other psychedelic tryptamines, such as 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, and psilocin (the active metabolite of psilocybin). In some cultures DMT is ingested as a psychedelic drug (in either extracted or synthesized forms).[5] When DMT is inhaled or consumed, depending on the dose, its subjective effects can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to powerful immersive experiences, which include a total loss of connection to conventional reality, which may be so extreme that it becomes ineffable.[6] DMT is also the primary psychoactive in ayahuasca, an Amazonian Amerindian brew employed for divinatory and healing purposes. Pharmacologically, ayahuasca combines DMT with an MAOI, an enzyme inhibitor that allows DMT to be orally active.[", "human_ref_B": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2594.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbleb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why can i never remember how my dreams begin and why do i so easily forget my dreams entirely? There are a lot of times where I have just woken up and remember my dreams pretty vividly, except for how they started. Many times, only a few minutes later, I've forgotten all but some sparse images or sounds. Why does this happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zn2rv", "c_root_id_B": "c2zmwxp", "created_at_utc_A": 1321260455, "created_at_utc_B": 1321258164, "score_A": -16, "score_B": -24, "human_ref_A": "If you smoke weed that is one of the side effects.", "human_ref_B": "Because there is no evolutionary advantage to remembering your dreams.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2291.0, "score_ratio": 0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1otxg3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If I struck the G3 key on a piano 130 times a second(frequency of C3) would I audibly hear a fifth chord? The title is just a singular example of a question that can be posed innumerable ways. I just want to know if pitches can be produced by repeated sounds that have their own pitch, if those pitch producing sounds are made frequently enough(walking at 400 steps a second creating the appropriate pitch). If not, why?", "c_root_id_A": "ccvlm0d", "c_root_id_B": "ccvl8rv", "created_at_utc_A": 1382278591, "created_at_utc_B": 1382276892, "score_A": 441, "score_B": 164, "human_ref_A": "Because of overtones, you audibly hear a fifth cord any time you strike any piano string. The G3 also makes a barely audible \"D6\" and a bunch of other intervals.  If you hammered the G3 at a frequency of C4, you'd definitely hear the C4 note, but not in the usual timbre because you'd be generating a weird waveform compared to a string vibrating freely. It would probably sound like a buzzing noise. The overtones, being physically part of the string, would still ring the same, with G4 being particularly loud. So, I believe the answer to your question is yes.  If anyone nearby has a grand piano and a power drill, I'd love to test this. (The key mechanisms on an upright piano prevent striking the hammers at high frequencies.)", "human_ref_B": "Yes, you would. In physics/math terms you can represent that action as your regular G3 time function (i.e. how the sound develops as a function of time) convoluted with a dirac comb of frequency 130 hz. Taking the Fourier Transform of this to get the frequency domain gives you a dirac comb of frequency spaced 130 Hz apart times the frequency function of G3. Your primary sound should come (how true this is depends on some other things too, but isnt a horrible assumption) from the middle 3 dirac deltas (located at -130, 0, and 130 hz). The peak at 0 gives you the original G3 sound and the -10 and 130 give you your C3.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1699.0, "score_ratio": 2.6890243902, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1otxg3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If I struck the G3 key on a piano 130 times a second(frequency of C3) would I audibly hear a fifth chord? The title is just a singular example of a question that can be posed innumerable ways. I just want to know if pitches can be produced by repeated sounds that have their own pitch, if those pitch producing sounds are made frequently enough(walking at 400 steps a second creating the appropriate pitch). If not, why?", "c_root_id_A": "ccvkx5u", "c_root_id_B": "ccvlm0d", "created_at_utc_A": 1382275209, "created_at_utc_B": 1382278591, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 441, "human_ref_A": "I'm a musician and I've been trying to think about this. At first, my answer was no simply because a percussive effect is still going to have the same frequency. Even if you were able to electronically create 130 pulses of G3, you'd only be creating pulses of that waveform at that frequency. If you did it on a piano, you'd have a pulsing envelope effect that would mask any overtones.   That being said, EVERY note on the piano already has overtones. Try this sometime. Hold down the middle C, E, and G notes and keep them down until the strings stop vibrating. If you press them soft enough you can not hit the strings. Then, press a C below it, or 2 octaves below it. It will cause those strings to vibrate.   So, you're already going to hear some overtones anyway. The next overtone from a C3 is an octave above it, then a fifth, so there's already a G4 in that note, as well as a C3.   You might also ask how come the rumble strips on the side of the road operate at different 'notes' depending on the speed you travel? Well the slower the tire goes over each gap, the lower the resulting frequency. The faster the tire goes over the gap, the higher the resulting frequency. Imagine if you only had one 'gap' to go over, then the frequency for that gap would be the same, but you'd hear it over a very small period of time. Add it up over many 'gaps', and you get a longer frequency. If you took out 'gaps', and were travelling the same speed, you'd still get the same frequency. To prove this, keep your speed at 70mph, go onto the rumble strip, then off again, then on. It's the same frequency.   I'm also reminded of an old golf infomercial for 'liquid metal'. This was a type of allow that was highly elastic. They had a demonstration of it where they formed it into a sphere and dropped it onto a metal sheet. It bounced and bounced and eventually the bounces became smaller and smaller, and the 'frequency' of the pings became higher and higher. The reason why it became higher wasn't that the ball was bouncing a hundred or thousand times per second, it was because the distance/energy involved per bounce yielded a higher frequency from the impact.   To sum up:  The frequency at which a note is sounded, or heard, is the frequency by which the complete waveform 'occurs' over a given period of time. Even if segments of that note are cut away so that technically the frequency that the note was SOUNDED was less than it's frequency, it still has the same frequency.   This is why if you played a C3 as a 32nd note and that's it, it's still a C3.", "human_ref_B": "Because of overtones, you audibly hear a fifth cord any time you strike any piano string. The G3 also makes a barely audible \"D6\" and a bunch of other intervals.  If you hammered the G3 at a frequency of C4, you'd definitely hear the C4 note, but not in the usual timbre because you'd be generating a weird waveform compared to a string vibrating freely. It would probably sound like a buzzing noise. The overtones, being physically part of the string, would still ring the same, with G4 being particularly loud. So, I believe the answer to your question is yes.  If anyone nearby has a grand piano and a power drill, I'd love to test this. (The key mechanisms on an upright piano prevent striking the hammers at high frequencies.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3382.0, "score_ratio": 44.1, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1otxg3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If I struck the G3 key on a piano 130 times a second(frequency of C3) would I audibly hear a fifth chord? The title is just a singular example of a question that can be posed innumerable ways. I just want to know if pitches can be produced by repeated sounds that have their own pitch, if those pitch producing sounds are made frequently enough(walking at 400 steps a second creating the appropriate pitch). If not, why?", "c_root_id_A": "ccvl8rv", "c_root_id_B": "ccvkx5u", "created_at_utc_A": 1382276892, "created_at_utc_B": 1382275209, "score_A": 164, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Yes, you would. In physics/math terms you can represent that action as your regular G3 time function (i.e. how the sound develops as a function of time) convoluted with a dirac comb of frequency 130 hz. Taking the Fourier Transform of this to get the frequency domain gives you a dirac comb of frequency spaced 130 Hz apart times the frequency function of G3. Your primary sound should come (how true this is depends on some other things too, but isnt a horrible assumption) from the middle 3 dirac deltas (located at -130, 0, and 130 hz). The peak at 0 gives you the original G3 sound and the -10 and 130 give you your C3.", "human_ref_B": "I'm a musician and I've been trying to think about this. At first, my answer was no simply because a percussive effect is still going to have the same frequency. Even if you were able to electronically create 130 pulses of G3, you'd only be creating pulses of that waveform at that frequency. If you did it on a piano, you'd have a pulsing envelope effect that would mask any overtones.   That being said, EVERY note on the piano already has overtones. Try this sometime. Hold down the middle C, E, and G notes and keep them down until the strings stop vibrating. If you press them soft enough you can not hit the strings. Then, press a C below it, or 2 octaves below it. It will cause those strings to vibrate.   So, you're already going to hear some overtones anyway. The next overtone from a C3 is an octave above it, then a fifth, so there's already a G4 in that note, as well as a C3.   You might also ask how come the rumble strips on the side of the road operate at different 'notes' depending on the speed you travel? Well the slower the tire goes over each gap, the lower the resulting frequency. The faster the tire goes over the gap, the higher the resulting frequency. Imagine if you only had one 'gap' to go over, then the frequency for that gap would be the same, but you'd hear it over a very small period of time. Add it up over many 'gaps', and you get a longer frequency. If you took out 'gaps', and were travelling the same speed, you'd still get the same frequency. To prove this, keep your speed at 70mph, go onto the rumble strip, then off again, then on. It's the same frequency.   I'm also reminded of an old golf infomercial for 'liquid metal'. This was a type of allow that was highly elastic. They had a demonstration of it where they formed it into a sphere and dropped it onto a metal sheet. It bounced and bounced and eventually the bounces became smaller and smaller, and the 'frequency' of the pings became higher and higher. The reason why it became higher wasn't that the ball was bouncing a hundred or thousand times per second, it was because the distance/energy involved per bounce yielded a higher frequency from the impact.   To sum up:  The frequency at which a note is sounded, or heard, is the frequency by which the complete waveform 'occurs' over a given period of time. Even if segments of that note are cut away so that technically the frequency that the note was SOUNDED was less than it's frequency, it still has the same frequency.   This is why if you played a C3 as a 32nd note and that's it, it's still a C3.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1683.0, "score_ratio": 16.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1otxg3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If I struck the G3 key on a piano 130 times a second(frequency of C3) would I audibly hear a fifth chord? The title is just a singular example of a question that can be posed innumerable ways. I just want to know if pitches can be produced by repeated sounds that have their own pitch, if those pitch producing sounds are made frequently enough(walking at 400 steps a second creating the appropriate pitch). If not, why?", "c_root_id_A": "ccvkx5u", "c_root_id_B": "ccvmw0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1382275209, "created_at_utc_B": 1382283130, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "I'm a musician and I've been trying to think about this. At first, my answer was no simply because a percussive effect is still going to have the same frequency. Even if you were able to electronically create 130 pulses of G3, you'd only be creating pulses of that waveform at that frequency. If you did it on a piano, you'd have a pulsing envelope effect that would mask any overtones.   That being said, EVERY note on the piano already has overtones. Try this sometime. Hold down the middle C, E, and G notes and keep them down until the strings stop vibrating. If you press them soft enough you can not hit the strings. Then, press a C below it, or 2 octaves below it. It will cause those strings to vibrate.   So, you're already going to hear some overtones anyway. The next overtone from a C3 is an octave above it, then a fifth, so there's already a G4 in that note, as well as a C3.   You might also ask how come the rumble strips on the side of the road operate at different 'notes' depending on the speed you travel? Well the slower the tire goes over each gap, the lower the resulting frequency. The faster the tire goes over the gap, the higher the resulting frequency. Imagine if you only had one 'gap' to go over, then the frequency for that gap would be the same, but you'd hear it over a very small period of time. Add it up over many 'gaps', and you get a longer frequency. If you took out 'gaps', and were travelling the same speed, you'd still get the same frequency. To prove this, keep your speed at 70mph, go onto the rumble strip, then off again, then on. It's the same frequency.   I'm also reminded of an old golf infomercial for 'liquid metal'. This was a type of allow that was highly elastic. They had a demonstration of it where they formed it into a sphere and dropped it onto a metal sheet. It bounced and bounced and eventually the bounces became smaller and smaller, and the 'frequency' of the pings became higher and higher. The reason why it became higher wasn't that the ball was bouncing a hundred or thousand times per second, it was because the distance/energy involved per bounce yielded a higher frequency from the impact.   To sum up:  The frequency at which a note is sounded, or heard, is the frequency by which the complete waveform 'occurs' over a given period of time. Even if segments of that note are cut away so that technically the frequency that the note was SOUNDED was less than it's frequency, it still has the same frequency.   This is why if you played a C3 as a 32nd note and that's it, it's still a C3.", "human_ref_B": "Let's take this apart.  G3 is 196Hz C3 is 130Hz  Sound is a \"Wave\" - air is compressed, air is released. The speaker moves towards you & then moves away. Your eardrum moves in, your eardrum moves out. Throw your hands up in the air. Hey, ho.  If you played a C3 (130Hz) 260 times per second, you would hear a C4 (260Hz) frequency. Why? you're effectively doubling the frequency.  Take this saw tooth wave:  /\\\\/\\\\/\\\\/\\\\/\\  By doubling the frequency, you're replacing it with this saw tooth wave:  //////////  Make sense? You're getting just the up ramp of the wave, but since the speaker has to rarefact (decompress) from the peak, you've doubled the frequency of the wave.  Now let's take your example. You're starting with a frequency 1.5x and repeating it with a frequency of 1x.  What does this do?  In this case you get 3/2 of the wave before you begin a new wave. This is enough that you will hear some of the G in there. Sound travels at ~1126 feet per second so the C3 wave is 8.66 feet long and the G3 wave is 5.7 feet long.  G3 = 1126ft/196Hz = 5.7 ft wave  C3 = 1126ft/130Hz = 8.6 ft wave  Visualize the 5.7 foot wave.  0 feet = 0 (wave starts)  1.4 feet = +1 (1/4 of the wave)  2.8 feet = 0 (2/4 of the wave)  4.3 feet = -1 (3/4 of the wave)  5.7 feet = 0 (4/4 of the wave)  7.2 feet = +1 (5/4 of the wave)  8.6 feet = 0 (6/4 of the wave)  (here the 130Hz wave of 8.6 feet kicks in and it repeats - note that it's missing a -1 here, it goes +1, 0, +1)  0 feet = 0  1.4 feet = +1  2.8 feet = 0  4.3 feet = -1  5.7 feet = 0  7.2 feet = +1  8.6 feet = 0  So you would, in effect, hear both a C and a G. You haven't dramatically changed the characteristic of the G3 note, since the C3 wave is precisely 1.5x longer than it.  Now, here's the tricky part. You will also hear the difference between C3 & G3 (called combination tones).  196hz - 130hz = 66hz = C2.  This phenomenon has been known for well over a century & doesn't just apply to this situation - any time you play two notes, you also play the difference tone between them. This is what makes a \"power chord\" so powerful. You play a C3 and G3, and you magically also get C2 playing, quieter, more subtly, underneath it all.  This has little to do with having played G3 at 130Hz, this just has to do with the physics of sound. I hope I've given you the tools to think about why this is the case.  tl;dr - yes", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7921.0, "score_ratio": 1.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "29crao", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Do any other normally unstable particles exist as stable particles within Neutron stars besides neutrons?", "c_root_id_A": "cijovxe", "c_root_id_B": "cijo537", "created_at_utc_A": 1404002813, "created_at_utc_B": 1404000663, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There is the possibility of so-called *strange matter*.  Protons and neutrons are made of up and down quarks, so all the familiar matter around us consists of up quarks, down quarks, and electrons.  Strange quarks are notably more massive than up and down quarks.  Because of the exclusion principle, multiple up quarks can't be in the same state, nor can multiple down quarks.  In a large enough, dense enough neutron star, it might be that the up quark and down quark states can get filled up so high that the topmost up and down quark states have more energy than a low-lying strange quark state (despite the strange quarks greater mass), and so a conversion would occur in which the higest energy quarks in the neutron star \"decay\" to strange quarks.  (The total number of quarks is conserved.)  In practice, the strange quarks in such a star might be tied up in bound states (just as the up and down quarks are tied up in neutrons).  Edit: I'd left out a word.", "human_ref_B": "Maybe. The understanding of neutron stars and their composition are still in its infancy, but most models seem to agree that neutron stars has a crust of electrons made stable by  electron degeneracy pressure. There is no consensus of the composition of the core.  I quote wikipedia:  > The composition of the superdense matter in the core remains uncertain. One model describes the core as superfluid neutron-degenerate matter (mostly neutrons, with some protons and electrons). More exotic forms of matter are possible, including degenerate strange matter (containing strange quarks in addition to up and down quarks), matter containing high-energy pions and kaons in addition to neutrons.  [Here is one proposed model of a cross-section of a neutron star.]( http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Neutron_star_cross_section.svg/500px-Neutron_star_cross_section.svg.png)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2150.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e3wjvc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Why does choked flow happen and why it is related to the speed of sound ? I'm diving into the venturi effect (example: rocket nozzles and chocked flow happening in the admission valve of a ICE) and it seems that when the gas approaches the speed of sound, the flow starts to choke. Why does this happen ?", "c_root_id_A": "f95dm7p", "c_root_id_B": "f95f54o", "created_at_utc_A": 1575125500, "created_at_utc_B": 1575126470, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 58, "human_ref_A": "The speed of sound is just the speed at which a pressure wave travels through a medium. One of the characteristics of choked flow is that a further decrease in downstream pressure does not increase flow rate.  This is because the pressure wave cannot travel up the choke point, so no pressure change information makes it past the choke.  I like to think of it like some type of flow event horizon, where information (pressure waves) cannot travel between the choke point.", "human_ref_B": "If you already have the necessary background, only the last two paragraphs need to be read.  Choked flow is the condition where a decrease in pressure downstream of nozzle does not cause an increase in mass flow through the nozzle.   In a rocket nozzle, the pressure gradient between the combustion chamber (before the nozzle inlet) and the nozzle exit accelerates the gas. The high pressure from the combustion chamber essentially shoves the gas to the lower pressure at the nozzle exit.  The converging-diverging nozzle is designed in such a way because at subsonic speeds, a fluid will increase in velocity when it is pushed into an area that is shrinking. At supersonic speeds, the opposite is true - an increase in area that the flow can pass through causes an increase in velocity. This relationship is derived through momentum conservation, mass conservation (continuity), and the isentropic equations for a perfect gas.  At the first part of the nozzle, which is converging, subsonic flow speeds up. When the flow reaches the throat, where the nozzle switches from converging to diverging, the flow will be at Mach 1 (if a high enough pressure difference between nozzle inlet and exit is achieved). Once the flow is Mach 1 at the throat, it will accelerate to supersonic speeds through the diverging section.  Now, to answer your question. At some point, before pressure at the nozzle exit goes to zero, the flow at the throat of the nozzle will become Mach 1 and thus the flow in the diverging section will be supersonic. The fastest way information can travel in a fluid is at the speed of sound. The \u2018information\u2019 that the nozzle exit had a lower pressure than the nozzle inlet is communicated by molecules bouncing off each other starting from nozzle exit to inlet. But when flow is supersonic, no Information is communicated upstream, molecules won\u2019t interact in such a way that information can be carried up supersonic flow.  Thus, the gas at the converging section of the nozzle has no way to tell that exit pressure has decreased if the flow is already supersonic. The information being sent to it in the form of molecule interaction making its way upstream does not occur. So we should expect no changes in the flow conditions, and this includes no changes in mass flow. When flow in the diverging section goes supersonic, choked flow occurs.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 970.0, "score_ratio": 2.2307692308, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bhf4m6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How does iron ore form from individual molecules created in a generation 1 star? 1st generation stars create heavier elements in form of atoms and then explode sending these elements off into space when syar dies and goes nova.   How do these stray atoms group together into tangible iron nuggets or iron ore?  Is that happening while drifting in space or does some geological mechanism cause the stray atoms to group into a vein of tangible iron ore?  Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "elt3svs", "c_root_id_B": "else41w", "created_at_utc_A": 1556252749, "created_at_utc_B": 1556235145, "score_A": 853, "score_B": 60, "human_ref_A": "Iron on Earth used to be elemental iron. The iron we find today are different forms of oxide. Basically everything that is red contains some form of iron oxide. That's a conundrum because oxygen is very reactive so there used to be no free oxygen in Earth's atmosphere and as a result no new oxides could form. There was ~~atomic~~ iron basically floating through the oceans in great quantities. Iron is the most stable atom so there is an \"iron peak\", stars form a lot more iron than other heavy elements. As a side note the atmosphere of Earth also contained methane and hydrogen.  This all changed during the great oxygenation event around 1.8 billion years ago. At this time, the first ~~algae~~ cyanobacteria evolved, creating oxygen through photosynthesis. This lead to two things. First, all other live on Earth died, since oxygen is toxic. Secondly, everything on the surface of the Earth or in the oceans that could oxidize, did. All the methane and hydrogen burned up, which might have lead to \"snowball Earth\", entering a huge ice age because of the absence of methane.  The scale of this event is truly, truly massive. Think about the red deserts in Australia, and realize that this is all iron oxide, and that every single oxygen atom within it had to be released by photosynthesis. As such, the GOE lasted quite a while, over a billion years, until everything was oxidized and the atmospheric oxygen levels began to rise.  Anyway, the free iron floating in the oceans oxidized as well. Iron oxide isn't as soluble, so it floated to the bottom of the ocean and formed banded iron formations. This is most of our iron ore.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event", "human_ref_B": "It is assumed that at the beginning of time as 1st generation stars began forming, they only had hydrogen and helium to work with. These stars mostly are many more masses than our sun so they consist of more material. The universe at the time also was more violent, forming more stars and at a faster rate.  Most 1st gen stars originated in clumps along with hydrogen, like a nebula, and most went nova at the same time saturating the nebula with heavier elements, like iron. This means that the nebula or even small galaxy at the time was constantly being saturated with heavy elements, and mostly a large amount of them.  This article may help you understand this topic better if I did not do as well; http://www.astro.yale.edu/larson/papers/SciAm04.pdf", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17604.0, "score_ratio": 14.2166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bhf4m6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How does iron ore form from individual molecules created in a generation 1 star? 1st generation stars create heavier elements in form of atoms and then explode sending these elements off into space when syar dies and goes nova.   How do these stray atoms group together into tangible iron nuggets or iron ore?  Is that happening while drifting in space or does some geological mechanism cause the stray atoms to group into a vein of tangible iron ore?  Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "elsk21u", "c_root_id_B": "elt3svs", "created_at_utc_A": 1556239272, "created_at_utc_B": 1556252749, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 853, "human_ref_A": "As I understand it, the iron atoms are in the pre-stellar gas cloud.  As the cloud condenses into a star, the iron gets concentrated at certain preferred ranges of distances from the star. These concentrations eventually form into planets, like Earth. The Earth is 32% iron, and a lot of the rest is silicate rocks (mostly silicon and oxygen as SiO2) The very early Earth is hot and molten, and as it solidifies, the iron solidifies, in chunks.  Think of what happens in a puddle of mixed molten iron and silicates as it cools down. The iron remains molten down to 1538 C, then it \"freezes\" out. The silicates remain molten down to 1260 C, then they freeze as granite, quartz, or other rocky stuff.", "human_ref_B": "Iron on Earth used to be elemental iron. The iron we find today are different forms of oxide. Basically everything that is red contains some form of iron oxide. That's a conundrum because oxygen is very reactive so there used to be no free oxygen in Earth's atmosphere and as a result no new oxides could form. There was ~~atomic~~ iron basically floating through the oceans in great quantities. Iron is the most stable atom so there is an \"iron peak\", stars form a lot more iron than other heavy elements. As a side note the atmosphere of Earth also contained methane and hydrogen.  This all changed during the great oxygenation event around 1.8 billion years ago. At this time, the first ~~algae~~ cyanobacteria evolved, creating oxygen through photosynthesis. This lead to two things. First, all other live on Earth died, since oxygen is toxic. Secondly, everything on the surface of the Earth or in the oceans that could oxidize, did. All the methane and hydrogen burned up, which might have lead to \"snowball Earth\", entering a huge ice age because of the absence of methane.  The scale of this event is truly, truly massive. Think about the red deserts in Australia, and realize that this is all iron oxide, and that every single oxygen atom within it had to be released by photosynthesis. As such, the GOE lasted quite a while, over a billion years, until everything was oxidized and the atmospheric oxygen levels began to rise.  Anyway, the free iron floating in the oceans oxidized as well. Iron oxide isn't as soluble, so it floated to the bottom of the ocean and formed banded iron formations. This is most of our iron ore.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13477.0, "score_ratio": 60.9285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ke1kj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Could a camera that has such high quality that the megapixels surpass that of the equivalent human eye, ever be developed? (x-post from Explain like I'm five years old) r/explainlikeifive thought that you guys could help me out...  If the human eye were a camera, how many megapixels would it be? Could a camera ever be developed that surpasses that amount? If so how would that be possible, and looking at a photograph, would a person see that it is clearly better resolution than their eye, or would it be impossible to see a higher res than your eye is capable of, even if the device that captures the image is capable of surpassing this amount?", "c_root_id_A": "c2jil8l", "c_root_id_B": "c2jj1gz", "created_at_utc_A": 1315905829, "created_at_utc_B": 1315915756, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "A complicated question, best answered by this article here: http://www.clarkvision.com/articles/does.pixel.size.matter/  Basically we can't make individual pixels smaller than they already are (many consumer cameras are already putting too many pixels in for good image quality; diffraction, signal to noise ratio and dynamic range all suffer), so to improve resolutions we will have to move to larger format sensors.  For most consumer cameras the pixel pitch is limited at about 5 microns, for full-frame (35mm) sensors, the pitch may go as low as 1 micron (becoming diffraction limited at f/8 at a little over 30 Megapixels).  A nice example of better resolution through increasing sensor size is the Gaia 1m x 0.5m sensor array, at nearly 1000 MP. http://optics.org/news/2/7/9", "human_ref_B": ">So yeah, I could take a picture of what I see right now with my DSLR and I'm pretty sure that that picture would pick up more details of the keyboard, the screen and the wall in front of me than what I see with the naked eye.   The comparison is in so far a little bit difficult, as that in a camera there is no varying pixel density, whereas in the eye you have a very high resolution centre (where almost every cone got its own ganglion) and a very low-res periphery. There are ~162,000 cones/mm2 in the fovea centralis, the part of your retina with the highest density and where only cones are located. With about 1,5mm diameter that should give us roughly 282743 cones in the fovea centralis (0,75mm\u00b2*pi*162000cones/mm\u00b2).  Now an aps-c sized sensor is roughly 350mm\u00b2 in size and typically has something of around 15mp, which would give us a pixel density of ~42900 pixels per mm - obviously far less (4x times less!) than in the fovea centralis. A camera equivalent (again, assuming we are using an aps-c sized sensor) would have a resolution of 56,7 mega pixels!  But in the periphery the number of cells is far lower, plus several cells share a single ganglion cell (which means the brain can't really differentiate which receptor gets hit by light, only that one in a certain group does) and the aps-c chip would definitely \"outresolute\" our eyes.    Tl;dr: in overall pixel-count our eyes are quite bad and are beaten even by most compact-cameras, whereas the pixel-density of (some parts) of our eyes is still out of reach, even for professional dslrs or medium-format film cameras (I don't know about scientific cameras though).    Edit: ironically I've got a small error in my tl:dr. I said that not even professional dslrs or medium-format cameras could reach the pixel density of our eye - it should have said \"Especially those!\" because professional cameras try to avoid such high pixel-counts. High pixel-counts cause several problems, most importantly they lead to a high noise-to-signal ratio (those colourful dots you sometimes see in dark pictures). So it should have sai: not even high-resolution compact cameras could reach the density of the fovea\", because nowadays several compact cameras have a resolutions as high as a dsrl, but a chip that is like one seventh of the size of an ordinary aps-c chip.   Edit 2: sorry for the wall of text ;)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9927.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a5o5q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If I take a concrete block and grind it down to a fine powder and then add water, will it re-solidify? If so, will it have the same integrity as the original block?", "c_root_id_A": "c8ud153", "c_root_id_B": "c8ubr9t", "created_at_utc_A": 1363115589, "created_at_utc_B": 1363112095, "score_A": 993, "score_B": 83, "human_ref_A": "Huzzah!  In short the answer is no, mostly because the idea that concrete existing as both a solid and a liquid (or a flowable solid) is incorrect.  Concrete in reality only exists as a solid.  Before mixing, the dry components of concrete are a combination of binder and aggregate.  The binder is typically portland cement (limestone, alumino-silicate, and calcium sulfate) while the aggregate is sand or rocks, the size of the aggregate varies depending on the mix and is tightly controlled.  When water is added to the mix it reacts with calcium silicate (either tricalcium silicate or dicalcium silicate) and results in calcium silicate hydrate, calcium hydroxide, and heat.  In a perfect world all of the calcium silicate would hydrate during the first 28 days, but sometimes a small percentage is left over and reacts slowly over time as the concrete is exposed to to the environment.  This can cause expansion and cracking of the concrete.  If you took cured concrete and ground it down, that minute portion of unhydrated calcium silicate would react, but it wouldn't be nearly enough to hold the rest of the mixture together.  **tl;dr Concrete is formed through a chemical reaction, and can't be ground down and used again.**", "human_ref_B": "There are a few issues with grinding down concrete into dust and adding water. They will all involve what concrete is made out of.  Part of concrete is coarse aggregate material. These are small stones, ranging from about the size of the end of your thumb and down. This is very important for integrity of the concrete; otherwise you just have cement. Grinding the stones down will weaken the concrete quite a bit. I am unsure if this would be stronger or weaker than pure cement, though.  Cement is the other main component of concrete (aside from water). There are two types of cement: hydraulic and non-hydraulic. Hydraulic is much more common. The material for hydraulic is commonly anhydrous; such a material undergoes a chemical reaction when water is added, becoming a hydrate. This is the difference between the dust in the package and the dust you are left with after grinding it down. This being said, you would need to reverse the hydration process in order to get the original dust, as the hardening of cement isn't merely a physical reaction.  I don't know much about non-hydraulic cements, but even if it did work, it would not maintain the same level of integrity due to the lack of aggregate material.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3494.0, "score_ratio": 11.9638554217, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a5o5q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If I take a concrete block and grind it down to a fine powder and then add water, will it re-solidify? If so, will it have the same integrity as the original block?", "c_root_id_A": "c8ud153", "c_root_id_B": "c8ubkqf", "created_at_utc_A": 1363115589, "created_at_utc_B": 1363111570, "score_A": 993, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Huzzah!  In short the answer is no, mostly because the idea that concrete existing as both a solid and a liquid (or a flowable solid) is incorrect.  Concrete in reality only exists as a solid.  Before mixing, the dry components of concrete are a combination of binder and aggregate.  The binder is typically portland cement (limestone, alumino-silicate, and calcium sulfate) while the aggregate is sand or rocks, the size of the aggregate varies depending on the mix and is tightly controlled.  When water is added to the mix it reacts with calcium silicate (either tricalcium silicate or dicalcium silicate) and results in calcium silicate hydrate, calcium hydroxide, and heat.  In a perfect world all of the calcium silicate would hydrate during the first 28 days, but sometimes a small percentage is left over and reacts slowly over time as the concrete is exposed to to the environment.  This can cause expansion and cracking of the concrete.  If you took cured concrete and ground it down, that minute portion of unhydrated calcium silicate would react, but it wouldn't be nearly enough to hold the rest of the mixture together.  **tl;dr Concrete is formed through a chemical reaction, and can't be ground down and used again.**", "human_ref_B": "No, the particles will still be hydrated. You can achieve some degree of re-usability if you have the means to dehydrate the pulverized concrete (in some sort of drying oven).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4019.0, "score_ratio": 165.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a5o5q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If I take a concrete block and grind it down to a fine powder and then add water, will it re-solidify? If so, will it have the same integrity as the original block?", "c_root_id_A": "c8ubr9t", "c_root_id_B": "c8ubkqf", "created_at_utc_A": 1363112095, "created_at_utc_B": 1363111570, "score_A": 83, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "There are a few issues with grinding down concrete into dust and adding water. They will all involve what concrete is made out of.  Part of concrete is coarse aggregate material. These are small stones, ranging from about the size of the end of your thumb and down. This is very important for integrity of the concrete; otherwise you just have cement. Grinding the stones down will weaken the concrete quite a bit. I am unsure if this would be stronger or weaker than pure cement, though.  Cement is the other main component of concrete (aside from water). There are two types of cement: hydraulic and non-hydraulic. Hydraulic is much more common. The material for hydraulic is commonly anhydrous; such a material undergoes a chemical reaction when water is added, becoming a hydrate. This is the difference between the dust in the package and the dust you are left with after grinding it down. This being said, you would need to reverse the hydration process in order to get the original dust, as the hardening of cement isn't merely a physical reaction.  I don't know much about non-hydraulic cements, but even if it did work, it would not maintain the same level of integrity due to the lack of aggregate material.", "human_ref_B": "No, the particles will still be hydrated. You can achieve some degree of re-usability if you have the means to dehydrate the pulverized concrete (in some sort of drying oven).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 525.0, "score_ratio": 13.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a5o5q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If I take a concrete block and grind it down to a fine powder and then add water, will it re-solidify? If so, will it have the same integrity as the original block?", "c_root_id_A": "c8ubkqf", "c_root_id_B": "c8uef2d", "created_at_utc_A": 1363111570, "created_at_utc_B": 1363119302, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "No, the particles will still be hydrated. You can achieve some degree of re-usability if you have the means to dehydrate the pulverized concrete (in some sort of drying oven).", "human_ref_B": "Super simplified: Cement isn't like a mud brick. Concrete doesn't \"dry\", it cures. The added water does not evaporate out of the cement, it undergoes various chemical reactions to bind with the cement. In a sense the H2O remains in the cement.  So grinding the cement doesn't reverse the curing process like it does for a mud brick, to undo the curing you'd have to break the chemical bonds that formed.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7732.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a5o5q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If I take a concrete block and grind it down to a fine powder and then add water, will it re-solidify? If so, will it have the same integrity as the original block?", "c_root_id_A": "c8ueh2h", "c_root_id_B": "c8ubkqf", "created_at_utc_A": 1363119447, "created_at_utc_B": 1363111570, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "No, setting concrete goes through a chemical reaction, binding the ingredients together when it sets. It is also an exothermic reaction, generating heat and liberating energy from chemical bonds.  Simply grinding the resulting substance apart does not reverse that chemical reaction or get you that energy back.  http://www.cement.org/basics/concretebasics_lessonfive.asp", "human_ref_B": "No, the particles will still be hydrated. You can achieve some degree of re-usability if you have the means to dehydrate the pulverized concrete (in some sort of drying oven).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7877.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a5o5q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "If I take a concrete block and grind it down to a fine powder and then add water, will it re-solidify? If so, will it have the same integrity as the original block?", "c_root_id_A": "c8un6uu", "c_root_id_B": "c8ulyah", "created_at_utc_A": 1363144311, "created_at_utc_B": 1363140694, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Sweet! A question I am qualified for.   The answer is no. Concrete's strength comes from hydration, a process that reacts calcium silicates and water to make hydroxide compounds plus calcium silica hydrate. Everything else is just fill. Gravel, and sand chew up space, so you don't waste all your money on the strengthening glue.   If you grind up a block of concrete, you will have a bag of very fine (and incidentally, toxic) dust. If you add water, it will become mud, and then dry up and turn back into dust.", "human_ref_B": "Think of it this way, If this was the case then concrete would dissolve any time it got wet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3617.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b9qibs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How do we tell the difference between convergent, divergent, and parallel evolution? Because for the most part, all we get to see is a snapshot in the chain, how can we tell if species are related or not?", "c_root_id_A": "ek6mkci", "c_root_id_B": "ek6mbt8", "created_at_utc_A": 1554479674, "created_at_utc_B": 1554479511, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Two terms that are important for this discussion which I'll introduce right off the bat are \"homology\" and \"homoplasy\".  Basically, a trait that is shared between two organisms and *was also present* in their most recent common ancestor are homologous.  So homologous traits are the result of common descent, or **divergent evolution** if you prefer.  In contrast, a trait that is present in two organisms but *was not* *present* in their common ancestor is homoplastic.  So homoplastic traits are the result of **convergent evolution**, because both lineages evolved the trait independently.  There's a very important point I want to make here though, which is that traits can only truly be described as homologous or homoplastic in *relative terms* based on the scope of the species we're looking at.  Pop quiz: are the two structures shown in this image homologous or homoplastic?  The answer is both, depending on the frame of reference.  The front limbs of a bird and a bat are homologous *in the context of being tetrapod forelimbs*, which is clear from the fact that they share the same underlying bone structure (humerus, radius and ulna, etc.).  However, they are homoplastic *in the context of structures used for flight*, because birds and bats are clearly not descended from a recent flying common ancestor, and this is clear in the way that the actual flight surfaces are completely different for both organisms.  The distinction between convergent and parallel evolution is frankly kind of unclear depending on who you ask, but I'll explain the most common way I see these terms used.  Convergent evolution describes the phenomenon of two lineages with different ancestral states evolving towards similar solutions to a problem they both face (note: this language is a little misleading since convergence isn't necessarily always adaptive, but for the sake of simplicity I'm going to stick with it).  Meanwhile, parallel evolution involves two organisms with similar ancestral states independently evolving towards similar solutions to a problem, sometimes *in the exact same way*.  In practice, what this often means is that parallel evolution involves very similar or even identical changes occurring at the genetic level (i.e., which genes are modified to result in a particular phenotype), while convergent evolution results in superficially similar phenotypes, but with very different underlying genetic changes behind them.  To give a hypothetical example, let's say two bacterial strains both evolve resistance to an antibiotic independently.  There are several mechanisms by which this could occur; both strains could evolve changes in an enzyme that allowed it to destroy the antibiotic, or perhaps one strain does this while the other evolves the ability to pump the antibiotic out of its cytoplasm to reduce its concentration.  In both cases, the two strains show similar phenotypes (antibiotic resistance) that were not present in their common ancestor, so this is a homoplastic trait.  However, the former case where both evolved resistance along the same pathway would be considered parallel evolution, while the latter case where they use two unrelated mechanisms to achieve the same effect is convergent evolution.  The answer to how we actually distinguish homologous and homoplastic traits relies on being able to accurately describe the relationship between the organisms of interest through phylogenetics.  I won't go into detail here since this comment is already long enough, but creating phylogenetic trees involves the use of both phenotypic and genetic data to model the relationships and evolutionary history of groups of organisms (here's a very brief overview of how trees are actually constructed).  To ensure the tree is accurate, we want to use data that is most likely to be homologous, so there is often a lot of consideration over what characters to include and how to score them, especially for phenotypic data (though genetic data also must be carefully selected).  By using a large amount of data, most of which is unrelated to the shared traits we're interested in, we can get a good idea of the \"true\" evolutionary history of a group of organisms, and from there we can predict the ancestral conditions for traits based on which descendant lineages have them.  And from *there*, it's (usually) straightforward to figure out whether two lineages share some feature because their ancestor shared it, or because they acquired it independently.  For example, look at this tree from the Khan academy page.  The data as a whole (which, keep in mind, are informed by many different traits) show that species D and E together are more closely related to species C than they are to species B.  However, species C does not have whiskers, while species B does.  This means that species B and the ancestor of species D and E potentially evolved whiskers independently. (Note: this is actually kind of a bad example since it's just as possible that whiskers evolved in the ancestor of B+C+D+E and were then lost only in C, but it's the best simple figure I could find).", "human_ref_B": "Convergence divergence and parallelism or not thing we diagnose while they're ongoing. That's not because we can't tell if species are closely related or not (we can and this is the whole point of phylogenetics), but because we don't know what they'll look like in the future.  Instead, these terms are applied to organisms as they exist either in the present or at some point in the past by looking at their evolutionary and fossil histories.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 163.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "486v5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Does light move faster when it is warped around/into a black hole due to the gravity? Title.  Thanks !", "c_root_id_A": "d0hhrab", "c_root_id_B": "d0hg4ou", "created_at_utc_A": 1456707780, "created_at_utc_B": 1456704991, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "No.... but...  Parallel transport ---  However, the reason the answer is negative is not exactly for the simple reasons you may think (e.g., \"light always travels at *c*\"). The fact is that in GR, velocities of faraway objects are *ill-defined*. What do I mean by this? If an observer is at point P and a particle is at some other point Q, it is impossible for the observer to unambiguously determine the velocity of that particle. The reason is a bit technical and is really a consequence of the geometrical framework of GR. The relevant concept here is that of *parallel transport*.  On a curved manifold, suppose we move a tangent vector around a given loop in such a way that the vector is always stays parallel to itself. (The mathematical definition is more precise.) It turns out that if the manifold has non-zero curvature (as represented by the so-called *Riemann tensor*), then when the vector comes back to its starting point, it will have turned through some angle. This picture on Wikipedia should make this clear. The \"upward\" pointing tangent vector starts at point A, is parallel transported around the triangle ANB, and comes back to the starting point twisted through some angle \u03b1. (For the sphere, the angle \u03b1 depends on the area enclosed by the loop. So the vector come back twisted in different amounts, depending on the loop along which it was transported.)  What does this have to do with relative velocities in GR? The velocity of a particle is a tangent vector on the spacetime manifold. If the observer at point P wants to measure the velocity of a particle at point Q, the velocity vector has to first be parallel transported to point P. Only then can a measurement of the velocity be made. (Direct measurements can only be made of local quantities.) But, depending along which curve the velocity is parallel transported, the velocity can have different measurements. So there is no way to unambiguously define relative velocities of non-local objects in GR. (In *special* relativity, we can unambiguously define relative velocities because the curvature is exactly zero, whence there is a unique notion of parallel transport.)  Does light slow down or speed up near a black hole? ---  Now back to your original question. What is the speed of a light signal in the vicinity of a black hole? I imagine that it is familiar to many people that in SR, we have the postulate \"no relative speed can exceed *c* and light always travels at *c*\". That statement must be modified in GR because, as I described, we cannot talk about the velocities of distant objects. But we *can* talk about the velocities of local objects (i.e., objects right next to us at the same point P). In GR, that postulate from SR is modified to \"light always travels at *c*, as measured by a local observer, and no local massive object can travel faster than *c*\". So if a light signal passes right by you, no matter what the curvature of spacetime, you will always measure that light signal to have a speed of *c*, and all massive particles that pass by you will travel at less than *c*. In this sense, the light in the vicinity of a black hole neither speeds up nor slows down. It only makes sense to talk about the signal's speed if you are right next to it, and in that case, it always travels at *c*.  More math for those interested... --- (Use geometrized units G = c =1.)  We can also talk about what is sometimes called the *local speed of light*. Fix some observer (or class of observers), which is the same as saying fix some coordinate chart of spacetime. For example, if we are describing a Schwarzschild black hole, we may choose Schwarzschild coordinates *t* and *r*, for which the metric has the form  > ds^(2) = -\u039bdt^(2)+\u039b^(-1)dr^(2)+r^(2)d\u03a9^(2)  where d\u03a9^(2) is the metric on the 2-sphere (the longitude and latitude), and \u039b is the function  > \u039b = (1-r*_S_*/r)  where r*_S_* = 2M is the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. These are the coordinates for an observer who is infinitely far away from the black hole. The coordinate *t* is the time and *r* is the \"radius\", or \"distance from the singularity\". (Technically, that's not what *r* is, but the precise definition of *r* is not important.)  We can then ask the question, \"suppose a light signal is emitted radially at radius *R*; how fast does the light signal *appear* to be moving according to the Schwarzschild observer?\" By \"appear\" we mean \"what is the coordinate speed of the light signal?\". This is emphatically not the velocity of the light signal (we can't define it if we are far away, and we know its speed according to a local observer is 1 anyway). This is simply the time derivative of the spatial coordinates of that light signal in the Schwarzschild coordinates.  To answer the question, put ds^(2) = 0 (because light travels on null geodesics) and d\u03a9^(2) = 0 (because the signal was emitted radially).  > 0 = -\u039bdt^(2)+\u039b^(-1)dr^(2)  Rearrange to get  > dr/dt = \u039b = (1-r*_S_*/r)  This is called the \"local speed of light\" for the Schwarzschild observer.  What does this mean? The light signal, if emitted radially, simply continues to travel in a radial direction (either away or toward the singularity). The expression dr/dt is how fast the light signal is moving in the coordinates of the faraway observer. Note that dr/dt depends on *r*. As r --> \u221e (i.e., as the light signal gets closer to the observer), dr/dt --> 1, and so we recover the fact that light always moves at *c* to a local observer. As r --> r*_S_*, however, we see that dr/dt --> 0. As the light signal gets closer to the event horizon of the black hole, it appears to slow down and eventually just stop right at the horizon. So objects that fall into the black hole seem to never actually fall in according to the faraway observer. Instead the objects appear to just hover at the horizon and come to a full stop. (An analysis of the frequency of the light signal shows that the time dilation effect causes it to infinite redshift also. So the infalling objects not only appear to hover, but also slowly become dimmer until they are undetectable.)  Of course, if we use a different coordinate system, we will get a different expression for dr/dt. For instance, light signals passing an observer right at the horizon are not moving very slowly, but instead are moving at *c*, as they should.", "human_ref_B": "No.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2789.0, "score_ratio": 5.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "752uyp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Could a planet theoretically orbit a single star in a binary star system? I guess this would essentially be the same as replacing the moon with a planet and the Earth with a second star but I couldn't find much information about the idea.", "c_root_id_A": "do3u5a9", "c_root_id_B": "do3h7rn", "created_at_utc_A": 1507519193, "created_at_utc_B": 1507502934, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Not just theoretically. We have observed many systems like that. Upsilon Andromedae has 4 planets orbiting one of the stars, for example. This list has many more, look for \"S-type\".  There are also planets in systems with more than 2 stars, including things like planets that orbit a binary star in a system of two binary systems orbiting each other, and so on.", "human_ref_B": "It depends on how far away the stars are.  No matter what, there'll be two gravitational pulls on the planet at all times.  One from the close star and one from the far star.  If they're in perfect harmony with each other, meaning that they all aline in a line at the same time, the planet will eventually get sucked into the close star due to overlapping gravity.   At least that's how my brain tells me.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16259.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4tm6y9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "How tall could humans feasibly build a building on earth at this point in time?", "c_root_id_A": "d5ixcck", "c_root_id_B": "d5iw2ie", "created_at_utc_A": 1468974909, "created_at_utc_B": 1468973064, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The problem is the ever-expanding footprint on the ground to keep the building upright. The Burj Khalifa is pretty damn tall, but it's got a huge base compared to the size of a lot of its floors. So you can build an arbitrarily tall narrow-pyramid-shaped skyscraper, if you have enough money and room. The whole point of a skyscraper is to work within the confines of small real-estate, though, so if you have a lot of space you can build horizontally much more efficiently than upwards.  Materials such as concrete and steel also have finite strength, so the higher you build, the more mass at the top, and thus more reinforcement required at the bottom, eventually to the point that the lower areas aren't habitable, just a mass of structural supports. You could start with a giant slab of concrete dozens of stories tall and then build your skyscraper on top of that, but could you really call the whole thing a building? Probably not, by any aesthetic or usefulness standards.  Then there's things like elevators to consider. People want to access every floor, and they want to get there in a reasonable amount of time. With an ever-increasing number of floors, you need more elevators, which wastes already limited floor space. There have been some novel concepts like sky lobbies used in the World Trade Center, but there's still a finite amount of space and the problem grows larger as you get higher.", "human_ref_B": "Frank Lloyd Wright designed a mile high tower that was thought to be possible. 528 stories.  Nuclear elevators.  Fireproof.  The Illinois.   Also:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_tall_buildings_and_structures", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1845.0, "score_ratio": 2.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4tm6y9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "How tall could humans feasibly build a building on earth at this point in time?", "c_root_id_A": "d5izydx", "c_root_id_B": "d5jrox7", "created_at_utc_A": 1468978811, "created_at_utc_B": 1469034543, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "One of the biggest limiting factors is elevators. The taller the building, the more elevators are necessary to transport occupants in a reasonable amount of time.   In really tall buildings, you need express elevators that service hubs \"sky lobbies\" and the ground floor with 'local' elevators servicing individual floors. So you're required to dedicate even more floor space to extra lobbies in addition to the area taken up by the elevators.   At some point, a extremely tall building would need so many elevators there would be no room for anything else.", "human_ref_B": "I know that elevators are a limiting factor for building that'd we'd actually build, but if someone is curious how tall buildings can get, I think we should ignore them.  What if we want a city-in-a-building or just don't care if people have to wait an hour to get up the building?  I don't think it is clear how tall we could build a building, because money is the limiting real world factor.    There was an xkcd or minutephysics or something I saw that said we don't have a good idea of what problems would occur with a building that big, because no one would fund it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 55732.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b2egwi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why does rain have a smell before it starts to rain?", "c_root_id_A": "eisow2k", "c_root_id_B": "eisbun6", "created_at_utc_A": 1552911064, "created_at_utc_B": 1552890642, "score_A": 859, "score_B": 149, "human_ref_A": "Petrichor (Greek \u2018petra\u2019 = rock / \u2018ichor\u2019 = ethereal fluid flowing in the veins of gods) was the name given to that smell by Australian scientists back in the 60\u2019s. It\u2019s the semi volatile compounds found in plant oils trapped in the soil and on the surface of rocks, metabolites of certain bacteria (geosmin as already mentioned) and ozone creation in the presence of electrical storms.   The Australian bush is amazing to experience the petrichor aroma in - there is often loooong stretches between rain, which means dense build up of the plants volatile oils which are then released with rare episodes of moisture.   And it\u2019s such a nice word to say! Petrichor!", "human_ref_B": "Some of the smell is from soil bacteria released when the rain drops start hitting the ground.  Some may be from ozone.  I was told once that a culture of Streptomyces erythraeus smelled very similar to rain, as it had been used to make erythromycin, the antibiotic, in industrial quantities.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20422.0, "score_ratio": 5.7651006711, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b2egwi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why does rain have a smell before it starts to rain?", "c_root_id_A": "eisbun6", "c_root_id_B": "eit3bdd", "created_at_utc_A": 1552890642, "created_at_utc_B": 1552923271, "score_A": 149, "score_B": 583, "human_ref_A": "Some of the smell is from soil bacteria released when the rain drops start hitting the ground.  Some may be from ozone.  I was told once that a culture of Streptomyces erythraeus smelled very similar to rain, as it had been used to make erythromycin, the antibiotic, in industrial quantities.", "human_ref_B": "I've seen a lot of other answers, and they are getting close. But the correct answer to the specific smell \"before it rains\" is actually ozone.  >Ozone\u2014O3,\u00a0the molecule made up of three oxygen atoms bonded together\u2014also plays a role in the smell, especially after thunderstorms. A lightning bolt\u2019s electrical charge can split oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere, and they often recombine into\u00a0nitric oxide\u00a0(NO), which then interacts with other chemicals in the atmosphere to produce ozone. Sometimes, you can even smell ozone in the air (it has a sharp scent reminiscent of chlorine) before a storm arrives because it can be carried over long distances from high\u00a0altitudes.  Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-makes-rain-smell-so-good-13806085/#5WWybHr51O0qhbAY.99  The wet earthy smell comes from bacteria in the soil, the sharper scent is the ozone as explained above. And if you're smelling it before it rains it's most likely the ozone.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32629.0, "score_ratio": 3.9127516779, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b2egwi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Why does rain have a smell before it starts to rain?", "c_root_id_A": "eit3bdd", "c_root_id_B": "eisyot7", "created_at_utc_A": 1552923271, "created_at_utc_B": 1552919875, "score_A": 583, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I've seen a lot of other answers, and they are getting close. But the correct answer to the specific smell \"before it rains\" is actually ozone.  >Ozone\u2014O3,\u00a0the molecule made up of three oxygen atoms bonded together\u2014also plays a role in the smell, especially after thunderstorms. A lightning bolt\u2019s electrical charge can split oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere, and they often recombine into\u00a0nitric oxide\u00a0(NO), which then interacts with other chemicals in the atmosphere to produce ozone. Sometimes, you can even smell ozone in the air (it has a sharp scent reminiscent of chlorine) before a storm arrives because it can be carried over long distances from high\u00a0altitudes.  Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-makes-rain-smell-so-good-13806085/#5WWybHr51O0qhbAY.99  The wet earthy smell comes from bacteria in the soil, the sharper scent is the ozone as explained above. And if you're smelling it before it rains it's most likely the ozone.", "human_ref_B": "Petrichor is the scent after rain fall, OP is asking about the smell before rail falls. Basically, warm moist air carries more odor molecules than cold dry air. Rain generally comes with lower barometric pressure and wind to pick up and blow odors around, maybe blowing odors from where it's already raining.  https://web.archive.org/web/20121208071425/http://www.weathernotebook.org/transcripts/2004/12/30.php", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3396.0, "score_ratio": 72.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "56sula", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How does a non-polar molecule such as glucose dissolve in a polar solvent such as water? I'm currently studying for my Biology mid-term and I stumbled upon a section of the bio-chemistry unit that has me a little confused. The general rule is that likes dissolve likes (e.g. Water can dissolve NaCl which is also polar), however, it also says that water can dissolve non-polar substances such as glucose. I was wondering how this is possible? Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "d8m47sm", "c_root_id_B": "d8m3z00", "created_at_utc_A": 1476120924, "created_at_utc_B": 1476120621, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "1. Glucose is polar. The electronegativity difference is significant enough between the oxygen and carbon atoms that there is an asymmetric distribution of electrons  2. Ionic compounds like NaCl, while they dissolve in polar substrates, are not usually called polar. Polarity is most commonly used to describe the nature of covalent bonds.", "human_ref_B": "I believe, it's to do with the fact glucose can make hydrogen bonds?   So, the OH molecules in glucose become partially polarised, the oxygen has a much stronger electronegativity, so it pulls the electrons from the hydrogen and causes the hydrogen to be partially positive and the oxygen partially negative, this also happens in the water molecules H20. The partially charged hydrogen on the glucose is attracted to the lone pair on the oxygen from the water molecule, and the hydrogen on the water that is partially charged, is attracted to the oxygen molecule on the OH on the glucose, allowing it to dissolve.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 303.0, "score_ratio": 2.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1tn2a1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What would happen if you split a proton? This question came up in class the other day and no one could answer it so what would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "ce9mzp6", "c_root_id_B": "ce9y6xu", "created_at_utc_A": 1387940203, "created_at_utc_B": 1387993725, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "In the same way atoms are composed of protons and neutrons, protons and neutrons are made up of quarks and gluons. There are 6 quarks organised into 3 'flavours' (particle physics is full of misleading names of quantities and so forth). Up and down, strange and charge, top and bottom. These quarks have different properties including mass and charge. Other quantities include 'strangeness'.  Put simply, a proton is 2 up quarks and a down quark held together by gluons. Gluons are the exchange particle of the strong nuclear force (analogous to the photon and the electromagnetic force).", "human_ref_B": "In the 1950s & 60s physicists were trying to do just that, with their cyclotrons, ramming protons into each other to examine the fragments. In a period sometimes called **Taming the particle zoo**, they found, to their surprise, all manner of sub-atomic crap was spewed out - hundreds of different particle types. Turns out the energy needed to split the proton was itself re-condensing into myriad particles, along the lines dictated by the laws of particle physics. The results were eventually explained by the introduction of the Standard Model of particle physics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 53522.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1tn2a1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What would happen if you split a proton? This question came up in class the other day and no one could answer it so what would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "ce9m3i6", "c_root_id_B": "ce9mzp6", "created_at_utc_A": 1387937146, "created_at_utc_B": 1387940203, "score_A": -8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You'd get two up quarks and a down quark.", "human_ref_B": "In the same way atoms are composed of protons and neutrons, protons and neutrons are made up of quarks and gluons. There are 6 quarks organised into 3 'flavours' (particle physics is full of misleading names of quantities and so forth). Up and down, strange and charge, top and bottom. These quarks have different properties including mass and charge. Other quantities include 'strangeness'.  Put simply, a proton is 2 up quarks and a down quark held together by gluons. Gluons are the exchange particle of the strong nuclear force (analogous to the photon and the electromagnetic force).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3057.0, "score_ratio": -0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1tn2a1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What would happen if you split a proton? This question came up in class the other day and no one could answer it so what would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "ce9y6xu", "c_root_id_B": "ce9m3i6", "created_at_utc_A": 1387993725, "created_at_utc_B": 1387937146, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "In the 1950s & 60s physicists were trying to do just that, with their cyclotrons, ramming protons into each other to examine the fragments. In a period sometimes called **Taming the particle zoo**, they found, to their surprise, all manner of sub-atomic crap was spewed out - hundreds of different particle types. Turns out the energy needed to split the proton was itself re-condensing into myriad particles, along the lines dictated by the laws of particle physics. The results were eventually explained by the introduction of the Standard Model of particle physics.", "human_ref_B": "You'd get two up quarks and a down quark.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 56579.0, "score_ratio": -0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i0gg4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "A question about gravity and general relativity. (x-post from r/physics) I understand that matter warps spacetime, and spacetime influences the motion of matter, but in some of the common illustrations used to explain this phenomenon, it seems like they are using gravity to explain gravity, causing a kind of circular explanation. I'm sure most of you have seen the illustration involving a bowling ball (representing a celestial body of some sort) resting on a blanket and deforming the blanket causing smaller masses to fall toward the bowling ball. Now, I don't know how good this illustration is, but if smaller masses follow the \"downward\" slope of spacetime, isn't this using gravity to explain gravity?  Why should the masses follow a downward slope? As you can see, my understanding of general relativity is extremely minimal, and the flaws I see in the explanation of gravity is almost certainly due to my lack of understanding, so please help me understand!", "c_root_id_A": "c1zv9xl", "c_root_id_B": "c1zv9gh", "created_at_utc_A": 1308161681, "created_at_utc_B": 1308161567, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Relevant http://xkcd.com/895/  On a side note, could anyone point me towards a rundown of the mathematics behind GR? I'm somewhat familiar with the concepts (curvature of spacetime, geodesics, etc.) but I'd love to see a crash course on the math.", "human_ref_B": "The blanket analogy sucks, to be honest, but there is another way to look at it. The analogy is there to show the concept of the shortest distance between two points in curved space. Doing anything else with it breaks down the analogy.  Analogies are generally limited to explaining only a small portion of a phenomenon. The more you try to explain within an analogy, the more complicated the analogy has to become to not break down, eventually becoming too complicated to be useful. This is why you should never replace the actual phenomenon with the analogy.  Now the the GR stuff: Listen to shavera. The paths particles follow in curved spacetime are called \"geodesics.\" These are related to the whole point of the most direct path between two points.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 114.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m04mz2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Are people with achromatopsia more sensitive to light? I know that monochrome cameras are three times more sensitive to light than color cameras, that\u2019s why they\u2019re so useful for astrophotography. Does the same apply for humans who only see in black and white?", "c_root_id_A": "gq6ks6e", "c_root_id_B": "gq75son", "created_at_utc_A": 1615181681, "created_at_utc_B": 1615201192, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Probably violating sub rules with a personal tidbit but I have nyctalopia and photophobia and always assumed the two were related although the cause seems to be \"*your eyes are just that way*\".  Anyhow I had perfect vision growing up in a family that needed corrective eyewear and no colorblindness but my eyes seem to take in to much light (best layman description). Doctors never indicated either was tied to my ability to see colors although lots of eye problems like cataracts can explain the \"being sensitive to light\" thing", "human_ref_B": "Uhh, kind of?  The eye has two main cell types; rod and cone cells. Rod cells provide the ability to see better in dark conditions but with less visual acuity, whereas cone cells provide high visual acuity and provide colour vision. Cone cells come in 3 variants, which allows the average Joe to see colour and high resolution images.  Achromatopsia is caused by these cone cells not working as intended (uh-oh). That means that the only cells in your eye that can detect light are rod cells, which are adapted for darker conditions. This increases the eye\u2019s sensitivity to light which causes glares, so typically sufferers of achromatopsia wear glasses that reduce the amount of light that can enter the eye.  The lack of cone cells also means that achromatopsia sufferers have lower visual acuity, so they can\u2019t see images as sharply.   So yeah, in a way achromatopsia sufferers are more sensitive to light than the average person, but since cone cells are the cells responsible for providing high visual acuity, it actually decreases their ability to see sharp images.  Hopefully that answers your question", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19511.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1axvo9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "What exactly does \"realism\" mean in quantum mechanics (as in local realism)? I have googled it, but everything I find seems poorly defined.", "c_root_id_A": "c91rzxt", "c_root_id_B": "c91rnse", "created_at_utc_A": 1364172777, "created_at_utc_B": 1364171714, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It's a philosophical stance. Basically we have this theory (QM). It correctly predicts experiment, as far as we've been able to measure. But it also involves concepts that we're not able to measure directly (such as the 'wave function') and doesn't predict everything we might want it to (such as the outcome of a single measurement).   An 'anti-realist' or non-realist position says that this is fine. The purpose of a scientific theory is to predict what happens, and insofar as it does that, it's all you can ask for. It's a _description_ of reality, not reality itself. Asking what's \"really going on\" is just metaphysics if you can't actually tell the difference. Or to put it another way: \"What you see is what you get\" - our current theory _is_ \"what's really going on\", as far as we know. If you don't feel QM 'makes sense' - well, who said nature was obligated to make sense to us? In short, they don't try to give a 'real' physical interpretation to these QM concepts. An example of this is the Copenhagen Interpretation, which does not hold that the wave function is a physical thing, but a more abstract representation of what we know (and can know) about what's going on.  The 'realist' position is that theories like QM work because they represent some more fundamental underlying reality, that there's something 'deeper' to it than explaining the outcomes of experiments. They look to interpret QM behavior as a result of other, ostensibly-physical but unobservable, phenomena. Examples of those would be the Bohm and Many-Worlds Interpretations.  _Local realism_ tends to be used more or less as a synonym for 'local hidden variable theories'. That is, the probabilities that appear in QM can be interpreted as the statistical results of underlying properties with definite values that we merely don't know about and can't measure. Moreover, it holds that these are 'local'. An pair of particles with entangled, undetermined \"spin\" states actually _do_ have definite values that they're carrying with them, we just don't know them until they're measured.  It's a pretty simple and straightforward idea. And it seemed that if you can't measure these underlying 'hidden variables', it'd be impossible to tell whether they existed or not. But the physicist john Bell sat down and managed to actually work out the consequences of this. It turns out that no matter how many 'hidden variables' you have, or what they are, it actually gives _measurably_ different predictions from QM-as-we-know-it would give. This has, in turn, been verified by a number of Bell test experiments, plus a huge number of more indirect tests, in systems where quantum entanglement is involved and behaved as expected.   While certain physicists ('t Hooft, for one) have pointed to some possible 'loopholes' (how does entanglement occur?), the general consensus among physicists is that 'local realism' is incompatible with QM, and so not a valid interpretation. However, realist interpretations which are non-local, such as Bohm, involve rather strange physical consequences. (or as Einstein called it 'spooky action-at-a-distance').   I should underline though, that nobody disagrees on QM itself, or thinks it's the \"final theory\" of physics. But realists are basically not satisfied with QM as it is and want a 'deeper' explanation even if it's not experimentally testable, while anti-realists don't think such an explanation is meaningful if it's not testable.   People don't necessarily fall into neat categories though. If anything, I think most physicists fall somewhere in the middle, and just don't care strongly about interpretations.", "human_ref_B": "That the particles have \"real\" properties that exist before they are measured. As opposed to the notion that the properties are entangled or superposed until measurement occurs.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1063.0, "score_ratio": 14.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uftp3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Is there such a thing as a reverse placebo effect, where the belief a treatment will fail causes it to do so? Is it possible for somebody skeptical as to whether their treatment will work to actually sabotage their own recovery in this way?", "c_root_id_A": "c4v0cu2", "c_root_id_B": "c4v22qe", "created_at_utc_A": 1338570417, "created_at_utc_B": 1338577759, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I believe that the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy theory would apply.", "human_ref_B": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo_effect", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7342.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uftp3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Is there such a thing as a reverse placebo effect, where the belief a treatment will fail causes it to do so? Is it possible for somebody skeptical as to whether their treatment will work to actually sabotage their own recovery in this way?", "c_root_id_A": "c4v0m4k", "c_root_id_B": "c4v22qe", "created_at_utc_A": 1338571570, "created_at_utc_B": 1338577759, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I once read an article about how they tested this in the third reich.  People were sentenced to death and told that their arteries would be cut in order to have them bleed to death. They were blindfolded and only cut very lightly. Then there were some wet sponges or whatever put around their wrists to make it feel like they were bleeding. People died because they were absolutely sure they were bleeding to death. I mean the nazis were really fucked up in their heads and I am not a hunderd percent sure this is true but if it is - you have a good example for the socalled nocebo effect. Which, according to wikipedia, does indeed exist.", "human_ref_B": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo_effect", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6189.0, "score_ratio": -0.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uftp3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Is there such a thing as a reverse placebo effect, where the belief a treatment will fail causes it to do so? Is it possible for somebody skeptical as to whether their treatment will work to actually sabotage their own recovery in this way?", "c_root_id_A": "c4v0cu2", "c_root_id_B": "c4v2c6s", "created_at_utc_A": 1338570417, "created_at_utc_B": 1338578867, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I believe that the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy theory would apply.", "human_ref_B": "Yes.  It's particularly true of drugs where the outcome is very subjective, like antidepressants.  For those drugs, the placebo effect and the drug effect is strongly tied to what the patients expect.  Prozac wouldn't be approved in the US today, because the placebo effect has gotten so strong, it masks the benefit of the actual drug.  In the 80s, the placebo effect was about something like 25% positive responses, while prozac had ~30ish percent positive responses.  Today the placebo effect is more than 30% positive response for anti-depressants, because they are so common, people believe they will work.  If you want to do an antidepressant trial today, you need to go to a country where people don't believe they work.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8450.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uftp3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Is there such a thing as a reverse placebo effect, where the belief a treatment will fail causes it to do so? Is it possible for somebody skeptical as to whether their treatment will work to actually sabotage their own recovery in this way?", "c_root_id_A": "c4v2c6s", "c_root_id_B": "c4v0m4k", "created_at_utc_A": 1338578867, "created_at_utc_B": 1338571570, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Yes.  It's particularly true of drugs where the outcome is very subjective, like antidepressants.  For those drugs, the placebo effect and the drug effect is strongly tied to what the patients expect.  Prozac wouldn't be approved in the US today, because the placebo effect has gotten so strong, it masks the benefit of the actual drug.  In the 80s, the placebo effect was about something like 25% positive responses, while prozac had ~30ish percent positive responses.  Today the placebo effect is more than 30% positive response for anti-depressants, because they are so common, people believe they will work.  If you want to do an antidepressant trial today, you need to go to a country where people don't believe they work.", "human_ref_B": "I once read an article about how they tested this in the third reich.  People were sentenced to death and told that their arteries would be cut in order to have them bleed to death. They were blindfolded and only cut very lightly. Then there were some wet sponges or whatever put around their wrists to make it feel like they were bleeding. People died because they were absolutely sure they were bleeding to death. I mean the nazis were really fucked up in their heads and I am not a hunderd percent sure this is true but if it is - you have a good example for the socalled nocebo effect. Which, according to wikipedia, does indeed exist.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7297.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1cgm75", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Shouldn't the sun's spectroscopy only show the lines for hydrogen and helium? Why does it give off the entire rainbow when passing through a prism? Since the sun is mostly hydrogen and helium, when is passes through a prism, shouldn't only the lines for hydrogen and helium be visible? Isn't that the basis for spectroscopy and how distant star composition is determined? How is it that the full rainbow is seen?", "c_root_id_A": "c9ggmkb", "c_root_id_B": "c9gcrmr", "created_at_utc_A": 1366139815, "created_at_utc_B": 1366129580, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The Sun's spectroscopy should have all of the colors *except* for the hydrogen and helium lines.   The Sun (and really, all hot objects) emits black-body radiation which is \"white\" in the sense that it emits all wavelengths (but it has a peak wavelength near yellow). However, the hydrogen and helium lines are absorbed by the elements in the Sun.", "human_ref_B": "Astronomical spectroscopy uses the absorption lines of the elements in the star.  If an element can emit at a particular wavelength, it can also absorb at that wavelength.  This is one reason why Baloroth's chart is jagged.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10235.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l1ity", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why is desalination/purification/etc. of water so difficult? Why can't we just purify ocean water?   Clean water has always seemed to be a pretty pervasive issue around the world.  The necessity is there, so why is water purification not a bigger industry?  I know there are real hurdles with it, I just don't know what they are and am wondering if the need for water will one day force us to overcome them.", "c_root_id_A": "c2p0s3q", "c_root_id_B": "c2p0slu", "created_at_utc_A": 1317806638, "created_at_utc_B": 1317806920, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "To be honest, the biggest hurdle right now is that the people who need clean water live in places with no money to invest in the technology and very little infrastructure (roads, industry, political stability) to allow charitable organizations to help them.    If we needed clean water badly enough in the US, it would become a big industry pretty quickly.  Right now it's too expensive to set up production-scale facilities for the seasonal/regional droughts/etc in the US, we just don't need it enough to make it economically feasible.", "human_ref_B": "Energy. It takes an enormous amount to desalinate water.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 282.0, "score_ratio": 11.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "32x2mc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "What do \"tangent,\" the trigonometric function, and \"tangent\" the line that intersects a circle at one point, have to do with each other? Also, how do a secant in trig and a secant on a circle have to do with each other?  I am doing trigonometry in school right now and I was wondering what the relationship between the two were.", "c_root_id_A": "cqfgabv", "c_root_id_B": "cqfihc1", "created_at_utc_A": 1429278917, "created_at_utc_B": 1429282789, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 60, "human_ref_A": "The inverse tangent function maps slope (derivatives) to angles. The slope of a tangent line is (the limit of) d*y*/d*x* = *y*'(*x*). The angle this line makes with the horizontal axis is arctan d*x*/d*y* = arctan *y*'(*x*).  The secant represents this length. I don't think it has such a deep connection to secants of the unit circle. Maybe it's so simple that both names stem from the latin root *secare* (to cut).  Edit: Thanks Swiss person.", "human_ref_B": "The tangent is the length you get when you project an angle onto the tangent line in a specific way. Here's a drawing of the tangent: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Tangent-unit-circle.svg  If you have a secant of length 1 on a circle, and you draw the diameter at one of the end points of the secant, then the diameter of the circle will be the secant of the angle the diameter forms with the circle.  I'll see if I can find a drawing.  Edit: Apparently this is the history.  from: http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/52578.html \"...  SECANT comes from the Latin SECANS, the present participle of SECARE, \"to  cut.\" In other words, it means \"cutting.\" It was originally applied to  the line segment OB in the figure - the line that cuts off the  tangent. The ratio of the secant OB to the radius OA is the SECANT of  angle AOB. ...\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3872.0, "score_ratio": 2.0689655172, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "32x2mc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "What do \"tangent,\" the trigonometric function, and \"tangent\" the line that intersects a circle at one point, have to do with each other? Also, how do a secant in trig and a secant on a circle have to do with each other?  I am doing trigonometry in school right now and I was wondering what the relationship between the two were.", "c_root_id_A": "cqfvqtd", "c_root_id_B": "cqflg9s", "created_at_utc_A": 1429304030, "created_at_utc_B": 1429287506, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Tangent.  * Draw a circle. The center is point a. * Draw a line (ab) to a point (b) on the circle.  * Draw a **tangent line** that intersects that point on the circle. * Choose an angle (t) and draw a line at that angle from point (a) * Keep drawing the line until it intersects the tangent line. That point is (c) * The length of the segment of the tangent line (bc) is the result of the **tangent** trigonometric function when expressed as a ratio of a circle with a radius of 1.  * So the length of the segment of the tangent line (bc) divided by the radius of the circle (ab).  When you create a right angle triangle, the \"Opposite\" edge is the tangent line if it were on a circle (bc).  The \"Adjacent\" edge is the radius of the circle (ab).   * Since trig functions are general functions, you normalize it by treating the radius as 1.  So in this case you divide it by (ab), or Opposite over Adjacent.  * This means you can find the size of that line segment for any radius given the angle by using tan(angle) * radius.  So say you had something casting a shadow.  You know the light is at a 60 degree angle (0 degrees being directly above it), tan(60) is 1.73.  The object is 2 meters tall, so you know the shadow will be 3.46 meters long as long as the ground is flat (and thus is tangential to a circle of radius 2m from the top of the object).", "human_ref_B": "There are a lot of really complicated answers here to a very straightforward question.  When you're looking at a unit circle, the slope (m) of a tangent line is equal to m = -1/tan(theta).  Take, for example, the point (1/sqrt(2), 1/sqrt(2)).  The slope of the tangent at that point is -1.  The angle is 45 degrees.  Tan(45) = 1.      Take the point (sqrt(3)/2, 1/2).  The slope of the tangent is -1.73.  The angle to that point is 30 degrees.  Tan(30) = 0.577.   -1/0.577 = -1.73.      Finally, look at (0,1).  The angle is 0.  The slope of the tangent in infinite.  Tan(0) = 0.  -1/infinity = 0.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16524.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b7k6nv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "How come other planets have visible craters from space and Earth doesn't?", "c_root_id_A": "eju1rje", "c_root_id_B": "ejttrvl", "created_at_utc_A": 1554069588, "created_at_utc_B": 1554063540, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I agree with what has already been said but add tectonics, the constant recycling of the Earths surface. It's not quick, but a lot or craters we see on other planets are in the billions of years old range. Also keep in mind that we have massive oceans and humans constantly rework large portions of the exposed land.  Also important, there are craters on Earth that are visible from space.", "human_ref_B": "Atmosphere and weather. Venus would be similarly bare of craters if we could see it.   Our atmosphere prevents many impacts by deflecting or disintegrating the incoming space rocks.   Weather erodes the evidence of all but the biggest impacts, like the one on Arizona or the crater in Mexico from the dinosaur killer impact.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6048.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "29ww2s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Energy can be converted into matter and vice-versa. Can energy be converted into antimatter?", "c_root_id_A": "cipgxjb", "c_root_id_B": "cipcx2h", "created_at_utc_A": 1404605503, "created_at_utc_B": 1404595206, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Absolutely. There's nothing special about matter vs. antimatter, except that the particles we're made of we call matter, and their opposites we call antimatter. Physics, however, makes no such distinction :)", "human_ref_B": "Short Answer: Yes, and Yes.  Long Answer: Yes?  >Can energy be converted into matter and vice versa?  So lets start with matter into energy, that's pretty easy, basically in nuclear reactions some mass is converted into energy. Nuclear power plants and bombs both in their own ways convert mass to energy.  Energy into Matter is quite a bit harder, and only recently have experiments been devised to actual try to turn energy into matter. (http://www.forbes.com/sites/paulrodgers/2014/05/19/einstein-was-right-you-can-turn-energy-into-matter/). Due to the fact it takes a lot of energy to create a small amount of mass, and the fact that we have much easier access to mass than to energy, I don't it would ever become commonplace.  >Can energy be converted into anitmatter?  Yes, it is possible and has been done. The LHC sometimes produces antimatter, and we have even captured it (http://science.slashdot.org/story/10/11/17/1935255/lhc-scientists-create-and-capture-antimatter). This as the same problems that creating mass does however in that it takes a huge amount of energy to create a small amount of antimatter, and so whether it would ever be viable to produce on a large scale? I don't know. Also, the article about turning photons into energy also hints that one of the by products of that formation would be an anti-electron, so that is also a possible way to turn energy into antimatter.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10297.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "29ww2s", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Energy can be converted into matter and vice-versa. Can energy be converted into antimatter?", "c_root_id_A": "cipo4ir", "c_root_id_B": "cipcx2h", "created_at_utc_A": 1404626619, "created_at_utc_B": 1404595206, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Anti matter isn't really that special. It is, for most intents and purposes, the exact same as matter. The fact that we are made of matter seems to be the result of a proverbial coin flip that occurred right after the big bang.  In quantum electrodynamics, we have only one process. Two fermions (for example, an electron and/or a positron) interact with one photon. You can have any combination of these three particles at this interaction as long as the interaction conserves charge. (Electron has -1, positron has 1, photon has 0.)  IE you can say we start with one electron and it collides with a photon and scatters off in another direction. Or you can say that a photon splits into an electron and a positron. Or a positron and electron collide and turn into a photon.   So, yes, you can turn energy (photons) into antimatter.", "human_ref_B": "Short Answer: Yes, and Yes.  Long Answer: Yes?  >Can energy be converted into matter and vice versa?  So lets start with matter into energy, that's pretty easy, basically in nuclear reactions some mass is converted into energy. Nuclear power plants and bombs both in their own ways convert mass to energy.  Energy into Matter is quite a bit harder, and only recently have experiments been devised to actual try to turn energy into matter. (http://www.forbes.com/sites/paulrodgers/2014/05/19/einstein-was-right-you-can-turn-energy-into-matter/). Due to the fact it takes a lot of energy to create a small amount of mass, and the fact that we have much easier access to mass than to energy, I don't it would ever become commonplace.  >Can energy be converted into anitmatter?  Yes, it is possible and has been done. The LHC sometimes produces antimatter, and we have even captured it (http://science.slashdot.org/story/10/11/17/1935255/lhc-scientists-create-and-capture-antimatter). This as the same problems that creating mass does however in that it takes a huge amount of energy to create a small amount of antimatter, and so whether it would ever be viable to produce on a large scale? I don't know. Also, the article about turning photons into energy also hints that one of the by products of that formation would be an anti-electron, so that is also a possible way to turn energy into antimatter.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31413.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9mywxo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "If we had a mass of Neutrons in a vaccum would they turn into Hydrogen Gas? Hello,  So I know that a Neutron is composed of Down Down Up Quarks. I also know from reading that a W Boson leaves one of the Quarks it becomes a Up Up Down which is a Proton as well as ejecting an electron and an Anti-neutrino. I also know that the half life of a Neutron outside the nucleus is about 14 mins so it decays quite quickly  My question is if we had a mass of Netrons that all decayed like this not being near other matter (and therefore not able to enter the nucleus of that matter)? Would it not form a cloud of Hydrogen Gas as it would leave behind Protons and electrons?", "c_root_id_A": "e7ibfl9", "c_root_id_B": "e7ik0mu", "created_at_utc_A": 1539174146, "created_at_utc_B": 1539182636, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "If the neutrons are contained in some material, they will tend to thermalize and be captured by the surrounding material on timescales much shorter than beta decay. So you won't really be left with hydrogen gas, just some possibly neutron-activated container.", "human_ref_B": "The electrons are emitted with enough energy to escape your collection of neutrons. The protons would repel each other and move away. You wouldn't get much neutral hydrogen, although you get all its components.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8490.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "192rly", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Can matter be converted into usable energy? I may be talking complete nonsense, as I'm scarcely knowledgeable in this field, but relativity says E=mc2, does that mean the amount of energy in Joules from a given amount of mass is the mass times the speed of light squared? if that's the case then huge amounts of energy can be created from small amounts of matter. (again, sorry if all this is complete bullshit)", "c_root_id_A": "c8kae7j", "c_root_id_B": "c8ka2hz", "created_at_utc_A": 1361631866, "created_at_utc_B": 1361629840, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes.  Nature and us do this already.  In the case of *Nuclear Fission*, the isotope products (atoms, neutrons, radiation) of the nuclear reaction *have less mass* than the atom they were split from.   This *mass defect* is because the products have higher *nuclear binding energy* than the original atom (and weigh correspondingly less, via  E=MC^2).  In the case of *Nuclear Fusion*, the *resulting* atom has a greater binding energy than the atoms that went into it and as a result, the resulting atom *weighs less* than the atoms that were fused, for the same reason as with the fission case - just from the other end of the graph, below.      It's estimated that the sun loses 4.2 million tonnes of mass every second as it converts hydrogen atoms into helium and radiates that mass defect away as the resulting energy.  If you look at the graph at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy you can see the *steps* in nuclear binding energy from *Uranium* (far right hand side) toward the isotopes to its near left is much smaller than that from *Hydrogen* to *Helium* (far left hand side, H->He step).   This is one reason why *Hydrogen Bombs* (and future *Fusion Reactors*) can be so powerful; fusing the low mass elements gives off a hell of a lot of energy per unit.", "human_ref_B": "Matter/antimatter annihilation releases a lot of energy from matter.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2026.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "42w5l6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the distinction between polar bonds and and der Waals bonds?", "c_root_id_A": "czdy3ef", "c_root_id_B": "cze61mo", "created_at_utc_A": 1453911141, "created_at_utc_B": 1453921937, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Considering you're asking about polar bonds and van der Waals bonds, I'm going to assume you're actually meaning to ask about intermolecular interactions and not the actual chemical bonds caused by the \"sharing\" of electrons between two atoms.  u/kudles explained polar bonds fairly well here.  Van der Waals (vdW) interactions come in two flavors, attractive and repulsive.  The repulsive interactions are simple: like charges repel one another, and with atoms/molecules, the electron clouds of each repel each other.  Pretty straightforward.  Attractive vdW interactions, also referred to as induced dipole interactions are a little more interesting. As I mentioned before, electrons are repelled by one another.  However, even though we often treat them as such, the electron cloud around a nucleus/molecule is not a hard sphere.  It can be pushed and deformed, and when this happens, it's possible to now have attractive forces between the electron cloud of one molecule, and the nuclei on the other.  This picture shows this deformation I'm talking about. For molecules similar to Teflon (PTFE), there are little to no attractive interactions, due to the fact that the electron clouds around fluorine atoms tend to be very much like a hard sphere.  (Di)Polar interactions result when you have some unequal distribution of charge in a molecule, and result from one or more polar covalent bonds in a molecule.  When there is a sufficiently high difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms, the electron cloud surrounding them tends to have a higher density around the more electronegative atom, leading to a partial negative charge on that part of the molecule.  This will then be attracted to the partial positive charge (or full positive charge of ions!) on other molecules that results from the shifting of electrons.", "human_ref_B": "I think the question /u/oneeighthirish may be posing is how to distinguish qualitatively between different types of electrostatic interactions between molecules. When two permanent dipoles interact, there is, to a good approximation, no distortion of the localized partial charges. In a polar covalent bond, the electron cloud is blobbed towards the more electronegative atom, creating an excess of electron density around the said atom. This excess of electron density interacts with a deficit in electron density on an atom of another molecule. This electron-deficient atom lost some of the electron cloud around it when the said electron cloud blobbed towards its more-electronegative partner in its bond. Since opposites attract, interactions between partial positives and partial negatives cause attractive forces between different molecules in an ensemble.  Any and all molecules interact by van der Waals forces. In van der Waals forces, transient dipoles happen in otherwise dipoleless molecules because the molecules' electrons are bouncing around. By pure chance, there will sometimes randomly be more electron density in one part of a molecule than in another. This random partial negative charge repels some negative charge on a neighbouring molecule's electron cloud. This creates an induced dipole in the said neighbouring molecule. This continues for molecules next to the second molecule, and so on. These van der Waals forces keep molecular substances held together. Bromine is liquid at room temperature because bromine molecules, which otherwise have no dipoles because two bromine atoms have the same electronegativity, interact with one another by van der Waals forces.  To affirm: a polar covalent bond is a bond between two atoms *in the same molecule*. As all covalent bonds, this is an **intra**molecular interaction. These permanent dipoles are due to differences in electron density, as with induced dipoles. The differences are in permanency and location.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10796.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "42w5l6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the distinction between polar bonds and and der Waals bonds?", "c_root_id_A": "cze61mo", "c_root_id_B": "cze5c14", "created_at_utc_A": 1453921937, "created_at_utc_B": 1453920989, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I think the question /u/oneeighthirish may be posing is how to distinguish qualitatively between different types of electrostatic interactions between molecules. When two permanent dipoles interact, there is, to a good approximation, no distortion of the localized partial charges. In a polar covalent bond, the electron cloud is blobbed towards the more electronegative atom, creating an excess of electron density around the said atom. This excess of electron density interacts with a deficit in electron density on an atom of another molecule. This electron-deficient atom lost some of the electron cloud around it when the said electron cloud blobbed towards its more-electronegative partner in its bond. Since opposites attract, interactions between partial positives and partial negatives cause attractive forces between different molecules in an ensemble.  Any and all molecules interact by van der Waals forces. In van der Waals forces, transient dipoles happen in otherwise dipoleless molecules because the molecules' electrons are bouncing around. By pure chance, there will sometimes randomly be more electron density in one part of a molecule than in another. This random partial negative charge repels some negative charge on a neighbouring molecule's electron cloud. This creates an induced dipole in the said neighbouring molecule. This continues for molecules next to the second molecule, and so on. These van der Waals forces keep molecular substances held together. Bromine is liquid at room temperature because bromine molecules, which otherwise have no dipoles because two bromine atoms have the same electronegativity, interact with one another by van der Waals forces.  To affirm: a polar covalent bond is a bond between two atoms *in the same molecule*. As all covalent bonds, this is an **intra**molecular interaction. These permanent dipoles are due to differences in electron density, as with induced dipoles. The differences are in permanency and location.", "human_ref_B": "A polar bond happens when the resulting molecule has a permanent dipole (sans ionic bonds).  Van der Waals forces arise between dipoles, sometimes these dipoles are permanent (from polar molecules) and sometimes they are induced -by interactions of polar molecules with nonpolar molecules, or between nonpolar molecules/atoms.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 948.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "42w5l6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the distinction between polar bonds and and der Waals bonds?", "c_root_id_A": "cze61mo", "c_root_id_B": "czdvjgg", "created_at_utc_A": 1453921937, "created_at_utc_B": 1453907185, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I think the question /u/oneeighthirish may be posing is how to distinguish qualitatively between different types of electrostatic interactions between molecules. When two permanent dipoles interact, there is, to a good approximation, no distortion of the localized partial charges. In a polar covalent bond, the electron cloud is blobbed towards the more electronegative atom, creating an excess of electron density around the said atom. This excess of electron density interacts with a deficit in electron density on an atom of another molecule. This electron-deficient atom lost some of the electron cloud around it when the said electron cloud blobbed towards its more-electronegative partner in its bond. Since opposites attract, interactions between partial positives and partial negatives cause attractive forces between different molecules in an ensemble.  Any and all molecules interact by van der Waals forces. In van der Waals forces, transient dipoles happen in otherwise dipoleless molecules because the molecules' electrons are bouncing around. By pure chance, there will sometimes randomly be more electron density in one part of a molecule than in another. This random partial negative charge repels some negative charge on a neighbouring molecule's electron cloud. This creates an induced dipole in the said neighbouring molecule. This continues for molecules next to the second molecule, and so on. These van der Waals forces keep molecular substances held together. Bromine is liquid at room temperature because bromine molecules, which otherwise have no dipoles because two bromine atoms have the same electronegativity, interact with one another by van der Waals forces.  To affirm: a polar covalent bond is a bond between two atoms *in the same molecule*. As all covalent bonds, this is an **intra**molecular interaction. These permanent dipoles are due to differences in electron density, as with induced dipoles. The differences are in permanency and location.", "human_ref_B": "If you aren't lgs92 in this thread, you are shadowbanned.  It is wrong to think of either of van Der Waals forces as \"bonds\"; they are more like interactions. I like to think of all the intermolecular forces as a rating system. Some molecules can hydrogen bond, some have dipoles, and some have van Der Waals forces.   That being said, van Der Waals forces arise when a molecule does not have any electrostatic activity. Molecules do not like to touch each other, so van Der Waals forces ensure that they do not.   I am not sure you quite what you mean by polar bond, as it really isn't an intermolecular force. It is just a way to categorize a bond. For example, H-O is a polar bond because the O is very electronegative and pulls electron density away from hydrogen.  C-H is not a polar bond because there isn't really any major difference in electronegativity to have a considerable effect. That being said, if you take two CH3 molecules and put them around each other, they will still interact when close enough (van Der Waals) because there *is* electric activity, just not enough to make the bond polar.  I hope that helps.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14752.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "42w5l6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the distinction between polar bonds and and der Waals bonds?", "c_root_id_A": "czdvjgg", "c_root_id_B": "czdy3ef", "created_at_utc_A": 1453907185, "created_at_utc_B": 1453911141, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "If you aren't lgs92 in this thread, you are shadowbanned.  It is wrong to think of either of van Der Waals forces as \"bonds\"; they are more like interactions. I like to think of all the intermolecular forces as a rating system. Some molecules can hydrogen bond, some have dipoles, and some have van Der Waals forces.   That being said, van Der Waals forces arise when a molecule does not have any electrostatic activity. Molecules do not like to touch each other, so van Der Waals forces ensure that they do not.   I am not sure you quite what you mean by polar bond, as it really isn't an intermolecular force. It is just a way to categorize a bond. For example, H-O is a polar bond because the O is very electronegative and pulls electron density away from hydrogen.  C-H is not a polar bond because there isn't really any major difference in electronegativity to have a considerable effect. That being said, if you take two CH3 molecules and put them around each other, they will still interact when close enough (van Der Waals) because there *is* electric activity, just not enough to make the bond polar.  I hope that helps.", "human_ref_B": "Considering you're asking about polar bonds and van der Waals bonds, I'm going to assume you're actually meaning to ask about intermolecular interactions and not the actual chemical bonds caused by the \"sharing\" of electrons between two atoms.  u/kudles explained polar bonds fairly well here.  Van der Waals (vdW) interactions come in two flavors, attractive and repulsive.  The repulsive interactions are simple: like charges repel one another, and with atoms/molecules, the electron clouds of each repel each other.  Pretty straightforward.  Attractive vdW interactions, also referred to as induced dipole interactions are a little more interesting. As I mentioned before, electrons are repelled by one another.  However, even though we often treat them as such, the electron cloud around a nucleus/molecule is not a hard sphere.  It can be pushed and deformed, and when this happens, it's possible to now have attractive forces between the electron cloud of one molecule, and the nuclei on the other.  This picture shows this deformation I'm talking about. For molecules similar to Teflon (PTFE), there are little to no attractive interactions, due to the fact that the electron clouds around fluorine atoms tend to be very much like a hard sphere.  (Di)Polar interactions result when you have some unequal distribution of charge in a molecule, and result from one or more polar covalent bonds in a molecule.  When there is a sufficiently high difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms, the electron cloud surrounding them tends to have a higher density around the more electronegative atom, leading to a partial negative charge on that part of the molecule.  This will then be attracted to the partial positive charge (or full positive charge of ions!) on other molecules that results from the shifting of electrons.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3956.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "42w5l6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the distinction between polar bonds and and der Waals bonds?", "c_root_id_A": "cze5c14", "c_root_id_B": "czdvjgg", "created_at_utc_A": 1453920989, "created_at_utc_B": 1453907185, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "A polar bond happens when the resulting molecule has a permanent dipole (sans ionic bonds).  Van der Waals forces arise between dipoles, sometimes these dipoles are permanent (from polar molecules) and sometimes they are induced -by interactions of polar molecules with nonpolar molecules, or between nonpolar molecules/atoms.", "human_ref_B": "If you aren't lgs92 in this thread, you are shadowbanned.  It is wrong to think of either of van Der Waals forces as \"bonds\"; they are more like interactions. I like to think of all the intermolecular forces as a rating system. Some molecules can hydrogen bond, some have dipoles, and some have van Der Waals forces.   That being said, van Der Waals forces arise when a molecule does not have any electrostatic activity. Molecules do not like to touch each other, so van Der Waals forces ensure that they do not.   I am not sure you quite what you mean by polar bond, as it really isn't an intermolecular force. It is just a way to categorize a bond. For example, H-O is a polar bond because the O is very electronegative and pulls electron density away from hydrogen.  C-H is not a polar bond because there isn't really any major difference in electronegativity to have a considerable effect. That being said, if you take two CH3 molecules and put them around each other, they will still interact when close enough (van Der Waals) because there *is* electric activity, just not enough to make the bond polar.  I hope that helps.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13804.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pskcw4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Is getting tongue-tied a very minor form of aphasia, or are the causes completely different?", "c_root_id_A": "hdruc0x", "c_root_id_B": "hdrncaw", "created_at_utc_A": 1632262336, "created_at_utc_B": 1632259231, "score_A": 115, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "The phenomenon is so common it actually has a clinical shorthand, a \"TOT state.\" It occurs when\u00a0the left temporal and frontal areas of your brain temporarily fail to work together to retrieve words or names stored in your memory, or other information, like where you left your keys.", "human_ref_B": "Do you mean apraxia, which is a motor speech disorder? Aphasia is a language disorder resulting from trauma to the brain.  The term tongue-tied is used for when your frenulum, which connects your tongue to your lower jaw, is either too long or too short. It has no relation to aphasia because aphasia affects language, not speech.  There's actually no research, that I know of, which supports that being tongue-tied relates to any speech disorder. If anything, it impacts feeding and swallowing but not speech.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3105.0, "score_ratio": -23.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pskcw4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Is getting tongue-tied a very minor form of aphasia, or are the causes completely different?", "c_root_id_A": "hdrvhag", "c_root_id_B": "hdrncaw", "created_at_utc_A": 1632262858, "created_at_utc_B": 1632259231, "score_A": 109, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "It depends on what's happening. Unless you have something going on with your articulators themselves, then it's clearly the brain\u2014not many other pieces to the puzzle.  Your ability to articulate words can break down at several stages, though. If you can't formulate the words or sequence them incorrectly, that's indeed along the spectrum of aphasia \u2014 your ability to instruct your body to make specific sounds is just fine, but your ability to decide what instructions to send isn't.  Meanwhile, if you know exactly what you want to say but the sounds just don't come out the way you wanted, that's along the continuum of apraxia \u2014 a motor disorder.  Colloquially, people might call either one \"tongue-tied,\" but they're very different kinds of underlying phenomena even if they share a lot of similar causes.  https://theaphasiacenter.com/2019/09/aphasia-and-apraxia/  There are also many categorizations within each of aphasia and apraxia.  As for what's implicated, well, \"it's complicated.\" Clinical apraxia and aphasia are associated with injury to the brain, which isn't the case for the common \"tongue tied.\" Instead, that's usually associated with modified neurotransmitter levels, often in response to a sudden increase in stress or change in environment; that's an explanation for why SDAs and some other drugs show significant fluency improvements for some disorders: https://ahn.mnsu.edu/about/stuttering/information-about-stuttering/serious-information/types-of-fluency-disorders/stuttering-and-drugs/serotonin-dopamine-antagonists-in-the-treatment-of-stuttering/ ... And also an explanation for why the frequency of being \"tongue-tied\" is so much higher in unfamiliar and stressful situations like unpracticed public speaking.  The end result is similar in that one of the pathways isn't getting signals it's supposed to.", "human_ref_B": "Do you mean apraxia, which is a motor speech disorder? Aphasia is a language disorder resulting from trauma to the brain.  The term tongue-tied is used for when your frenulum, which connects your tongue to your lower jaw, is either too long or too short. It has no relation to aphasia because aphasia affects language, not speech.  There's actually no research, that I know of, which supports that being tongue-tied relates to any speech disorder. If anything, it impacts feeding and swallowing but not speech.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3627.0, "score_ratio": -21.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pskcw4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Is getting tongue-tied a very minor form of aphasia, or are the causes completely different?", "c_root_id_A": "hdrncaw", "c_root_id_B": "hdsmioi", "created_at_utc_A": 1632259231, "created_at_utc_B": 1632275671, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Do you mean apraxia, which is a motor speech disorder? Aphasia is a language disorder resulting from trauma to the brain.  The term tongue-tied is used for when your frenulum, which connects your tongue to your lower jaw, is either too long or too short. It has no relation to aphasia because aphasia affects language, not speech.  There's actually no research, that I know of, which supports that being tongue-tied relates to any speech disorder. If anything, it impacts feeding and swallowing but not speech.", "human_ref_B": "\"Tongue tie\" is also an overly long and connected frenulum (that thing under your tongue). It can affect speech in some cases. Definitely stops you from sticking your tongue out far (and makes it hard to do things that involve that). It can also affect how high up your tongue goes in your mouth. This can impact other things like the space inside your mouth.   It can be fixed early with babies when they are born but is not often done with adults (maybe it's not possible in don't know).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16440.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7xkb7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Is there a case in which a base unit to the power of another base unit (e.g., meters^kilogram) has physical meaning? What about logarithms or roots? It's hard to imagine exponentiation, logs, and roots as continuous operators, but clearly they must be. Is it possible to get units this weird? And what would they mean?", "c_root_id_A": "duaitiw", "c_root_id_B": "duamfu4", "created_at_utc_A": 1518712372, "created_at_utc_B": 1518715802, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "No, exponents must be dimensionless.", "human_ref_B": "You may find this discussion of interest.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3430.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7xkb7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Is there a case in which a base unit to the power of another base unit (e.g., meters^kilogram) has physical meaning? What about logarithms or roots? It's hard to imagine exponentiation, logs, and roots as continuous operators, but clearly they must be. Is it possible to get units this weird? And what would they mean?", "c_root_id_A": "duamfu4", "c_root_id_B": "dua9ea4", "created_at_utc_A": 1518715802, "created_at_utc_B": 1518701884, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "You may find this discussion of interest.", "human_ref_B": "You *could* write physical laws so they have quantities with transcendental units, but it's a bad idea and we generally don't.  For instance, the voltage vs time for a capacitor and resistor connected together *could* be written:         V(t) = A e^(-t)  where the constant A would have units of volts * e^(seconds). Yuck. But what we typically do instead is write       V(t) = V0 e^(-t/tau)  where V0 has units of volts and tau has units of seconds.  This is better because the constants have physical meanings (V0 is the starting voltage, tau is the time it takes for most of the voltage to decay away), and because it's easier to do the unit conversions if we want to, say, measure time in hours.  As a matter of style, convenience, and to reduce confusion, whenever a function more complicated than a simple power appears in an equation, we usually arrange the physical constants so that the argument of the function is unitless.   This causes the physical quantities in the equation to be simple powers of the base units.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13918.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7xkb7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Is there a case in which a base unit to the power of another base unit (e.g., meters^kilogram) has physical meaning? What about logarithms or roots? It's hard to imagine exponentiation, logs, and roots as continuous operators, but clearly they must be. Is it possible to get units this weird? And what would they mean?", "c_root_id_A": "duaitiw", "c_root_id_B": "dua9ea4", "created_at_utc_A": 1518712372, "created_at_utc_B": 1518701884, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "No, exponents must be dimensionless.", "human_ref_B": "You *could* write physical laws so they have quantities with transcendental units, but it's a bad idea and we generally don't.  For instance, the voltage vs time for a capacitor and resistor connected together *could* be written:         V(t) = A e^(-t)  where the constant A would have units of volts * e^(seconds). Yuck. But what we typically do instead is write       V(t) = V0 e^(-t/tau)  where V0 has units of volts and tau has units of seconds.  This is better because the constants have physical meanings (V0 is the starting voltage, tau is the time it takes for most of the voltage to decay away), and because it's easier to do the unit conversions if we want to, say, measure time in hours.  As a matter of style, convenience, and to reduce confusion, whenever a function more complicated than a simple power appears in an equation, we usually arrange the physical constants so that the argument of the function is unitless.   This causes the physical quantities in the equation to be simple powers of the base units.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10488.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7xkb7m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Is there a case in which a base unit to the power of another base unit (e.g., meters^kilogram) has physical meaning? What about logarithms or roots? It's hard to imagine exponentiation, logs, and roots as continuous operators, but clearly they must be. Is it possible to get units this weird? And what would they mean?", "c_root_id_A": "dua9ea4", "c_root_id_B": "dubb6io", "created_at_utc_A": 1518701884, "created_at_utc_B": 1518739536, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You *could* write physical laws so they have quantities with transcendental units, but it's a bad idea and we generally don't.  For instance, the voltage vs time for a capacitor and resistor connected together *could* be written:         V(t) = A e^(-t)  where the constant A would have units of volts * e^(seconds). Yuck. But what we typically do instead is write       V(t) = V0 e^(-t/tau)  where V0 has units of volts and tau has units of seconds.  This is better because the constants have physical meanings (V0 is the starting voltage, tau is the time it takes for most of the voltage to decay away), and because it's easier to do the unit conversions if we want to, say, measure time in hours.  As a matter of style, convenience, and to reduce confusion, whenever a function more complicated than a simple power appears in an equation, we usually arrange the physical constants so that the argument of the function is unitless.   This causes the physical quantities in the equation to be simple powers of the base units.", "human_ref_B": "The root of a unit is fine, there's no obvious physical meaning for something like length^1/2 but there's no reason it can't appear. In fracture mechanics there's a \"stress intensity factor\" with units of stress * length^1/2 that has a basis in theory.  Meters^kilograms doesn't make sense. You can certainly make up an empirical formula with kilograms in an exponent, but no equation with a unit in an exponent (or logarithm, or anything that can't be expressed as a polynomial) is going to have a basis in theory.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37652.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1hflhr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Is there such a thing as \"economic momentum\" and if so can it be measured, or can it be used to predict economic behavior? I'm wondering if the natural laws of physics apply to man-made systems, in this case, whether Newton's First Law of Motion (paraphrased), where a body will remain in a given state until acted upon by an external force, can be applied in some fashion to economic systems.    To give an example, say applicable forces are constant (unemployment, GDP growth, national debt, consumer confidence, interest rates, etc.) and as a result economic conditions will be in some state.  Then a crash happens, such as 2008 / 2009 (as a result of applied forces).  It seems to me that no matter how much effort is poured in to getting the economy back on track, the economy will have gained a certain amount of negative momentum which will have to be overcome with sufficient force to (ideally) reverse economic direction.  It also seems that this cannot be done overnight simply because the forces would have to be (impossibly?) tremendous.", "c_root_id_A": "catu5gs", "c_root_id_B": "catun1n", "created_at_utc_A": 1372695920, "created_at_utc_B": 1372697292, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The phenomena of social and industrial inertia could be seen to combine as economic inertia, or momentum as you say, but such an analogy to the laws of physics is only effective to a point, as you cannot draw conclusions beyond your understanding of economics based on a relatively more expansive knowledge of physics.", "human_ref_B": "Economics and Newtonian physics can share only the most shallow analogy.  Using one to make conclusions and predictions about the other (and attempts to control) is more or less pointless.  You _can_ make strong analogies between economics, turbulence, weather patterns, and certain types of noise in electronic systems.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1372.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj987", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How come those big boats that are wide at the top but narrow at sea-level maintain balance? How come these boats can stay balanced?  What's the science behind it to prevent it from simply tipping over?", "c_root_id_A": "c31eng0", "c_root_id_B": "c31g0uk", "created_at_utc_A": 1321829998, "created_at_utc_B": 1321839499, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Generally, the center of gravity needs to be below the center of bouyancy.  The boat pictured may have *much* more weight below the water.", "human_ref_B": "metacentric height  This article in wikipedia explains the issue well.  Basically, as a ship heels over (due to an external force applied to the ship), the center of buoyancy moves to the geometric center of the submerged portion of the ship.  This pushes up, creating a \"righting lever\" and allowing the ship to return to an upright state.  Once it is upright again, G and B are alligned and in equilibrium.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9501.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hxqkp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "where does the energy for the movement of electrons around a nucleus come from?", "c_root_id_A": "c1z8w8e", "c_root_id_B": "c1z8q5q", "created_at_utc_A": 1307888678, "created_at_utc_B": 1307885476, "score_A": 95, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "The simple answer is that it does not require energy to move around the nucleus. The more complicated answer is that this is a major problem with the \"orbital model\" of the atom, as orbiting electrons would be accelerating and therefore give of electromagnetic energy.  It is actually one of the problems that quantum mechanics explains.", "human_ref_B": "I'm not sure what you're asking here. Are you imagining a scenario where there is a constant input of energy required to maintain an orbit? Because that isn't the case.  Furthermore, thinking of the electrons as existing in a moving orbit analogous to that of planets is erroneous. The electron is described by a 'probability cloud' around the nucleus, informing us of the probability for it to be located at a particular location in the orbital.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3202.0, "score_ratio": 3.3928571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hxqkp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "where does the energy for the movement of electrons around a nucleus come from?", "c_root_id_A": "c1z8w8e", "c_root_id_B": "c1z8rkv", "created_at_utc_A": 1307888678, "created_at_utc_B": 1307886299, "score_A": 95, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "The simple answer is that it does not require energy to move around the nucleus. The more complicated answer is that this is a major problem with the \"orbital model\" of the atom, as orbiting electrons would be accelerating and therefore give of electromagnetic energy.  It is actually one of the problems that quantum mechanics explains.", "human_ref_B": "When an electron is in stable orbit it is not expending any energy to stay there. It only emits or absorbs energy when it goes up or down a level.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2379.0, "score_ratio": 6.7857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hxqkp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "where does the energy for the movement of electrons around a nucleus come from?", "c_root_id_A": "c1z8w8e", "c_root_id_B": "c1z8qs0", "created_at_utc_A": 1307888678, "created_at_utc_B": 1307885837, "score_A": 95, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The simple answer is that it does not require energy to move around the nucleus. The more complicated answer is that this is a major problem with the \"orbital model\" of the atom, as orbiting electrons would be accelerating and therefore give of electromagnetic energy.  It is actually one of the problems that quantum mechanics explains.", "human_ref_B": "The electrostatic potential difference between an electron a long way from a nucleus and one in orbit around it. An electron some large distance from a proton has over 13eV more energy than one orbiting it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2841.0, "score_ratio": 95.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hxqkp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "where does the energy for the movement of electrons around a nucleus come from?", "c_root_id_A": "c1z8qs0", "c_root_id_B": "c1z8rkv", "created_at_utc_A": 1307885837, "created_at_utc_B": 1307886299, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "The electrostatic potential difference between an electron a long way from a nucleus and one in orbit around it. An electron some large distance from a proton has over 13eV more energy than one orbiting it.", "human_ref_B": "When an electron is in stable orbit it is not expending any energy to stay there. It only emits or absorbs energy when it goes up or down a level.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 462.0, "score_ratio": 14.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hxqkp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "where does the energy for the movement of electrons around a nucleus come from?", "c_root_id_A": "c1z934n", "c_root_id_B": "c1za4kf", "created_at_utc_A": 1307891634, "created_at_utc_B": 1307904268, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Think of building a hydrogen atom by starting from a proton and an electron very far apart.  As they move closer together, they are attracted and hence the system has **less potential energy**.  This energy has to go somewhere.  Some of the energy (13.6 eV) is lost in the process.  The rest becomes the kinetic energy of the motion of the electron.", "human_ref_B": "Putting aside the quantum nature of these orbits for a moment, consider an analogous classical question: Where does the energy for the movement of planets around the sun come from?  The answer is that the system is already in a stable state. Because objects in motion tend to remain in motion (in the absence of friction), no additional energy is needed to keep planets in orbit.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12634.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hxqkp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "where does the energy for the movement of electrons around a nucleus come from?", "c_root_id_A": "c1za4kf", "c_root_id_B": "c1z8qs0", "created_at_utc_A": 1307904268, "created_at_utc_B": 1307885837, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Putting aside the quantum nature of these orbits for a moment, consider an analogous classical question: Where does the energy for the movement of planets around the sun come from?  The answer is that the system is already in a stable state. Because objects in motion tend to remain in motion (in the absence of friction), no additional energy is needed to keep planets in orbit.", "human_ref_B": "The electrostatic potential difference between an electron a long way from a nucleus and one in orbit around it. An electron some large distance from a proton has over 13eV more energy than one orbiting it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18431.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hxqkp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "where does the energy for the movement of electrons around a nucleus come from?", "c_root_id_A": "c1z934n", "c_root_id_B": "c1z8qs0", "created_at_utc_A": 1307891634, "created_at_utc_B": 1307885837, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Think of building a hydrogen atom by starting from a proton and an electron very far apart.  As they move closer together, they are attracted and hence the system has **less potential energy**.  This energy has to go somewhere.  Some of the energy (13.6 eV) is lost in the process.  The rest becomes the kinetic energy of the motion of the electron.", "human_ref_B": "The electrostatic potential difference between an electron a long way from a nucleus and one in orbit around it. An electron some large distance from a proton has over 13eV more energy than one orbiting it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5797.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i6403", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do physicists think/know that elementary particles exist? I was reading in GEB in a paragraph called \"Formal Systems and Reality\" when I came across the following lines: >One could suggest, for instance, that reality is itself nothing but one very complicated formal system. Its symbols do not move around on paper, but rather in a three-dimensional vacuum (space); they are the elementary particles of which everything is composed. **(Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.)**  It's not what the book is about, but I started wondering why I always just assumed that this is the case. Isn't it from a certain view more logical that on every level of particles (molecules, atoms, subatomic particles) there exist different kinds of particles, which are different because they are build from different smaller particles?  Or am thinking totally wrong?  I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: > *How Is it philosophically justifiable to say that there are fundamental particles in the universe which cannot be reduced to finer particles?* > >How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS. At present we don't have any choice about the Universe we live in, so, when we describe it, we have to do so as it IS, not what we think it SHOULD be (whatever that means).  >Source", "c_root_id_A": "c2176a6", "c_root_id_B": "c217imh", "created_at_utc_A": 1308743129, "created_at_utc_B": 1308749182, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "You are right, a priori there is no reason to assume that the \"descending chain of matter\" stops at the level up to where we have explored it.  The fact that the particles of the standard model are elementary, and not made up of other, smaller particle, is an assumption.  This assumption has been, and will be tested again and again, at higher and higher energies. So far however, there is no data that contradicts the assumption that what we call elementary particles are indeed elementary.  However, maybe 400 years from now students will be taught the funny misnomer of the 20th century, when an electron was named an 'elementary' particle, when in fact in consists of 7 electrides, as everybody knows by then. Much like the atomos misnomer of the 19th century.", "human_ref_B": "Well, to be honest, this is why you don't bring logic to a science-fight.  The universe does not exist because it's logical. Nobody gives two spits what people do or don't find logical. The universe is what it is, and we seek to learn about it by observing, and by making guesses about those observations that we can test by making more observations.  All science is inherently empirical. If a scientist observes something that some philosopher somewhere declares \"illogical,\" the philosopher loses. Automatically. Because nobody cares what's \"logical.\" We care about what *is.*  We look at, say, the proton and see evidence of structure there. We look at the electron and see no evidence of structure. In the absence of any evidence of structure, and given no theories that predict there should be structure, we have no reason to believe structure exists. So we say it doesn't. Are we wrong? Sure, maybe. But there's literally *no* point in thinking along those lines. Because just as the universe doesn't care about what we do or don't think is \"logical,\" it likewise doesn't care about our self-doubts. If we see an elementary particle, and lots and lots of repeated observations confirm it's an elementary particle, and no theory suggests it could be anything other than an elementary particle, then it's a duck.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6053.0, "score_ratio": 1.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i6403", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do physicists think/know that elementary particles exist? I was reading in GEB in a paragraph called \"Formal Systems and Reality\" when I came across the following lines: >One could suggest, for instance, that reality is itself nothing but one very complicated formal system. Its symbols do not move around on paper, but rather in a three-dimensional vacuum (space); they are the elementary particles of which everything is composed. **(Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.)**  It's not what the book is about, but I started wondering why I always just assumed that this is the case. Isn't it from a certain view more logical that on every level of particles (molecules, atoms, subatomic particles) there exist different kinds of particles, which are different because they are build from different smaller particles?  Or am thinking totally wrong?  I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: > *How Is it philosophically justifiable to say that there are fundamental particles in the universe which cannot be reduced to finer particles?* > >How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS. At present we don't have any choice about the Universe we live in, so, when we describe it, we have to do so as it IS, not what we think it SHOULD be (whatever that means).  >Source", "c_root_id_A": "c217imh", "c_root_id_B": "c2175ze", "created_at_utc_A": 1308749182, "created_at_utc_B": 1308742920, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Well, to be honest, this is why you don't bring logic to a science-fight.  The universe does not exist because it's logical. Nobody gives two spits what people do or don't find logical. The universe is what it is, and we seek to learn about it by observing, and by making guesses about those observations that we can test by making more observations.  All science is inherently empirical. If a scientist observes something that some philosopher somewhere declares \"illogical,\" the philosopher loses. Automatically. Because nobody cares what's \"logical.\" We care about what *is.*  We look at, say, the proton and see evidence of structure there. We look at the electron and see no evidence of structure. In the absence of any evidence of structure, and given no theories that predict there should be structure, we have no reason to believe structure exists. So we say it doesn't. Are we wrong? Sure, maybe. But there's literally *no* point in thinking along those lines. Because just as the universe doesn't care about what we do or don't think is \"logical,\" it likewise doesn't care about our self-doubts. If we see an elementary particle, and lots and lots of repeated observations confirm it's an elementary particle, and no theory suggests it could be anything other than an elementary particle, then it's a duck.", "human_ref_B": "When faced with the unknown, it is good technique to test the unknown, determine facts about the unknown through experimentation and observation and give those groups of discovered known facts a name.  This technique is employed to allow progress, otherwise we would be still stuck with:   * Hey, what is everything made of?   * I don't know.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6262.0, "score_ratio": 18000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i6403", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do physicists think/know that elementary particles exist? I was reading in GEB in a paragraph called \"Formal Systems and Reality\" when I came across the following lines: >One could suggest, for instance, that reality is itself nothing but one very complicated formal system. Its symbols do not move around on paper, but rather in a three-dimensional vacuum (space); they are the elementary particles of which everything is composed. **(Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.)**  It's not what the book is about, but I started wondering why I always just assumed that this is the case. Isn't it from a certain view more logical that on every level of particles (molecules, atoms, subatomic particles) there exist different kinds of particles, which are different because they are build from different smaller particles?  Or am thinking totally wrong?  I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: > *How Is it philosophically justifiable to say that there are fundamental particles in the universe which cannot be reduced to finer particles?* > >How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS. At present we don't have any choice about the Universe we live in, so, when we describe it, we have to do so as it IS, not what we think it SHOULD be (whatever that means).  >Source", "c_root_id_A": "c2175ze", "c_root_id_B": "c2176a6", "created_at_utc_A": 1308742920, "created_at_utc_B": 1308743129, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "When faced with the unknown, it is good technique to test the unknown, determine facts about the unknown through experimentation and observation and give those groups of discovered known facts a name.  This technique is employed to allow progress, otherwise we would be still stuck with:   * Hey, what is everything made of?   * I don't know.", "human_ref_B": "You are right, a priori there is no reason to assume that the \"descending chain of matter\" stops at the level up to where we have explored it.  The fact that the particles of the standard model are elementary, and not made up of other, smaller particle, is an assumption.  This assumption has been, and will be tested again and again, at higher and higher energies. So far however, there is no data that contradicts the assumption that what we call elementary particles are indeed elementary.  However, maybe 400 years from now students will be taught the funny misnomer of the 20th century, when an electron was named an 'elementary' particle, when in fact in consists of 7 electrides, as everybody knows by then. Much like the atomos misnomer of the 19th century.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 209.0, "score_ratio": 11000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i6403", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do physicists think/know that elementary particles exist? I was reading in GEB in a paragraph called \"Formal Systems and Reality\" when I came across the following lines: >One could suggest, for instance, that reality is itself nothing but one very complicated formal system. Its symbols do not move around on paper, but rather in a three-dimensional vacuum (space); they are the elementary particles of which everything is composed. **(Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.)**  It's not what the book is about, but I started wondering why I always just assumed that this is the case. Isn't it from a certain view more logical that on every level of particles (molecules, atoms, subatomic particles) there exist different kinds of particles, which are different because they are build from different smaller particles?  Or am thinking totally wrong?  I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: > *How Is it philosophically justifiable to say that there are fundamental particles in the universe which cannot be reduced to finer particles?* > >How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS. At present we don't have any choice about the Universe we live in, so, when we describe it, we have to do so as it IS, not what we think it SHOULD be (whatever that means).  >Source", "c_root_id_A": "c2175ze", "c_root_id_B": "c217t3w", "created_at_utc_A": 1308742920, "created_at_utc_B": 1308752659, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "When faced with the unknown, it is good technique to test the unknown, determine facts about the unknown through experimentation and observation and give those groups of discovered known facts a name.  This technique is employed to allow progress, otherwise we would be still stuck with:   * Hey, what is everything made of?   * I don't know.", "human_ref_B": "Scientists don't really stop and say \"this is good enough.\" All of the data still points to electrons and quarks and the like as being fundamental, not made of other stuff, particles. And we continue to test this by scattering ever smaller probes off of them to see if we can see a structure. To date we have not. Maybe someday we will.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9739.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i6403", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do physicists think/know that elementary particles exist? I was reading in GEB in a paragraph called \"Formal Systems and Reality\" when I came across the following lines: >One could suggest, for instance, that reality is itself nothing but one very complicated formal system. Its symbols do not move around on paper, but rather in a three-dimensional vacuum (space); they are the elementary particles of which everything is composed. **(Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.)**  It's not what the book is about, but I started wondering why I always just assumed that this is the case. Isn't it from a certain view more logical that on every level of particles (molecules, atoms, subatomic particles) there exist different kinds of particles, which are different because they are build from different smaller particles?  Or am thinking totally wrong?  I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: > *How Is it philosophically justifiable to say that there are fundamental particles in the universe which cannot be reduced to finer particles?* > >How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS. At present we don't have any choice about the Universe we live in, so, when we describe it, we have to do so as it IS, not what we think it SHOULD be (whatever that means).  >Source", "c_root_id_A": "c219jde", "c_root_id_B": "c218dqc", "created_at_utc_A": 1308767004, "created_at_utc_B": 1308757888, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "> Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.  Personally, I find the rejection of that assumption to be an intriguing idea, and I absolutely agree that there is no empirical reason that we can rule it out.  There is absolutely no guarantee that the current laws of physics, only tested at the energy scales (LHC and below) available to us are valid at higher energy scales. We simply have little to no empirical evidence in that domain of any sort, excepting what astute astronomers can wrangle out of their data.  Now, in the 19th century atomic theory, one could reasonably think that atoms were truly elementary, at least until 1895 when the electron was discovered.  However, in the current age the understanding of the Standard Model leads one to a very different basic conclusion. The mathematical process of renormalization which is key to making any physical sense of the quantum field theories of the standard model is widely considered to be evidence of it being an effective theory.   In other words, the mathematics of the standard model seem to betray a deeper unknown theory describing high energies which reduces to the standard model at low energy scales.  So it is generally understood that there is something clearly not elementary about the current 'elementary' particle physics.  Is it turtles all the way down? We must smash our way through to the next theory, and then ask ourselves the same question again.", "human_ref_B": "> I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: >> How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS.  You are misreading.  If someone says \"we know it's possible because that's the way the universe *is*\", they're implicitly citing our empirical knowledge.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9116.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i6403", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do physicists think/know that elementary particles exist? I was reading in GEB in a paragraph called \"Formal Systems and Reality\" when I came across the following lines: >One could suggest, for instance, that reality is itself nothing but one very complicated formal system. Its symbols do not move around on paper, but rather in a three-dimensional vacuum (space); they are the elementary particles of which everything is composed. **(Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.)**  It's not what the book is about, but I started wondering why I always just assumed that this is the case. Isn't it from a certain view more logical that on every level of particles (molecules, atoms, subatomic particles) there exist different kinds of particles, which are different because they are build from different smaller particles?  Or am thinking totally wrong?  I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: > *How Is it philosophically justifiable to say that there are fundamental particles in the universe which cannot be reduced to finer particles?* > >How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS. At present we don't have any choice about the Universe we live in, so, when we describe it, we have to do so as it IS, not what we think it SHOULD be (whatever that means).  >Source", "c_root_id_A": "c2175ze", "c_root_id_B": "c219jde", "created_at_utc_A": 1308742920, "created_at_utc_B": 1308767004, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "When faced with the unknown, it is good technique to test the unknown, determine facts about the unknown through experimentation and observation and give those groups of discovered known facts a name.  This technique is employed to allow progress, otherwise we would be still stuck with:   * Hey, what is everything made of?   * I don't know.", "human_ref_B": "> Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.  Personally, I find the rejection of that assumption to be an intriguing idea, and I absolutely agree that there is no empirical reason that we can rule it out.  There is absolutely no guarantee that the current laws of physics, only tested at the energy scales (LHC and below) available to us are valid at higher energy scales. We simply have little to no empirical evidence in that domain of any sort, excepting what astute astronomers can wrangle out of their data.  Now, in the 19th century atomic theory, one could reasonably think that atoms were truly elementary, at least until 1895 when the electron was discovered.  However, in the current age the understanding of the Standard Model leads one to a very different basic conclusion. The mathematical process of renormalization which is key to making any physical sense of the quantum field theories of the standard model is widely considered to be evidence of it being an effective theory.   In other words, the mathematics of the standard model seem to betray a deeper unknown theory describing high energies which reduces to the standard model at low energy scales.  So it is generally understood that there is something clearly not elementary about the current 'elementary' particle physics.  Is it turtles all the way down? We must smash our way through to the next theory, and then ask ourselves the same question again.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24084.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i6403", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Why do physicists think/know that elementary particles exist? I was reading in GEB in a paragraph called \"Formal Systems and Reality\" when I came across the following lines: >One could suggest, for instance, that reality is itself nothing but one very complicated formal system. Its symbols do not move around on paper, but rather in a three-dimensional vacuum (space); they are the elementary particles of which everything is composed. **(Tacit assumption: that there is an end to the descending chain of matter, so that the expression \"elementary particles\" makes sense.)**  It's not what the book is about, but I started wondering why I always just assumed that this is the case. Isn't it from a certain view more logical that on every level of particles (molecules, atoms, subatomic particles) there exist different kinds of particles, which are different because they are build from different smaller particles?  Or am thinking totally wrong?  I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: > *How Is it philosophically justifiable to say that there are fundamental particles in the universe which cannot be reduced to finer particles?* > >How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS. At present we don't have any choice about the Universe we live in, so, when we describe it, we have to do so as it IS, not what we think it SHOULD be (whatever that means).  >Source", "c_root_id_A": "c218dqc", "c_root_id_B": "c2175ze", "created_at_utc_A": 1308757888, "created_at_utc_B": 1308742920, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "> I've tried searching on the internet, but it seems that everybody just assumes that there need to be something elementary. For example: >> How is it philosophically \"possible\" to say this? Simple: to the best of our knowledge, it's the way our Universe IS.  You are misreading.  If someone says \"we know it's possible because that's the way the universe *is*\", they're implicitly citing our empirical knowledge.", "human_ref_B": "When faced with the unknown, it is good technique to test the unknown, determine facts about the unknown through experimentation and observation and give those groups of discovered known facts a name.  This technique is employed to allow progress, otherwise we would be still stuck with:   * Hey, what is everything made of?   * I don't know.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14968.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "an3vkt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "1. Nothing can travel faster than light. 2. Light is not fast enough to escape a black hole's event horizon. 3. Black holes have gravitational influence beyond their event horizon. Does this disprove the possibility of a particle carrying gravity (a graviton)? Maybe I'm missing something here, but if no particle can leave a black hole, doesn't that mean there can be no graviton?", "c_root_id_A": "efrtn4x", "c_root_id_B": "efr6wuf", "created_at_utc_A": 1549337346, "created_at_utc_B": 1549318861, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Nope!  This is a pretty common misconception actually.  Forces are *not* at all like a bunch of billiard balls being shot around and knocking into other objects to push them apart (think about it -- if that were true, how could a force ever pull things together?).  The fundamental \"thing\" involved in forces is actually the *field* itself.  Suppose you had two stationary objects (relative velocity = 0) floating out in space in an otherwise completely empty universe -- no gravitons, photons, or anything else to speak of.  Would they attract each other?  The answer is yes.  Would they need to exchange a graviton first?  The answer to that one is no.  It is the *field* that does the work.  The particles are still in each other's gravitational field, and the *local* field potential/configuration is already such that the field will exert a force on each particle immediately once they are allowed to move freely.  Particles like gravitons and photons are *field quanta* -- they are discrete, self-propagating *disturbances* in the field's values -- they are moving *changes* in the field.  But a static, unchanging field does not have these quanta; the field isn't changing, so there are no disturbances propagating through it.  Now, I mentioned above that gravitons and photons are changes in the field.  The field itself exerts the force, but the particles *are* changes in the field ... so these particles, when they are present, *also* exert a force, by virtue of being a part of the field itself.  Unlike a static field, once the particle is absorbed (or recoils, or whatever) and is gone, that's it -- there's no more force exerted by the particle, of course ... but any gradient left in the static field will still continue to exert a force.  So don't think of forces as being exclusively caused by \"force-carrier\" particles.  Those particles carry a force in the sense that they change how the field looks and thus changes how the object would otherwise behave in a static field, but the field itself is what actually acts on objects.  For something like a black hole, the gravitational field is already in a configuration where it will act on any object at the event horizon to pull it inward towards the singularity.  No exchange of gravitons needed!  Gravitons also cannot escape the event horizon -- all the information about the black hole's gravitational field's configuration is present locally outside the event horizon.  What that means is this:  any changes to the gravitational field that happen *inside* the black hole do not affect external observers, and *that's* because gravitons can't escape the black hole from its interior.  In perturbative approaches to quantum field theory, you can model the effects of the field itself on an object in terms of \"virtual particles\" which are groupings of terms in an infinite power series, but this is just a convenient mathematical grouping that makes it easier to solve (each order of the power series gets weaker, so we don't have to compute an infinite number of terms to get an answer of a desired precision, we only need to compute the lower-order terms and can ignore the higher-order ones).  Virtual particles are not real particles and their presence in perturbation theory does *not* mean that space is filled with them constantly popping in and out of existence, mediating a force ... there are other, non-perturbative methods for doing these same calculations, which never reference the concept of virtual particles at all.  These other methods are harder to calculate, but nevertheless give correct answers.  So in a sense, virtual particles are an artifact of perturbation theory, not an element of reality.  Hope that helps!", "human_ref_B": "Slightly unrelated but \u201cforce carrying particles\u201d shouldn\u2019t be taken too literally. Forces aren\u2019t actually transmitted by particles, but, depending on how you look at it, by \u201cvirtual particles\u201d (which aren\u2019t particles). A photon, for example, transmits an electromagnetic wave, but doesn\u2019t facilitate two electrons bouncing away from each other.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18485.0, "score_ratio": 1.0769230769, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qkhpb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can Lagrangian Points become \"full\" of objects? How many satellites can you fit? I came across this list of objects at Lagrangian Points while wondering if a point can be \"occupied\" by satellites. Technically, isn't each point ONE POINT that a satellite can rest at? Are multiple satellites kept at an L-point by regular stationkeeping?", "c_root_id_A": "c3yap5u", "c_root_id_B": "c3yaq8w", "created_at_utc_A": 1331060937, "created_at_utc_B": 1331061083, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Technically, you would need a perfectly spherical object with no momentum whose exact center is located at that point for it to be perfect.  Realistically, there wouldn't be much net gravitational effect on an object that was slightly off (say 100 meters), so you could probably fit a bunch that basically have the same properties of the point.  As the group got larger and further from the point, the discrepancy would become more apparent.  That all said, the question of how many you can fit is technically one, unless it is a satellite in the form of a particle that isn't affected by gravity.", "human_ref_B": "There are 5 Lagrangian Points. See here.  The points L1, L2, and L3 are unstable equilibrium, so you would have to have the center of mass of any objects at these exact points, otherwise the object(s) not stay there. You could theoretically have multiple objects at one of these points as long as each of their center of mass was in the exact Lagrangian point (think a solid marble, and also a seperate hollowed sphere around it).  L4 and L5 are both stable equilibrium, so if something was displaced slightly from the equilibrium, it would begin to orbit the Lagrangian point.  So you could have much more objects stable at these areas (although they technically are not \"on\" the point), as long as they were of negligible mass compared to the two main bodies of the system.  I find this all very interesting, it's currently the subject of my Physics Senior Thesis, if you have any questions I would do my best to answer them for you.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 146.0, "score_ratio": -8.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qkhpb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can Lagrangian Points become \"full\" of objects? How many satellites can you fit? I came across this list of objects at Lagrangian Points while wondering if a point can be \"occupied\" by satellites. Technically, isn't each point ONE POINT that a satellite can rest at? Are multiple satellites kept at an L-point by regular stationkeeping?", "c_root_id_A": "c3ydbn4", "c_root_id_B": "c3yap5u", "created_at_utc_A": 1331075343, "created_at_utc_B": 1331060937, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "No satellites sit directly in an exact lagrangian point, they all orbit in \"halo orbits\" around the points. In general the volume around a lagrangian space where it is feasible to make use of the features of the point is quite large enough to accomodate a huge number of craft. The problems that will occur before the areas of the points fill up physically is that you start getting issues of light/heat/radio pollution, but we're a far way from even that today.", "human_ref_B": "Technically, you would need a perfectly spherical object with no momentum whose exact center is located at that point for it to be perfect.  Realistically, there wouldn't be much net gravitational effect on an object that was slightly off (say 100 meters), so you could probably fit a bunch that basically have the same properties of the point.  As the group got larger and further from the point, the discrepancy would become more apparent.  That all said, the question of how many you can fit is technically one, unless it is a satellite in the form of a particle that isn't affected by gravity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14406.0, "score_ratio": -1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qkhpb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can Lagrangian Points become \"full\" of objects? How many satellites can you fit? I came across this list of objects at Lagrangian Points while wondering if a point can be \"occupied\" by satellites. Technically, isn't each point ONE POINT that a satellite can rest at? Are multiple satellites kept at an L-point by regular stationkeeping?", "c_root_id_A": "c3yap5u", "c_root_id_B": "c3ye4u1", "created_at_utc_A": 1331060937, "created_at_utc_B": 1331080110, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Technically, you would need a perfectly spherical object with no momentum whose exact center is located at that point for it to be perfect.  Realistically, there wouldn't be much net gravitational effect on an object that was slightly off (say 100 meters), so you could probably fit a bunch that basically have the same properties of the point.  As the group got larger and further from the point, the discrepancy would become more apparent.  That all said, the question of how many you can fit is technically one, unless it is a satellite in the form of a particle that isn't affected by gravity.", "human_ref_B": "The distribution of the two Trojan Asteriods groups in Jupiter's orbit are each spread out over several hundreds of millions of kilometers, a rather considerable volume. There is an esitmated 100,000 of them, only counting those which are over 2 km in size.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19173.0, "score_ratio": -1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qkhpb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Can Lagrangian Points become \"full\" of objects? How many satellites can you fit? I came across this list of objects at Lagrangian Points while wondering if a point can be \"occupied\" by satellites. Technically, isn't each point ONE POINT that a satellite can rest at? Are multiple satellites kept at an L-point by regular stationkeeping?", "c_root_id_A": "c3yh3x9", "c_root_id_B": "c3yap5u", "created_at_utc_A": 1331097487, "created_at_utc_B": 1331060937, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "L4 and L5 are the only stable Lagrangian Points and you can only really have one body in that point from my understanding because this is a 3 body problem. Any others would create perturbations that would make the system unstable. Check out the trojan asteroids that are located in the L4 and L5 locations between the Sun and Jupiter.", "human_ref_B": "Technically, you would need a perfectly spherical object with no momentum whose exact center is located at that point for it to be perfect.  Realistically, there wouldn't be much net gravitational effect on an object that was slightly off (say 100 meters), so you could probably fit a bunch that basically have the same properties of the point.  As the group got larger and further from the point, the discrepancy would become more apparent.  That all said, the question of how many you can fit is technically one, unless it is a satellite in the form of a particle that isn't affected by gravity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 36550.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hjj9d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "How do we know where the tectonic plates are? I get that we can tell where some are from fault shifts and whatnot, but I am sure that's not the case for all of them, especially ones at sea.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vwx1n", "c_root_id_B": "c1vwhe9", "created_at_utc_A": 1306318226, "created_at_utc_B": 1306307450, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Just to put an official stamp here here:  rockyTron, rocketsocks and probably_wrong_but all have the right answer.   There are a few ways to define what a plate is. I think rocketsocks has the best explanation of how large scale plates are worked out, but rockyTron alludes to the fact that sometimes things can get complicated and other data is needed. Tinou gives the simplest explanation, but there are many exceptions to the rule.", "human_ref_B": "From the locations of earthquakes you can get a pretty good idea. If you use enough data you can find that earthquakes generally cluster along plate boundaries http://seismo.berkeley.edu/blogs/seismoblog.php/2008/09/29/where-earthquakes-occur. In addition you can make your own maps of this by using http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/data/ . about 10,000 Earthquakes gives a prity deatled picture of the boundary locations.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10776.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hjj9d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.96, "history": "How do we know where the tectonic plates are? I get that we can tell where some are from fault shifts and whatnot, but I am sure that's not the case for all of them, especially ones at sea.", "c_root_id_A": "c1vwx1n", "c_root_id_B": "c1vww5l", "created_at_utc_A": 1306318226, "created_at_utc_B": 1306317478, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Just to put an official stamp here here:  rockyTron, rocketsocks and probably_wrong_but all have the right answer.   There are a few ways to define what a plate is. I think rocketsocks has the best explanation of how large scale plates are worked out, but rockyTron alludes to the fact that sometimes things can get complicated and other data is needed. Tinou gives the simplest explanation, but there are many exceptions to the rule.", "human_ref_B": "Today we can measure continental drift directly through GPS and other techniques. We can determine which parts of plates are connected and which move with respect to others. Beyond that through studying mid-oceanic ridges and subduction zones (both features that tend to be fairly easily identified) we can get a good idea of plate boundaries.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 748.0, "score_ratio": 1.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x3t6l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What causes logs to turn white while burning, and why do moving black patches appear? I was camping this weekend, and I noticed that the burning logs that were already white had black patches moving up and down the log. What causes this phenomenon?", "c_root_id_A": "c5j6d2p", "c_root_id_B": "c5j2wx9", "created_at_utc_A": 1343231218, "created_at_utc_B": 1343209052, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The ash that is produced is composed of several products.  Some of of it is incompletely combusted carbon which tends to be black.  Other components are due to other elements in the wood such as magnesium which forms white magnesium oxide when burned.  The colour fluctuations you see while it is burning is due to blackbody radiation. When a surface doesn't emit light of its own (luminescence) it is considered black.  When heated, the body starts to emit radiation at low frequency first (infrared, which we feel as heat).  As it gets hotter,  the frequency of the radiation increases to red, orange, and then white.  The hotter the object the higher the frequency of radiation emitted.  The temperature in the fire fluctuates due to convection currents causing areas of the wood to change temperature resulting in the colour of the blackbody radiation to change as well.  When it's very hot it appears white, if it cools off it appears black again.", "human_ref_B": "The white product of wood combustion is ash.  I'm not certain about the moving black patches though. Another reaction? Heat disturbing the layer of ash? I have wondered about that myself.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22166.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1wscw7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Since gravity according to Einstein is a property of the curvature of space, is there a need for this force to have a corresponding boson? At the Origins Project presentation at ASU, David Gross brought up the figure of 10^19 GeV as the energy to search for the gravaton. My thought process was that if gravity is the result of the curvature of space itself, does it need a carrier boson (the fabled gravaton)? Would the lack of such a particle require any significant revisions to such theories as the Standard Model and Supersymmetry?", "c_root_id_A": "cf52pac", "c_root_id_B": "cf52ojr", "created_at_utc_A": 1391346213, "created_at_utc_B": 1391346079, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There's a really interesting proof - by Feynman and some others, IIRC - showing that if you start off with a theory of massless bosons with spin 2 (i.e., twice the spin of a photon) running around and interacting on a *flat* spacetime background, that theory turns out to look *exactly* like Einstein's theory of gravity as the curvature of spacetime.  In other words, those bosons have no choice but to look, on aggregate, like they're describing the curvature of spacetime, and because of their interactions with matter, that matter will *also* act as if it's living in a curved spacetime. This is pretty damn impressive, as is the fact that the theory that comes out of this is uniquely the one that Einstein came up with for completely different reasons.  So while you can have gravity-as-spacetime-curvature without gravitons, the two are pretty naturally linked (you can't have gravitons without spacetime curvature). This link is thought to occur physically through *quantum mechanics*. Every particle in the standard model is described at the non-quantum level in terms of fields, rather than particles. Fields are mathematical objects which have different values at different points in space and time - you might be familiar with the electric and magnetic fields, which are examples of this. Gravity is also a theory of a field, in this case the gravitational field, which describes how much and in which direction spacetime is curved at any given place.  Now, when you apply the rules of quantum mechanics to a theory of fields, then energetic excitations of those fields arise, and some of those excitations have exactly the right properties to be identified as particles. So when you have quantum theory in the mix, fields lead to particles.  We can do this process for every known field in the Standard Model. For example, quantizing the electric and magnetic fields leads to photons, or particles of light. However, we still don't know how to do it for gravity. While it's conceivable that whatever new physics we need in order to do this will require us to drop the fields -> particles picture, it seems most likely that quantizing gravity will lead to gravitons just like quantizing the electric and magnetic fields led to photons.", "human_ref_B": "The problem is that, while gravity is indeed space-time curvature, this curvature is coupled to matter. Einstein's Theory of General Relativity doesn't incorporate the quantum nature of matter and hence it is incompatible.  It's easy to see the problem if you look at the Einstein Field Equations. On the right hand side, you have the _stress-energy tensor_ which describes all the matter in spacetime. Since we know that matter has a quantum nature, the right hand side of the equation is necessarily a quantum operator, rather than just a set of numbers.  But, the left hand side of the equations describes the _curvature of space-time_, which is not a quantum entity. You cannot put the two sides of the equation together without fixing this discrepancy. You can either assume that gravity must have a quantum nature, or you have to e.g. take the expectation value of the quantum operators on the right hand side (in which case GR becomes an approximation.) Either way, you see that we haven't found the whole story yet. What's really going on is still up for grabs, but looking for a quantum description of gravity is the common approach.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 134.0, "score_ratio": 7.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1wscw7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Since gravity according to Einstein is a property of the curvature of space, is there a need for this force to have a corresponding boson? At the Origins Project presentation at ASU, David Gross brought up the figure of 10^19 GeV as the energy to search for the gravaton. My thought process was that if gravity is the result of the curvature of space itself, does it need a carrier boson (the fabled gravaton)? Would the lack of such a particle require any significant revisions to such theories as the Standard Model and Supersymmetry?", "c_root_id_A": "cf52pac", "c_root_id_B": "cf52ik2", "created_at_utc_A": 1391346213, "created_at_utc_B": 1391344970, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There's a really interesting proof - by Feynman and some others, IIRC - showing that if you start off with a theory of massless bosons with spin 2 (i.e., twice the spin of a photon) running around and interacting on a *flat* spacetime background, that theory turns out to look *exactly* like Einstein's theory of gravity as the curvature of spacetime.  In other words, those bosons have no choice but to look, on aggregate, like they're describing the curvature of spacetime, and because of their interactions with matter, that matter will *also* act as if it's living in a curved spacetime. This is pretty damn impressive, as is the fact that the theory that comes out of this is uniquely the one that Einstein came up with for completely different reasons.  So while you can have gravity-as-spacetime-curvature without gravitons, the two are pretty naturally linked (you can't have gravitons without spacetime curvature). This link is thought to occur physically through *quantum mechanics*. Every particle in the standard model is described at the non-quantum level in terms of fields, rather than particles. Fields are mathematical objects which have different values at different points in space and time - you might be familiar with the electric and magnetic fields, which are examples of this. Gravity is also a theory of a field, in this case the gravitational field, which describes how much and in which direction spacetime is curved at any given place.  Now, when you apply the rules of quantum mechanics to a theory of fields, then energetic excitations of those fields arise, and some of those excitations have exactly the right properties to be identified as particles. So when you have quantum theory in the mix, fields lead to particles.  We can do this process for every known field in the Standard Model. For example, quantizing the electric and magnetic fields leads to photons, or particles of light. However, we still don't know how to do it for gravity. While it's conceivable that whatever new physics we need in order to do this will require us to drop the fields -> particles picture, it seems most likely that quantizing gravity will lead to gravitons just like quantizing the electric and magnetic fields led to photons.", "human_ref_B": "There doesn't have to be a graviton, but at the same time General Relativity isn't compatible with a quantum mechanical explanation. There is more likely than not some kind of unifying feature, but it requires more research. There is the quantum gravity model, which uses the graviton as a virtual particle. Either way, the standard model and QM would need some revision to include the graviton should it be found, given that both theories have problems with the graviton at the plank scale. As far as string theory and supersymmetry, I cannot speak with confidence, as that is at the end of my theoretical knowledge. With the frequent additions and lack of experimental evidence in string theory, many things are still up in the air.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1243.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1wscw7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Since gravity according to Einstein is a property of the curvature of space, is there a need for this force to have a corresponding boson? At the Origins Project presentation at ASU, David Gross brought up the figure of 10^19 GeV as the energy to search for the gravaton. My thought process was that if gravity is the result of the curvature of space itself, does it need a carrier boson (the fabled gravaton)? Would the lack of such a particle require any significant revisions to such theories as the Standard Model and Supersymmetry?", "c_root_id_A": "cf52ik2", "c_root_id_B": "cf52ojr", "created_at_utc_A": 1391344970, "created_at_utc_B": 1391346079, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There doesn't have to be a graviton, but at the same time General Relativity isn't compatible with a quantum mechanical explanation. There is more likely than not some kind of unifying feature, but it requires more research. There is the quantum gravity model, which uses the graviton as a virtual particle. Either way, the standard model and QM would need some revision to include the graviton should it be found, given that both theories have problems with the graviton at the plank scale. As far as string theory and supersymmetry, I cannot speak with confidence, as that is at the end of my theoretical knowledge. With the frequent additions and lack of experimental evidence in string theory, many things are still up in the air.", "human_ref_B": "The problem is that, while gravity is indeed space-time curvature, this curvature is coupled to matter. Einstein's Theory of General Relativity doesn't incorporate the quantum nature of matter and hence it is incompatible.  It's easy to see the problem if you look at the Einstein Field Equations. On the right hand side, you have the _stress-energy tensor_ which describes all the matter in spacetime. Since we know that matter has a quantum nature, the right hand side of the equation is necessarily a quantum operator, rather than just a set of numbers.  But, the left hand side of the equations describes the _curvature of space-time_, which is not a quantum entity. You cannot put the two sides of the equation together without fixing this discrepancy. You can either assume that gravity must have a quantum nature, or you have to e.g. take the expectation value of the quantum operators on the right hand side (in which case GR becomes an approximation.) Either way, you see that we haven't found the whole story yet. What's really going on is still up for grabs, but looking for a quantum description of gravity is the common approach.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1109.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1v9iyr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "After the big bang, why didn't the universe re-collapse under its own self-gravity? In the initial stages of the formation of our universe, everything exploded apart.  But why didn't gravity cause everything to collapse back in on itself?  Did everything explode so far apart that the metric expansion of the universe was able to become more significant than the force of gravity?  Was the metric expansion of the universe \"more significant\" in the early stages of our universe than it is currently, since the universe itself (the space) was so much smaller?  Space itself is expanding. Therefore in the initial stages of the universe, the total space within the universe must have been very small, right?  I know the metric expansion of the universe doesn't exert any force on any object (which is why objects are able to fly apart faster than the speed of light) so we'll call it an \"effect\".  My last question is this:  In the initial stages of our universe, was the effect of the metric expansion of the universe more significant than it is today, because space was so much smaller?  I.e. is the effect dependent on the total diameter/volume of space in the entire universe?  Because if the effect is dependent on space, then that means it would be far more significant in the initial stages of our universe, so maybe that's why it was able to overpower the force of gravity and therefore prevent everything from collapsing back together.  (I'm wildly guessing.)", "c_root_id_A": "ceq3jrr", "c_root_id_B": "ceq3dkn", "created_at_utc_A": 1389791764, "created_at_utc_B": 1389790957, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": ">But why didn't gravity cause everything to collapse back in on itself?  Actually, there is a theory about the ultimate fate of the universe called the \"Big Crunch\", in which the universe collapses and causes another Big Bang.  Recent evidence has led to speculation that the expansion of the universe is not being slowed down by gravity but rather accelerating. However, since the nature of the dark energy that is postulated to drive the acceleration is unknown, it is still possible (though not observationally supported as of yet) that it might eventually reverse sign and cause the universe to collapse.  It's sort of like throwing a ball up in the air and asking (while it's still going up) why gravity isn't pulling it down.", "human_ref_B": "Because there is a substantial amount of energy out there we can't identify. we call it \"Dark energy\" because we have to call it SOMETHING!   Dark energy tries to pull it apart, and eventually, over tens of  billions of years, apparently will.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 807.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dcjej4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "When electrons leap from one orbit to the next are they in between orbits ? Electrons can only move around certain orbits around a nucleus. If they are agitated (or the opposite) they leap from one orbit to another.    When they move from one orbit to the next to the neutrons exist between orbits while they move? Or do they pop out from one orbit and reappear at the next without moving through space ?", "c_root_id_A": "f299iep", "c_root_id_B": "f28lxvb", "created_at_utc_A": 1570086979, "created_at_utc_B": 1570064900, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "To elaborate on REC's answer, when quantum systems are able to jump from between states, and say emit a photon and drop an orbit, the electron actually exists partially in both states at the same time. We call this superposition.  The jump, so to speak, never needs to happen because the electron already included the final state. This superposition exists precisely because our system is unstable. You should not think of a little bullet wiggling around in one orbit which suddenly vanishes only to reappear in a new orbit to wiggle in. Rather we are ignorant of which orbit is actually filled, and likely the question of which is meaningless anyway. For steady state situations like an atom bathed in light or a Rabi-style oscillator, this makes a lot of sense, the wavefunction slosh back and forth between energy states. (Edit: A user posted a fun visualization of this process.) This picture however isn't very helpful for things that clearly time evolve into new things. E.g vases don't unbreak and dynamite doesn't unexplode. In other words we're missing out on the concept of entropy.  To get the \"real world\" out of QM though, where things actually happen and the final state is obvious, requires a careful usage of thermodynamics and statistics. This concept is called decoherence.", "human_ref_B": "They exist in a time-dependent superposition of the orbitals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22079.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c636cgn", "c_root_id_B": "c636azo", "created_at_utc_A": 1346740074, "created_at_utc_B": 1346739803, "score_A": 52, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "A common statement is that water is an incompressible fluid. This is not strictly true, as indicated by its finite bulk modulus, but the amount of compression is very small. At the bottom of the Pacific Ocean at a depth of about 4000 meters, the pressure is about 4 x 107 N/m2. Even under this enormous pressure, the fractional volume compression is only about 1.8% and that for steel would be only about 0.025%. So it is fair to say that water is nearly incompressible.   http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/permot3.html  EDIT: So yes, it would maintain the pressure from the bottom of the ocean (assuming the steel sphere doesn`t deform or expand) however the difference in volume from bottom to vs top would be minuscule. The stored energy, however, would be pretty big.", "human_ref_B": "Water doesn't compress very well. Some people say that water is uncompressable, but that's not exactly true. It just requires a tremendous amount of force to compress water. Force like say the pressure you would encounter at the bottom of the ocean. Water at the bottom of the ocean is denser then water at the surface. Therefore if you were to seal the steel sphere and bring it up, the water would decompress, slightly. But as water is difficult to compress, it is equally difficult to keep it compressed as it ascends. So the steel sphere would burst as you return it. I doubt it would make it all the way to the top before breaking. Steel is not nearly strong enough to contain compressed water.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 271.0, "score_ratio": -26.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c63ej76", "c_root_id_B": "c6393yp", "created_at_utc_A": 1346786169, "created_at_utc_B": 1346763783, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "William Beebe actually did this experiment (by accident) when he sent a leaky bathysphere several thousand feet down in the Pacific ocean.  Here's his description of what happened when he loosened a bolt: > Suddenly, without the slightest warning, the bolt was torn from our hands, and the mass of heavy metal shot across the deck like the shell from a gun. The trajectory was almost straight, and the brass bolt hurtled into the steel winch thirty feet away across the deck and sheared a half-inch notch gouged out by the harder metal. This was followed by a solid cylinder of water, which slackened after a while into a cataract, pouring out the hole in the door, some air mingled with the water, looking like hot steam, instead of compressed air shooting through ice-cold water.  My recollection is that PBS aired video of this at some point, but I can't actually find it.", "human_ref_B": "Assuming a good seal, the steel deflects ever so slightly. Water is damn near incompressible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22386.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c63ej76", "c_root_id_B": "c63azi0", "created_at_utc_A": 1346786169, "created_at_utc_B": 1346772695, "score_A": 7, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "William Beebe actually did this experiment (by accident) when he sent a leaky bathysphere several thousand feet down in the Pacific ocean.  Here's his description of what happened when he loosened a bolt: > Suddenly, without the slightest warning, the bolt was torn from our hands, and the mass of heavy metal shot across the deck like the shell from a gun. The trajectory was almost straight, and the brass bolt hurtled into the steel winch thirty feet away across the deck and sheared a half-inch notch gouged out by the harder metal. This was followed by a solid cylinder of water, which slackened after a while into a cataract, pouring out the hole in the door, some air mingled with the water, looking like hot steam, instead of compressed air shooting through ice-cold water.  My recollection is that PBS aired video of this at some point, but I can't actually find it.", "human_ref_B": "are you bringing the sphere back up with you?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13474.0, "score_ratio": -7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c63ej76", "c_root_id_B": "c636azo", "created_at_utc_A": 1346786169, "created_at_utc_B": 1346739803, "score_A": 7, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "William Beebe actually did this experiment (by accident) when he sent a leaky bathysphere several thousand feet down in the Pacific ocean.  Here's his description of what happened when he loosened a bolt: > Suddenly, without the slightest warning, the bolt was torn from our hands, and the mass of heavy metal shot across the deck like the shell from a gun. The trajectory was almost straight, and the brass bolt hurtled into the steel winch thirty feet away across the deck and sheared a half-inch notch gouged out by the harder metal. This was followed by a solid cylinder of water, which slackened after a while into a cataract, pouring out the hole in the door, some air mingled with the water, looking like hot steam, instead of compressed air shooting through ice-cold water.  My recollection is that PBS aired video of this at some point, but I can't actually find it.", "human_ref_B": "Water doesn't compress very well. Some people say that water is uncompressable, but that's not exactly true. It just requires a tremendous amount of force to compress water. Force like say the pressure you would encounter at the bottom of the ocean. Water at the bottom of the ocean is denser then water at the surface. Therefore if you were to seal the steel sphere and bring it up, the water would decompress, slightly. But as water is difficult to compress, it is equally difficult to keep it compressed as it ascends. So the steel sphere would burst as you return it. I doubt it would make it all the way to the top before breaking. Steel is not nearly strong enough to contain compressed water.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 46366.0, "score_ratio": -3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c63ej76", "c_root_id_B": "c6385yq", "created_at_utc_A": 1346786169, "created_at_utc_B": 1346756614, "score_A": 7, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "William Beebe actually did this experiment (by accident) when he sent a leaky bathysphere several thousand feet down in the Pacific ocean.  Here's his description of what happened when he loosened a bolt: > Suddenly, without the slightest warning, the bolt was torn from our hands, and the mass of heavy metal shot across the deck like the shell from a gun. The trajectory was almost straight, and the brass bolt hurtled into the steel winch thirty feet away across the deck and sheared a half-inch notch gouged out by the harder metal. This was followed by a solid cylinder of water, which slackened after a while into a cataract, pouring out the hole in the door, some air mingled with the water, looking like hot steam, instead of compressed air shooting through ice-cold water.  My recollection is that PBS aired video of this at some point, but I can't actually find it.", "human_ref_B": "Since water is (nearly) incompressible, isn't the pressure at high depths basically the same as holding a tower of water equal to the depth you're at, on top of you. With two halves there can be no difference in pressure because the water is supporting itself and there isn't anything compressible inbetween, so the water you'll weld shut inside is essentially at the same pressure as at the surface, ignoring the neglible 1.8%-ish compression at 4km.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 29555.0, "score_ratio": -7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c6393yp", "c_root_id_B": "c636azo", "created_at_utc_A": 1346763783, "created_at_utc_B": 1346739803, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Assuming a good seal, the steel deflects ever so slightly. Water is damn near incompressible.", "human_ref_B": "Water doesn't compress very well. Some people say that water is uncompressable, but that's not exactly true. It just requires a tremendous amount of force to compress water. Force like say the pressure you would encounter at the bottom of the ocean. Water at the bottom of the ocean is denser then water at the surface. Therefore if you were to seal the steel sphere and bring it up, the water would decompress, slightly. But as water is difficult to compress, it is equally difficult to keep it compressed as it ascends. So the steel sphere would burst as you return it. I doubt it would make it all the way to the top before breaking. Steel is not nearly strong enough to contain compressed water.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23980.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c6393yp", "c_root_id_B": "c6385yq", "created_at_utc_A": 1346763783, "created_at_utc_B": 1346756614, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Assuming a good seal, the steel deflects ever so slightly. Water is damn near incompressible.", "human_ref_B": "Since water is (nearly) incompressible, isn't the pressure at high depths basically the same as holding a tower of water equal to the depth you're at, on top of you. With two halves there can be no difference in pressure because the water is supporting itself and there isn't anything compressible inbetween, so the water you'll weld shut inside is essentially at the same pressure as at the surface, ignoring the neglible 1.8%-ish compression at 4km.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7169.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c636azo", "c_root_id_B": "c63azi0", "created_at_utc_A": 1346739803, "created_at_utc_B": 1346772695, "score_A": -2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Water doesn't compress very well. Some people say that water is uncompressable, but that's not exactly true. It just requires a tremendous amount of force to compress water. Force like say the pressure you would encounter at the bottom of the ocean. Water at the bottom of the ocean is denser then water at the surface. Therefore if you were to seal the steel sphere and bring it up, the water would decompress, slightly. But as water is difficult to compress, it is equally difficult to keep it compressed as it ascends. So the steel sphere would burst as you return it. I doubt it would make it all the way to the top before breaking. Steel is not nearly strong enough to contain compressed water.", "human_ref_B": "are you bringing the sphere back up with you?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 32892.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zbo8u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Say I take two halves of a hollow steel sphere to the bottom of the ocean, seal it shut, and return to the surface. What happens to the sphere? I thought the sphere would burst as it rises up to the lower pressure environment, but I can't seem to wrap my head around the idea that the water inside the sphere is stored at a high pressure. That doesn't seem to make sense like it would for air. Maybe nothing would happen?", "c_root_id_A": "c6385yq", "c_root_id_B": "c636azo", "created_at_utc_A": 1346756614, "created_at_utc_B": 1346739803, "score_A": -1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Since water is (nearly) incompressible, isn't the pressure at high depths basically the same as holding a tower of water equal to the depth you're at, on top of you. With two halves there can be no difference in pressure because the water is supporting itself and there isn't anything compressible inbetween, so the water you'll weld shut inside is essentially at the same pressure as at the surface, ignoring the neglible 1.8%-ish compression at 4km.", "human_ref_B": "Water doesn't compress very well. Some people say that water is uncompressable, but that's not exactly true. It just requires a tremendous amount of force to compress water. Force like say the pressure you would encounter at the bottom of the ocean. Water at the bottom of the ocean is denser then water at the surface. Therefore if you were to seal the steel sphere and bring it up, the water would decompress, slightly. But as water is difficult to compress, it is equally difficult to keep it compressed as it ascends. So the steel sphere would burst as you return it. I doubt it would make it all the way to the top before breaking. Steel is not nearly strong enough to contain compressed water.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16811.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ht68d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If energy cannot come from nothing, how do magnets sustain repulsion? I know, a fucking \"how do magnets work\" question.  But honestly, repulsion must require some energy... Especially when opposing magnetic fields (say, in a tube) will cause the top magnet to \"float\" above the other. Or will the magnetic field produced by the magnets deteriorate over time? And, if that is the case, would the field produced deteriorate more quickly if it was being \"drained\" by the act of repelling another magnet? I'd picture that isn't the case, because the field produced should be independent of the surroundings, but I just am having trouble conceptualizing this.  I am a lowly computer engineering student, halp halp physicists!", "c_root_id_A": "c1y64vi", "c_root_id_B": "c1y5r56", "created_at_utc_A": 1307400404, "created_at_utc_B": 1307396772, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": ">repulsion must require some energy  This is a common misconception about forces. A magnet floats because it is in a *minimum energy configuration*. The energy of this system is constant and the occurs because the electromagnetic force is balancing the gravitation force.   I'm curious, do you have a similar problem with gravitational systems? For example, do you think that there must be some energy source for a moon to stay in orbit around a planet? Naively, an orbit is the balance of gravitational force with centrifugal force.", "human_ref_B": "No energy needs to be expended to keep an object floating above another object. Energy is, at least in this context, the product of the applied force and the distance moved (E = F \u0394x). The object isn't moving, so the energy imparted is zero!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3632.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ht68d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If energy cannot come from nothing, how do magnets sustain repulsion? I know, a fucking \"how do magnets work\" question.  But honestly, repulsion must require some energy... Especially when opposing magnetic fields (say, in a tube) will cause the top magnet to \"float\" above the other. Or will the magnetic field produced by the magnets deteriorate over time? And, if that is the case, would the field produced deteriorate more quickly if it was being \"drained\" by the act of repelling another magnet? I'd picture that isn't the case, because the field produced should be independent of the surroundings, but I just am having trouble conceptualizing this.  I am a lowly computer engineering student, halp halp physicists!", "c_root_id_A": "c1y5tbm", "c_root_id_B": "c1y64vi", "created_at_utc_A": 1307397341, "created_at_utc_B": 1307400404, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "It takes energy to bring the magnets together. For example, chemical energy in your muscles to press them together. The energy is converted to magnetic potential energy. When the magnets are let go, they repel, converting the potential energy into kinetic energy.", "human_ref_B": ">repulsion must require some energy  This is a common misconception about forces. A magnet floats because it is in a *minimum energy configuration*. The energy of this system is constant and the occurs because the electromagnetic force is balancing the gravitation force.   I'm curious, do you have a similar problem with gravitational systems? For example, do you think that there must be some energy source for a moon to stay in orbit around a planet? Naively, an orbit is the balance of gravitational force with centrifugal force.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3063.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ht68d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If energy cannot come from nothing, how do magnets sustain repulsion? I know, a fucking \"how do magnets work\" question.  But honestly, repulsion must require some energy... Especially when opposing magnetic fields (say, in a tube) will cause the top magnet to \"float\" above the other. Or will the magnetic field produced by the magnets deteriorate over time? And, if that is the case, would the field produced deteriorate more quickly if it was being \"drained\" by the act of repelling another magnet? I'd picture that isn't the case, because the field produced should be independent of the surroundings, but I just am having trouble conceptualizing this.  I am a lowly computer engineering student, halp halp physicists!", "c_root_id_A": "c1y5tbm", "c_root_id_B": "c1y8qmz", "created_at_utc_A": 1307397341, "created_at_utc_B": 1307426379, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "It takes energy to bring the magnets together. For example, chemical energy in your muscles to press them together. The energy is converted to magnetic potential energy. When the magnets are let go, they repel, converting the potential energy into kinetic energy.", "human_ref_B": "how much energy does it take to leave something sitting on a table?  it's the same electromagnetic interaction at work.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 29038.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "43mac3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How can \"It's current that kills not voltage\" and V=IR both be true? What I mean is that if voltage is proportional to current (given constant resistance across the person) then it seems meaningless to say that it's current and not voltage that kills.  Unless maybe what they mean is that in these high voltage/low current circuits as soon as the circuit across the person is made the effective voltage across the person drops dramatically.  Like for instance if the circuit has a lot of resistance in it then it can nominally have a high voltage drop across an open switch but as soon as it's closed the voltage drop falls to nothing. Or maybe this has something to do with quirks of AC?", "c_root_id_A": "czkf6lf", "c_root_id_B": "czjjsol", "created_at_utc_A": 1454375670, "created_at_utc_B": 1454319402, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "If you get your hands wet, your resistance will drop dramatically. So will the necessary voltage to kill you. But it will still take about the same amount of current.  Also, that thing you said. That's why a 120 volt outlet can kill you, but a 50,000 volt taser won't. It's 50,000 volts when there's no current, but it only actually allows a tiny amount of current, so the voltage is dropping dramatically.", "human_ref_B": "Consider static charge.  Go rub your feet on the carpet and then hold your finger out towards (but not touching) a doorknob.  Move your finger close enough, and a spark will occur between your finger and the door.  That spark is what happens when the huge potential difference between your finger and the doorknob ionizes the air so that current can flow through the air, much like lightning.  It takes roughly 30,000 V for this to happen.  Why can't you kill someone with a 30 kV shock from your finger?  Interestingly enough, for an instant the current between your finger and the doorknob really is very high, but only for an instant.  Compared to what flows out out of a household electrical outlet to power a typical appliance, the total charge transferred is minuscule.  Though minuscule, this movement of charge eliminates the potential difference between you and the doorknob almost instantaneously.  So really high instantaneous currents can be harmless.   As you've noticed from Ohm's law, current is proportional to voltage.  Just as the current is high for only an instant, the voltage difference between the doorknob and your finger is high for only an instant after the circuit is closed.  Once the charge is transferred by the spark there will be zero potential difference.   So, neither high current nor high voltages necessarily kill? What gives?  As it turns out, high currents and voltages are only deadly if they are *sustained*.  To harm you, a high current/voltage must be applied for enough time for a significant amount of *work* to be done to you.  Your finger cannot sustain either a high voltage or a high current in a closed circuit for more than an instant, so it cannot do much work and that's why it's not dangerous.  An electrical socket, on the other hand, is connected to an entire power grid designed to maintain the same voltage no matter what is connected to it and get serious work done.  We seldom talk about electrical work (i.e. Power * time), but it really is what kills.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 56268.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7c4zpv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How large does an object in space need to be in order to gravitationally bind an average human to its surface?", "c_root_id_A": "dpnahtz", "c_root_id_B": "dpnfrwr", "created_at_utc_A": 1510361832, "created_at_utc_B": 1510369264, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "I mean, if left undisturbed, any particle can stick to a human-sized object.  I feel like this question needs more details. Do you mean that an average human couldn't simply jump off of it? That any movement would basically constitute escape velocity? Are they driving a racecar, or in a rocket maybe?  If it's just two masses with no forces acting on them to separate them, the answer is essentially \"any size.\"", "human_ref_B": "\"Bind an average human\" seems to be the crux of your question.  Lets instead ask \"Whats the biggest object a human can escape the gravitational pull of?\"  For this we need 2 items: the escape velocity of an object, and the average speed a human can reach.  A small amount of googling tells me that the average jumping height for males is about .504 meters, while a good height is .6. Lets use .5 for a simple answer. Using basic kinematics, we find that humans can generally give themselves a velocity of sqrt(g) or about 3.13 m/s. However, this is only vertically. Humans are generally able to sprint at a speed of around 7 m/s. So it will be much easier for our astronaut to simply start sprinting then it would to be jumping.  The escape velocity of a body is given by v=sqrt(2*G*M/r). So big objects are hard to get away from, but large objects are easy to get away from. So density comes into play. This won't be as easy as giving a simple number.  Instead, lets find some likely candidates. Ceres is the largest asteroid in our solar system. Ceres has a mean radius of 473,000m and a mass of 9.4*10^20 kg. This gives Ceres an escape velocity of 515 m/s. No, chance of getting off that.  67P/Churyumov\u2013Gerasimenko is the comet that was recently landed on by Rosetta's Lander Philae, which famously bounced but stayed on the surface. Because of its odd shape, we can get about 4100 meters away from its center. It has a mass of 9.98*10^12 kg. So it has an escape velocity of around .5 m/s at its tip! We can definitely escape this!  So we're looking somewhere between our solar system's biggest asteroid and an oddly shaped comet.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7432.0, "score_ratio": 2.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uhr3w", "c_root_id_B": "c6ullo7", "created_at_utc_A": 1351712391, "created_at_utc_B": 1351727719, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Yes, you would need to pressurize your bottle to properly keep carbonation.  The amount of pressure varies among brands, but is around 30 psi at refrigeration temperatures.  And as far as implementation, there are actually some practical ways to do this, from a few off-the-shelf carbonation savers, to a keg system, like homebrewers use.  With a regulating valve and a couple adapters, you could make this work with small CO2 cartridges.", "human_ref_B": "Here's a thought:  If you put a carefully calibrated piece of dry ice (solid CO2) into the soda bottle before you closed it, you could raise the pressure in the bottle enough to re-fizz your soda.  Of course, if you put too much, the bottle will explode.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15328.0, "score_ratio": 3.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6ullo7", "c_root_id_B": "c6uhalx", "created_at_utc_A": 1351727719, "created_at_utc_B": 1351710709, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Here's a thought:  If you put a carefully calibrated piece of dry ice (solid CO2) into the soda bottle before you closed it, you could raise the pressure in the bottle enough to re-fizz your soda.  Of course, if you put too much, the bottle will explode.", "human_ref_B": "Squeezing the bottle then capping it will produce a less than 1 atmosphere pressure condition inside the bottle because the flexible container will try to return to its original shape. The reduced pressure inside the squeezed bottle will encourage the carbonation to be released from solution. This will make the soda go flat sooner.  Therefore to keep the soda from losing its fizz, it should be stored capped, cold and at an elevated pressure. so you are correct in thinking that increasing the pressure in the bottle will indeed keep your soda from going flat as quickly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17010.0, "score_ratio": 7.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6ullo7", "c_root_id_B": "c6uiwix", "created_at_utc_A": 1351727719, "created_at_utc_B": 1351716549, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Here's a thought:  If you put a carefully calibrated piece of dry ice (solid CO2) into the soda bottle before you closed it, you could raise the pressure in the bottle enough to re-fizz your soda.  Of course, if you put too much, the bottle will explode.", "human_ref_B": "They sell cheap products that are caps with pumps and you can even get ones that'll let you inject CO2 into them. The difference being that pumping air will cause it to go flat slower, potentially reaching an equilibream of going no flatter after some loss. And injecting CO2 through a cap is a bit of a process of pressurize, shake, pressurize, shake but can actually unflatten beverages.  Noteably, air even at pressure will not initially fully stop the CO2 dissolved in the soda from reducing. This is because air will still have a balance that involves taking in some of the CO2, but this will get to a point of equilibrium before the soda goes flat, generally as well as cause the change to slow.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11170.0, "score_ratio": 15000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6ullo7", "c_root_id_B": "c6uksig", "created_at_utc_A": 1351727719, "created_at_utc_B": 1351724155, "score_A": 15, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "Here's a thought:  If you put a carefully calibrated piece of dry ice (solid CO2) into the soda bottle before you closed it, you could raise the pressure in the bottle enough to re-fizz your soda.  Of course, if you put too much, the bottle will explode.", "human_ref_B": "it might slow down the rate at which the soda loses carbonation, but it won't stop it entirely since the plastics used in soda bottles are permeable.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3564.0, "score_ratio": -2.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uhalx", "c_root_id_B": "c6uhr3w", "created_at_utc_A": 1351710709, "created_at_utc_B": 1351712391, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Squeezing the bottle then capping it will produce a less than 1 atmosphere pressure condition inside the bottle because the flexible container will try to return to its original shape. The reduced pressure inside the squeezed bottle will encourage the carbonation to be released from solution. This will make the soda go flat sooner.  Therefore to keep the soda from losing its fizz, it should be stored capped, cold and at an elevated pressure. so you are correct in thinking that increasing the pressure in the bottle will indeed keep your soda from going flat as quickly.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, you would need to pressurize your bottle to properly keep carbonation.  The amount of pressure varies among brands, but is around 30 psi at refrigeration temperatures.  And as far as implementation, there are actually some practical ways to do this, from a few off-the-shelf carbonation savers, to a keg system, like homebrewers use.  With a regulating valve and a couple adapters, you could make this work with small CO2 cartridges.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1682.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uo51h", "c_root_id_B": "c6umr5u", "created_at_utc_A": 1351739028, "created_at_utc_B": 1351732935, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Pumping air in wouldn't help -- but pumping CO2 in would.  What matters for the soda going flat is the partial pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere around it - to a high degree of precision, the CO2 evaporative physics/chemistry is independent of the other gases (like N2 or O2) that might be present over the soda in the bottle.   This is why the counterintuitive method of squeezing the bottle to expel air helps slow down the flattening.  If you expel all the air, the gas over the soda is basically 100% evolved CO2 -- ie the partial pressure of CO2 is near 1 bar almost immediately.  If you *don't* expel all the air, the total pressure in the bottle immediately rises above atmospheric pressure, but the partial pressure of CO2 remains lower than atmospheric for a long time (maybe forever) - so CO2 will evolve from the solution faster than it does in the squished-bottle case.  Pumping air in would help, by raising the partial pressure of CO2 - but it would not help very much, since air doesn't contain much CO2.", "human_ref_B": "could you just shake the bottle once right after you closed it?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6093.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6un896", "c_root_id_B": "c6uo51h", "created_at_utc_A": 1351735038, "created_at_utc_B": 1351739028, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes.  In fact if you pressurize it enough, you will increase the carbonation.  This is a trick to quickly carbonate beer after it's done fermenting.  You carbonate the keg and shake.  The shaking helps equalize the pressure.  Normally the pressure in the empty space (head space) is low, so it takes the carbonation out of solution.  However, if you make it highly pressured, the equalization will put carbonation into solution - thus carbonating your beer :)  http://www.midwestsupplies.com/the-carbonater.html?utm_source=googlepla&utm_medium=adwords&gdftrk=gdfV24959_a_7c1306_a_7c6184_a_7c5205&gclid=CI_I7LvVrLMCFW1yQgodznYA2A  This is something you can put on top of a 2-liter and hook the other end up to a co2 container with a regulator and carbonate in a 2 liter or 20oz..  I have one and I use it to carbonate drinks I make at home from like.. flavor powders or mio or whatever.", "human_ref_B": "Pumping air in wouldn't help -- but pumping CO2 in would.  What matters for the soda going flat is the partial pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere around it - to a high degree of precision, the CO2 evaporative physics/chemistry is independent of the other gases (like N2 or O2) that might be present over the soda in the bottle.   This is why the counterintuitive method of squeezing the bottle to expel air helps slow down the flattening.  If you expel all the air, the gas over the soda is basically 100% evolved CO2 -- ie the partial pressure of CO2 is near 1 bar almost immediately.  If you *don't* expel all the air, the total pressure in the bottle immediately rises above atmospheric pressure, but the partial pressure of CO2 remains lower than atmospheric for a long time (maybe forever) - so CO2 will evolve from the solution faster than it does in the squished-bottle case.  Pumping air in would help, by raising the partial pressure of CO2 - but it would not help very much, since air doesn't contain much CO2.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3990.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uo51h", "c_root_id_B": "c6unqpz", "created_at_utc_A": 1351739028, "created_at_utc_B": 1351737283, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Pumping air in wouldn't help -- but pumping CO2 in would.  What matters for the soda going flat is the partial pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere around it - to a high degree of precision, the CO2 evaporative physics/chemistry is independent of the other gases (like N2 or O2) that might be present over the soda in the bottle.   This is why the counterintuitive method of squeezing the bottle to expel air helps slow down the flattening.  If you expel all the air, the gas over the soda is basically 100% evolved CO2 -- ie the partial pressure of CO2 is near 1 bar almost immediately.  If you *don't* expel all the air, the total pressure in the bottle immediately rises above atmospheric pressure, but the partial pressure of CO2 remains lower than atmospheric for a long time (maybe forever) - so CO2 will evolve from the solution faster than it does in the squished-bottle case.  Pumping air in would help, by raising the partial pressure of CO2 - but it would not help very much, since air doesn't contain much CO2.", "human_ref_B": "Anecdotally, yes. There are devices that do exactly this for champagne bottles. However, they work because glass isn't nearly as malleable as plastic (duh) and so you would need a fancier idea for soda.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1745.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uiwix", "c_root_id_B": "c6uo51h", "created_at_utc_A": 1351716549, "created_at_utc_B": 1351739028, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "They sell cheap products that are caps with pumps and you can even get ones that'll let you inject CO2 into them. The difference being that pumping air will cause it to go flat slower, potentially reaching an equilibream of going no flatter after some loss. And injecting CO2 through a cap is a bit of a process of pressurize, shake, pressurize, shake but can actually unflatten beverages.  Noteably, air even at pressure will not initially fully stop the CO2 dissolved in the soda from reducing. This is because air will still have a balance that involves taking in some of the CO2, but this will get to a point of equilibrium before the soda goes flat, generally as well as cause the change to slow.", "human_ref_B": "Pumping air in wouldn't help -- but pumping CO2 in would.  What matters for the soda going flat is the partial pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere around it - to a high degree of precision, the CO2 evaporative physics/chemistry is independent of the other gases (like N2 or O2) that might be present over the soda in the bottle.   This is why the counterintuitive method of squeezing the bottle to expel air helps slow down the flattening.  If you expel all the air, the gas over the soda is basically 100% evolved CO2 -- ie the partial pressure of CO2 is near 1 bar almost immediately.  If you *don't* expel all the air, the total pressure in the bottle immediately rises above atmospheric pressure, but the partial pressure of CO2 remains lower than atmospheric for a long time (maybe forever) - so CO2 will evolve from the solution faster than it does in the squished-bottle case.  Pumping air in would help, by raising the partial pressure of CO2 - but it would not help very much, since air doesn't contain much CO2.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22479.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uo51h", "c_root_id_B": "c6uksig", "created_at_utc_A": 1351739028, "created_at_utc_B": 1351724155, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "Pumping air in wouldn't help -- but pumping CO2 in would.  What matters for the soda going flat is the partial pressure of CO2 in the atmosphere around it - to a high degree of precision, the CO2 evaporative physics/chemistry is independent of the other gases (like N2 or O2) that might be present over the soda in the bottle.   This is why the counterintuitive method of squeezing the bottle to expel air helps slow down the flattening.  If you expel all the air, the gas over the soda is basically 100% evolved CO2 -- ie the partial pressure of CO2 is near 1 bar almost immediately.  If you *don't* expel all the air, the total pressure in the bottle immediately rises above atmospheric pressure, but the partial pressure of CO2 remains lower than atmospheric for a long time (maybe forever) - so CO2 will evolve from the solution faster than it does in the squished-bottle case.  Pumping air in would help, by raising the partial pressure of CO2 - but it would not help very much, since air doesn't contain much CO2.", "human_ref_B": "it might slow down the rate at which the soda loses carbonation, but it won't stop it entirely since the plastics used in soda bottles are permeable.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14873.0, "score_ratio": -0.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uiwix", "c_root_id_B": "c6umr5u", "created_at_utc_A": 1351716549, "created_at_utc_B": 1351732935, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "They sell cheap products that are caps with pumps and you can even get ones that'll let you inject CO2 into them. The difference being that pumping air will cause it to go flat slower, potentially reaching an equilibream of going no flatter after some loss. And injecting CO2 through a cap is a bit of a process of pressurize, shake, pressurize, shake but can actually unflatten beverages.  Noteably, air even at pressure will not initially fully stop the CO2 dissolved in the soda from reducing. This is because air will still have a balance that involves taking in some of the CO2, but this will get to a point of equilibrium before the soda goes flat, generally as well as cause the change to slow.", "human_ref_B": "could you just shake the bottle once right after you closed it?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16386.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6umr5u", "c_root_id_B": "c6uksig", "created_at_utc_A": 1351732935, "created_at_utc_B": 1351724155, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "could you just shake the bottle once right after you closed it?", "human_ref_B": "it might slow down the rate at which the soda loses carbonation, but it won't stop it entirely since the plastics used in soda bottles are permeable.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8780.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6un896", "c_root_id_B": "c6uiwix", "created_at_utc_A": 1351735038, "created_at_utc_B": 1351716549, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Yes.  In fact if you pressurize it enough, you will increase the carbonation.  This is a trick to quickly carbonate beer after it's done fermenting.  You carbonate the keg and shake.  The shaking helps equalize the pressure.  Normally the pressure in the empty space (head space) is low, so it takes the carbonation out of solution.  However, if you make it highly pressured, the equalization will put carbonation into solution - thus carbonating your beer :)  http://www.midwestsupplies.com/the-carbonater.html?utm_source=googlepla&utm_medium=adwords&gdftrk=gdfV24959_a_7c1306_a_7c6184_a_7c5205&gclid=CI_I7LvVrLMCFW1yQgodznYA2A  This is something you can put on top of a 2-liter and hook the other end up to a co2 container with a regulator and carbonate in a 2 liter or 20oz..  I have one and I use it to carbonate drinks I make at home from like.. flavor powders or mio or whatever.", "human_ref_B": "They sell cheap products that are caps with pumps and you can even get ones that'll let you inject CO2 into them. The difference being that pumping air will cause it to go flat slower, potentially reaching an equilibream of going no flatter after some loss. And injecting CO2 through a cap is a bit of a process of pressurize, shake, pressurize, shake but can actually unflatten beverages.  Noteably, air even at pressure will not initially fully stop the CO2 dissolved in the soda from reducing. This is because air will still have a balance that involves taking in some of the CO2, but this will get to a point of equilibrium before the soda goes flat, generally as well as cause the change to slow.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18489.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uksig", "c_root_id_B": "c6un896", "created_at_utc_A": 1351724155, "created_at_utc_B": 1351735038, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "it might slow down the rate at which the soda loses carbonation, but it won't stop it entirely since the plastics used in soda bottles are permeable.", "human_ref_B": "Yes.  In fact if you pressurize it enough, you will increase the carbonation.  This is a trick to quickly carbonate beer after it's done fermenting.  You carbonate the keg and shake.  The shaking helps equalize the pressure.  Normally the pressure in the empty space (head space) is low, so it takes the carbonation out of solution.  However, if you make it highly pressured, the equalization will put carbonation into solution - thus carbonating your beer :)  http://www.midwestsupplies.com/the-carbonater.html?utm_source=googlepla&utm_medium=adwords&gdftrk=gdfV24959_a_7c1306_a_7c6184_a_7c5205&gclid=CI_I7LvVrLMCFW1yQgodznYA2A  This is something you can put on top of a 2-liter and hook the other end up to a co2 container with a regulator and carbonate in a 2 liter or 20oz..  I have one and I use it to carbonate drinks I make at home from like.. flavor powders or mio or whatever.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10883.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uiwix", "c_root_id_B": "c6unqpz", "created_at_utc_A": 1351716549, "created_at_utc_B": 1351737283, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "They sell cheap products that are caps with pumps and you can even get ones that'll let you inject CO2 into them. The difference being that pumping air will cause it to go flat slower, potentially reaching an equilibream of going no flatter after some loss. And injecting CO2 through a cap is a bit of a process of pressurize, shake, pressurize, shake but can actually unflatten beverages.  Noteably, air even at pressure will not initially fully stop the CO2 dissolved in the soda from reducing. This is because air will still have a balance that involves taking in some of the CO2, but this will get to a point of equilibrium before the soda goes flat, generally as well as cause the change to slow.", "human_ref_B": "Anecdotally, yes. There are devices that do exactly this for champagne bottles. However, they work because glass isn't nearly as malleable as plastic (duh) and so you would need a fancier idea for soda.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20734.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uksig", "c_root_id_B": "c6unqpz", "created_at_utc_A": 1351724155, "created_at_utc_B": 1351737283, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "it might slow down the rate at which the soda loses carbonation, but it won't stop it entirely since the plastics used in soda bottles are permeable.", "human_ref_B": "Anecdotally, yes. There are devices that do exactly this for champagne bottles. However, they work because glass isn't nearly as malleable as plastic (duh) and so you would need a fancier idea for soda.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13128.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uiwix", "c_root_id_B": "c6uquyg", "created_at_utc_A": 1351716549, "created_at_utc_B": 1351755253, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "They sell cheap products that are caps with pumps and you can even get ones that'll let you inject CO2 into them. The difference being that pumping air will cause it to go flat slower, potentially reaching an equilibream of going no flatter after some loss. And injecting CO2 through a cap is a bit of a process of pressurize, shake, pressurize, shake but can actually unflatten beverages.  Noteably, air even at pressure will not initially fully stop the CO2 dissolved in the soda from reducing. This is because air will still have a balance that involves taking in some of the CO2, but this will get to a point of equilibrium before the soda goes flat, generally as well as cause the change to slow.", "human_ref_B": "Not a very scientific answer to your question, but perhaps a solution to your problem: Put your soda bottles in the fridge upside down after you've opened them. The gas collects at the bottom of the bottle and can't escape. It really works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 38704.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12evz6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If I can increase the air pressure in an opened 2 liter bottle of soda would that prevent it from going flat? No matter how tight I screw on the cap of a 2 liter bottle, once it is opened it goes flat within a day or two.  My assumption is that because the bottle is no longer pressurized the CO2 has room to escape into the air that is in the bottle.  If I had a special cap that allowed me to pump air into the bottle would that be enough to keep the CO2 trapped in the soda? If so would it all escape as soon as I opened the bottle, or would it work to keep the soda from going flat?", "c_root_id_A": "c6uksig", "c_root_id_B": "c6uquyg", "created_at_utc_A": 1351724155, "created_at_utc_B": 1351755253, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "it might slow down the rate at which the soda loses carbonation, but it won't stop it entirely since the plastics used in soda bottles are permeable.", "human_ref_B": "Not a very scientific answer to your question, but perhaps a solution to your problem: Put your soda bottles in the fridge upside down after you've opened them. The gas collects at the bottom of the bottle and can't escape. It really works.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31098.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1psn3r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "I understand what a laminate material *is*, but what forces are at work that cause it to be stronger than just a thicker piece of material? Say, in a plywood or a laminate bow...  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "cd5qqbw", "c_root_id_B": "cd5o6nc", "created_at_utc_A": 1383490404, "created_at_utc_B": 1383475434, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Tensile strength (psi, Pa) goes up significantly in materials as their diameter decreases to the micron level (fiberglass and carbon fibers), however compressive strength is fairly constant. Binder or matrix materials (the glue/polymer) have pretty nice compressive properties but not very good tensile properties. When you put these materials together (let's pretend all the glass fibers are in 1 direction) you make a material that has okay compressive properties but has a very nice tensile strength.  So, let's now stack (laminate) these layers (lamina) in different configurations (i.e. 5 sheets rotated 0/90/0/90/0 degrees). When we bond these together (very well--as this is a point of material failure) and put the resulting material in a bending configuration, the tensile strength (the side under tension) coupled with compressive strength (the side under compression) allows for a material that is much stiffer than a single lamina. Extension to randomly ordered fibers (fiberglass) or woven fibers (carbon fiber) is possible. See classical composite theory or classical laminate theory.  What causes the significant increase in strength as material diameter decreases is the lack of dislocations/slip planes in the crystal or grain structure of the material. Fracture mechanics is a science devoted to this study, how materials fail.", "human_ref_B": "Given plywood as an example, it's all about the grain of the wood. A sheet of plywood laminates sheets of wood wth the grain patterns alternating 90 degrees to one another.   So the first sheet has grain in x direction, the next in y direction, x, y, x.....  This means that instead of being 'strong' in only one way, it's now strong along two axis.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14970.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "um5x8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "If gasoline settled on top of saltwater and you send an electrical current through the water, would the gasoline burn? So as in the title, would it light?", "c_root_id_A": "c4wmaq4", "c_root_id_B": "c4wkyeu", "created_at_utc_A": 1338917677, "created_at_utc_B": 1338911871, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "First, gasoline on top of salt water will not burn.  Only the fumes (aerosolized, evaporated, etc) will combust.    Second, you need yourself a source of ignition.  Closed path electricity alone will not usually cause combustion.  Energy in the form of heat, electric spark (which is really just heat again), or in rare instances an impulse force is needed to cause ignition.  You could do it if you set it up so that one wire was held directly above the water surface and give it sufficient voltage to cause a spark between the two.  But then we are not sending the current through the water in a closed circuit, we are mealy using the ocean as an electrical sink to shoot sparks at.  To go with the spirit of your question (a constant closed circuit), you would need to apply enough energy to heat the ocean up to ignition temperature, for gas the autoignition temp is around 500degF.  Keep in mind, the ocean would not heat up like a wire or heating element, it is attached to an relatively infinite heat sink.  Basically to ignite the gas, you'd need to heat the ocean water to around 500degF.  There is an obvious problem there.   I think an interesting question would be if a lightning strike can ignite it.  I always wondered why during that last oil spill random lightning storms didn't turn the golf of mexico into a giant inferno.  Crude oil does burn so...", "human_ref_B": "Without some sort of spark, no. The electricity running through the water would not have enough volatile energy to ignite the gasoline", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5806.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "um5x8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "If gasoline settled on top of saltwater and you send an electrical current through the water, would the gasoline burn? So as in the title, would it light?", "c_root_id_A": "c4wq489", "c_root_id_B": "c4wkyeu", "created_at_utc_A": 1338932522, "created_at_utc_B": 1338911871, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "I'm curious, what sparked this question?  A militaristic maneuver? Pyrotechnics?", "human_ref_B": "Without some sort of spark, no. The electricity running through the water would not have enough volatile energy to ignite the gasoline", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20651.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bb3og", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why can't quantum entanglement be used for communications? Is this the same kind of stuff used in Ender's Game?  Sorry, I suppose that's off subject.", "c_root_id_A": "c959qbu", "c_root_id_B": "c959l9x", "created_at_utc_A": 1364664207, "created_at_utc_B": 1364663703, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "At a very basic level, and without going into theory, quantum entanglement describes the result of measurements on particle properties. For example, consider a system of two particles, one with spin up and one with spin down. The entangled system has a net spin of zero, but the interesting thing is that until measured, the spin of each particle is unknown. (Leaving aside hidden local variables for the moment, which is another can of worms.)  A very common misconception I have encountered is that people think the two particles are somehow linked, and that changing the spin of one affects the spin of the other particle no matter the distance between the two. In practice, what you can say about the system is that if you measure the spin of one particle, you know the spin of the other particle no matter where it is. This is classical information, and cannot be sent any faster than the speed of light.  In a sense, this can be used to generate secure keys for communications (see quantum cryptography), but not to convey information faster than the speed of light.", "human_ref_B": "Imagine that quantum entanglement is like if you put two coins into two boxes. The coins represent the entangled particles in this analogy. Then, you shake up the boxes. And then you can take them really far away from each other. Let's say we take them a light year away from each other.  Then you open up one of the boxes and look at the coin, and see that it's heads. You instantly know that the coin in the other box is also heads.  Except you can't communicate anything with that. Let's say I'm on Earth with one box, and my friend with the other box is a light year away. I want to tell him whether his cousin's newborn is a boy or a girl. Heads for boy, tails for girl.  The coins in the boxes don't help, because I have no idea whether it's going to be heads or tails when I open it. Once I open it, I know what my friend a light year away will see, but they're no longer entangled once I open the box, and I can't just flip the coin over if it's wrong. I have no control over what that coin's going to say, I just know that it will say the same thing for my friend.  So that's simplified. In reality, it could be that my coin is heads and I know the other is tails. In reality it's not certain, just a high probability. And there are all sorts of complexities that I don't understand. I think it's not just heads or tails, but all sorts of states they could be in.  But that's the idea of why you can't communicate.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 504.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8atqo", "c_root_id_B": "dm8aq4u", "created_at_utc_A": 1503919938, "created_at_utc_B": 1503919713, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": ">Modern games have them perfectly circular  No, they don't. They are just cheating it so good that it becomes hard to notice.  On old graphics cards, with built-in rendering pipeline, you could only really control vertices. This meant, if you wanted high-quality circle, you had to use lots of vertices.  On modern graphic cards, pixel shaders of modular pipelines allows you to control each pixel. This means that even if you have low-polygon model, you can \"change\" individual pixels to get closer to the ideal circle. This is still not ideal circle, but it makes it much harder to tell apart.", "human_ref_B": "Most of the cases there are just more triangles in circular shapes, so you don't notice it especially from far away. Closer you get to the shape then its more obvious that there are triangles. But, if the game really cared and there wouldnt be many need for perfect circles, game can raytrace them and this will result in perfect circular shapes. This is commonly used if you render some planets like moon in the sky.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 225.0, "score_ratio": 2.5454545455, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8atqo", "c_root_id_B": "dm8afmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1503919938, "created_at_utc_B": 1503919031, "score_A": 28, "score_B": -17, "human_ref_A": ">Modern games have them perfectly circular  No, they don't. They are just cheating it so good that it becomes hard to notice.  On old graphics cards, with built-in rendering pipeline, you could only really control vertices. This meant, if you wanted high-quality circle, you had to use lots of vertices.  On modern graphic cards, pixel shaders of modular pipelines allows you to control each pixel. This means that even if you have low-polygon model, you can \"change\" individual pixels to get closer to the ideal circle. This is still not ideal circle, but it makes it much harder to tell apart.", "human_ref_B": "It's not that the old circles were polygons, they were made of squares. And now they are made of many more smaller squares called pixels. For example you can see the pixels of a 720p screen if you look closely enough but you would be hard pressed to see the individual pixels on a screen with 1080 pixels  unless you made the screen very large. And now videos and games can be optimised for whichever resolution you are trying to achieve. Normally all digital media is programmed to match the resolution of the screen which can be changed in the settings.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 907.0, "score_ratio": -1.6470588235, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8ntqx", "c_root_id_B": "dm8aq4u", "created_at_utc_A": 1503937672, "created_at_utc_B": 1503919713, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I suspect circles are just an example of what you mean. Do you have a couple of images you'd like to ask about the differences between?  A lot of the old era of obvious polygons actually came down to both low polygon counts AND extremely primitive shading. Often, triangles were single color, with no textures, with no dynamic lighting. This made the seams between triangles incredibly obvious.  We've only had to increase the polygon count a little, most of the improvement has come from the shading side.  Here's a pic of a wheel of cheese from skyrim, look at the right side:  https://vignette1.wikia.nocookie.net/elderscrolls/images/c/c7/Goat_cheese_wheel.png/revision/latest?cb=20120828052141  (hotlinking might not work, so just in case here's the page it's on)", "human_ref_B": "Most of the cases there are just more triangles in circular shapes, so you don't notice it especially from far away. Closer you get to the shape then its more obvious that there are triangles. But, if the game really cared and there wouldnt be many need for perfect circles, game can raytrace them and this will result in perfect circular shapes. This is commonly used if you render some planets like moon in the sky.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17959.0, "score_ratio": 1.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8mehe", "c_root_id_B": "dm8ntqx", "created_at_utc_A": 1503936125, "created_at_utc_B": 1503937672, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Fun fact: Our approximations of the value of Pi are made by making extremely high number sided polygons and calculating there area.   Your question is a variation on an ancient math question called \"Squaring a Circle\" which asks if it possible to make square and a circle of the same area.", "human_ref_B": "I suspect circles are just an example of what you mean. Do you have a couple of images you'd like to ask about the differences between?  A lot of the old era of obvious polygons actually came down to both low polygon counts AND extremely primitive shading. Often, triangles were single color, with no textures, with no dynamic lighting. This made the seams between triangles incredibly obvious.  We've only had to increase the polygon count a little, most of the improvement has come from the shading side.  Here's a pic of a wheel of cheese from skyrim, look at the right side:  https://vignette1.wikia.nocookie.net/elderscrolls/images/c/c7/Goat_cheese_wheel.png/revision/latest?cb=20120828052141  (hotlinking might not work, so just in case here's the page it's on)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1547.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8ntqx", "c_root_id_B": "dm8afmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1503937672, "created_at_utc_B": 1503919031, "score_A": 18, "score_B": -17, "human_ref_A": "I suspect circles are just an example of what you mean. Do you have a couple of images you'd like to ask about the differences between?  A lot of the old era of obvious polygons actually came down to both low polygon counts AND extremely primitive shading. Often, triangles were single color, with no textures, with no dynamic lighting. This made the seams between triangles incredibly obvious.  We've only had to increase the polygon count a little, most of the improvement has come from the shading side.  Here's a pic of a wheel of cheese from skyrim, look at the right side:  https://vignette1.wikia.nocookie.net/elderscrolls/images/c/c7/Goat_cheese_wheel.png/revision/latest?cb=20120828052141  (hotlinking might not work, so just in case here's the page it's on)", "human_ref_B": "It's not that the old circles were polygons, they were made of squares. And now they are made of many more smaller squares called pixels. For example you can see the pixels of a 720p screen if you look closely enough but you would be hard pressed to see the individual pixels on a screen with 1080 pixels  unless you made the screen very large. And now videos and games can be optimised for whichever resolution you are trying to achieve. Normally all digital media is programmed to match the resolution of the screen which can be changed in the settings.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18641.0, "score_ratio": -1.0588235294, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8aq4u", "c_root_id_B": "dm8afmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1503919713, "created_at_utc_B": 1503919031, "score_A": 11, "score_B": -17, "human_ref_A": "Most of the cases there are just more triangles in circular shapes, so you don't notice it especially from far away. Closer you get to the shape then its more obvious that there are triangles. But, if the game really cared and there wouldnt be many need for perfect circles, game can raytrace them and this will result in perfect circular shapes. This is commonly used if you render some planets like moon in the sky.", "human_ref_B": "It's not that the old circles were polygons, they were made of squares. And now they are made of many more smaller squares called pixels. For example you can see the pixels of a 720p screen if you look closely enough but you would be hard pressed to see the individual pixels on a screen with 1080 pixels  unless you made the screen very large. And now videos and games can be optimised for whichever resolution you are trying to achieve. Normally all digital media is programmed to match the resolution of the screen which can be changed in the settings.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 682.0, "score_ratio": -0.6470588235, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8mehe", "c_root_id_B": "dm8t5dz", "created_at_utc_A": 1503936125, "created_at_utc_B": 1503943287, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Fun fact: Our approximations of the value of Pi are made by making extremely high number sided polygons and calculating there area.   Your question is a variation on an ancient math question called \"Squaring a Circle\" which asks if it possible to make square and a circle of the same area.", "human_ref_B": "I actually did write a ray-tracer back in college that rendered perfect spheres, no tessellation.  Was actually easy, since it's just a matter of finding reflective and relative angles, and that's not really any harder for a sphere than a flat polygon.  Of course, it's limited to just that: perfect spheres.  I'd have had to write separate code for ellipsoids, cylinders, etc.  Polygons are just so much more versatile.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7162.0, "score_ratio": -1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8afmv", "c_root_id_B": "dm8t5dz", "created_at_utc_A": 1503919031, "created_at_utc_B": 1503943287, "score_A": -17, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "It's not that the old circles were polygons, they were made of squares. And now they are made of many more smaller squares called pixels. For example you can see the pixels of a 720p screen if you look closely enough but you would be hard pressed to see the individual pixels on a screen with 1080 pixels  unless you made the screen very large. And now videos and games can be optimised for whichever resolution you are trying to achieve. Normally all digital media is programmed to match the resolution of the screen which can be changed in the settings.", "human_ref_B": "I actually did write a ray-tracer back in college that rendered perfect spheres, no tessellation.  Was actually easy, since it's just a matter of finding reflective and relative angles, and that's not really any harder for a sphere than a flat polygon.  Of course, it's limited to just that: perfect spheres.  I'd have had to write separate code for ellipsoids, cylinders, etc.  Polygons are just so much more versatile.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24256.0, "score_ratio": -0.4117647059, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8mehe", "c_root_id_B": "dm9fy7y", "created_at_utc_A": 1503936125, "created_at_utc_B": 1503969568, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Fun fact: Our approximations of the value of Pi are made by making extremely high number sided polygons and calculating there area.   Your question is a variation on an ancient math question called \"Squaring a Circle\" which asks if it possible to make square and a circle of the same area.", "human_ref_B": "I think there are several factors:  One is, as you say, just more polygons.  Another is normal mapping, which lets you apply a special depth texture to a low polygon model to make models look far smoother and more detailed than they actually are.  Lastly a lot of games used 2D textures for particle effects, newer cards have far more texture memory so can use much higher res textures for effects.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33443.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm9fy7y", "c_root_id_B": "dm8afmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1503969568, "created_at_utc_B": 1503919031, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -17, "human_ref_A": "I think there are several factors:  One is, as you say, just more polygons.  Another is normal mapping, which lets you apply a special depth texture to a low polygon model to make models look far smoother and more detailed than they actually are.  Lastly a lot of games used 2D textures for particle effects, newer cards have far more texture memory so can use much higher res textures for effects.", "human_ref_B": "It's not that the old circles were polygons, they were made of squares. And now they are made of many more smaller squares called pixels. For example you can see the pixels of a 720p screen if you look closely enough but you would be hard pressed to see the individual pixels on a screen with 1080 pixels  unless you made the screen very large. And now videos and games can be optimised for whichever resolution you are trying to achieve. Normally all digital media is programmed to match the resolution of the screen which can be changed in the settings.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 50537.0, "score_ratio": -0.1176470588, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8mehe", "c_root_id_B": "dma2lwr", "created_at_utc_A": 1503936125, "created_at_utc_B": 1504012727, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Fun fact: Our approximations of the value of Pi are made by making extremely high number sided polygons and calculating there area.   Your question is a variation on an ancient math question called \"Squaring a Circle\" which asks if it possible to make square and a circle of the same area.", "human_ref_B": "Even if a computer program could store set of points of a perfect circle (it can't), how would it display those points on a screen that is made up of a grid of pixels?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 76602.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8afmv", "c_root_id_B": "dma2lwr", "created_at_utc_A": 1503919031, "created_at_utc_B": 1504012727, "score_A": -17, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It's not that the old circles were polygons, they were made of squares. And now they are made of many more smaller squares called pixels. For example you can see the pixels of a 720p screen if you look closely enough but you would be hard pressed to see the individual pixels on a screen with 1080 pixels  unless you made the screen very large. And now videos and games can be optimised for whichever resolution you are trying to achieve. Normally all digital media is programmed to match the resolution of the screen which can be changed in the settings.", "human_ref_B": "Even if a computer program could store set of points of a perfect circle (it can't), how would it display those points on a screen that is made up of a grid of pixels?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 93696.0, "score_ratio": -0.1176470588, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8mehe", "c_root_id_B": "dnnoacf", "created_at_utc_A": 1503936125, "created_at_utc_B": 1506653437, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Fun fact: Our approximations of the value of Pi are made by making extremely high number sided polygons and calculating there area.   Your question is a variation on an ancient math question called \"Squaring a Circle\" which asks if it possible to make square and a circle of the same area.", "human_ref_B": "While vector graphics certainly are wonderful, we and our computers unfortunately haven't gotten sophisticated enough to do 3D vectors for things as complicated as video games. So instead polygon count has increased past the point in which we can discern individual polygons (kind of like how now we have displays where there are enough pixels small enough and close enough together that we can't pick individual pixels out even if we get right up to the monitor).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2717312.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dnnoacf", "c_root_id_B": "dm8afmv", "created_at_utc_A": 1506653437, "created_at_utc_B": 1503919031, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -17, "human_ref_A": "While vector graphics certainly are wonderful, we and our computers unfortunately haven't gotten sophisticated enough to do 3D vectors for things as complicated as video games. So instead polygon count has increased past the point in which we can discern individual polygons (kind of like how now we have displays where there are enough pixels small enough and close enough together that we can't pick individual pixels out even if we get right up to the monitor).", "human_ref_B": "It's not that the old circles were polygons, they were made of squares. And now they are made of many more smaller squares called pixels. For example you can see the pixels of a 720p screen if you look closely enough but you would be hard pressed to see the individual pixels on a screen with 1080 pixels  unless you made the screen very large. And now videos and games can be optimised for whichever resolution you are trying to achieve. Normally all digital media is programmed to match the resolution of the screen which can be changed in the settings.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2734406.0, "score_ratio": -0.1176470588, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6wib2e", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Old 3D video games rendered circles as visibly crude polygons. Modern games have them perfectly circular. Did we just increase polygon count until its too high to notice, or have rendering algorithms changed to allow \"true\" circles?", "c_root_id_A": "dm8afmv", "c_root_id_B": "dm8mehe", "created_at_utc_A": 1503919031, "created_at_utc_B": 1503936125, "score_A": -17, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "It's not that the old circles were polygons, they were made of squares. And now they are made of many more smaller squares called pixels. For example you can see the pixels of a 720p screen if you look closely enough but you would be hard pressed to see the individual pixels on a screen with 1080 pixels  unless you made the screen very large. And now videos and games can be optimised for whichever resolution you are trying to achieve. Normally all digital media is programmed to match the resolution of the screen which can be changed in the settings.", "human_ref_B": "Fun fact: Our approximations of the value of Pi are made by making extremely high number sided polygons and calculating there area.   Your question is a variation on an ancient math question called \"Squaring a Circle\" which asks if it possible to make square and a circle of the same area.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17094.0, "score_ratio": 0.3529411765, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2o19ph", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Does a balloon weigh more when it's full of air, or when it's empty. If it's the latter, why? Air is added weight to an unchanging mass of rubber. That's my thought process.", "c_root_id_A": "cmj8tl5", "c_root_id_B": "cmj1dw6", "created_at_utc_A": 1417555539, "created_at_utc_B": 1417543094, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "FYI, scales that most people use (even in laboratories) don't correct for the buoyancy of air. It's clear the mass will increase. The weight will increase because of the increased mass (f=ma). A typical scale will not show a difference in measured weight though.", "human_ref_B": "A filled balloon will weigh more but be less dense than an unfilled balloon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12445.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2o19ph", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Does a balloon weigh more when it's full of air, or when it's empty. If it's the latter, why? Air is added weight to an unchanging mass of rubber. That's my thought process.", "c_root_id_A": "cmj8tl5", "c_root_id_B": "cmj29by", "created_at_utc_A": 1417555539, "created_at_utc_B": 1417544598, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "FYI, scales that most people use (even in laboratories) don't correct for the buoyancy of air. It's clear the mass will increase. The weight will increase because of the increased mass (f=ma). A typical scale will not show a difference in measured weight though.", "human_ref_B": "In a normal room full of air, an empty balloon and full balloon will weigh pretty much the same.  I say pretty much because the air inside the balloon will be slightly pressurised and will be a tiny tiny bit denser.  Also, in a normal room full of air, there is a buoyant force equal to the weight of the displaced air.  If you displace air with air, the net change in buoyant force cancels out, and air has zero effect on net weight.  That is why you need to displace air with a lighter gas (helium) to get a filled balloon that has positive buoyancy (lighter than air).  This concept is easier to understand if we substitute air with water.  If you take this whole experiment under water, and instead of a balloon we have a tin bucket, or pail.  A bucket on a scale underwater is totally surrounded by and filled with water.  The scale will show some weight.  If you turn the bucket upside down underwater and weigh it, the weight will be the same.  Now, if you take the upside down bucket and start displacing the water in it with an air bubble, the bucket will get lighter and lighter until it floats away.  This is pretty much what is happening with an air filled balloon versus a helium filled balloon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10941.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "23r1q0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Do green lights seem brighter than any other color because it's in the middle of the visible spectrum?", "c_root_id_A": "cgzrqb2", "c_root_id_B": "cgzw0f8", "created_at_utc_A": 1398241915, "created_at_utc_B": 1398261724, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "in away yes. the efficiency of the eye (or relative sensitivity of the human eye) is a function of the wavelength observed (lambda) .  the \"brightness\" of a light as observed by an average daylight- adapted -eye is proportional to radiation power emitted ( this is called radiant flux measured in watts) and the efficiency of the eye ( dimensionless ) to detect the emitted radiation. basically combine these two factors and throw in an adjustment constant in a formula and you can measure the brightness of a light source  ( this is measured in luminous flux).   for example for the green light (~532 nm) brightness Vs. the red light (~650 nm) brightness,  you can use a less powerful green light and the human eye can perceive it as brighter compared to a red light with a more power input.", "human_ref_B": "Green is perceived as brighter because the human eye evolved to see it with greater sensitivity. Our receptors are tuned to it biochemically.  A brown tinted lens of the same total transmission rating as a grey lens will seem brighter, because the brown lets in selectively more yellow (the actual wavelength we perceive as green). Grey, being neutral, looks darker, even though the total energy passing through the lens is the same.  I know this not only professionally, but empirically, in my work as an optician. try it yourself, go to sunglass hut, compare a B&L g-15 to a B-15 sunglass. (the 15 is the transmission rating).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19809.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "23r1q0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Do green lights seem brighter than any other color because it's in the middle of the visible spectrum?", "c_root_id_A": "cgzw0f8", "c_root_id_B": "cgzumgk", "created_at_utc_A": 1398261724, "created_at_utc_B": 1398257660, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Green is perceived as brighter because the human eye evolved to see it with greater sensitivity. Our receptors are tuned to it biochemically.  A brown tinted lens of the same total transmission rating as a grey lens will seem brighter, because the brown lets in selectively more yellow (the actual wavelength we perceive as green). Grey, being neutral, looks darker, even though the total energy passing through the lens is the same.  I know this not only professionally, but empirically, in my work as an optician. try it yourself, go to sunglass hut, compare a B&L g-15 to a B-15 sunglass. (the 15 is the transmission rating).", "human_ref_B": "Yes. Here's a chapter of a book with some of the explanation http://www.ecse.rpi.edu/~schubert/Light-Emitting-Diodes-dot-org/Sample-Chapter.pdf  Sadly, a lot of the descriptions of cone color sensitivity use normalized plots, which doesn't help us too much since one of them could be more absolutely sensitive than another.  However, the fact that green is in the middle of the red and blue does mean, all other things equal, that it's going to be picked up best because ALL of the cones will register for green light; the green ones will fire at full strength, and the red and blue will register it weakly because it's on the edge of their spectra. On the other hand, red light would trigger red cones at full and green cones lightly, with no response from red, and blue light triggers blue cones at full and green cones lightly, with no response from red.  The overlap in the spectra is part of why the overall luminosity response curve (shown on pages 281 and 282 of the link) is centered on green; it's the result of constructive interference between three different curves.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4064.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5nz64j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How does the physical concept of entropy relates to the information theory concept of entropy?", "c_root_id_A": "dcg4vfz", "c_root_id_B": "dcg4zwg", "created_at_utc_A": 1484460314, "created_at_utc_B": 1484460552, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Physical entropy can be thought of as a particular application of the general theory of entropy studied in information theory.  Pretty much any concept related to entropy in thermodynamic systems can be reformulated in information theory language.", "human_ref_B": "The most concise way of describing entropy is a measure of the possible arrangements of a system.   In a low entropy state, like a solid, or a short password, there are fewer possible arrangements of atoms (being rigidly confined in a lattice) or letters than in a higher entropy state, like a gas (where molecules can move freely) or a longer password.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 238.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5nz64j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How does the physical concept of entropy relates to the information theory concept of entropy?", "c_root_id_A": "dcg9hds", "c_root_id_B": "dcg4vfz", "created_at_utc_A": 1484471647, "created_at_utc_B": 1484460314, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The basic idea revolves around the concept of the **microstate** and the **macrostate**.  The microstate is the configuration of the components of the system, and the macrostate is a \"label\" we use to categorize the microstates.  For example, in a game of yahtzee, the individual configuration of each dice might be the microstate, and the macrostate might be \"Number of sixes rolled\".  We define the entropy of a macrostate to be proportional to the number of microstates that would be 'counted' as a part of that macrostate.  For example, \"five sixes\" would be an extremely low-entropy macrostate because there is only one way you could roll five dices to get five sixes.  \"four sixes\" is also a pretty low-entropy macrostate, but bigger than \"fix sixes\".  You can extend this pretty seamlessly to the physical concept of entropy.  The microstate of a cloud of gas might be the position and velocities of every molecule in that cloud.  The temperature of that cloud would be a macrostate.  There are many different configurations of moleculues that will yield 300K.  And, again, that's all the entropy is -- a measure of the logarithm of \"how many\" molecular configurations would yield your macrostate (300K).  As it turns out, there are *more* ways to configure the moleclues to get 300K than there are to get, say, 30K.  There are even less ways you can configure the molecules in that cloud of gas to get 3K.  Information theory entropy and thermodynamic entropy are literally the exact same concept -- a number proportional to the possible configurations that would yield the macrostate you're asking about.", "human_ref_B": "Physical entropy can be thought of as a particular application of the general theory of entropy studied in information theory.  Pretty much any concept related to entropy in thermodynamic systems can be reformulated in information theory language.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11333.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5nz64j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How does the physical concept of entropy relates to the information theory concept of entropy?", "c_root_id_A": "dcg4vfz", "c_root_id_B": "dcgcty4", "created_at_utc_A": 1484460314, "created_at_utc_B": 1484482782, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Physical entropy can be thought of as a particular application of the general theory of entropy studied in information theory.  Pretty much any concept related to entropy in thermodynamic systems can be reformulated in information theory language.", "human_ref_B": "I'll throw in my piece here. Imagine you have a box with a wall dividing it into two halves. In this wall there is a hatch, which can allow gas particles to pass when open.  Now the hatch is controlled by some kind of supercomputer, which we call Maxwells Demon. If a fast particle from the left side approaches the hatch, the demon opens it to let it pass, while slow particles are allowed to pass from right to left.  Otherwise the hatch stays shut.  Over time what happens is that you cool down the left side whilst heating up the right side, without having some external heatbath. You basically order the system, thus decreasing entropy globally.  You may say that this is very hypothetical, and would never work in practice. But there are some guys that did it (this is not the actual paper, that i wanted to mention but i did not find it right now).  Obviously this violates the second law of thermodynamics. But if you examine the thought experiment closer you realize that the demon actually has to measure the particles velocity. And herein lies the crux. In order to decrease Entropy the demon has to produce Information.   The demon experiment is therefore non reversible. If one were to erase the Information, one would have to perform work on the memory and release heat into a heatbath. It turns out that this is the exact amount of heat corresponding to the decrease in Entropy.  This lead to the concept of generalized Entropy, which is the sum of Information and Entropy. In that sense Information and Entropy are different sides of a three sided coin (the third side would be suface area of a black hole, but this is a story for another time).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22468.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5nz64j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How does the physical concept of entropy relates to the information theory concept of entropy?", "c_root_id_A": "dcgeg3f", "c_root_id_B": "dcg4vfz", "created_at_utc_A": 1484487404, "created_at_utc_B": 1484460314, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I did a small project on this and this is what I understood in the simpler terms:-  Entropy, in physical conditions, means the disorder or randomness in a physical system. It is proportional to the log of multiplicity where multiplicity is the maximum number of possible states of a body. So, if we flip two coins, the multiplicity is 2 to the power 2 and that gives us 4. In this case, the entropy is K ln(4). So, this way, more the possible states, higher is multiplicity and randomness.   Now, suppose you use these coins as your medium of information transfer like the bits, you can send 2 bits of information that can carry 4 different things. It is either HH, HT, TH or TT.   So, in the information theory, the higher the entropy, the higher is the information carried. A dice would carry more information than two coin flips(6 compared to 4).   I hope this answers your question.", "human_ref_B": "Physical entropy can be thought of as a particular application of the general theory of entropy studied in information theory.  Pretty much any concept related to entropy in thermodynamic systems can be reformulated in information theory language.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27090.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "513zxz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "What is the function of having 2 bones in our lower arm, radius and ulna, instead of one like the humerus? Same with the legs.", "c_root_id_A": "d79gze0", "c_root_id_B": "d79cgr9", "created_at_utc_A": 1473020654, "created_at_utc_B": 1473013325, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The two bones in the forearm is for more movement. If you hold out your arm with the palm up, the two bones are parallel. Now if you turn your palm to face down, the thumb side bone, radius, is now crossed over the ulna. The two bones add much more movement than one bone. There are two bones in the lower leg, but that has more to do with stabilization for walking.", "human_ref_B": "These two bones are fused together in many animals. Some examples of these animals are bats and hares. They are fused into one bone because in these cases the reduction in weight is more important than the corresponding reduction in strength. Bats couldn't fly as well if they had both bones and hares couldn't run as fast if their legs were heavier. In humans we need strength more than lightweight limbs.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7329.0, "score_ratio": 3.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "513zxz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.65, "history": "What is the function of having 2 bones in our lower arm, radius and ulna, instead of one like the humerus? Same with the legs.", "c_root_id_A": "d79qhai", "c_root_id_B": "d79wbsd", "created_at_utc_A": 1473037246, "created_at_utc_B": 1473047796, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I remember reading this in science class in like 8th grade but the reasoning they had was because it aided healing.  If you fall and use your hands to break your fall most likely your humerus wont break because it is stronger than the forearm bones.  Because of this, the weaker forearm bone (I think the radius) will take the impact and break.  It saves most of the arm from damage and the ulna can still provide support to the arm while the radius heals.  Same concept with the bones in your lower leg.", "human_ref_B": "It allows for rotation.   For example, try to rotate your index finger. It's the same type of joint as the elbow, but you only have one bone instead of two.   Even rotating your index finger, with your opposite hand, you'll notice it doesn't rotate very much at all.   There are other benefits. But primarily it allows for rotation of the forearm and hand. Same with the feet and legs.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10550.0, "score_ratio": -4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2eto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If general relativity, or the physics of the Big, and quantum theory, or the physics of the Small, cannot be reconciled - where's the line between them? Shouldn't there be some point at which they overlap? Or is there a gap between them? Does general relativity apply, for example, to the cellular level? Or the molecular level?", "c_root_id_A": "c20bum1", "c_root_id_B": "c20c23k", "created_at_utc_A": 1308341701, "created_at_utc_B": 1308343537, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "They all apply all the time. But, for example, the GR effects in a system of, say, two atoms in a material are so small as to be immeasurable, so we do not need GR to describe this situation. We'd use quantum theory instead, since this theory predicts effects which are large enough to measure.", "human_ref_B": "In answering a question like this, it is crucial to distinguish between the formalism of the theory (the equations and how they are used to make predictions) and the behavior of the universe that we model with the theory. We believe that the universe, at all scales, follows all the laws all the time. We believe gravity as described by GR affects everything, and we believe that all matter behaves as described by quantum theory.  The conflict between the two is in the realm of the mathematical tools we use to model and make predictions. If you are searching for an exact \"point of conflict\" it might be said to exist at the point at which physical systems contain enough mass-energy to cause observable gravitational effects. Because quantum mechanics does not include the gravitational force, it would not predict the aspects of the system's behavior which are due to gravity. An example of something that might be called a conflict which exists on the macroscale rather than the micro is that a naive calculation of the vacuum energy of space using quantum field theory predicts that the cosmological constant should be much larger than what we actually observe.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1836.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2eto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If general relativity, or the physics of the Big, and quantum theory, or the physics of the Small, cannot be reconciled - where's the line between them? Shouldn't there be some point at which they overlap? Or is there a gap between them? Does general relativity apply, for example, to the cellular level? Or the molecular level?", "c_root_id_A": "c20c23k", "c_root_id_B": "c20bu48", "created_at_utc_A": 1308343537, "created_at_utc_B": 1308341590, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "In answering a question like this, it is crucial to distinguish between the formalism of the theory (the equations and how they are used to make predictions) and the behavior of the universe that we model with the theory. We believe that the universe, at all scales, follows all the laws all the time. We believe gravity as described by GR affects everything, and we believe that all matter behaves as described by quantum theory.  The conflict between the two is in the realm of the mathematical tools we use to model and make predictions. If you are searching for an exact \"point of conflict\" it might be said to exist at the point at which physical systems contain enough mass-energy to cause observable gravitational effects. Because quantum mechanics does not include the gravitational force, it would not predict the aspects of the system's behavior which are due to gravity. An example of something that might be called a conflict which exists on the macroscale rather than the micro is that a naive calculation of the vacuum energy of space using quantum field theory predicts that the cosmological constant should be much larger than what we actually observe.", "human_ref_B": "I don't accept your premise. General relativity and quantum field theory *can* be reconciled, *have been* reconciled in part, and *are being* reconciled more and more every day.  But for some reason every time I say that here I get twenty new pieces of hate mail, so I'm just going to leave it at that.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1947.0, "score_ratio": 8000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2eto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If general relativity, or the physics of the Big, and quantum theory, or the physics of the Small, cannot be reconciled - where's the line between them? Shouldn't there be some point at which they overlap? Or is there a gap between them? Does general relativity apply, for example, to the cellular level? Or the molecular level?", "c_root_id_A": "c20c23k", "c_root_id_B": "c20bzjf", "created_at_utc_A": 1308343537, "created_at_utc_B": 1308342892, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "In answering a question like this, it is crucial to distinguish between the formalism of the theory (the equations and how they are used to make predictions) and the behavior of the universe that we model with the theory. We believe that the universe, at all scales, follows all the laws all the time. We believe gravity as described by GR affects everything, and we believe that all matter behaves as described by quantum theory.  The conflict between the two is in the realm of the mathematical tools we use to model and make predictions. If you are searching for an exact \"point of conflict\" it might be said to exist at the point at which physical systems contain enough mass-energy to cause observable gravitational effects. Because quantum mechanics does not include the gravitational force, it would not predict the aspects of the system's behavior which are due to gravity. An example of something that might be called a conflict which exists on the macroscale rather than the micro is that a naive calculation of the vacuum energy of space using quantum field theory predicts that the cosmological constant should be much larger than what we actually observe.", "human_ref_B": "From Scientific American PDF:  >According to standard physics textbooks, quantum mechanics is the theory of the microscopic world. It describes particles, atoms and molecules but gives way to ordinary classical physics on the macroscopic scales of pears, people and planets. Somewhere between molecules and pears lies a boundary where the strangeness of quantum behavior ends and the familiarity of classical physics begins. The impression that quantum mechanics is limited to the microworld permeates the public understanding of science. For instance, Columbia University physicist Brian Greene writes on the first page of his hugely successful (and otherwise excellent) book The Elegant Universe that quantum mechanics \u201cprovides a theoretical framework for understanding the universe on the smallest of scales.\u201d Classical physics, which comprises any theory that is not quantum, including Albert Einstein\u2019s theories of relativity, handles the largest of scales.  >Yet this convenient partitioning of the world is a myth. Few modern physicists think that classical physics has equal status with quantum mechanics; it is but a useful approximation of a world that is quantum at all scales. Although quantum effects may be harder to see in the macroworld, the reason has nothing to do with size per se but with the way that quantum systems interact with one another. Until the past decade, experimentalists had not confirmed that quantum behavior persists on a macroscopic scale. Today, however, they routinely do. These effects are more pervasive than anyone ever suspected. They may operate in the cells of our body.  >Even those of us who make a career of studying these effects  have yet to assimilate what they are telling us about the workings of nature. Quantum behavior eludes visualization and common sense. It forces us to rethink how we look at the universe  and accept a new and unfamiliar picture of our world.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 645.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2eto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If general relativity, or the physics of the Big, and quantum theory, or the physics of the Small, cannot be reconciled - where's the line between them? Shouldn't there be some point at which they overlap? Or is there a gap between them? Does general relativity apply, for example, to the cellular level? Or the molecular level?", "c_root_id_A": "c20bu48", "c_root_id_B": "c20cgsm", "created_at_utc_A": 1308341590, "created_at_utc_B": 1308347375, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I don't accept your premise. General relativity and quantum field theory *can* be reconciled, *have been* reconciled in part, and *are being* reconciled more and more every day.  But for some reason every time I say that here I get twenty new pieces of hate mail, so I'm just going to leave it at that.", "human_ref_B": "Q: Can GR and QM be reconciled?  A: At first glance this question seems to suggest that quantum theory and GR are inconsistent. But they aren't inconsistent.  Q: Then what needs to be reconciled?  A: In modern theoretical physics you write down a classical Lagrangian. IE an equation that describes the classical behavior of the fields you want to describe. Doesn't matter if you want to study gravity, E&M, or the nuclear interactions. The starting point is always a classical theory. Then we apply quantization procedures. Over the years we have figured out how to successfully do this E&M and the nuclear interactions. However when we try to do this with gravity, our best efforts fail.  Q: Doesn't that mean they have irreconcilable differences?  A: Not in the way you mean. There is no place where gravity stops working and quantum begins working.   Q: But what about the physics of the small vs big?  A: As 2x4b says it just turns out that gravitational corrections for a quantum system are so small they don't matter, and the opposite is true. You have to look at the system and determine which effects are most important. This is essential all of modern physics. Almost nothing being done in research today is exact, and therefore we have to make assumptions based on which effects are most important to our system. Effective field theories in condensed matter systems are rich with examples where this is the case.  Q: But what about a quantum theory of gravity?  A: Who says we need one? No one knows if we do, certainly any corrections to current observations that would be predicted by quantum gravity would be so insignificant that they wouldn't matter. I would rather not even begin to discuss whether there is a graviton or not.  Finally we know that you can actually marry gravity and QFT and it has been done. The most famous example of this is the original calculation for Hawking Radiation. Technically what the calculation does is instead of working with QFT with Special Relativity as its background, the calculations are done on the curved manifold that exists outside a black hole. While doing QFT on curved manifolds (which themselves obey GR) is certainly doable and completely consistent, it isn't something that is done often.   I hope this has answered any and all questions you may have.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5785.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2eto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If general relativity, or the physics of the Big, and quantum theory, or the physics of the Small, cannot be reconciled - where's the line between them? Shouldn't there be some point at which they overlap? Or is there a gap between them? Does general relativity apply, for example, to the cellular level? Or the molecular level?", "c_root_id_A": "c20bzjf", "c_root_id_B": "c20cgsm", "created_at_utc_A": 1308342892, "created_at_utc_B": 1308347375, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "From Scientific American PDF:  >According to standard physics textbooks, quantum mechanics is the theory of the microscopic world. It describes particles, atoms and molecules but gives way to ordinary classical physics on the macroscopic scales of pears, people and planets. Somewhere between molecules and pears lies a boundary where the strangeness of quantum behavior ends and the familiarity of classical physics begins. The impression that quantum mechanics is limited to the microworld permeates the public understanding of science. For instance, Columbia University physicist Brian Greene writes on the first page of his hugely successful (and otherwise excellent) book The Elegant Universe that quantum mechanics \u201cprovides a theoretical framework for understanding the universe on the smallest of scales.\u201d Classical physics, which comprises any theory that is not quantum, including Albert Einstein\u2019s theories of relativity, handles the largest of scales.  >Yet this convenient partitioning of the world is a myth. Few modern physicists think that classical physics has equal status with quantum mechanics; it is but a useful approximation of a world that is quantum at all scales. Although quantum effects may be harder to see in the macroworld, the reason has nothing to do with size per se but with the way that quantum systems interact with one another. Until the past decade, experimentalists had not confirmed that quantum behavior persists on a macroscopic scale. Today, however, they routinely do. These effects are more pervasive than anyone ever suspected. They may operate in the cells of our body.  >Even those of us who make a career of studying these effects  have yet to assimilate what they are telling us about the workings of nature. Quantum behavior eludes visualization and common sense. It forces us to rethink how we look at the universe  and accept a new and unfamiliar picture of our world.", "human_ref_B": "Q: Can GR and QM be reconciled?  A: At first glance this question seems to suggest that quantum theory and GR are inconsistent. But they aren't inconsistent.  Q: Then what needs to be reconciled?  A: In modern theoretical physics you write down a classical Lagrangian. IE an equation that describes the classical behavior of the fields you want to describe. Doesn't matter if you want to study gravity, E&M, or the nuclear interactions. The starting point is always a classical theory. Then we apply quantization procedures. Over the years we have figured out how to successfully do this E&M and the nuclear interactions. However when we try to do this with gravity, our best efforts fail.  Q: Doesn't that mean they have irreconcilable differences?  A: Not in the way you mean. There is no place where gravity stops working and quantum begins working.   Q: But what about the physics of the small vs big?  A: As 2x4b says it just turns out that gravitational corrections for a quantum system are so small they don't matter, and the opposite is true. You have to look at the system and determine which effects are most important. This is essential all of modern physics. Almost nothing being done in research today is exact, and therefore we have to make assumptions based on which effects are most important to our system. Effective field theories in condensed matter systems are rich with examples where this is the case.  Q: But what about a quantum theory of gravity?  A: Who says we need one? No one knows if we do, certainly any corrections to current observations that would be predicted by quantum gravity would be so insignificant that they wouldn't matter. I would rather not even begin to discuss whether there is a graviton or not.  Finally we know that you can actually marry gravity and QFT and it has been done. The most famous example of this is the original calculation for Hawking Radiation. Technically what the calculation does is instead of working with QFT with Special Relativity as its background, the calculations are done on the curved manifold that exists outside a black hole. While doing QFT on curved manifolds (which themselves obey GR) is certainly doable and completely consistent, it isn't something that is done often.   I hope this has answered any and all questions you may have.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4483.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2eto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If general relativity, or the physics of the Big, and quantum theory, or the physics of the Small, cannot be reconciled - where's the line between them? Shouldn't there be some point at which they overlap? Or is there a gap between them? Does general relativity apply, for example, to the cellular level? Or the molecular level?", "c_root_id_A": "c20cgsm", "c_root_id_B": "c20c5aw", "created_at_utc_A": 1308347375, "created_at_utc_B": 1308344307, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Q: Can GR and QM be reconciled?  A: At first glance this question seems to suggest that quantum theory and GR are inconsistent. But they aren't inconsistent.  Q: Then what needs to be reconciled?  A: In modern theoretical physics you write down a classical Lagrangian. IE an equation that describes the classical behavior of the fields you want to describe. Doesn't matter if you want to study gravity, E&M, or the nuclear interactions. The starting point is always a classical theory. Then we apply quantization procedures. Over the years we have figured out how to successfully do this E&M and the nuclear interactions. However when we try to do this with gravity, our best efforts fail.  Q: Doesn't that mean they have irreconcilable differences?  A: Not in the way you mean. There is no place where gravity stops working and quantum begins working.   Q: But what about the physics of the small vs big?  A: As 2x4b says it just turns out that gravitational corrections for a quantum system are so small they don't matter, and the opposite is true. You have to look at the system and determine which effects are most important. This is essential all of modern physics. Almost nothing being done in research today is exact, and therefore we have to make assumptions based on which effects are most important to our system. Effective field theories in condensed matter systems are rich with examples where this is the case.  Q: But what about a quantum theory of gravity?  A: Who says we need one? No one knows if we do, certainly any corrections to current observations that would be predicted by quantum gravity would be so insignificant that they wouldn't matter. I would rather not even begin to discuss whether there is a graviton or not.  Finally we know that you can actually marry gravity and QFT and it has been done. The most famous example of this is the original calculation for Hawking Radiation. Technically what the calculation does is instead of working with QFT with Special Relativity as its background, the calculations are done on the curved manifold that exists outside a black hole. While doing QFT on curved manifolds (which themselves obey GR) is certainly doable and completely consistent, it isn't something that is done often.   I hope this has answered any and all questions you may have.", "human_ref_B": "General relativity is best used to describe massive systems. When the mathematics of GR is applied at molecular scales it gives nonsense answers that are known to be wrong. For such scales quantum theory gives acceptable answers. Assuredly, applying quantum theory to a massive system gives nonsense answers also.  String theory is purported to be the framework that reconciles this difference.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3068.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2eto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If general relativity, or the physics of the Big, and quantum theory, or the physics of the Small, cannot be reconciled - where's the line between them? Shouldn't there be some point at which they overlap? Or is there a gap between them? Does general relativity apply, for example, to the cellular level? Or the molecular level?", "c_root_id_A": "c20bu48", "c_root_id_B": "c20bum1", "created_at_utc_A": 1308341590, "created_at_utc_B": 1308341701, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I don't accept your premise. General relativity and quantum field theory *can* be reconciled, *have been* reconciled in part, and *are being* reconciled more and more every day.  But for some reason every time I say that here I get twenty new pieces of hate mail, so I'm just going to leave it at that.", "human_ref_B": "They all apply all the time. But, for example, the GR effects in a system of, say, two atoms in a material are so small as to be immeasurable, so we do not need GR to describe this situation. We'd use quantum theory instead, since this theory predicts effects which are large enough to measure.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 111.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2eto", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "If general relativity, or the physics of the Big, and quantum theory, or the physics of the Small, cannot be reconciled - where's the line between them? Shouldn't there be some point at which they overlap? Or is there a gap between them? Does general relativity apply, for example, to the cellular level? Or the molecular level?", "c_root_id_A": "c20bu48", "c_root_id_B": "c20bzjf", "created_at_utc_A": 1308341590, "created_at_utc_B": 1308342892, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I don't accept your premise. General relativity and quantum field theory *can* be reconciled, *have been* reconciled in part, and *are being* reconciled more and more every day.  But for some reason every time I say that here I get twenty new pieces of hate mail, so I'm just going to leave it at that.", "human_ref_B": "From Scientific American PDF:  >According to standard physics textbooks, quantum mechanics is the theory of the microscopic world. It describes particles, atoms and molecules but gives way to ordinary classical physics on the macroscopic scales of pears, people and planets. Somewhere between molecules and pears lies a boundary where the strangeness of quantum behavior ends and the familiarity of classical physics begins. The impression that quantum mechanics is limited to the microworld permeates the public understanding of science. For instance, Columbia University physicist Brian Greene writes on the first page of his hugely successful (and otherwise excellent) book The Elegant Universe that quantum mechanics \u201cprovides a theoretical framework for understanding the universe on the smallest of scales.\u201d Classical physics, which comprises any theory that is not quantum, including Albert Einstein\u2019s theories of relativity, handles the largest of scales.  >Yet this convenient partitioning of the world is a myth. Few modern physicists think that classical physics has equal status with quantum mechanics; it is but a useful approximation of a world that is quantum at all scales. Although quantum effects may be harder to see in the macroworld, the reason has nothing to do with size per se but with the way that quantum systems interact with one another. Until the past decade, experimentalists had not confirmed that quantum behavior persists on a macroscopic scale. Today, however, they routinely do. These effects are more pervasive than anyone ever suspected. They may operate in the cells of our body.  >Even those of us who make a career of studying these effects  have yet to assimilate what they are telling us about the workings of nature. Quantum behavior eludes visualization and common sense. It forces us to rethink how we look at the universe  and accept a new and unfamiliar picture of our world.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1302.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5butcy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "Now with LHC being the prime particle accelerator. What scientific use/discoveries do the smaller ones provide now? LHC is all the rage now. The biggest, baddest and meanest accelerator around. The smaller ones are unheard of. Don't the provide any scientific results worth the buzz any longer? Or are they workhorses pumping particles in the quiet making groundwork for new discoveries?  What discoveries have been made with the other ones since LHC was put into commission? I'm curious about it since I find it hard to believe that these massive amounts of money being put into these ventures are flushed down the toilet once a new bigger accelerator enters the scene?   Please link to papers if you know about any :)", "c_root_id_A": "d9rfjjk", "c_root_id_B": "d9ri0f7", "created_at_utc_A": 1478630588, "created_at_utc_B": 1478633419, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "There are new colliders being put together, http://www.linearcollider.org/ (\"visit general public website\" has some good info)  And there are old accelerators being used for precision measurements rather than looking at energy frontiers, http://muon-g-2.fnal.gov/  It's important to note that the LHC uses old accelerators as booster stages to get the protons up to 7 TeV. Maybe one day the TeVatron at Fermilab will be used as an injector into a larger machine (though probably not, as we're near the point of diminishing returns for circular colliders)", "human_ref_B": "The LHC is not the only accelerator in operation, there are **tons** of them. Also high energy physicists are not the only ones who use accelerators. Nuclear physicists use them as well.  There are things that we need to do that the LHC cannot accomplish. The LHC is fairly limited because it produces beams of protons and lead-208. In nuclear physics, there are hundreds of nuclei that we might potentially want to use as beams for our experiments. And we'd like them over a whole range of energies, and at sufficiently high intensities.  We need radioactive ion beams, which the LHC cannot produce. We have facilities at places like NSCL, GSI, RIKEN, and GANIL.  We need neutron beams, which the LHC cannot produce. We can produce them at LANL or ORNL, for example.  Some people would like electron beams, which can't be produced at high energies in circular accelerators like the storage rings of the LHC.  Or gamma ray beams produced by FELs like at TUNL or by synchrotron radiation. The LHC does not produce photon beams.  The LHC is the only accelerator you might commonly hear about, but it's by no means the only one. And it's not a \"one stop shop\" for all your accelerator needs. It has a few specific purposes, like finding the Higgs and relativistic heavy ion collisions using the lead-208 beams.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2831.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jq7lw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "So if particle accelerators can simulate conditions that only existed a fraction of a second after the big bang what are those conditions? I hear that in particle accelerators they can simulate the conditions of the universe just after the big bang.  Aside from temperature what are the other conditions?", "c_root_id_A": "c2e8u7j", "c_root_id_B": "c2e9jzz", "created_at_utc_A": 1313985866, "created_at_utc_B": 1313992321, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "When you have such a horribly high energy density, there aren't really any other meaningful conditions. It's like talking about what's written on an on fire piece of paper; just doesn't really matter any more, you know?", "human_ref_B": "Not a physicist, but looking forward to one answering.  From what I found, extrapolation of known events in the universe backward in time result in a state of infinite temperature and infinite density at a finite point in time.  The Large Hadron Collider, perhaps the most famous particle accelerator, uses electromagnetic energy from 1600 superconducting magnets cooled by 96 tons of liquid helium to accelerate bare nuclei (usually protons) to incredible speeds only 3 m/s slower than light.  When these particles collide, so much energy is involved that it is similar to the incredibly (but not infinitely) high temperatures and densities in the early moments after the Big Bang.  From looking at the results of the experiments, we can verify predictions of models we have for the universe.  I'd be glad for any clarification or correction.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6455.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jq7lw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "So if particle accelerators can simulate conditions that only existed a fraction of a second after the big bang what are those conditions? I hear that in particle accelerators they can simulate the conditions of the universe just after the big bang.  Aside from temperature what are the other conditions?", "c_root_id_A": "c2e8u7j", "c_root_id_B": "c2effzn", "created_at_utc_A": 1313985866, "created_at_utc_B": 1314052466, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "When you have such a horribly high energy density, there aren't really any other meaningful conditions. It's like talking about what's written on an on fire piece of paper; just doesn't really matter any more, you know?", "human_ref_B": "Well, that's sort of it.  As we look \"back in time\" we see that stuff used to have a lot more spring it it's collective step.  That is, we can separate universal history into different parts.  Each part is distinct from the others in the way matter interacted, and they increase in energy as we go farther back.        If we go back to the earliest one we know of (what you're asking about), we have a situation where there's so much energy (in particles, whatever) that atoms couldn't form.  Nuclei couldn't form.  Heck, even protons and neutrons couldn't form.  Everything was in a state called a quark-gluon plasma.  Now protons are pretty stable and like being around, so if things are too excited to settle down and form one then this is a *lot* of energy.           So, at the LHC, they smash stuff together super hard so that, just for an instant, a small, small portion of space is dominated not by atoms, nuclei, or protons--but the quarks and gluons.       As for other conditions, I'm not aware of any.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 66600.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nbrp4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why does the speed of light have anything to do with the relation between energy and mass?", "c_root_id_A": "c37uihc", "c_root_id_B": "c37uelu", "created_at_utc_A": 1323828104, "created_at_utc_B": 1323827438, "score_A": 157, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Despite what the name says, the speed of light isn't *just* the speed light travels at. In fact, that's not even its most important quality!  Have you heard how time is called the fourth dimension? Well, it doesn't make much sense to think of time itself as a dimension like the spatial dimensions, we don't even use the same units to measure it. In order to talk about time as a dimension, we need to convert it into something with the units spatial dimensions have. To turn a time measurement into a distance measurement we need to multiply it by something with units of distance divided by time. Those are, of course, the units a speed has. It turns out that that fundamental speed which we multiply time by to compare it to space is the speed of light. It's the fundamental constant that translates between the two.  The gist of E=mc^2 is that rest energy and mass are the same thing; we can talk about them equivalently. But we can't just write E=m, energy and mass have different units. It would be like writing 1 second = 1 meter. To make the two sides of the equation have the correct units, we need to multiply one side by our fundamental translation constant, the speed of light. It turns out that units of mass times two units of speed give units of energy, so the only logical equation which expresses the mass/rest energy equivalence *must* be E=mc^2 .", "human_ref_B": "Good question. The c^2 sneaks in when deriving the kinetic energy in relativity. c works as a conversion factor or a reference for other velocities, so it is scattered throughout the equations of relativity. It isn't a surprise that the energy should be related to it in some way.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-energy_equivalence#Background", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 666.0, "score_ratio": 13.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nbrp4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why does the speed of light have anything to do with the relation between energy and mass?", "c_root_id_A": "c37v8bn", "c_root_id_B": "c37uelu", "created_at_utc_A": 1323832964, "created_at_utc_B": 1323827438, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "For previous answers, see:  * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/jfcoy/why_is_the_equation_emc2_so_elegant_why_is_the/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ikgnq/what_is_the_real_meaning_of_c2_in_emc2_why_is_it/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/f28kn/what_has_the_speed_of_light_got_to_do_with_the/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ihwkz/massenergy_equivalence_or_emc2why_the_speed_of/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/m6x14/in_e_mc2_why_is_it_that_the_speed_of_light/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mswbr/why_does_the_speed_of_light_matter_in_emc2/", "human_ref_B": "Good question. The c^2 sneaks in when deriving the kinetic energy in relativity. c works as a conversion factor or a reference for other velocities, so it is scattered throughout the equations of relativity. It isn't a surprise that the energy should be related to it in some way.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-energy_equivalence#Background", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5526.0, "score_ratio": 2.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nbrp4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why does the speed of light have anything to do with the relation between energy and mass?", "c_root_id_A": "c37v3cg", "c_root_id_B": "c37v8bn", "created_at_utc_A": 1323832064, "created_at_utc_B": 1323832964, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Please everyone, read this book. It is written conversationally and with very simple mathematics, but is extremely thorough in explaining most of the WTF?! bits of relativity.   Also Einstein had a great sense of humor.", "human_ref_B": "For previous answers, see:  * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/jfcoy/why_is_the_equation_emc2_so_elegant_why_is_the/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ikgnq/what_is_the_real_meaning_of_c2_in_emc2_why_is_it/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/f28kn/what_has_the_speed_of_light_got_to_do_with_the/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ihwkz/massenergy_equivalence_or_emc2why_the_speed_of/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/m6x14/in_e_mc2_why_is_it_that_the_speed_of_light/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mswbr/why_does_the_speed_of_light_matter_in_emc2/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 900.0, "score_ratio": 4.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18ib7l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does my radio signal completely drop out when I strike an arc with a stick welder?  When I'm at work, listening to tunes and working away having a good time I always get interrupted when my radio cuts out from the song and in to horrible static. It happens every time I strike an arc with my welder, so they must be related but I'm not sure how. Does the electricity from the welder interfere with the radio signal?", "c_root_id_A": "c8f2h84", "c_root_id_B": "c8f3fx8", "created_at_utc_A": 1360847354, "created_at_utc_B": 1360852592, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 82, "human_ref_A": "The earliest transmitters used an arc to generate wide-band radio signals. A resonant circuit restrained the energy to a narrow band (somewhat). But any arc will generate energy over a huge frequency range. Lightning, for example, will cause noise on an AM radio, no matter where it is tuned.", "human_ref_B": "Your stick is essentially making up part of a spark-gap transmitter. A spark gap transmitter signal is dirty; it causes a lot of interference.  > Another problem with the spark transmitter was a result of the shape of the waveform produced by each burst of electromagnetic radiation. These transmitters radiated an extremely \"dirty\" wide band signal which could greatly interfere with the reception of other transmissions on nearby frequencies. **Receiving sets located relatively close to such a transmitter would have entire sections of a band masked by this wide band noise.** (Emphasis added.)  Spark-gap oscillators were used in medical applications, too. The first commercial electrosurgical system, manufactured by Bovie, used a spark-gap oscillator to generate the radio signal used by its cauterizing scalpel. It was a real \"Frankenstein's laboratory\" piece of gear, about the size of a desk. It popped and crackled just like the movie. The smell persisted for hours in the repair shop.  I had the rare privilege of repairing Bovie serial number 1 years ago when I was a biomedical electronics repairman.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5238.0, "score_ratio": 5.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18ib7l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does my radio signal completely drop out when I strike an arc with a stick welder?  When I'm at work, listening to tunes and working away having a good time I always get interrupted when my radio cuts out from the song and in to horrible static. It happens every time I strike an arc with my welder, so they must be related but I'm not sure how. Does the electricity from the welder interfere with the radio signal?", "c_root_id_A": "c8f2orr", "c_root_id_B": "c8f3fx8", "created_at_utc_A": 1360848673, "created_at_utc_B": 1360852592, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 82, "human_ref_A": "Just a heads up. I work in an industrial setting with welders as well and have seen TIG welders high voltage, high frequency burst be pretty damaging to personal electronic devices, even having been known to wipe cellphones and ipods completely clean, sometimes rendering them all but dead.", "human_ref_B": "Your stick is essentially making up part of a spark-gap transmitter. A spark gap transmitter signal is dirty; it causes a lot of interference.  > Another problem with the spark transmitter was a result of the shape of the waveform produced by each burst of electromagnetic radiation. These transmitters radiated an extremely \"dirty\" wide band signal which could greatly interfere with the reception of other transmissions on nearby frequencies. **Receiving sets located relatively close to such a transmitter would have entire sections of a band masked by this wide band noise.** (Emphasis added.)  Spark-gap oscillators were used in medical applications, too. The first commercial electrosurgical system, manufactured by Bovie, used a spark-gap oscillator to generate the radio signal used by its cauterizing scalpel. It was a real \"Frankenstein's laboratory\" piece of gear, about the size of a desk. It popped and crackled just like the movie. The smell persisted for hours in the repair shop.  I had the rare privilege of repairing Bovie serial number 1 years ago when I was a biomedical electronics repairman.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3919.0, "score_ratio": 41.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18ib7l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does my radio signal completely drop out when I strike an arc with a stick welder?  When I'm at work, listening to tunes and working away having a good time I always get interrupted when my radio cuts out from the song and in to horrible static. It happens every time I strike an arc with my welder, so they must be related but I'm not sure how. Does the electricity from the welder interfere with the radio signal?", "c_root_id_A": "c8f6agm", "c_root_id_B": "c8f2orr", "created_at_utc_A": 1360862592, "created_at_utc_B": 1360848673, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Sparks create broad frequency EM interference, so it essentially 'jams' a wide range of frequencies.", "human_ref_B": "Just a heads up. I work in an industrial setting with welders as well and have seen TIG welders high voltage, high frequency burst be pretty damaging to personal electronic devices, even having been known to wipe cellphones and ipods completely clean, sometimes rendering them all but dead.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13919.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18ib7l", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does my radio signal completely drop out when I strike an arc with a stick welder?  When I'm at work, listening to tunes and working away having a good time I always get interrupted when my radio cuts out from the song and in to horrible static. It happens every time I strike an arc with my welder, so they must be related but I'm not sure how. Does the electricity from the welder interfere with the radio signal?", "c_root_id_A": "c8f6agm", "c_root_id_B": "c8f3w1f", "created_at_utc_A": 1360862592, "created_at_utc_B": 1360854447, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Sparks create broad frequency EM interference, so it essentially 'jams' a wide range of frequencies.", "human_ref_B": "My welder has a switch for HF.  It goes from off to start to always on.  There is no reason to have a stick welder on HF \"start\" which is what it sounds like you have.  It is slightly easier to start the arc with the HF but it is not at all needed.  Look for the switch and flip it to off.  HF is more for TIG welding.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8145.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e1xieu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How is it possible to reach points higher than 255 in an 8-bit game? Considering 8 bits can only count to the number 255, how is it possible to be awarded more than 255 points in a 8-bit game? For example in Pac-man, the highest reachable level is 255, but you still get 400 points for eating a ghost. The game should not be able to count that high", "c_root_id_A": "f8spf1g", "c_root_id_B": "f8sbwqx", "created_at_utc_A": 1574786170, "created_at_utc_B": 1574776469, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Others have described well how multiply bytes can be used, but another part of the solution might be in how score is recorded. The game doesn't actually need 1s place precision, because you only earn points in multiples of 10.  You might only earn 40 under-the-hood points for eating a ghost, and the game just automatically adds a \"0\" to the end of  your score wherever it's seen.  It's the kind of trick programmers love to find.", "human_ref_B": "The bit of a game can refer to two things, neither of which restrict the highest score that a game can record.  1) An 8-bit gaming console can mean a console that uses an 8-bit CPU. Meaning that the operations in the CPU's Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) are 8 bits each.  2) \"8-bit graphics\" means that each pixel is encoded with an 8-bit color palette.  I think it is obvious that 2) would not restrict the highest score you can get since it only deals with graphics. But also 1) doesn't restrict the highest score either. An 8-bit console may have 8-bit registers in its CPU but it also has main memory. For example, the original Nintendo had 2KB of RAM. So it could store multiple 8-bit values in memory that together correspond to the score. The individual operations in the CPU are limited by 8-bit registers but multiple operations cycles can be used to operate on much larger data like multiplication for 64 bit numbers (or more glaringly, the graphics, sound and text on the screen).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9701.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e1xieu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How is it possible to reach points higher than 255 in an 8-bit game? Considering 8 bits can only count to the number 255, how is it possible to be awarded more than 255 points in a 8-bit game? For example in Pac-man, the highest reachable level is 255, but you still get 400 points for eating a ghost. The game should not be able to count that high", "c_root_id_A": "f8tn8x3", "c_root_id_B": "f8t43ce", "created_at_utc_A": 1574807040, "created_at_utc_B": 1574795361, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There are lots of ways to do it! Your 8 bit value doesn't need to represent its decimal equivalent, and you don't need to use just one of them.  You can count to fifty, but you only have 10 numbers, 0 to 9. You're effectively asking \"How can people count beyond 9 if they only can count up to 9?\"   We add another number. Computers can do the same thing. When we reach the limit of what our first number can be (9), we roll it over to 0, and start again with a new value. So when a computer reaches 255, it can roll it over and then start again with another 8 bit value. All the programmer needs to do is check that he's about to overflow, and CPUs have overflow bits to help her do this.", "human_ref_B": "We can treat multiple bytes together as one large value, with 2 bytes you can get up to 65 thousand, with 4 bytes 4 billion ad so on   However it\u2019s more efficient to use just one byte so when possible they used just 8 bits   Even modern computers do this to some extent, as memory still is ~~read~~ addressed in 8 bit bytes  Edit: see comment", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11679.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5ejwu5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "When recording audio, is there a sound equivalent of FPS? I was watching a lo-mo video of a gun underwater, and they had some really slow audio that they synced the video too. I'm pretty sure most slow motion cameras don't record audio, and theirs wasn't in the water with the gun anyway. They did have a go pro in the pool with them, so I'm assuming they used that audio. My question stems from whether you could slow down sound from any audio source or if you need a really good mic for that. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "dad78ny", "c_root_id_B": "dad6ill", "created_at_utc_A": 1479948703, "created_at_utc_B": 1479947594, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Yes, sampling rate. But, unlike video, we know the exact point at which we need to sample to reconstruct the signal.  More specifically, any signal can be **perfectly** reconstructed if sampled at twice the largest frequency in the signal. This is called the Shandon Nyquist Sampling theorem, and the reason for it is that sampling creates copies of its spectrum at harmonics of the sampling frquency.Think of it like this, the signals of sin(2 pi x) and sin(6 pi x) are equal if x = nT/2.  We can use this fact for audio to determine the largest frequency at which to sample, basically as dependent on the range of frequencies we are recording. This can not be done for digital video unfortunately, because it is impossible to know a priorI what the highest frequency will be in the video. This is one reason polka dots look so weird,  along with lossy compression.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, there is an analog to that in digital audio - the sampling rate#Sampling_rate). With a better microphone you can achieve higher sampling rates, which in turn allows you to represent the audio you are recording more accurately. Slowing down the audio isn't an issue at all.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1109.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5ejwu5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "When recording audio, is there a sound equivalent of FPS? I was watching a lo-mo video of a gun underwater, and they had some really slow audio that they synced the video too. I'm pretty sure most slow motion cameras don't record audio, and theirs wasn't in the water with the gun anyway. They did have a go pro in the pool with them, so I'm assuming they used that audio. My question stems from whether you could slow down sound from any audio source or if you need a really good mic for that. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "dad6q7l", "c_root_id_B": "dad78ny", "created_at_utc_A": 1479947912, "created_at_utc_B": 1479948703, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "It's sampling rate#Sampling_rate). The standard sampling rate is 48 kHz. If they slow it by a factor of eight, you'd get about the quality of a telephone. But if that's not enough, there are plenty of recording devices that can go higher.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, sampling rate. But, unlike video, we know the exact point at which we need to sample to reconstruct the signal.  More specifically, any signal can be **perfectly** reconstructed if sampled at twice the largest frequency in the signal. This is called the Shandon Nyquist Sampling theorem, and the reason for it is that sampling creates copies of its spectrum at harmonics of the sampling frquency.Think of it like this, the signals of sin(2 pi x) and sin(6 pi x) are equal if x = nT/2.  We can use this fact for audio to determine the largest frequency at which to sample, basically as dependent on the range of frequencies we are recording. This can not be done for digital video unfortunately, because it is impossible to know a priorI what the highest frequency will be in the video. This is one reason polka dots look so weird,  along with lossy compression.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 791.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1v1cag", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.62, "history": "Do explosions ever occur in nature?", "c_root_id_A": "cenyc2p", "c_root_id_B": "cenw0de", "created_at_utc_A": 1389564117, "created_at_utc_B": 1389559041, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The bombardier beetle and rainbow mantis shrimp come to mind, as well as a variety of geological events, let us also not forget stars, novae and supernovae, so yes, explosions do occur in nature.", "human_ref_B": "Mount St. Helens, Pompei, Krakatoa.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5076.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1v1cag", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.62, "history": "Do explosions ever occur in nature?", "c_root_id_A": "cenw0de", "c_root_id_B": "cenrjst", "created_at_utc_A": 1389559041, "created_at_utc_B": 1389549142, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Mount St. Helens, Pompei, Krakatoa.", "human_ref_B": "Volcanoes", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9899.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1v1cag", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.62, "history": "Do explosions ever occur in nature?", "c_root_id_A": "cenyc2p", "c_root_id_B": "cenrjst", "created_at_utc_A": 1389564117, "created_at_utc_B": 1389549142, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The bombardier beetle and rainbow mantis shrimp come to mind, as well as a variety of geological events, let us also not forget stars, novae and supernovae, so yes, explosions do occur in nature.", "human_ref_B": "Volcanoes", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14975.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "138n4b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Are there naturally occurring straight lines? My friend asked \"If light travels in straight lines then does the sun define angles\"... \"Light is the only thing I can think of that creates a naturally occurring straight line\". I don't believe he is completely correct in saying this as I can think of things such as crystals or certain rock formations like slate, or even a taut strand of spider web which produce straight edges/lines. Is this incorrect or are there instances of naturally occurring straight lines besides a beam of light that \"define angles\"?", "c_root_id_A": "c71sufn", "c_root_id_B": "c71rqc2", "created_at_utc_A": 1352997499, "created_at_utc_B": 1352993134, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Isn't light affected by gravity as well? Or is an illustration of a black hole with light bent around it wrong?", "human_ref_B": "this seems more of a philosophical question, you've answered the scientific part.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4365.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "138n4b", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Are there naturally occurring straight lines? My friend asked \"If light travels in straight lines then does the sun define angles\"... \"Light is the only thing I can think of that creates a naturally occurring straight line\". I don't believe he is completely correct in saying this as I can think of things such as crystals or certain rock formations like slate, or even a taut strand of spider web which produce straight edges/lines. Is this incorrect or are there instances of naturally occurring straight lines besides a beam of light that \"define angles\"?", "c_root_id_A": "c71s6lu", "c_root_id_B": "c71sufn", "created_at_utc_A": 1352995010, "created_at_utc_B": 1352997499, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Mathematical objects achieve a perfection not attainable in the physical world. Mathematics is a formal system of reasoning, and as such can be used to reason about the physical world. Mathematical objects, existing only in our minds, have no limitation of materiality.   Even the most spherical object in the known universe, the electron (cloud) still varies from the mathematical object known as a sphere.", "human_ref_B": "Isn't light affected by gravity as well? Or is an illustration of a black hole with light bent around it wrong?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2489.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "21d5bh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Is water actually consumed by living organisms or does it really just pass through, such as for carrying waste products out or evaporating to shed heat?", "c_root_id_A": "cgbw40a", "c_root_id_B": "cgbw121", "created_at_utc_A": 1395789305, "created_at_utc_B": 1395789140, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Much of it simply passes through. It is absorbed into the body and may become part of the intercellular fluid or even part of the cellular protoplasm, only to be eventually cycled out and excreted.  But it *can* be transformed. During photosynthesis, for instance, water is broken to release O2. The breakdown of water generates electrons which are energized by light and used to form carbon-carbon bonds (essentially, sugar) by fixing the carbon from CO2.  During cellular respiration, on the other hand, O2 *accepts* a pair of once-energetic electrons that have powered the mitochondrial ATPase for the creation of ATP (cellular energy resource). Accepting the electron pair results in hydrogenization and formation of water.  So water is an integral part of energy storage and release in the form of harvesting solar energy and creating complex biomolecules which are ultimately \"eaten\" or otherwise broken down to provide energy at a later time.  Plants take in water, and secrete O2. Animals take in O2 and secrete water. (Plants also use O2 and secrete water as part of their respiratory process, but they do enough of the energy storage thing for everyone to benefit.)", "human_ref_B": "Many processes use water, breaking it down or reforming it. Of note are anabolic(dehydration) synthesis, which breaks apart a water molecule, creating more complex molecules such as proteins. The opposite process is hydrolysis, which results in creating water molecules and breaks apart complex molecules.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 165.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vxd1a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "What would happen if a Human had two \"Y\" Chromosomes?", "c_root_id_A": "c58lb59", "c_root_id_B": "c58h71x", "created_at_utc_A": 1341264593, "created_at_utc_B": 1341248492, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Besides being highly unlikely to occur naturally, it falls in a class of fatal mutations that would lead to a miscarriage.", "human_ref_B": "I expect the fetus would die before birth.  There is important stuff on the X chromosome.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16101.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ehbl4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Are there animals that can see outside the visible spectrum of humans? Some animals like bats and dogs can hear frequencies beyond those that humans can hear. Are there similar examples of animals that can see frequencies outside the visible spectrum of humans?", "c_root_id_A": "cjzu0f5", "c_root_id_B": "cjzs1z0", "created_at_utc_A": 1408958685, "created_at_utc_B": 1408948507, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As others have answered, some animals can see colours outside of our visible spectrum. An interesting experiment is currently being conducted by a range of \"biohackers\", attempting to extend the human range of vision into the near-infrared. They attempt to do this by using a diet low in Vitamin A1, and supplementing with Vitamin A2 - thus changing one of the building blocks of color vision in our eyes.  Source: https://experiment.com/projects/can-we-biologically-extend-the-range-of-human-vision-into-the-near-infrared  Apparently it has already been performed successfully on animals.", "human_ref_B": "There is evidence that reindeer can see ultraviolet (UV) light, which has a shorter wavelength than visible light. This is thought to enable them to more easily discern food (lichens) and predators (wolves), both of which poorly reflect UV, against high UV reflecting snow and ice. Source  Bats may also be sensitive to UV light. Source", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10178.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2th8ss", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How fast could a metal cylinder spin before it simply rips itself apart? Assuming a near-perfect cylinder (almost perfectly round) of a given metal, and given a temperature and radius, how would you calculate how fast that cylinder could rotate before structural failure?", "c_root_id_A": "cnz65i1", "c_root_id_B": "cnz7ans", "created_at_utc_A": 1422083159, "created_at_utc_B": 1422087719, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Structural steel ultimate tensile strength=~500MPa Density=7800 kg/m^3 Critical length = 500million/7800/9.81=6534m   assuming uniform cross section like in a cylinder, steel is strong enough to hang 6.5km of itself under 1g of acceleration (in this case due to gravity). at 100,000g like in a centrifuge this drops to 65cm.", "human_ref_B": "For cylinders of radius R, the tensile hoop stress set up by rotation is given by: Stress = Density * Angular velocity^2 * R^2  Assuming that the cylinder will not buckle first, it will rupture when the hoop stress is equal to the ultimate tensile strength.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4560.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2th8ss", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How fast could a metal cylinder spin before it simply rips itself apart? Assuming a near-perfect cylinder (almost perfectly round) of a given metal, and given a temperature and radius, how would you calculate how fast that cylinder could rotate before structural failure?", "c_root_id_A": "cnz3jex", "c_root_id_B": "cnz7ans", "created_at_utc_A": 1422075733, "created_at_utc_B": 1422087719, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Some ideas to get started. I'm in no way a mechE or an expert.   So, you have a coefficient of friction if exterior is only near-perfect. This will generate heat (depending on the viscosity of air and inherent drag of the surface). You may need to account for heat dissipation (cooling) of the rod as it spins too, complicating matters further.  And I think you would have a compressive force pulling teh polls to the center. But this would also depend on whether it spins clockwise or ccw, or vertical or horizontal. In both cases you have a gravitational force as well. So the centrifugal force would be a function of the mass and the distance from the center of the rod and the tangental acceleration, which depends on orientation. This should give you the force being expressed throughout the rod. You'll need some materials failure statistics to work with, and I'm not versed in that. Probably a Young's Modulus. Once the force exceeds this amount over a given volume, strain or stress will occur.", "human_ref_B": "For cylinders of radius R, the tensile hoop stress set up by rotation is given by: Stress = Density * Angular velocity^2 * R^2  Assuming that the cylinder will not buckle first, it will rupture when the hoop stress is equal to the ultimate tensile strength.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11986.0, "score_ratio": -2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2th8ss", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How fast could a metal cylinder spin before it simply rips itself apart? Assuming a near-perfect cylinder (almost perfectly round) of a given metal, and given a temperature and radius, how would you calculate how fast that cylinder could rotate before structural failure?", "c_root_id_A": "cnz65i1", "c_root_id_B": "cnzfi4m", "created_at_utc_A": 1422083159, "created_at_utc_B": 1422119025, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Structural steel ultimate tensile strength=~500MPa Density=7800 kg/m^3 Critical length = 500million/7800/9.81=6534m   assuming uniform cross section like in a cylinder, steel is strong enough to hang 6.5km of itself under 1g of acceleration (in this case due to gravity). at 100,000g like in a centrifuge this drops to 65cm.", "human_ref_B": "if you want this question to get overanalyzed beyond all stretches of the imagination, post it in /r/AskEngineers. spinning a metal cylinder has a lot of complex internal stresses associated with it, and I'm sure some of the folks there would be up for the recreational math to figure it all out.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 35866.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2th8ss", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How fast could a metal cylinder spin before it simply rips itself apart? Assuming a near-perfect cylinder (almost perfectly round) of a given metal, and given a temperature and radius, how would you calculate how fast that cylinder could rotate before structural failure?", "c_root_id_A": "cnzfi4m", "c_root_id_B": "cnz3jex", "created_at_utc_A": 1422119025, "created_at_utc_B": 1422075733, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "if you want this question to get overanalyzed beyond all stretches of the imagination, post it in /r/AskEngineers. spinning a metal cylinder has a lot of complex internal stresses associated with it, and I'm sure some of the folks there would be up for the recreational math to figure it all out.", "human_ref_B": "Some ideas to get started. I'm in no way a mechE or an expert.   So, you have a coefficient of friction if exterior is only near-perfect. This will generate heat (depending on the viscosity of air and inherent drag of the surface). You may need to account for heat dissipation (cooling) of the rod as it spins too, complicating matters further.  And I think you would have a compressive force pulling teh polls to the center. But this would also depend on whether it spins clockwise or ccw, or vertical or horizontal. In both cases you have a gravitational force as well. So the centrifugal force would be a function of the mass and the distance from the center of the rod and the tangental acceleration, which depends on orientation. This should give you the force being expressed throughout the rod. You'll need some materials failure statistics to work with, and I'm not versed in that. Probably a Young's Modulus. Once the force exceeds this amount over a given volume, strain or stress will occur.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 43292.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2th8ss", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How fast could a metal cylinder spin before it simply rips itself apart? Assuming a near-perfect cylinder (almost perfectly round) of a given metal, and given a temperature and radius, how would you calculate how fast that cylinder could rotate before structural failure?", "c_root_id_A": "cnz3jex", "c_root_id_B": "cnz65i1", "created_at_utc_A": 1422075733, "created_at_utc_B": 1422083159, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Some ideas to get started. I'm in no way a mechE or an expert.   So, you have a coefficient of friction if exterior is only near-perfect. This will generate heat (depending on the viscosity of air and inherent drag of the surface). You may need to account for heat dissipation (cooling) of the rod as it spins too, complicating matters further.  And I think you would have a compressive force pulling teh polls to the center. But this would also depend on whether it spins clockwise or ccw, or vertical or horizontal. In both cases you have a gravitational force as well. So the centrifugal force would be a function of the mass and the distance from the center of the rod and the tangental acceleration, which depends on orientation. This should give you the force being expressed throughout the rod. You'll need some materials failure statistics to work with, and I'm not versed in that. Probably a Young's Modulus. Once the force exceeds this amount over a given volume, strain or stress will occur.", "human_ref_B": "Structural steel ultimate tensile strength=~500MPa Density=7800 kg/m^3 Critical length = 500million/7800/9.81=6534m   assuming uniform cross section like in a cylinder, steel is strong enough to hang 6.5km of itself under 1g of acceleration (in this case due to gravity). at 100,000g like in a centrifuge this drops to 65cm.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7426.0, "score_ratio": -0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kto87", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "If energy cannot be destroyed, why must entropy increase to maximum? This is probably a very stupid question, but I can't figure it out.  Matter and energy are the same thing in different forms, correct?  If so, I don't understand why we won't always be able to utilize energy in some form.", "c_root_id_A": "c2n4r1v", "c_root_id_B": "c2n4r7r", "created_at_utc_A": 1317179151, "created_at_utc_B": 1317179188, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I asked a question of a physicist once that if energy cannot be created or destroyed where the hell did it all come from. We were both atheists so the \"god did it\" answer was not going to pop up. His answer was that there is no energy in the universe. Just an imbalance. I of course said, \"Huh?\"", "human_ref_B": "In short, the forms of energy with the highest entropy are basically unusable. We can't \"recollect\" heat and turn it into matter without an even greater expenditure of energy.   Entropy is the sort of \"spreading out\" of energy. Parts of the universe with high energy will \"mix\" with parts of the universe with low energy. Recollecting energy and condensing it into a useful form (say a small star) would still, overall, increase the average entropy of the universe. Nothing we do can decrease average entropy, and everything we do increases average entropy. Eventually, there will be no way left for us to make use of the useless energy everywhere.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37.0, "score_ratio": -8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kto87", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "If energy cannot be destroyed, why must entropy increase to maximum? This is probably a very stupid question, but I can't figure it out.  Matter and energy are the same thing in different forms, correct?  If so, I don't understand why we won't always be able to utilize energy in some form.", "c_root_id_A": "c2n4r1v", "c_root_id_B": "c2n5lo3", "created_at_utc_A": 1317179151, "created_at_utc_B": 1317185836, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I asked a question of a physicist once that if energy cannot be created or destroyed where the hell did it all come from. We were both atheists so the \"god did it\" answer was not going to pop up. His answer was that there is no energy in the universe. Just an imbalance. I of course said, \"Huh?\"", "human_ref_B": "An intuitively useful way to define entropy as \"unavailable energy.\" The amount of energy, while constant, becomes less and less available do to useful things as time goes on.  The energy isn't gone, it's just no longer in a position to be used.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6685.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "kto87", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "If energy cannot be destroyed, why must entropy increase to maximum? This is probably a very stupid question, but I can't figure it out.  Matter and energy are the same thing in different forms, correct?  If so, I don't understand why we won't always be able to utilize energy in some form.", "c_root_id_A": "c2n8sa3", "c_root_id_B": "c2n4r1v", "created_at_utc_A": 1317225594, "created_at_utc_B": 1317179151, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Imagine those toy wind-up cars. If I wind up the car, I'm increasing the potential energy of the spring, but you can also think of it as me increasing the *internal energy of the system*. This process is reversible - I can get the energy back out of the spring as work.   Now imagine I have a box of sand, half red, half blue. Now I shake the box. This is also increasing the internal energy of the system, but the energy goes into the mixing of the sand. Is this a reversible process? No, I cannot get that 'shaking' energy back out, because it goes into the disorder (entropy) of the sand. This is an irreversible process. In fact, all practical processes in the universe have some element of irreversibility, which is why you cannot have 100% efficient machines.", "human_ref_B": "I asked a question of a physicist once that if energy cannot be created or destroyed where the hell did it all come from. We were both atheists so the \"god did it\" answer was not going to pop up. His answer was that there is no energy in the universe. Just an imbalance. I of course said, \"Huh?\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 46443.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nqcax", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "A paper published in the Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics makes a novel argument against global warming. Can anyone tell me if & why this is wrong? The abstract:  > Physical, mathematical and observational grounds are employed to show that there is no physically meaningful global temperature for the Earth in the context of the issue of global warming. While it is always possible to construct statistics for any given set of local temperature data, an infinite range of such statistics is mathematically permissible if physical principles provide no explicit basis for choosing among them. Distinct and equally valid statistical rules can and do show opposite trends when applied to the results of computations from physical models and real data in the atmosphere. A given temperature field can be interpreted as both \"warming\" and \"cooling\" simultaneously, making the concept of warming in the context of the issue of global warming physically ill-posed.  Here's the pre-print:  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/globaltemp/GlobTemp.JNET.pdf  **Standard disclaimer for global warming questions:** This is an honest inquiry, not meant to provoke controversy, but simply to gain knowledge.", "c_root_id_A": "c3b3qc7", "c_root_id_B": "c3b3juq", "created_at_utc_A": 1324841435, "created_at_utc_B": 1324839691, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "I'll paraphrase their argument. It's not really an argument against global warming, but an observation about the nature of temperature, and how we use it in climate science. As far as I can tell the argument is this:  1. Two bodies in thermal equilibrium with each other are said to have equal temperatures.   2. Temperature is an Intensive property (i.e., it doesn't depend on the volume or scale of the system).   3. The atmosphere isn't in thermal equilibrium, so defining a temperature for it is sketchy at best. One parcel of air transfers heat to the next parcel all the time.   4. To fix this we can attempt to define an average temperature of this system. This is a funny idea because temperature is already an average of the kinetic energies of the particles in the systems. So we must arbitrarily define an average of an average.   5. These average temperatures (averages of averages, of which there are many one can define), aren't intensive properties. If I determine the average temperature of a parcel of air that's 1 m^3 , then increase the size of the parcel to include more air around it, say 500 m^5 , I won't get the same average temperature. This happens because the atmosphere has a temperature gradient, or isn't in thermal equilibrium.  Thus, any average temperature we define is not a temperature at all.", "human_ref_B": "This isn't an argument against global warming.  This is an argument that it's not statistically or methodologically kosher to take the entire library of the world's temperature data and shoehorn it into one number that supposedly represents a meaningful average of the data.  Whether or not this argument is valid, or whatever, I'll leave to the climate scientists.  (And hopefully they will be here soon to comment on this.)  But, as far as I know, their field has been shying away from \"global warming\" and trying to use \"climate change\" more because it much more accurately describes what is going on.  Some regions will get warmer, some regions will get colder, and some regions will see a marked change in climate, precipitation, etc.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1744.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nqcax", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "A paper published in the Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics makes a novel argument against global warming. Can anyone tell me if & why this is wrong? The abstract:  > Physical, mathematical and observational grounds are employed to show that there is no physically meaningful global temperature for the Earth in the context of the issue of global warming. While it is always possible to construct statistics for any given set of local temperature data, an infinite range of such statistics is mathematically permissible if physical principles provide no explicit basis for choosing among them. Distinct and equally valid statistical rules can and do show opposite trends when applied to the results of computations from physical models and real data in the atmosphere. A given temperature field can be interpreted as both \"warming\" and \"cooling\" simultaneously, making the concept of warming in the context of the issue of global warming physically ill-posed.  Here's the pre-print:  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/globaltemp/GlobTemp.JNET.pdf  **Standard disclaimer for global warming questions:** This is an honest inquiry, not meant to provoke controversy, but simply to gain knowledge.", "c_root_id_A": "c3b3juq", "c_root_id_B": "c3b3g56", "created_at_utc_A": 1324839691, "created_at_utc_B": 1324838708, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "This isn't an argument against global warming.  This is an argument that it's not statistically or methodologically kosher to take the entire library of the world's temperature data and shoehorn it into one number that supposedly represents a meaningful average of the data.  Whether or not this argument is valid, or whatever, I'll leave to the climate scientists.  (And hopefully they will be here soon to comment on this.)  But, as far as I know, their field has been shying away from \"global warming\" and trying to use \"climate change\" more because it much more accurately describes what is going on.  Some regions will get warmer, some regions will get colder, and some regions will see a marked change in climate, precipitation, etc.", "human_ref_B": "Things like this are one of the reasons why the term \"global climate change\" is generally preferred. It's entirely possible that there *isn't* a meaningful global temperature (I'm not really qualified to judge the accuracy of this paper, but there's nothing nonsensical about the idea of not being able to construct such a thing). That wouldn't discount the idea that there are global changes in climate that need to be addressed, just the idea that we can directly quantify it by saying \"in 50 years the global temperature will rise by 4 degrees!\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 983.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nqcax", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "A paper published in the Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics makes a novel argument against global warming. Can anyone tell me if & why this is wrong? The abstract:  > Physical, mathematical and observational grounds are employed to show that there is no physically meaningful global temperature for the Earth in the context of the issue of global warming. While it is always possible to construct statistics for any given set of local temperature data, an infinite range of such statistics is mathematically permissible if physical principles provide no explicit basis for choosing among them. Distinct and equally valid statistical rules can and do show opposite trends when applied to the results of computations from physical models and real data in the atmosphere. A given temperature field can be interpreted as both \"warming\" and \"cooling\" simultaneously, making the concept of warming in the context of the issue of global warming physically ill-posed.  Here's the pre-print:  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/globaltemp/GlobTemp.JNET.pdf  **Standard disclaimer for global warming questions:** This is an honest inquiry, not meant to provoke controversy, but simply to gain knowledge.", "c_root_id_A": "c3b3ls3", "c_root_id_B": "c3b3qc7", "created_at_utc_A": 1324840207, "created_at_utc_B": 1324841435, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "This paper isn't arguing against global warming, it's arguing against whether \"average global temperature\" is a meaningful term in the context of global warming.  Climate models don't rely on a single temperature. Each model divides up the Earth into little \"chunks\", gives each chunk a local temperature, and models how energy (and matter) transfer between them. The average surface temperature is just an output from the model. It's relatively simple and easy to understand as a proxy for the overall energy balance of the atmosphere.", "human_ref_B": "I'll paraphrase their argument. It's not really an argument against global warming, but an observation about the nature of temperature, and how we use it in climate science. As far as I can tell the argument is this:  1. Two bodies in thermal equilibrium with each other are said to have equal temperatures.   2. Temperature is an Intensive property (i.e., it doesn't depend on the volume or scale of the system).   3. The atmosphere isn't in thermal equilibrium, so defining a temperature for it is sketchy at best. One parcel of air transfers heat to the next parcel all the time.   4. To fix this we can attempt to define an average temperature of this system. This is a funny idea because temperature is already an average of the kinetic energies of the particles in the systems. So we must arbitrarily define an average of an average.   5. These average temperatures (averages of averages, of which there are many one can define), aren't intensive properties. If I determine the average temperature of a parcel of air that's 1 m^3 , then increase the size of the parcel to include more air around it, say 500 m^5 , I won't get the same average temperature. This happens because the atmosphere has a temperature gradient, or isn't in thermal equilibrium.  Thus, any average temperature we define is not a temperature at all.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1228.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nqcax", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "A paper published in the Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics makes a novel argument against global warming. Can anyone tell me if & why this is wrong? The abstract:  > Physical, mathematical and observational grounds are employed to show that there is no physically meaningful global temperature for the Earth in the context of the issue of global warming. While it is always possible to construct statistics for any given set of local temperature data, an infinite range of such statistics is mathematically permissible if physical principles provide no explicit basis for choosing among them. Distinct and equally valid statistical rules can and do show opposite trends when applied to the results of computations from physical models and real data in the atmosphere. A given temperature field can be interpreted as both \"warming\" and \"cooling\" simultaneously, making the concept of warming in the context of the issue of global warming physically ill-posed.  Here's the pre-print:  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/globaltemp/GlobTemp.JNET.pdf  **Standard disclaimer for global warming questions:** This is an honest inquiry, not meant to provoke controversy, but simply to gain knowledge.", "c_root_id_A": "c3b3g56", "c_root_id_B": "c3b3ls3", "created_at_utc_A": 1324838708, "created_at_utc_B": 1324840207, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Things like this are one of the reasons why the term \"global climate change\" is generally preferred. It's entirely possible that there *isn't* a meaningful global temperature (I'm not really qualified to judge the accuracy of this paper, but there's nothing nonsensical about the idea of not being able to construct such a thing). That wouldn't discount the idea that there are global changes in climate that need to be addressed, just the idea that we can directly quantify it by saying \"in 50 years the global temperature will rise by 4 degrees!\"", "human_ref_B": "This paper isn't arguing against global warming, it's arguing against whether \"average global temperature\" is a meaningful term in the context of global warming.  Climate models don't rely on a single temperature. Each model divides up the Earth into little \"chunks\", gives each chunk a local temperature, and models how energy (and matter) transfer between them. The average surface temperature is just an output from the model. It's relatively simple and easy to understand as a proxy for the overall energy balance of the atmosphere.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1499.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nqcax", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "A paper published in the Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics makes a novel argument against global warming. Can anyone tell me if & why this is wrong? The abstract:  > Physical, mathematical and observational grounds are employed to show that there is no physically meaningful global temperature for the Earth in the context of the issue of global warming. While it is always possible to construct statistics for any given set of local temperature data, an infinite range of such statistics is mathematically permissible if physical principles provide no explicit basis for choosing among them. Distinct and equally valid statistical rules can and do show opposite trends when applied to the results of computations from physical models and real data in the atmosphere. A given temperature field can be interpreted as both \"warming\" and \"cooling\" simultaneously, making the concept of warming in the context of the issue of global warming physically ill-posed.  Here's the pre-print:  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/globaltemp/GlobTemp.JNET.pdf  **Standard disclaimer for global warming questions:** This is an honest inquiry, not meant to provoke controversy, but simply to gain knowledge.", "c_root_id_A": "c3b3ls3", "c_root_id_B": "c3b3k8o", "created_at_utc_A": 1324840207, "created_at_utc_B": 1324839791, "score_A": 9, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "This paper isn't arguing against global warming, it's arguing against whether \"average global temperature\" is a meaningful term in the context of global warming.  Climate models don't rely on a single temperature. Each model divides up the Earth into little \"chunks\", gives each chunk a local temperature, and models how energy (and matter) transfer between them. The average surface temperature is just an output from the model. It's relatively simple and easy to understand as a proxy for the overall energy balance of the atmosphere.", "human_ref_B": "This is not a peer-reviewed published paper as far as I could find. Take this work with a grain of salt. Also, in the end, this is semantics...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 416.0, "score_ratio": -9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nqcax", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "A paper published in the Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics makes a novel argument against global warming. Can anyone tell me if & why this is wrong? The abstract:  > Physical, mathematical and observational grounds are employed to show that there is no physically meaningful global temperature for the Earth in the context of the issue of global warming. While it is always possible to construct statistics for any given set of local temperature data, an infinite range of such statistics is mathematically permissible if physical principles provide no explicit basis for choosing among them. Distinct and equally valid statistical rules can and do show opposite trends when applied to the results of computations from physical models and real data in the atmosphere. A given temperature field can be interpreted as both \"warming\" and \"cooling\" simultaneously, making the concept of warming in the context of the issue of global warming physically ill-posed.  Here's the pre-print:  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/globaltemp/GlobTemp.JNET.pdf  **Standard disclaimer for global warming questions:** This is an honest inquiry, not meant to provoke controversy, but simply to gain knowledge.", "c_root_id_A": "c3b3qc7", "c_root_id_B": "c3b3g56", "created_at_utc_A": 1324841435, "created_at_utc_B": 1324838708, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I'll paraphrase their argument. It's not really an argument against global warming, but an observation about the nature of temperature, and how we use it in climate science. As far as I can tell the argument is this:  1. Two bodies in thermal equilibrium with each other are said to have equal temperatures.   2. Temperature is an Intensive property (i.e., it doesn't depend on the volume or scale of the system).   3. The atmosphere isn't in thermal equilibrium, so defining a temperature for it is sketchy at best. One parcel of air transfers heat to the next parcel all the time.   4. To fix this we can attempt to define an average temperature of this system. This is a funny idea because temperature is already an average of the kinetic energies of the particles in the systems. So we must arbitrarily define an average of an average.   5. These average temperatures (averages of averages, of which there are many one can define), aren't intensive properties. If I determine the average temperature of a parcel of air that's 1 m^3 , then increase the size of the parcel to include more air around it, say 500 m^5 , I won't get the same average temperature. This happens because the atmosphere has a temperature gradient, or isn't in thermal equilibrium.  Thus, any average temperature we define is not a temperature at all.", "human_ref_B": "Things like this are one of the reasons why the term \"global climate change\" is generally preferred. It's entirely possible that there *isn't* a meaningful global temperature (I'm not really qualified to judge the accuracy of this paper, but there's nothing nonsensical about the idea of not being able to construct such a thing). That wouldn't discount the idea that there are global changes in climate that need to be addressed, just the idea that we can directly quantify it by saying \"in 50 years the global temperature will rise by 4 degrees!\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2727.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nqcax", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "A paper published in the Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics makes a novel argument against global warming. Can anyone tell me if & why this is wrong? The abstract:  > Physical, mathematical and observational grounds are employed to show that there is no physically meaningful global temperature for the Earth in the context of the issue of global warming. While it is always possible to construct statistics for any given set of local temperature data, an infinite range of such statistics is mathematically permissible if physical principles provide no explicit basis for choosing among them. Distinct and equally valid statistical rules can and do show opposite trends when applied to the results of computations from physical models and real data in the atmosphere. A given temperature field can be interpreted as both \"warming\" and \"cooling\" simultaneously, making the concept of warming in the context of the issue of global warming physically ill-posed.  Here's the pre-print:  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/globaltemp/GlobTemp.JNET.pdf  **Standard disclaimer for global warming questions:** This is an honest inquiry, not meant to provoke controversy, but simply to gain knowledge.", "c_root_id_A": "c3b3qc7", "c_root_id_B": "c3b3k8o", "created_at_utc_A": 1324841435, "created_at_utc_B": 1324839791, "score_A": 10, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I'll paraphrase their argument. It's not really an argument against global warming, but an observation about the nature of temperature, and how we use it in climate science. As far as I can tell the argument is this:  1. Two bodies in thermal equilibrium with each other are said to have equal temperatures.   2. Temperature is an Intensive property (i.e., it doesn't depend on the volume or scale of the system).   3. The atmosphere isn't in thermal equilibrium, so defining a temperature for it is sketchy at best. One parcel of air transfers heat to the next parcel all the time.   4. To fix this we can attempt to define an average temperature of this system. This is a funny idea because temperature is already an average of the kinetic energies of the particles in the systems. So we must arbitrarily define an average of an average.   5. These average temperatures (averages of averages, of which there are many one can define), aren't intensive properties. If I determine the average temperature of a parcel of air that's 1 m^3 , then increase the size of the parcel to include more air around it, say 500 m^5 , I won't get the same average temperature. This happens because the atmosphere has a temperature gradient, or isn't in thermal equilibrium.  Thus, any average temperature we define is not a temperature at all.", "human_ref_B": "This is not a peer-reviewed published paper as far as I could find. Take this work with a grain of salt. Also, in the end, this is semantics...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1644.0, "score_ratio": -10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nqcax", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "A paper published in the Journal of Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics makes a novel argument against global warming. Can anyone tell me if & why this is wrong? The abstract:  > Physical, mathematical and observational grounds are employed to show that there is no physically meaningful global temperature for the Earth in the context of the issue of global warming. While it is always possible to construct statistics for any given set of local temperature data, an infinite range of such statistics is mathematically permissible if physical principles provide no explicit basis for choosing among them. Distinct and equally valid statistical rules can and do show opposite trends when applied to the results of computations from physical models and real data in the atmosphere. A given temperature field can be interpreted as both \"warming\" and \"cooling\" simultaneously, making the concept of warming in the context of the issue of global warming physically ill-posed.  Here's the pre-print:  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/globaltemp/GlobTemp.JNET.pdf  **Standard disclaimer for global warming questions:** This is an honest inquiry, not meant to provoke controversy, but simply to gain knowledge.", "c_root_id_A": "c3b4fvi", "c_root_id_B": "c3b3k8o", "created_at_utc_A": 1324848172, "created_at_utc_B": 1324839791, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Here are 30 papers that cite that one as a reference", "human_ref_B": "This is not a peer-reviewed published paper as far as I could find. Take this work with a grain of salt. Also, in the end, this is semantics...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8381.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c13282q", "c_root_id_B": "c131c1h", "created_at_utc_A": 1287725448, "created_at_utc_B": 1287706600, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Something we used to do as kids, but can be dangerous, so take care.\r \r Combine potassium permanganate (crystals) with glycerol and it will violently combust.  Both items can be bought from a drug store.\r \r We used to make a little mountain out of the potassium permangenate and make a little well at the tip of the mountain, like a volcano. Then pour some glycerol into the well.\r \r After a few seconds the reaction would start, and it would look very similar to a small volcano (thinking of your macro lense).\r \r BE VERY CAREFULL - do this outside in a safe area, like on a concrete floor away from flammables.  \r \r EDIT: According to Wiki this is the chemical reaction that takes place\r 3 C3H5(OH)3 + 14 KMnO4 \u2192 14 MnO2 + 14 KOH + 9 CO2 + 5 H2O\r   \r EDIT2:  If I remember correctly the potassium permanganate was sold as Condy's crystals - and Glycerol is also called glycerine - many uses, but the one we bought was used to relieve teething issues with babies.", "human_ref_B": "Borax and glue make a neat silly puddy. Experiment with different ratios.  If you steam red cabbage and collect the water from the steamer, you'll have a litmus test. The water is green after you boil it, but if you pour in some vinegar it will turn pink.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18848.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c131te6", "c_root_id_B": "c13282q", "created_at_utc_A": 1287716274, "created_at_utc_B": 1287725448, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Find a lithium battery. A fresh one, preferably.  Carefully open it, WEARING GLOVES THE ENTIRE TIME, WHILST DOING THIS OUTSIDE. Keep going, until you find a roll of flexible, corroded-looking metal. That's lithium!  Many fun things can be done with lithium. You can put it into water and watch it go crazy, but another cool thing to do is to simply ignite it. SHIT BURNS WITH THE INTENSITY OF THE SUN.  This is very dangerous.", "human_ref_B": "Something we used to do as kids, but can be dangerous, so take care.\r \r Combine potassium permanganate (crystals) with glycerol and it will violently combust.  Both items can be bought from a drug store.\r \r We used to make a little mountain out of the potassium permangenate and make a little well at the tip of the mountain, like a volcano. Then pour some glycerol into the well.\r \r After a few seconds the reaction would start, and it would look very similar to a small volcano (thinking of your macro lense).\r \r BE VERY CAREFULL - do this outside in a safe area, like on a concrete floor away from flammables.  \r \r EDIT: According to Wiki this is the chemical reaction that takes place\r 3 C3H5(OH)3 + 14 KMnO4 \u2192 14 MnO2 + 14 KOH + 9 CO2 + 5 H2O\r   \r EDIT2:  If I remember correctly the potassium permanganate was sold as Condy's crystals - and Glycerol is also called glycerine - many uses, but the one we bought was used to relieve teething issues with babies.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9174.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c13282q", "c_root_id_B": "c131c3n", "created_at_utc_A": 1287725448, "created_at_utc_B": 1287706635, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Something we used to do as kids, but can be dangerous, so take care.\r \r Combine potassium permanganate (crystals) with glycerol and it will violently combust.  Both items can be bought from a drug store.\r \r We used to make a little mountain out of the potassium permangenate and make a little well at the tip of the mountain, like a volcano. Then pour some glycerol into the well.\r \r After a few seconds the reaction would start, and it would look very similar to a small volcano (thinking of your macro lense).\r \r BE VERY CAREFULL - do this outside in a safe area, like on a concrete floor away from flammables.  \r \r EDIT: According to Wiki this is the chemical reaction that takes place\r 3 C3H5(OH)3 + 14 KMnO4 \u2192 14 MnO2 + 14 KOH + 9 CO2 + 5 H2O\r   \r EDIT2:  If I remember correctly the potassium permanganate was sold as Condy's crystals - and Glycerol is also called glycerine - many uses, but the one we bought was used to relieve teething issues with babies.", "human_ref_B": "Not a whole lot, really. At least stuff that isn't very bad for you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18813.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c131c1h", "c_root_id_B": "c136ryk", "created_at_utc_A": 1287706600, "created_at_utc_B": 1287849164, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Borax and glue make a neat silly puddy. Experiment with different ratios.  If you steam red cabbage and collect the water from the steamer, you'll have a litmus test. The water is green after you boil it, but if you pour in some vinegar it will turn pink.", "human_ref_B": "1. take apart an ordinary D cell battery.   1a. Now you have a CARBON ROD. Ask someone how to use two of these for arc welding, but protect your eyes from the UV rays they created.   1b. You also have ZINC -- the metallic case of the battery (not the steel one - check with a magnet to eliminate steel). This will react with an acid to produce hydrogen gas. Vinegar may work when heated, but it is a weak acid. HCl would be better.  1c. You also have MnO2 -- the black powder inside It may also contain ammonium chloride. This is a nice catalyst. Make oxygen by buying a bottle of hydrogen peroxide and mixing it with manganese dioxide. Oxygen will let you burn all kinds of things.  2) Stick two wires into concentrated salt water and run DC electricity through them (from a battery or adapter). This will make bubbles at one electrode -- I think that this is chlorine gas. Just let it dissipate. What is left in the beaker will become NaOH. A nice base if you need one. You could also use oven cleaner I suppose.  2b. You can mix NaOH (any strong base) and fat (from a roast? bacon fat is too smelly) to make soap.  (I haven't done this.)  3) You can make a candle out of animal fat (or lard) Just stick a wooden match in it to use as a wick. To make a candle out of a nut (peanut, cashew, ...) stick it on a thumbtack to raise it off the counter, and then light it with a cigarette lighter.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 142564.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c136ryk", "c_root_id_B": "c131te6", "created_at_utc_A": 1287849164, "created_at_utc_B": 1287716274, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "1. take apart an ordinary D cell battery.   1a. Now you have a CARBON ROD. Ask someone how to use two of these for arc welding, but protect your eyes from the UV rays they created.   1b. You also have ZINC -- the metallic case of the battery (not the steel one - check with a magnet to eliminate steel). This will react with an acid to produce hydrogen gas. Vinegar may work when heated, but it is a weak acid. HCl would be better.  1c. You also have MnO2 -- the black powder inside It may also contain ammonium chloride. This is a nice catalyst. Make oxygen by buying a bottle of hydrogen peroxide and mixing it with manganese dioxide. Oxygen will let you burn all kinds of things.  2) Stick two wires into concentrated salt water and run DC electricity through them (from a battery or adapter). This will make bubbles at one electrode -- I think that this is chlorine gas. Just let it dissipate. What is left in the beaker will become NaOH. A nice base if you need one. You could also use oven cleaner I suppose.  2b. You can mix NaOH (any strong base) and fat (from a roast? bacon fat is too smelly) to make soap.  (I haven't done this.)  3) You can make a candle out of animal fat (or lard) Just stick a wooden match in it to use as a wick. To make a candle out of a nut (peanut, cashew, ...) stick it on a thumbtack to raise it off the counter, and then light it with a cigarette lighter.", "human_ref_B": "Find a lithium battery. A fresh one, preferably.  Carefully open it, WEARING GLOVES THE ENTIRE TIME, WHILST DOING THIS OUTSIDE. Keep going, until you find a roll of flexible, corroded-looking metal. That's lithium!  Many fun things can be done with lithium. You can put it into water and watch it go crazy, but another cool thing to do is to simply ignite it. SHIT BURNS WITH THE INTENSITY OF THE SUN.  This is very dangerous.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 132890.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c136ryk", "c_root_id_B": "c133oxf", "created_at_utc_A": 1287849164, "created_at_utc_B": 1287769235, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "1. take apart an ordinary D cell battery.   1a. Now you have a CARBON ROD. Ask someone how to use two of these for arc welding, but protect your eyes from the UV rays they created.   1b. You also have ZINC -- the metallic case of the battery (not the steel one - check with a magnet to eliminate steel). This will react with an acid to produce hydrogen gas. Vinegar may work when heated, but it is a weak acid. HCl would be better.  1c. You also have MnO2 -- the black powder inside It may also contain ammonium chloride. This is a nice catalyst. Make oxygen by buying a bottle of hydrogen peroxide and mixing it with manganese dioxide. Oxygen will let you burn all kinds of things.  2) Stick two wires into concentrated salt water and run DC electricity through them (from a battery or adapter). This will make bubbles at one electrode -- I think that this is chlorine gas. Just let it dissipate. What is left in the beaker will become NaOH. A nice base if you need one. You could also use oven cleaner I suppose.  2b. You can mix NaOH (any strong base) and fat (from a roast? bacon fat is too smelly) to make soap.  (I haven't done this.)  3) You can make a candle out of animal fat (or lard) Just stick a wooden match in it to use as a wick. To make a candle out of a nut (peanut, cashew, ...) stick it on a thumbtack to raise it off the counter, and then light it with a cigarette lighter.", "human_ref_B": "might be a little scary to do with a new camera, but if you throw or blow cornstarch into the air it will make a combustible cloud that will make a nice fire ball. Do this outside and away from anything that could easily catch on fire. I dont know if you could make a more controlled setup to create a constant flame which would be photograph-able", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 79929.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c136ryk", "c_root_id_B": "c131c3n", "created_at_utc_A": 1287849164, "created_at_utc_B": 1287706635, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "1. take apart an ordinary D cell battery.   1a. Now you have a CARBON ROD. Ask someone how to use two of these for arc welding, but protect your eyes from the UV rays they created.   1b. You also have ZINC -- the metallic case of the battery (not the steel one - check with a magnet to eliminate steel). This will react with an acid to produce hydrogen gas. Vinegar may work when heated, but it is a weak acid. HCl would be better.  1c. You also have MnO2 -- the black powder inside It may also contain ammonium chloride. This is a nice catalyst. Make oxygen by buying a bottle of hydrogen peroxide and mixing it with manganese dioxide. Oxygen will let you burn all kinds of things.  2) Stick two wires into concentrated salt water and run DC electricity through them (from a battery or adapter). This will make bubbles at one electrode -- I think that this is chlorine gas. Just let it dissipate. What is left in the beaker will become NaOH. A nice base if you need one. You could also use oven cleaner I suppose.  2b. You can mix NaOH (any strong base) and fat (from a roast? bacon fat is too smelly) to make soap.  (I haven't done this.)  3) You can make a candle out of animal fat (or lard) Just stick a wooden match in it to use as a wick. To make a candle out of a nut (peanut, cashew, ...) stick it on a thumbtack to raise it off the counter, and then light it with a cigarette lighter.", "human_ref_B": "Not a whole lot, really. At least stuff that isn't very bad for you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 142529.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c131te6", "c_root_id_B": "c131c3n", "created_at_utc_A": 1287716274, "created_at_utc_B": 1287706635, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Find a lithium battery. A fresh one, preferably.  Carefully open it, WEARING GLOVES THE ENTIRE TIME, WHILST DOING THIS OUTSIDE. Keep going, until you find a roll of flexible, corroded-looking metal. That's lithium!  Many fun things can be done with lithium. You can put it into water and watch it go crazy, but another cool thing to do is to simply ignite it. SHIT BURNS WITH THE INTENSITY OF THE SUN.  This is very dangerous.", "human_ref_B": "Not a whole lot, really. At least stuff that isn't very bad for you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9639.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dun3m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "What household items can be mixed together for interesting looking chemical reactions? I just got a macro lens and I am trying to film various things that look cool close up.   So far I have built a miniature city out of clay and made a baking soda volcano to devastate the villagers...   Also, it turns out that if you flip a Dust Off spray can upside down, you can form little ice crystals and if it's lit the right way it looks like snow is falling.   Any other ideas would be appreciated, thanks :)", "c_root_id_A": "c133oxf", "c_root_id_B": "c131c3n", "created_at_utc_A": 1287769235, "created_at_utc_B": 1287706635, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "might be a little scary to do with a new camera, but if you throw or blow cornstarch into the air it will make a combustible cloud that will make a nice fire ball. Do this outside and away from anything that could easily catch on fire. I dont know if you could make a more controlled setup to create a constant flame which would be photograph-able", "human_ref_B": "Not a whole lot, really. At least stuff that isn't very bad for you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 62600.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "da7gx3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Where did native Americans come from? If laurasia and gondwana split into the  continents millions of years ago and Homo sapiens appeared first in Africa 200,000 years ago how did the red Indians get to America with no advanced ships or means of transport at that time while they were so primitive even at the time when the British got there", "c_root_id_A": "f1nso72", "c_root_id_B": "f1nt583", "created_at_utc_A": 1569625241, "created_at_utc_B": 1569625618, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "Native North and South Americans are postulated to have originated from a small population that crossed over the Bering land bridge from what is now Siberia to what is now Alaska, about 20,000 years ago. (There may have been other waves of migration as well.) Sea levels were lower then, and so north-east Asia and north-western North America were connected by land.", "human_ref_B": "Im going to assume this is a question in good faith and answer accordingly.  Current estimates of the first arrivals into North America keep being pushed back, with settlements tentatively dated to at least 14,000 years ago, but there\u2019s no question that those people came from NE Asia/Siberia because there is a lot of genetic similarity between them. In terms of technology, it doesn\u2019t require full size sailing ships to cross the Bering Straight (the theory that migration occurred by land seems to get less credence now) and work down the coast. It also doesn\u2019t need to have been a single event - there is evidence for multiple migrations over time.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 377.0, "score_ratio": 14.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "da7gx3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Where did native Americans come from? If laurasia and gondwana split into the  continents millions of years ago and Homo sapiens appeared first in Africa 200,000 years ago how did the red Indians get to America with no advanced ships or means of transport at that time while they were so primitive even at the time when the British got there", "c_root_id_A": "f1nso72", "c_root_id_B": "f1nwful", "created_at_utc_A": 1569625241, "created_at_utc_B": 1569628210, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Native North and South Americans are postulated to have originated from a small population that crossed over the Bering land bridge from what is now Siberia to what is now Alaska, about 20,000 years ago. (There may have been other waves of migration as well.) Sea levels were lower then, and so north-east Asia and north-western North America were connected by land.", "human_ref_B": "They think homo erectus was sailing now.   This history is so far from settled you\u2019re not going to get a good answer cause people don\u2019t really know.   Heck, the younger dryas comet impact theory has picked up a lot of steam and would have decimated North America 12000 years ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2969.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "z7lls", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Why are both fission and fusion exothermic? It seems to me that the two being opposite processes would imply one being exothermic and the other being endothermic.", "c_root_id_A": "c627a94", "c_root_id_B": "c62780r", "created_at_utc_A": 1346558760, "created_at_utc_B": 1346558475, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Both fission and fusion are exothermic in some situations and endothermic in others.  For small nuclei, fusion is exo and fission is endo, for large nuclei it is reverse.  For iron, both fission and fusion are endothermic.", "human_ref_B": "The fission and fusion reactions usually considered are not opposites of each other.  For example, fission of uranium 239, and fusion of hydrogen to helium.  In both of these reactions, the products have less mass than the reactants.    If you tried to reverse either of these reactions, they would be endothermic (if this were possible).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 285.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l2wypd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Vinyl records; how can one needle pick up the vibrations of an entire orchestra? Why does it not take one groove for each instrument? I have googled it, but left-right side of the groove equals left-right channel which gives stereo does not explain to me how 2 or 10 or 50 instruments can be represented in just one groove.", "c_root_id_A": "gkdde8z", "c_root_id_B": "gkd3vup", "created_at_utc_A": 1611410099, "created_at_utc_B": 1611407266, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "You\u2019ve a small misconception. The needle doesn\u2019t record each instrument, it records the sound waves that reach it. Each instrument produces a different sound wave that all overlap one another to make the music. This one complex soundwave can be recorded and played back. It\u2019s always one sound wave as you listen to it, the number of instruments just increase the complexity of it.", "human_ref_B": "Just checked and I don't have an ear for each instrument in existence - or for each and every sound that exists! Our ears and brains are fantastic devices and can discern, from one waveform, a mixture of lots of different sounds. So recording the single sound as a mixture of lots of different sounds is enough. Though, because are brains are trained for such specific auditory scenarios, we can trick them with many fantastic auditory illusions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2833.0, "score_ratio": 1.3125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l2wypd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Vinyl records; how can one needle pick up the vibrations of an entire orchestra? Why does it not take one groove for each instrument? I have googled it, but left-right side of the groove equals left-right channel which gives stereo does not explain to me how 2 or 10 or 50 instruments can be represented in just one groove.", "c_root_id_A": "gkdde8z", "c_root_id_B": "gkdacxt", "created_at_utc_A": 1611410099, "created_at_utc_B": 1611409133, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You\u2019ve a small misconception. The needle doesn\u2019t record each instrument, it records the sound waves that reach it. Each instrument produces a different sound wave that all overlap one another to make the music. This one complex soundwave can be recorded and played back. It\u2019s always one sound wave as you listen to it, the number of instruments just increase the complexity of it.", "human_ref_B": "Look up Fourier transform. It is a method of decomposing a garbled mess of waves (sound, light, doesn't matter) and getting the components back. Our brain can do that too so to speak. So with all the waves on top of each other, we copy that into the groves and play it back, but it is our brains that descramble it back into an orchestra.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 966.0, "score_ratio": 21.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l2wypd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Vinyl records; how can one needle pick up the vibrations of an entire orchestra? Why does it not take one groove for each instrument? I have googled it, but left-right side of the groove equals left-right channel which gives stereo does not explain to me how 2 or 10 or 50 instruments can be represented in just one groove.", "c_root_id_A": "gkhtqpf", "c_root_id_B": "gkg69y7", "created_at_utc_A": 1611463388, "created_at_utc_B": 1611437509, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "A very similar question came up on Physics Stackexchange a couple weeks ago:  How can we discern so many different simultaneous sounds, when we can only hear one frequency at a time?  Although the question is about the eardrum rather than the needle of the phonograph or the diaphragm of the speaker, the principle is the same: The object can move with a waveform that combines multiple frequencies.", "human_ref_B": "Im not scientist but this is my guess. I supposed it would be similar to the 6 strings of an electric guitar being combined into one frequency and sent down a single wire as an amp input. The same thing is likepy happening here. I dont understand it either but it has to be exactly the same only different.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25879.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l2wypd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Vinyl records; how can one needle pick up the vibrations of an entire orchestra? Why does it not take one groove for each instrument? I have googled it, but left-right side of the groove equals left-right channel which gives stereo does not explain to me how 2 or 10 or 50 instruments can be represented in just one groove.", "c_root_id_A": "gkj2rw0", "c_root_id_B": "gkg69y7", "created_at_utc_A": 1611484158, "created_at_utc_B": 1611437509, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Sound is the variation of atmospheric pressure over time. Sound at a particular location can therefore be recorded (e.g. by a microphone) by measuring this pressure variation over time. Since we have two ears then two simultaneous measurements is sufficient to mimic what someone would hear if they stood at that location. The fact that multiple sound sources contribute to this pressure variation at a single location doesn't change this.", "human_ref_B": "Im not scientist but this is my guess. I supposed it would be similar to the 6 strings of an electric guitar being combined into one frequency and sent down a single wire as an amp input. The same thing is likepy happening here. I dont understand it either but it has to be exactly the same only different.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 46649.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2keu08", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "In mathematics, is it ever possible to prove that you can't prove something?", "c_root_id_A": "clkzo5y", "c_root_id_B": "clkzc25", "created_at_utc_A": 1414400668, "created_at_utc_B": 1414398634, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "In mathematical logic such proofs are routine.  Some examples:  1. **Consistency proofs:** Proving that some system of logic or axiomatic theory does not allow proof of any contradictory statement.  Perhaps the most celebrated is Gentzen's consistency proof of Peano arithmetic. 2. **Independence proofs**: Proving that some statement can neither be proven nor disproven from some set of axioms.  The most famous examples are non-Euclidean geometries (which demonstrate that Euclid's parallels postulate is independent from his other four postulates) and G\u00f6del and Cohen's proof that Cantor's continuum hypothesis is independent of the ZFC axioms.  Closely related to this there are also **completeness** proofs, which can refer to two different kinds of thing:  1. Proofs that all tautologies of some system of logic are provable.  Examples: G\u00f6del's completeness theorem for first order logic.  You can also prove that some systems of logic are not complete in this sense; e.g., there is an incompleteness theorem for second-order logic. 2. Proofs that for all statements in some axiomatic theory you can prove either that statement or its negation.  Example: Tarski's proof of the completeness of elementary geometry.  Likewise, you can also prove that this isn't the case for some axiomatic theory; see for eample G\u00f6del's very famous incompleteness theorems: if arithmetic is consistent, then there exists some arithmetical statement such that there is no proof either of that statement or its negation.", "human_ref_B": "There are. One is G\u00f6del's incompletness theorem http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2034.0, "score_ratio": 5.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ylmb1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Can very different dog breeds, such as a chihuahua and a Great Dane, be considered different species? After doing some searching, I couldn't find any instances of such breeds mixing. At what point would different breeds be considered different species?", "c_root_id_A": "cflysaq", "c_root_id_B": "cflsjgq", "created_at_utc_A": 1393095968, "created_at_utc_B": 1393077745, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Domestic dogs are all considered one species because they are genetically very similar (PDF) and can produce viable offspring. Because the most divergent breeds can produce offspring with dogs closer to their size or shape it may be useful to think of them as akin to a ring species (albeit due to artificial selection).   And it's not just that domestic dogs are a single species. Dogs are often considered to be a subspecies of the wolf *Canis lupus*, both for their ability to interbreed and because dogs may have been domesticated from wolves several times. We don't know that for sure, though, and they may been domesticated in a single event but at the very least wolves and dogs have freely interbred even after domestication.   In terms of just looking at domestic dogs, the concept that breeds should be isolated from each other is a fairly recent phenomenon. Though humans have artificially selected for certain traits for thousands of years, they didn't prevent breeds from crossing to the extant that we have in recent history. Any sort of reproductive isolation hasn't been absolute, and it hasn't been occurring for very long.   Dogs are so similar genetically that we've only recently been able to distinguish breeds as methods have become more powerful, but those differences lie in selective breeding that has largely occurred in the past several hundred years. As a result, they're due to relatively few mutations. For example, differences in body size are due to one gene! These differences aren't enough to warrant them being split into different species.   While artificial selection accounts for the differences we see in dogs, morphologically variable species do exist. They're called polymorphic species. Domestic dogs are an extreme example of this. Still, there have been instances where species have been wrongly split because they're polymorphic. For example, moa, the large, extinct, flightless birds from New Zealand, were initially described as dozens of species. The ability to recover ancient DNA from some of the more recent and well-preserved remains indicates that there were far fewer species, and they were both sexually dimorphic and had a lot of within-species variation.  A number of the articles I linked to have paywalls, which I apologize for. Let me know if you have any more questions.", "human_ref_B": "No. A species is defined by it's ability to interbreed and produce sexually viable offspring with other members of the species. A great dane and a chihuahua, are both able to produce a puppy that could breed with the offspring of a wolfhound and lab.  Ipso facto columbo oreo, not different species.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18223.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vbojp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How did we ever discover what the speed of light is?", "c_root_id_A": "c533m4j", "c_root_id_B": "c534tsr", "created_at_utc_A": 1340203706, "created_at_utc_B": 1340208264, "score_A": -11, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "1 divided by the electric permittivity and magnetic permeability = c^2. It's not the original way we found speed of light, but it is a very accurate way to calculate it using the maxwell equations of electromagnetism.  Edit: trying to figure out how to get the image 1/(e*u)=c^2  Also should clarify, this formula will give you the speed of light through any material, as long as you have the properly obtained values.", "human_ref_B": "Adam Savage has a video where he talks about this.  Has some other interesting bits as well.   Link to Youtube video", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4558.0, "score_ratio": -0.7272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vbojp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How did we ever discover what the speed of light is?", "c_root_id_A": "c537mb2", "c_root_id_B": "c533m4j", "created_at_utc_A": 1340218220, "created_at_utc_B": 1340203706, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -11, "human_ref_A": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations#Relation_between_electricity.2C_magnetism.2C_and_the_speed_of_light  The small history section in that is quite interesting, around the same time of fizeau the speed of light was derived theoretically then experimentally by 2 german guys from Maxwell's equation but they didnt realise what the number meant until Maxwell looked at their results", "human_ref_B": "1 divided by the electric permittivity and magnetic permeability = c^2. It's not the original way we found speed of light, but it is a very accurate way to calculate it using the maxwell equations of electromagnetism.  Edit: trying to figure out how to get the image 1/(e*u)=c^2  Also should clarify, this formula will give you the speed of light through any material, as long as you have the properly obtained values.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14514.0, "score_ratio": -0.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83jial", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How did people ferment stuff (wine, beer mead etc) before the advent of the yeast as we \"discovered it\" in the 1800's?", "c_root_id_A": "dvic52z", "c_root_id_B": "dvibige", "created_at_utc_A": 1520733878, "created_at_utc_B": 1520733076, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Yeast is super common and leaving food out will most often allow some variety of yeast to grow. You don't really need to have a knowledge of microbiology and what yeast is to let stuff sit out and ferment.   You can try this yourself if you look up how to make bread using wild yeast.", "human_ref_B": "For wine, there's plenty of yeast just living on the grapes in the field to get fermentation started.  For beer , either rely on yeast that is floating around in the air (Belgian beers used this method traditionally), or use a bit of the dregs of yesterday's brew to prime the fermentation, without knowing that it's the yeast in there that's actually causing the fermentation.  Similarly, bread dough can be inoculated with a pre-ferment or starter, which is essentially just a bit of yesterday's dough. And the first loaf can be started with wild yeast from the air.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 802.0, "score_ratio": 2.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83jial", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How did people ferment stuff (wine, beer mead etc) before the advent of the yeast as we \"discovered it\" in the 1800's?", "c_root_id_A": "dvibige", "c_root_id_B": "dvivv73", "created_at_utc_A": 1520733076, "created_at_utc_B": 1520770141, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "For wine, there's plenty of yeast just living on the grapes in the field to get fermentation started.  For beer , either rely on yeast that is floating around in the air (Belgian beers used this method traditionally), or use a bit of the dregs of yesterday's brew to prime the fermentation, without knowing that it's the yeast in there that's actually causing the fermentation.  Similarly, bread dough can be inoculated with a pre-ferment or starter, which is essentially just a bit of yesterday's dough. And the first loaf can be started with wild yeast from the air.", "human_ref_B": "I feel uniquely qualified to share a possible procedure due to some unfortunate events in my life.  I was incarcerated for a few months. Every morning for breakfast we received a small bag of pure apple juice.  One of the fine gentleman I had the pleasure of aquaintanceship with would gather 4 of the bags from inmates willing to barter for a different item  off the food tray or maybe a future lunch sandwich and pour them into a 20 ounce soda bottle.  He would add a small amount of either grape or cherry drink mix that was almost pure sugar, screw the lid on tight, keep it in a hole he had made in his bed mat and wait.  When he showered (maybe twice a week if we were lucky) he would sneak the bottle in with him to heat it up.  This was a 10 to 12 day procedure. All that was required was to 'burp' the bottle by opening the cap slightly to let the pressure out roughly once a day otherwise the gas that was released during the fermentation process would cause the bottle to explode.   That and to keep the little science expirement from becoming known to either the COs or an inmate who felt giving that kind of information to the COs would impart some kind of fortune onto him.   When he deemed his product sufficient we would split the spoils now known as 'buck'. It was surprisingly potent and quite tasty.  This went on like clockwork until he was called for court one day and while shackled during transport, tripped and broke his arm. He was then transferred to the medical wing.  No one was aware that he had one of his projects going and the second day he was gone an explosion that sounded like a shotgun went off at his bunk.  It made quite the distinctly smelling mess.  He was subsequently transferred from the medical wing to 'The Box', which is jail inside of jail, a 12x7 room with two other people that you are only allowed to leave on Mon, Wed, and Fri for a 10 minute shower.  He was also charged with another misdemeanor for introducing contraband into a correctional facility and I heard that he received another 60 days on his sentence after having spent 30 consecutive days in 'The Box'.  tl:dr  Smash apples. Collect juice. Wait.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37065.0, "score_ratio": 1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "83jial", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How did people ferment stuff (wine, beer mead etc) before the advent of the yeast as we \"discovered it\" in the 1800's?", "c_root_id_A": "dvivv73", "c_root_id_B": "dvicnjt", "created_at_utc_A": 1520770141, "created_at_utc_B": 1520734538, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I feel uniquely qualified to share a possible procedure due to some unfortunate events in my life.  I was incarcerated for a few months. Every morning for breakfast we received a small bag of pure apple juice.  One of the fine gentleman I had the pleasure of aquaintanceship with would gather 4 of the bags from inmates willing to barter for a different item  off the food tray or maybe a future lunch sandwich and pour them into a 20 ounce soda bottle.  He would add a small amount of either grape or cherry drink mix that was almost pure sugar, screw the lid on tight, keep it in a hole he had made in his bed mat and wait.  When he showered (maybe twice a week if we were lucky) he would sneak the bottle in with him to heat it up.  This was a 10 to 12 day procedure. All that was required was to 'burp' the bottle by opening the cap slightly to let the pressure out roughly once a day otherwise the gas that was released during the fermentation process would cause the bottle to explode.   That and to keep the little science expirement from becoming known to either the COs or an inmate who felt giving that kind of information to the COs would impart some kind of fortune onto him.   When he deemed his product sufficient we would split the spoils now known as 'buck'. It was surprisingly potent and quite tasty.  This went on like clockwork until he was called for court one day and while shackled during transport, tripped and broke his arm. He was then transferred to the medical wing.  No one was aware that he had one of his projects going and the second day he was gone an explosion that sounded like a shotgun went off at his bunk.  It made quite the distinctly smelling mess.  He was subsequently transferred from the medical wing to 'The Box', which is jail inside of jail, a 12x7 room with two other people that you are only allowed to leave on Mon, Wed, and Fri for a 10 minute shower.  He was also charged with another misdemeanor for introducing contraband into a correctional facility and I heard that he received another 60 days on his sentence after having spent 30 consecutive days in 'The Box'.  tl:dr  Smash apples. Collect juice. Wait.", "human_ref_B": "Modern breweries still make beer using ancient methods occasionally. It\u2019s called wild fermentation. Monasteries back in the day would get a reputation for a specific taste because they could only ever ferment with the wild yeast that was in the room they were using to ferment. Modern brewers have slightly more control in that they can see what yeast is available but the process is still the same if you want to ferment something with wild yeast. You just leave it open in a room and wait. A lot of these taste sour, so it\u2019s not for everyone though.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 35603.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "462uu5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Will a black hole eventually \"fill up\" or does more \"stuff\" going in increase its gravitiational pull and therefore make it bigger? I know Hawking radiation can eventually disperse a black hole, but is this the only way a black hole can cease to exist?", "c_root_id_A": "d02mffe", "c_root_id_B": "d035bpm", "created_at_utc_A": 1455670689, "created_at_utc_B": 1455715731, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "This is going back a stretch, but I thought I read somewhere that they had discovered a black hole that has stopped growing, even though it had more mass available nearby.  Not sure if my partial memory helps, but it might start a good conversation if anyone remembers the article I'm thinking of.", "human_ref_B": "As others have said, there is a certain limit on the mass of black holes, but this isn't a function of it \"filling up.\" A black hole isn't really an empty \"hole\" so much as it's a ball of ultra-dense matter, so dense that it generates a gravitational pull strong enough to crush other atoms into more of that ultra-dense matter-soup. So yes, more stuff = bigger black hole = more pull, which becomes a sort of cycle until the black hole reaches that theoretical limit mentioned above or winds up in a place where it doesn't attract enough matter to outpace the rate of its dissipation via Hawking radiation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 45042.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "462uu5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Will a black hole eventually \"fill up\" or does more \"stuff\" going in increase its gravitiational pull and therefore make it bigger? I know Hawking radiation can eventually disperse a black hole, but is this the only way a black hole can cease to exist?", "c_root_id_A": "d0333xv", "c_root_id_B": "d035bpm", "created_at_utc_A": 1455709559, "created_at_utc_B": 1455715731, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "One related theory is that a black hole may eventually achieve a sort of \"criticality\" and a new universe may be spawned at its core.  This is due to Nikodem Pop\u0142awski.  Here's a succinct treatment of his theory in the MIT Technology Review.", "human_ref_B": "As others have said, there is a certain limit on the mass of black holes, but this isn't a function of it \"filling up.\" A black hole isn't really an empty \"hole\" so much as it's a ball of ultra-dense matter, so dense that it generates a gravitational pull strong enough to crush other atoms into more of that ultra-dense matter-soup. So yes, more stuff = bigger black hole = more pull, which becomes a sort of cycle until the black hole reaches that theoretical limit mentioned above or winds up in a place where it doesn't attract enough matter to outpace the rate of its dissipation via Hawking radiation.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6172.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1587xv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Relation Between Quantum Field Theory And \"Vanilla\" Quantum Mechanics I was reading this excellent article about elementary particles. In one of the comments (July 12, 2012 at 9:53 AM) the author talk about the relation about QFT and the QM most of us have read: the wave function as a probability function.  So, it seems, there is this \"classical\" QM, or as the author calls it \"1920 quantum mechanics\", a little bit of which I studied as engineer, and that is only accurate in a limited context, and there is QFT a more complete and exact model of reality.  The author comments that is hard to explain to a layman how the \"1920 quantum mechanics\" is related to QFT. I was wondering if you, askscience, can give a try? Also, which is the best model we currently have of the universe? is it QFT or is there another framework that contains and extends QFT?", "c_root_id_A": "c7k7lir", "c_root_id_B": "c7k4q6d", "created_at_utc_A": 1356114830, "created_at_utc_B": 1356104131, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "iorgfeflkd gave a reasonable answer, but the real difference between Freshman quantum theory and QFT is the treatment of the fields themselves.  Freshman quantum theory is often referred to as a \"first quantization\" of physics:  everything in the entire problem to be described is treated classically, *except* the actual particle or system to be studied.  In particular, the fields (electric, gravitational, etc.) are treated classically, and often as an artificially imposed generic potential field that describes potential energy.  QFT is best described as a \"second quantization\" in which all aspects of the system that interact directly with the test particle (or what-have-you) are treated quantum mechanically.  In particular, the fields are treated quantum mechanically.  This generally requires treating them using the \"virtual exchange particle\" formalism.  In the case of the electromagnetic field, this means the electric and magnetic fields are treated as components of the photon wave function, and the electrostatic and magnetostatic forces arise from momentum transfer by the exchange of photons.    If you're familiar with the Poynting vector that describes energy and momentum flow through the electromagnetic field, this is a natural transition: the Poynting vector is a linear combination of the electric and magnetic fields, so you can describe any electromagnetic field as a complex-valued Poynting vector field instead of a separate real-valued electric field and magnetic field.  But the Poynting vector is the obvious way to describe the probability of encountering a photon moving in a particular direction at a particular place.  That should give a general sense of how you get from E and B fields to virtual photons.  Feynman diagrams are a useful tool for QFT because they summarize expansion terms in a Taylor series describing how the various kinds of exchange particle interact.", "human_ref_B": "QFT is a relativistic extension of quantum mechanics.  A scenario that highlights the need for such a thing is particle scattering. You have two particles coming in unperturbed, with a wavefunction |a; b> (semicolon means it's a column vector, but I can't do that in reddit), and going out with wavefunction |a'; b'>. The unprimed variables become primed when some interaction matrix S acts on |a; b>. If the whole thing is nonrelativistic, you could have particles a' and b' being detected in regions that are out of causal contact with the meeting of a and b. Actually I'm not sure how good an explanation that was. tldr qft is relativistic.  The other difference is that QM is generally written in terms of Hamiltonian mechanics and QFT in terms of Lagrangian mechanics.  Another thing: the Pauli exclusion principle and the spin-statistics theorem are taken as givens in quantum mechanics, but they can only be proved using relativistic quantum mechanics: you have to consider what observers in different reference frames would observe when particles are swapped with each other.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10699.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1587xv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Relation Between Quantum Field Theory And \"Vanilla\" Quantum Mechanics I was reading this excellent article about elementary particles. In one of the comments (July 12, 2012 at 9:53 AM) the author talk about the relation about QFT and the QM most of us have read: the wave function as a probability function.  So, it seems, there is this \"classical\" QM, or as the author calls it \"1920 quantum mechanics\", a little bit of which I studied as engineer, and that is only accurate in a limited context, and there is QFT a more complete and exact model of reality.  The author comments that is hard to explain to a layman how the \"1920 quantum mechanics\" is related to QFT. I was wondering if you, askscience, can give a try? Also, which is the best model we currently have of the universe? is it QFT or is there another framework that contains and extends QFT?", "c_root_id_A": "c7k7lir", "c_root_id_B": "c7k7g35", "created_at_utc_A": 1356114830, "created_at_utc_B": 1356114309, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "iorgfeflkd gave a reasonable answer, but the real difference between Freshman quantum theory and QFT is the treatment of the fields themselves.  Freshman quantum theory is often referred to as a \"first quantization\" of physics:  everything in the entire problem to be described is treated classically, *except* the actual particle or system to be studied.  In particular, the fields (electric, gravitational, etc.) are treated classically, and often as an artificially imposed generic potential field that describes potential energy.  QFT is best described as a \"second quantization\" in which all aspects of the system that interact directly with the test particle (or what-have-you) are treated quantum mechanically.  In particular, the fields are treated quantum mechanically.  This generally requires treating them using the \"virtual exchange particle\" formalism.  In the case of the electromagnetic field, this means the electric and magnetic fields are treated as components of the photon wave function, and the electrostatic and magnetostatic forces arise from momentum transfer by the exchange of photons.    If you're familiar with the Poynting vector that describes energy and momentum flow through the electromagnetic field, this is a natural transition: the Poynting vector is a linear combination of the electric and magnetic fields, so you can describe any electromagnetic field as a complex-valued Poynting vector field instead of a separate real-valued electric field and magnetic field.  But the Poynting vector is the obvious way to describe the probability of encountering a photon moving in a particular direction at a particular place.  That should give a general sense of how you get from E and B fields to virtual photons.  Feynman diagrams are a useful tool for QFT because they summarize expansion terms in a Taylor series describing how the various kinds of exchange particle interact.", "human_ref_B": "The \"1920 quantum mechanics\" still provides dynamical laws that are obeyed by quantum fields, so its simplest to view \"1920 quantum mechanics\" as containing an over-arching set of principles we can use to examine the microscopic world; QFT is then taking these principles and recognising the short comings of single particle descriptions (extension to relativity is troubling, spin statistics are purely empirical and no annihilation mechanism). Viewing fields as fundamental objects rather than the particles and allowing particles to be created and annihilated in the process, we get a description which also encompasses relativistic invariance while still existing under the over-arching umbrella of quantum mechanical principles.   The limited validity of the wavefunction/non-relativistic description arises because particles can be created an annihilated as excitations of a quantum field and the wavefunction description requires that the particle is always \"somewhere\", deleting it suddenly is problematic because of this and because there is no aspect of the theory that accounts for this variation in particle number.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 521.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "m4rwn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If we can observe galaxies in ever direction we look, how do we know the shape of the universe is flat and not a sphere?   A preemptive thanks to all the astronomer or physicist on reddit.", "c_root_id_A": "c2y3esq", "c_root_id_B": "c2y3z8l", "created_at_utc_A": 1320764347, "created_at_utc_B": 1320768535, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "short answer... we don't know for sure yet  However, certain geometries (as you can read in above said article) require certain conditions which can be tested for.  Because we can see expansion and because we can see the effects of dark matter we can rule out certain geometries.  So while we may not yet know what the exact geometry is... we can say what geometries it is not.  Edit: BTW, the universe is neither flat nor spherical. It is probably some form of a 3-manifold geometry.", "human_ref_B": "A short answer is that the geometry of the universe affects how the cosmic microwave background looks, and what we see is consistent with flat or nearly flat.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4188.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2lxii3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "What effect does time dilation have on electromagnetic waves? In the movie Interstellar, video recordings are transmitted from Earth to the crew of the Endurance.    This made me wonder if the use of radio transmissions (or other forms of electromagnetic wave communication) could be used to overcome the effects of time dilation experienced by two individuals in drastically different gravitational fields.", "c_root_id_A": "clzb840", "c_root_id_B": "clzb545", "created_at_utc_A": 1415706748, "created_at_utc_B": 1415706327, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "To keep within your example from Interstellar (spoiler warning!), some of the crew are sent to the surface of a planet orbiting close to a super-massive black hole, and experience time dilation relative to the mothership (Endurance) by a factor of ~60,000. Any signal the crew on the planet try to send back to the Endurance will be 'stretched' as it climbs out of the gravity well.  The wavelength of the radio waves will be stretched, and therefore the frequency lowered until it's oscillating 60,000 times slower. The wave itself is always traveling at the speed of light, in all frames, but the frequency of the wave as it is received will depend on the frame of the observer, so it will not serve as a way to 'overcome' time dilation.  Receiving information in the form of radio waves from the surface is an observation, just as pointing a powerful telescope at the surface and viewing the people moving 60,000 times slower would be.  As a side note, in the film the crew member on board the Endurance seems to have no communication with the crew on the surface and just has to wait years for them to return. It's entirely possible that with such a huge factor of time dilation, any radio transmissions sent from the surface would be far outside the detectable and readable frequency range of the Endurance's communication equipment by the time the signal reaches her 'height' in the gravity well.", "human_ref_B": "Since Im on the phone my answer will be short.      Frequencies change and therefore the wavelength because the speed of an electronagnetic wave is the speed of light (or visa versa? :P ) Look up on the relativistic doppler effect for further Information. Also someone else will give you a more detailed answer. AFAIK this is the only effect on EM Waves.      The wave will still travel with the speed light. It may has to travel a longer distance because of length contraction.      Edit: phone", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 421.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "aqwa25", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Does \u201cwind chill\u201d have any effect on ice formation or retention? In other words, if the actual temperature is 33F, but the wind chill is 18, will ice last longer than a temp of 33 with a \u201creal feel\u201d of 36? In other words, is wind chill just something to help make weather reports more sensational, or is there any actual physical effect?", "c_root_id_A": "egj7qzx", "c_root_id_B": "egjbbb3", "created_at_utc_A": 1550244097, "created_at_utc_B": 1550246686, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Wind chill is an actual effect, and acts on objects that have internal warmth, like your body.  The wind will suck heat out of you faster than a windless day, which makes it feel colder.  As for your example, a windy day slightly above freezing will melt ice more quickly than a windless day, due to the same mechanism.", "human_ref_B": "\"Wind chill\" is basically a measure of what we call \"Forced Convection\".  Normal convection is what happens when hot air/fluid rises, and it can be a huge factor in how things cool or heat up. Like a radiator in a room should be placed in the right location, so it heats the whole room by convection(usually by the floor and under windows).  Forced convection is when the hot/cold air gets removed by some external means. This could be wind, a fan, water pump etc. Like if you are on a desktop PC, a fan helps cool the heat sinks of your CPU/GPU.  Forced convection does not \"make things feel colder\" or \"make things feel hotter\". Forced convection increases the exchange of heat to an objects surroundings. If surroundings are colder, then it cools it faster. If surroundings are hotter, they heat it faster. This is why a fan or the wind can be a nice way to cool down when air temperature is below body temperature, but it can be deadly when air temperature is above body temperature.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2589.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq8e17", "c_root_id_B": "egq6gxp", "created_at_utc_A": 1550497985, "created_at_utc_B": 1550495941, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Snow is a \u201creally interesting problem\u201d for self-driving vehicles, says Carl Wellington, a senior engineer at Uber\u2019s autonomous research centre in Pittsburgh.  No company has quite yet claimed their cars have mastered the ability to drive through snowy conditions.  1", "human_ref_B": "Sensors on cars work faster than human reaction time.  A car with proper safety sensors and mechanisms can check the condition of the road, traction of the tire 1000 times a second.  It will know there is a slip in traction and already started making proper adjustments before you've had time to notice.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2044.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq8e17", "c_root_id_B": "egq3bdl", "created_at_utc_A": 1550497985, "created_at_utc_B": 1550491824, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Snow is a \u201creally interesting problem\u201d for self-driving vehicles, says Carl Wellington, a senior engineer at Uber\u2019s autonomous research centre in Pittsburgh.  No company has quite yet claimed their cars have mastered the ability to drive through snowy conditions.  1", "human_ref_B": "Hey, If the whole road is covered in ice, modern cars can approximate the friction value of the wheels/road. Thus they can adapt their behaviour.   For only small patches of ice it is more difficult. I am not sure if recent developments can already handle this with predictive algorithms. Thin layers are difficult to spot with camera or super sonic based systems. I also doubt that lidar can see thin layers of ice on the road.  But still the car can react in the moment it detects that it is driving on ice. There are already many methods used in our everyday cars.   For example the temperature and friction coefficient can be used to drive more carefully. If then an ice layer the car can intercept and stay on the road.   But there is no 100% solution. There never is in actual engineering. And even our cars are not 100% save.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6161.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq8e17", "c_root_id_B": "egq1re9", "created_at_utc_A": 1550497985, "created_at_utc_B": 1550489317, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Snow is a \u201creally interesting problem\u201d for self-driving vehicles, says Carl Wellington, a senior engineer at Uber\u2019s autonomous research centre in Pittsburgh.  No company has quite yet claimed their cars have mastered the ability to drive through snowy conditions.  1", "human_ref_B": "They can detect (probably more accurately than humans, though not sure) how effective their brakes are in current conditions, and adjust their speed and handling to compensate.   If you're referring to patches of ice rather than ice covering the whole road, I imagine machine learning lets them work out how it went \"last time\" it encountered a patch of ice like that, and adjust accordingly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8668.0, "score_ratio": 9000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq6gxp", "c_root_id_B": "egr0cdm", "created_at_utc_A": 1550495941, "created_at_utc_B": 1550519546, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Sensors on cars work faster than human reaction time.  A car with proper safety sensors and mechanisms can check the condition of the road, traction of the tire 1000 times a second.  It will know there is a slip in traction and already started making proper adjustments before you've had time to notice.", "human_ref_B": "Seems like, there is no technology out there today that can do this. We are only just at the point of driverless cars in ideal situations.   I love the optimism here, however in reality I really struggle to see how driverless cars as they exist today are going to cope with inclement weather conditions.   The problem is most these driverless systems are reliant on systems in the car. You can have all manner of sensors, but they still need to \u2018see\u2019 how our roads are built today. It will still need to use a camera to view the lines in the road to maintain lanes, and signage to know road changes / lights etc. Any kind of bad weather where these become difficult or impossible to see, a driverless car is not going anywhere.   I feel a major fundamental flaw to driverless is we are trying to make systems adapt to road networks that were designed to be interpreted by humans. We should not be trying to make driverless cars interpret a driver, but instead be fed data from its surroundings to become truly driverless. There also needs to be multiple redundancies in those systems to make good decisions.  I.e. Lanes need to have some signal marker for times when weather is bad to see road markings (this is being trialled in France iirc), and traffic lights broadcast their data, or better still not be there at all as all cars communicate their intention with others automatically.   I LOVE the idea of driverless, and my semi-autonomous car amazes me, but when I need it to help me in heavy fog or bad rain, it\u2019s telling me the systems are all unavailable! Hence knowing that driverless for the masses is much further away, until engineers get to the point of changing our roads to suit driverless.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23605.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq3bdl", "c_root_id_B": "egr0cdm", "created_at_utc_A": 1550491824, "created_at_utc_B": 1550519546, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hey, If the whole road is covered in ice, modern cars can approximate the friction value of the wheels/road. Thus they can adapt their behaviour.   For only small patches of ice it is more difficult. I am not sure if recent developments can already handle this with predictive algorithms. Thin layers are difficult to spot with camera or super sonic based systems. I also doubt that lidar can see thin layers of ice on the road.  But still the car can react in the moment it detects that it is driving on ice. There are already many methods used in our everyday cars.   For example the temperature and friction coefficient can be used to drive more carefully. If then an ice layer the car can intercept and stay on the road.   But there is no 100% solution. There never is in actual engineering. And even our cars are not 100% save.", "human_ref_B": "Seems like, there is no technology out there today that can do this. We are only just at the point of driverless cars in ideal situations.   I love the optimism here, however in reality I really struggle to see how driverless cars as they exist today are going to cope with inclement weather conditions.   The problem is most these driverless systems are reliant on systems in the car. You can have all manner of sensors, but they still need to \u2018see\u2019 how our roads are built today. It will still need to use a camera to view the lines in the road to maintain lanes, and signage to know road changes / lights etc. Any kind of bad weather where these become difficult or impossible to see, a driverless car is not going anywhere.   I feel a major fundamental flaw to driverless is we are trying to make systems adapt to road networks that were designed to be interpreted by humans. We should not be trying to make driverless cars interpret a driver, but instead be fed data from its surroundings to become truly driverless. There also needs to be multiple redundancies in those systems to make good decisions.  I.e. Lanes need to have some signal marker for times when weather is bad to see road markings (this is being trialled in France iirc), and traffic lights broadcast their data, or better still not be there at all as all cars communicate their intention with others automatically.   I LOVE the idea of driverless, and my semi-autonomous car amazes me, but when I need it to help me in heavy fog or bad rain, it\u2019s telling me the systems are all unavailable! Hence knowing that driverless for the masses is much further away, until engineers get to the point of changing our roads to suit driverless.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27722.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egr0cdm", "c_root_id_B": "egqms1e", "created_at_utc_A": 1550519546, "created_at_utc_B": 1550509826, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Seems like, there is no technology out there today that can do this. We are only just at the point of driverless cars in ideal situations.   I love the optimism here, however in reality I really struggle to see how driverless cars as they exist today are going to cope with inclement weather conditions.   The problem is most these driverless systems are reliant on systems in the car. You can have all manner of sensors, but they still need to \u2018see\u2019 how our roads are built today. It will still need to use a camera to view the lines in the road to maintain lanes, and signage to know road changes / lights etc. Any kind of bad weather where these become difficult or impossible to see, a driverless car is not going anywhere.   I feel a major fundamental flaw to driverless is we are trying to make systems adapt to road networks that were designed to be interpreted by humans. We should not be trying to make driverless cars interpret a driver, but instead be fed data from its surroundings to become truly driverless. There also needs to be multiple redundancies in those systems to make good decisions.  I.e. Lanes need to have some signal marker for times when weather is bad to see road markings (this is being trialled in France iirc), and traffic lights broadcast their data, or better still not be there at all as all cars communicate their intention with others automatically.   I LOVE the idea of driverless, and my semi-autonomous car amazes me, but when I need it to help me in heavy fog or bad rain, it\u2019s telling me the systems are all unavailable! Hence knowing that driverless for the masses is much further away, until engineers get to the point of changing our roads to suit driverless.", "human_ref_B": "When driverless cars do take over the road, I'll be interested in seeing just how slow a \"safe\" driving speed, informed by realtime data, actually is.  It'll probably be a lot slower than we all try and get away with.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9720.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egr0cdm", "c_root_id_B": "egq1re9", "created_at_utc_A": 1550519546, "created_at_utc_B": 1550489317, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Seems like, there is no technology out there today that can do this. We are only just at the point of driverless cars in ideal situations.   I love the optimism here, however in reality I really struggle to see how driverless cars as they exist today are going to cope with inclement weather conditions.   The problem is most these driverless systems are reliant on systems in the car. You can have all manner of sensors, but they still need to \u2018see\u2019 how our roads are built today. It will still need to use a camera to view the lines in the road to maintain lanes, and signage to know road changes / lights etc. Any kind of bad weather where these become difficult or impossible to see, a driverless car is not going anywhere.   I feel a major fundamental flaw to driverless is we are trying to make systems adapt to road networks that were designed to be interpreted by humans. We should not be trying to make driverless cars interpret a driver, but instead be fed data from its surroundings to become truly driverless. There also needs to be multiple redundancies in those systems to make good decisions.  I.e. Lanes need to have some signal marker for times when weather is bad to see road markings (this is being trialled in France iirc), and traffic lights broadcast their data, or better still not be there at all as all cars communicate their intention with others automatically.   I LOVE the idea of driverless, and my semi-autonomous car amazes me, but when I need it to help me in heavy fog or bad rain, it\u2019s telling me the systems are all unavailable! Hence knowing that driverless for the masses is much further away, until engineers get to the point of changing our roads to suit driverless.", "human_ref_B": "They can detect (probably more accurately than humans, though not sure) how effective their brakes are in current conditions, and adjust their speed and handling to compensate.   If you're referring to patches of ice rather than ice covering the whole road, I imagine machine learning lets them work out how it went \"last time\" it encountered a patch of ice like that, and adjust accordingly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30229.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq6gxp", "c_root_id_B": "egq3bdl", "created_at_utc_A": 1550495941, "created_at_utc_B": 1550491824, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Sensors on cars work faster than human reaction time.  A car with proper safety sensors and mechanisms can check the condition of the road, traction of the tire 1000 times a second.  It will know there is a slip in traction and already started making proper adjustments before you've had time to notice.", "human_ref_B": "Hey, If the whole road is covered in ice, modern cars can approximate the friction value of the wheels/road. Thus they can adapt their behaviour.   For only small patches of ice it is more difficult. I am not sure if recent developments can already handle this with predictive algorithms. Thin layers are difficult to spot with camera or super sonic based systems. I also doubt that lidar can see thin layers of ice on the road.  But still the car can react in the moment it detects that it is driving on ice. There are already many methods used in our everyday cars.   For example the temperature and friction coefficient can be used to drive more carefully. If then an ice layer the car can intercept and stay on the road.   But there is no 100% solution. There never is in actual engineering. And even our cars are not 100% save.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4117.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq6gxp", "c_root_id_B": "egq1re9", "created_at_utc_A": 1550495941, "created_at_utc_B": 1550489317, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Sensors on cars work faster than human reaction time.  A car with proper safety sensors and mechanisms can check the condition of the road, traction of the tire 1000 times a second.  It will know there is a slip in traction and already started making proper adjustments before you've had time to notice.", "human_ref_B": "They can detect (probably more accurately than humans, though not sure) how effective their brakes are in current conditions, and adjust their speed and handling to compensate.   If you're referring to patches of ice rather than ice covering the whole road, I imagine machine learning lets them work out how it went \"last time\" it encountered a patch of ice like that, and adjust accordingly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6624.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq3bdl", "c_root_id_B": "egq1re9", "created_at_utc_A": 1550491824, "created_at_utc_B": 1550489317, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Hey, If the whole road is covered in ice, modern cars can approximate the friction value of the wheels/road. Thus they can adapt their behaviour.   For only small patches of ice it is more difficult. I am not sure if recent developments can already handle this with predictive algorithms. Thin layers are difficult to spot with camera or super sonic based systems. I also doubt that lidar can see thin layers of ice on the road.  But still the car can react in the moment it detects that it is driving on ice. There are already many methods used in our everyday cars.   For example the temperature and friction coefficient can be used to drive more carefully. If then an ice layer the car can intercept and stay on the road.   But there is no 100% solution. There never is in actual engineering. And even our cars are not 100% save.", "human_ref_B": "They can detect (probably more accurately than humans, though not sure) how effective their brakes are in current conditions, and adjust their speed and handling to compensate.   If you're referring to patches of ice rather than ice covering the whole road, I imagine machine learning lets them work out how it went \"last time\" it encountered a patch of ice like that, and adjust accordingly.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2507.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "arr6tq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How do driverless cars detect and deal with ice and snow, especially when it comes to braking? As a seasoned winter driver, I often have to anticipate stopping distance and turn speed based on the road conditions ahead. You could be on a plowed patch of a main road, and then turn onto a snowy/icy side street.  How do driverless cars deal with these conditions? Do they also \u201csee\u201d or is it based on the tire traction?", "c_root_id_A": "egq1re9", "c_root_id_B": "egqms1e", "created_at_utc_A": 1550489317, "created_at_utc_B": 1550509826, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "They can detect (probably more accurately than humans, though not sure) how effective their brakes are in current conditions, and adjust their speed and handling to compensate.   If you're referring to patches of ice rather than ice covering the whole road, I imagine machine learning lets them work out how it went \"last time\" it encountered a patch of ice like that, and adjust accordingly.", "human_ref_B": "When driverless cars do take over the road, I'll be interested in seeing just how slow a \"safe\" driving speed, informed by realtime data, actually is.  It'll probably be a lot slower than we all try and get away with.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20509.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "13vmgs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If a virus can attack our cells and re-engineer them for its own benefit, why can't the opposite occur?  Or does it? The thought occurred to me while watching this last night.", "c_root_id_A": "c77pr8t", "c_root_id_B": "c77nrjg", "created_at_utc_A": 1354052026, "created_at_utc_B": 1354045668, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "So, the best way that I can explain it is that cells don't think. A cell is a bag of balanced chemical reactions that overall result in the cells doing something like using glucose for energy, producing hormones or other signaling molecules, or making mucus. With that said, a cell doesn't always know what is good for it or bad for it. In the case of viruses, it is a series of very specific chemical reactions (producing proteins from DNA, assembling the virus particle, etc) that result in the reproduction of the virus. When a virus attacks our cells, it is hijacking the cellular equipment in order to make more of itself. The reengineering you see is simply the introduction of their own genetic material into the cell and sneaking it into the machinery. An analogy for this would be if you are photocopying a stack of papers and a coworker slips his own papers into your stack. You then unknowingly photocopy your coworkers papers. Other viral proteins that can interfere with the cell are things that can help keep the virus infected cells from being identified as infected then killed by the immune system.  Also, our cells don't have good machinery to change the viral genetic material to something more advantageous. The job of many of the proteins in the nucleus is to make sure our DNA doesn't change as the cell divides, so the proofreading that happens during DNA replication protects the DNA from accumulating large numbers of mutations. Viral genomes look a lot like our DNA or RNA, so the cell can't distinguish what's ours and what's viral. Therefore our machinery will act to preserve the genomic sequence.", "human_ref_B": "So, viruses deliver a payload of a few genes to a cell and, in some cases depending on the virus and host, will integrate this payload into the host chromosome.  Then that cell can make a number of viruses.    BUT  There's always some mutation occurring, and if a virus is silent after its insertion into the chromosome (which happens fairly frequently), it's possible that the viral genes get silenced by some manner (mutations in promoters, which drive gene expression, for instance).  Now you have a bunch of genes that aren't being expressed. If, though evolution, the host evolves a mechanism by which ti can regulate the the viral genes, now the host is in control.  Chances are, those viral genes aren't going to be very useful, but in the long term, the most certainly can be.    There's strong evidence suggesting that, in bacteria, certain pathogen systems, some regulators, and so forth, are horizontally transferred between species and genera.  If you do comparisons of whole viruses to the human chromosome, some similarities arise, too, suggesting that integration of viral genomes into primate chromosomes has occurred and, in a small number of cases, those genes have been exploited for the benefit of the host.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6358.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "13vmgs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If a virus can attack our cells and re-engineer them for its own benefit, why can't the opposite occur?  Or does it? The thought occurred to me while watching this last night.", "c_root_id_A": "c77nrjg", "c_root_id_B": "c77tbt8", "created_at_utc_A": 1354045668, "created_at_utc_B": 1354064525, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "So, viruses deliver a payload of a few genes to a cell and, in some cases depending on the virus and host, will integrate this payload into the host chromosome.  Then that cell can make a number of viruses.    BUT  There's always some mutation occurring, and if a virus is silent after its insertion into the chromosome (which happens fairly frequently), it's possible that the viral genes get silenced by some manner (mutations in promoters, which drive gene expression, for instance).  Now you have a bunch of genes that aren't being expressed. If, though evolution, the host evolves a mechanism by which ti can regulate the the viral genes, now the host is in control.  Chances are, those viral genes aren't going to be very useful, but in the long term, the most certainly can be.    There's strong evidence suggesting that, in bacteria, certain pathogen systems, some regulators, and so forth, are horizontally transferred between species and genera.  If you do comparisons of whole viruses to the human chromosome, some similarities arise, too, suggesting that integration of viral genomes into primate chromosomes has occurred and, in a small number of cases, those genes have been exploited for the benefit of the host.", "human_ref_B": "Get ready for a long one:  To say a virus \"re-engineers\" a cell is a little misleading. The virus doesn't do anything to the cell that it isn't already capable of doing. The cell doesn\u2019t suddenly become able to attack other cells or kill cancer or do anything except live the way it was living before infected with the virus (and maybe die sooner). This is because the virus doesn\u2019t provide any information that changes the cell so drastically it becomes something totally different.   The goal of the virus, like all things, is to grow and make more of itself. However viruses can't grow and make more of themselves alone, they must use a cell. They must use the cell because they are so small. I\u2019ll explain.  Lets talk about what a virus is: it's just a strip of DNA or RNA (code) protected by a hard outer shell made of protein. Viruses are very small, and one must fit all its DNA/RNA into its shell. The more code it has, the larger the virus must become (requiring even more code) and the more difficult it is to fit into its shell (think about trying to fit a house's worth of things into a one-bedroom apartment, it either wouldn't work or would take some impressively tricky storage solutions). Because a virus is limited by the space of its shell, that limits the size of its genome (entire DNA/RNA code). One of the ways it does this is by not including any information for things the cell already has (why bring more of one dish to a party when the host has already provided three of the same). This is why a virus must use a cell to grow and replicate: it doesn't have all the machinery it needs because evolution has limited its size to be as small as it can effectively be.   Viruses usually only have a few genes for making their shell and few others for various functions depending on the virus (ex: a retrovirus with an RNA genome like HIV must have a gene that codes for a protein that converts RNA into DNA since cells do not have this protein).  That\u2019s a virus, but what about the cell: A lot of the time the cell will replicate the viral genome without any help from special genes from the virus, but sometimes viruses have genes that trick the cell into stopping its own replication and focus only on replication of the virus. This is how they \u201cre-engineer\u201d the cell. And because this is how they \u201cre-engineer\u201d the cell, they don\u2019t provide any useful information/genes for the cell. The cell is a working machine: it does what it does, and it does it perfectly. All a virus has are genes that benefit itself, never the cell, so there is no reason for the cell to try to use this information and re-engineer it for itself.   Another reason the cell doesn\u2019t re-engineer the virus is because anytime a cell is infected with a virus it will die very quickly. Either because the virus made so many of itself that it pops the cell, or because the cell realizes it\u2019s infected and sends out an SOS to the immune system to kill it. These cells die too quickly to make use of anything beneficial the virus might provide.   Although, technically I suppose it is possible for the cell to make use of the virus if the viral genome gets put into the cells own code (chromosome). Over thousands of years, mutation could render the viral genes beneficial in some way or at least make them non-harmful. However, very few viruses can actual get their genome to insert into the cell\u2019s DNA chromosome. And that degree of evolution is an extremely slow process. There are viral genes encoded in the human genome from ancient viruses that did integrate, however I\u2019m not sure how beneficial their role is, or if they even have a role (they could just be turned off permanently by the cell).   Sorry the the long teaching less, just wanted to make sure anyone reading had an understanding of viruses to begin with.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18857.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "13vmgs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "If a virus can attack our cells and re-engineer them for its own benefit, why can't the opposite occur?  Or does it? The thought occurred to me while watching this last night.", "c_root_id_A": "c77nrjg", "c_root_id_B": "c77u7ma", "created_at_utc_A": 1354045668, "created_at_utc_B": 1354067888, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "So, viruses deliver a payload of a few genes to a cell and, in some cases depending on the virus and host, will integrate this payload into the host chromosome.  Then that cell can make a number of viruses.    BUT  There's always some mutation occurring, and if a virus is silent after its insertion into the chromosome (which happens fairly frequently), it's possible that the viral genes get silenced by some manner (mutations in promoters, which drive gene expression, for instance).  Now you have a bunch of genes that aren't being expressed. If, though evolution, the host evolves a mechanism by which ti can regulate the the viral genes, now the host is in control.  Chances are, those viral genes aren't going to be very useful, but in the long term, the most certainly can be.    There's strong evidence suggesting that, in bacteria, certain pathogen systems, some regulators, and so forth, are horizontally transferred between species and genera.  If you do comparisons of whole viruses to the human chromosome, some similarities arise, too, suggesting that integration of viral genomes into primate chromosomes has occurred and, in a small number of cases, those genes have been exploited for the benefit of the host.", "human_ref_B": "I don't have much time to explain so I'll just leave this here.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogenous_retrovirus  Basically, gene sequences resulting from viral infections that are transmitted to the offspring (when germ cells are infected) can become part of the genome of all descendants. It is estimated that about 10%(!) of the human genome is the result of ancient infections and these probably played a very important role in our divergence from other primates.  Full review article about these endogenous viruses", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22220.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lrl3y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How strong does a drink have to be to dehydrate you? Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion which leads to the old \"one drink in two drinks out.\"  Do drinks below a certain percent alcohol by volume hydrate you while drinks over that point dehydrate you?", "c_root_id_A": "c2v1bqu", "c_root_id_B": "c2v1jj4", "created_at_utc_A": 1319759985, "created_at_utc_B": 1319761622, "score_A": -33, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Scotch and water.  BOOM.  PROBLEM.  SOLVED.", "human_ref_B": "Question: Do you have a source for your 2 in 1 out info? I've never been able to find one.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1637.0, "score_ratio": -0.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lrl3y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How strong does a drink have to be to dehydrate you? Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion which leads to the old \"one drink in two drinks out.\"  Do drinks below a certain percent alcohol by volume hydrate you while drinks over that point dehydrate you?", "c_root_id_A": "c2v4e67", "c_root_id_B": "c2v1mk8", "created_at_utc_A": 1319785724, "created_at_utc_B": 1319762269, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Alcohol's effect as a diuretic is a function of your BAC, not the ABV of a drink. The drunker you are, the more you need to piss, regardless of what you are drinking.", "human_ref_B": "While I am no means an expert in this field, I do know that in the past alcoholic drinks such as ale and wine were popular because the process of brewing killed off much of the bacteria in the dirty water they had. So I must assume one or more of these:  A. Brews have gotten more potent with time B. Everyone was always wasted back then C. We used to not get as dehydrated as we do now  Albeit none of this is related, but interesting nonetheless.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23455.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lrl3y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How strong does a drink have to be to dehydrate you? Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion which leads to the old \"one drink in two drinks out.\"  Do drinks below a certain percent alcohol by volume hydrate you while drinks over that point dehydrate you?", "c_root_id_A": "c2v4e67", "c_root_id_B": "c2v1bqu", "created_at_utc_A": 1319785724, "created_at_utc_B": 1319759985, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -33, "human_ref_A": "Alcohol's effect as a diuretic is a function of your BAC, not the ABV of a drink. The drunker you are, the more you need to piss, regardless of what you are drinking.", "human_ref_B": "Scotch and water.  BOOM.  PROBLEM.  SOLVED.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25739.0, "score_ratio": -0.0606060606, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lrl3y", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How strong does a drink have to be to dehydrate you? Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion which leads to the old \"one drink in two drinks out.\"  Do drinks below a certain percent alcohol by volume hydrate you while drinks over that point dehydrate you?", "c_root_id_A": "c2v1bqu", "c_root_id_B": "c2v1mk8", "created_at_utc_A": 1319759985, "created_at_utc_B": 1319762269, "score_A": -33, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "Scotch and water.  BOOM.  PROBLEM.  SOLVED.", "human_ref_B": "While I am no means an expert in this field, I do know that in the past alcoholic drinks such as ale and wine were popular because the process of brewing killed off much of the bacteria in the dirty water they had. So I must assume one or more of these:  A. Brews have gotten more potent with time B. Everyone was always wasted back then C. We used to not get as dehydrated as we do now  Albeit none of this is related, but interesting nonetheless.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2284.0, "score_ratio": 0.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bp66ni", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.97, "history": "Why is it more difficult to breathe warm air? When I get into my car when the sun has been baking it all day, I feel like I can barely fill my lungs.  In cool air, though, breathing is much more comfortable.  Why is body-temperature air stifling vs cooler air?", "c_root_id_A": "entvawd", "c_root_id_B": "ensvtbs", "created_at_utc_A": 1558048210, "created_at_utc_B": 1558034123, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It\u2019s not harder to breath, but there is less oxygen per volume of hot air compared to cold air. Cold gases are denser, meaning more oxygen per volume, your body feels this lack of oxygen in the air and tells you to breath harder to make sure you continue to get the requisite amount of oxygen that your body needs to survive.", "human_ref_B": "I\u2019m no expert but warm air has higher temperature so your lungs don\u2019t feel much change in temperature because it is already warm. But if it is cold then you can notice the difference more and thus feel like you have indeed received air. Also the warm air is sometime more humid so it may be thicker and thus more difficult to breathe.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14087.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pu3jd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Our bodies seem to be very good at maintaining their core temperature.  So how does our body's \"natural thermometer\" work?", "c_root_id_A": "c3s935p", "c_root_id_B": "c3s8s6t", "created_at_utc_A": 1329502827, "created_at_utc_B": 1329501164, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Mutatron is right. It is extremely complex. I however, wanted to add that some of us have an irregular means of keeping temperature. I myself will always have ~100 F body temp. I have an extremely rare disorder known as malignant hyperthermia    I am in the 99% of it's severity. My muscles do not release carbon properly. And can completely stop releasing carbon if I take any muscle relaxants. I also have a hyper sensitivity to Epinephrine. I suppose I didn't answer your question at all. But wanted to chime in that it is so complex that even one little recessive gene can make a person allergic to Anesthesia.", "human_ref_B": "It's fairly complex. Could you be more specific?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1663.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i5klx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Do animals have personality or mental disorders, like humans? For example, can dogs suffer from schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or depression? What about other animals?  I know animals that have been mistreated or abused can develop anti-personality disorder, but can other mental disorders arise naturally? How can these things be tested, besides measuring levels of neurotransmitters?", "c_root_id_A": "c213fl4", "c_root_id_B": "c213fuw", "created_at_utc_A": 1308692376, "created_at_utc_B": 1308692445, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "narcoleptic dog", "human_ref_B": "Many personality or mental disorders are 'quantified' by the behaviors a person/animal exhibits. So, we'd see if the animals have certain behaviors deemed 'deviant' from the norm for that animal. We don't have to quantify levels of neurotransmitters to determine someone has a personality/mental disorder, we use various surveys and checklists (from the person themselves as well as in at least two other settings/with to other people) to determine behaviors and thoughts that are signs of these disorders. Then the 'treatment' matches the behavior, whether that is cognitive behavioral therapy, medication, etc.   Because most of human mental disorders are seen as 'deficits' in functioning, we're not as likely to be able to identify them in animals without a much better understanding of animal behavior itself.  Also, many of these mental/personality disorders are a function of having frontal lobes/more developed brains. Animals without these brain structures may not show the same issues because they don't have the 'normal' state.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 69.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gflwj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "In an 80-year life span, roughly how many generations of bacteria live and die in one's gut?", "c_root_id_A": "c1n7a3i", "c_root_id_B": "c1n78on", "created_at_utc_A": 1301589247, "created_at_utc_B": 1301588840, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "> \u2026in the intestinal tract, the coliform's generation time is estimated to be 12-24 hours\u2026  So about 50 000, give or take, for *E. coli*.", "human_ref_B": "The textbook answer is that E. coli takes 20 minutes to double.  So that would  be about 2 million generations.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 407.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "to5yu2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "How does anesthesia \"tax the body\"? I recently had surgery and the doctor recommended spinal painkiller instead of general anesthesia due to the latter being very \"taxing on the body\", and that it takes a while to recover from it. Why is this the case?", "c_root_id_A": "i252gth", "c_root_id_B": "i25at1t", "created_at_utc_A": 1648257339, "created_at_utc_B": 1648261453, "score_A": 617, "score_B": 9370, "human_ref_A": "During general anesthesia, you are put to sleep, paralyzed, and then have a breathing tube inserted. You remain paralyzed with the machine breathing for you.   During the surgery, your body can still react to the procedure. You don\u2019t feel pain, but it knows that parts are being cut/sewn/burned etc. but it can\u2019t react the same, which means the anesthesiologist is frequently giving meds to speed up your heart, pump up or lower your blood pressure, drugs to keep you asleep. The surgery itself can mean fluid and blood loss that the anesthesiologist also is keeping up with.   This all as you can imagine means periods when you might have too low oxygen, heart rate, blood pressure, before the machines pick it up and the doc can try to give medicines to correct it, and thus a lot of stress on the system.   Your body does a much better job regulating all of this specific to your needs. So if they can keep some or all of you \u201cawake\u201d and doing it yourself (breathing on your own, etc) it tends to be a lot safer for the body.  Edit: changed a contraction to be more clear", "human_ref_B": "I am an anesthesiologist.  Many of the medications we use to induce or maintain general anesthesia impair your body's ability to maintain physiological homeostasis:  You are unable to normally compensate for drops in blood pressure, you lose the ability to maintain your own temperature, you can't regulate the amount of carbon dioxide/oxygen/hydrogen in your blood, you lose your airway reflexes and can't swallow your own spit, etc.  Depending on the case, you may not be able to breathe on your own (either because of the surgery, or because I gave you a paralytic).  Your inability to do these things forces me to give you other medications or perform other interventions to counteract these changes, and prevent something bad from happening.  Depending on your medical history, general anesthesia can be very risky.  For example, if you have a heart problem, or a blood pressure problem, your blood pressure might drop to a critically low level at the start of the case or any point afterward.  Therefore, I have to do more \"stuff\" to keep your body working properly while you are asleep. Even after I wake you up, it still takes a few hours for you body to fully recover the ability regulate itself again - specifically, it's ability to regulate your breathing, to keep your blood pressure up, to keep your airway open, and so on.  That is why you spend time \"sleeping off\" my drugs in PACU - the post-anesthesia care unit - where a nurse can keep an eye on you.  When I perform a spinal anesthetic, I am basically putting medication around your spinal cord that makes you numb from the site of injection, down. Since you are numb, I do not have to put you under general anesthesia.  But I will usually give you some IV medication to make you sleep (since being awake and numb during surgery is rather boring). This \"sleep\" is not a natural sleep, but it is much closer to a natural sleep than general anesthesia (in that you are still arousable).  Like general anesthesia, you do lose some of your ability to maintain homeostasis. But the changes are not nearly severe. You recover your ability to self regulate much faster, possibly even before the spinal anesthetic wears off.  (edit: When your doctor said it takes \"awhile\" to recover, I suspect he was referring to the hours it takes to recover from general anesthesia in the PACU vs the shorter time it takes to recover from IV sedation. I doubt he was referring to any long-term effect.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4114.0, "score_ratio": 15.1863857374, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2d0osv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "What is the chemical(s) in the numbing anesthesia that dentists use, and how does it work?", "c_root_id_A": "cjl3tvf", "c_root_id_B": "cjl4ad5", "created_at_utc_A": 1407550763, "created_at_utc_B": 1407551920, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The most common anesthetics are Novocain and Lidocaine. Nerves send their signals by becoming positively charged and sending that current (action potential) down the nerve. These signals eventually reach the brain and we sense things like pain. Novocain and Lidocaine stop sodium ion channels that let in positively charged ions into the nerve from working. Without the positive sodium ions entering the nerve a positive charge can not be achieved and the signals are silenced. This results in the numbing one feels when these drugs are administered.", "human_ref_B": "The chemicals used by the dentist for numbing are local anesthestics which fall into two chemical categories bases on their structure: esters and amides. I think dentist primarily use lidocaine now, though procaine (aka novocaine) was used more in the past. Local anesthetics work by crossing into nerve cells near where they are injected and blocking the sodium channels. Blocking the sodium channels prevents the nerve from \"firing\" or sending a signal along itself and then to the next nerve cell all the way up to the brain to relay information. In this case the nerve cell doesn't fire and the brain never gets the signal that there is pain in the area that the local anesthesia was injected.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1157.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "eiw47", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "dear /r/askscience, i'm looking to get my brother a subscription to a good science magazine for christmas.  any ideas besides scientific american? there's got to be better ones out there, right?", "c_root_id_A": "c18exka", "c_root_id_B": "c18fdqn", "created_at_utc_A": 1291898956, "created_at_utc_B": 1291908935, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Depends what you mean by \"better.\" Scientific american is an excellent magazine for those interested in science that is still a general, popular science magazine, and is actually probably what you want. Popular science is very dumbed down, really just is illustrating cool gadgets and the such, but is good if your brother doesn't have the science expertise to follow Scientific American. There's also Discover magazine, can't really comment too much on that. They do have an annual top stories of the year issue which can be interesting.  If you want the really serious magazines (read: professional scientists read these journals), Nature and Science are the most prestigious, general journals. Each issue has general science news and articles that is accessible for everyone, and then their infamous research articles which I still find difficult to understand. Also, subscriptions to these journals are expensive (about $200 a year), and most people just get access to them through a university.", "human_ref_B": "New Scientist is fun and they always cite peer-reviewed publications but I understand they have a tendency to sensationalize.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9979.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "eiw47", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "dear /r/askscience, i'm looking to get my brother a subscription to a good science magazine for christmas.  any ideas besides scientific american? there's got to be better ones out there, right?", "c_root_id_A": "c18f2se", "c_root_id_B": "c18fdqn", "created_at_utc_A": 1291903182, "created_at_utc_B": 1291908935, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Like SodaNym mentioned, National Geographic is pretty decent. They get some wicked photography in there as well.", "human_ref_B": "New Scientist is fun and they always cite peer-reviewed publications but I understand they have a tendency to sensationalize.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5753.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "eiw47", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "dear /r/askscience, i'm looking to get my brother a subscription to a good science magazine for christmas.  any ideas besides scientific american? there's got to be better ones out there, right?", "c_root_id_A": "c18f7tp", "c_root_id_B": "c18fdqn", "created_at_utc_A": 1291906054, "created_at_utc_B": 1291908935, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "It may be too specific, but I really enjoy Chemical and Engineering News (http://pubs.acs.org/cen/).  It gives you a nice balance on how technical it is, and there are always interesting articles.", "human_ref_B": "New Scientist is fun and they always cite peer-reviewed publications but I understand they have a tendency to sensationalize.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2881.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1x6kpq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What would be the effect on the earth/solar system if all the stars except the sun were removed from the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "cf8nehv", "c_root_id_B": "cf8kwav", "created_at_utc_A": 1391708598, "created_at_utc_B": 1391703279, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "* A supernova could end all life on Earth if it happened anywhere nearby, so that (incredibly remote) threat would go away.  * Some energetic particles from outer space-- cosmic rays-- would go away, which could hypothetically have a very small effect on cancer rates. Larger would be the effect for astronauts, for whom cosmic rays are a serious danger, but I'm not sure what percentage of them come from the sun vs. outer space. My guess is most are from the sun.  * A very small portion of the static on your TV screen (if you have an old TV) would go away. (Not the radiation from the Cosmic Microwave Background, but radiation from actual stars, which is some small fraction of the radiation floating around). Again, basically no effect.  * Lack of supernovae would mean that we don't have \"standard candles\" to gauge astronomical distances, so that would become more difficult; then again, there would be a lot less to look at.  * You mentioned stars, but not planets or nebulae. So there would be a lot of planets flying around out there, and along with nebulae, would probably eventually ignite a few new stars.  * You didn't mention black holes or dark matter either, so it's possible that many galaxies would actually retain their shape, and that when new stars did appear, they would be floating in the same galactic disc they are now.  * Edit: Animals that use the stars to navigate (like the dung beetle, which was recently discovered to use the Milky Way to navigate), would get pretty lost.", "human_ref_B": "Well, gravity goes as 1/r^2, so all those stars doe not affect us gravitationally in a way that even comes close to being significant.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5319.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1x6kpq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What would be the effect on the earth/solar system if all the stars except the sun were removed from the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "cf8lyp0", "c_root_id_B": "cf8nehv", "created_at_utc_A": 1391705510, "created_at_utc_B": 1391708598, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Our solar system would continue to exist as it has for the last 4.5 billion years. The other stars near us are too far away to actively gravitationally influence us. It would eliminate the chances of a random star passing too near by us and disrupting the planetary orbits, however this is extremely unlikely due to the vastness of interstellar space. We wouldn't have any stars in the night sky either so it would just be the sun, planets, and the moon visible in our sky.", "human_ref_B": "* A supernova could end all life on Earth if it happened anywhere nearby, so that (incredibly remote) threat would go away.  * Some energetic particles from outer space-- cosmic rays-- would go away, which could hypothetically have a very small effect on cancer rates. Larger would be the effect for astronauts, for whom cosmic rays are a serious danger, but I'm not sure what percentage of them come from the sun vs. outer space. My guess is most are from the sun.  * A very small portion of the static on your TV screen (if you have an old TV) would go away. (Not the radiation from the Cosmic Microwave Background, but radiation from actual stars, which is some small fraction of the radiation floating around). Again, basically no effect.  * Lack of supernovae would mean that we don't have \"standard candles\" to gauge astronomical distances, so that would become more difficult; then again, there would be a lot less to look at.  * You mentioned stars, but not planets or nebulae. So there would be a lot of planets flying around out there, and along with nebulae, would probably eventually ignite a few new stars.  * You didn't mention black holes or dark matter either, so it's possible that many galaxies would actually retain their shape, and that when new stars did appear, they would be floating in the same galactic disc they are now.  * Edit: Animals that use the stars to navigate (like the dung beetle, which was recently discovered to use the Milky Way to navigate), would get pretty lost.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3088.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9cqbjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What\u2019s beneath megaliths like Stone Henge and monuments like the pyramids? I\u2019m not asking how they were erected. There\u2019s lots of theories there.  My question is, and I\u2019ve searched, what kind of base material was used when placing ancient megaliths like Stonehenge? If any?  They don\u2019t seem to have moved much, if at all.  Were they placed deep on aggregate material? Were they just stood on the surface? (Surely not!)  The same question applies to menhirs. How are they still securely standing?  I\u2019ve searched and searched and I can find any real answers. Maybe someone is better at Googling than I...", "c_root_id_A": "e5d4b8y", "c_root_id_B": "e5ddl2f", "created_at_utc_A": 1536044128, "created_at_utc_B": 1536062518, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I presume that you are asking why those monuments have not sunk into the earth, like dinosaur bones?  Because they are newer, Not yet covered over by oceans and sediments. The planet covers some things up, and exposes others. The gems and minerals that are now found at the surface level of the mines near where I live, in North Carolina, were formed millions of years ago, at depths of 15 miles or more. They have only recently surfaced.  Continental plate movements give, and taketh away.", "human_ref_B": "My interest is European prehistory so maybe I can give you some answers relating to those sites...  Firstly - standing stones do move but admittedly not the scale that other stones do over longer geological time scales. Stonehenge for example has been re-erected by early archaeologists.  At Calanais in Scotland the site was buried in 1.5m of peat before it became the site we know today.   As far as I know, there are no 'base materials' at prehistoric sites but for standing stones, deep holes were dug and a sizeable proportion is buried beneath the surface to ensure it stays upright. Also at Calanais, they rediscovered a buried standing stone and found other smaller stones which formed a socket around the base of it (which it slotted back into), presumably put there to keep it in place when erected. So stones often don't remain standing for thousands of years and do collapse, get buried and are often re-erected.  On a side note (if this is the sort of thing that interests you!) often stone circles were the latest in a long line of other structures built on the same site. Again at Calanais there are post-holes for a wooden structure that predates it and at sites like Maeshowe in Orkney archaeologists think the tomb was previously a stone circle and perhaps an even earlier structure existed there before that. Stone may have been used because they wanted something more permanent and stable, or as some archaeologists have argued, because stone may be connected more with the dead than the living.  Hope that helps!  https://www.historicenvironment.scot/archives-and-research/publications/publication/?publicationId=b6aee5fd-5980-4872-a2e0-a63c00cc7b68 \\- excavation of Calanais stone circle, Isle of Lewis, Scotland  http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/history/research/ \\- history of stonehenge", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18390.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9cqbjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What\u2019s beneath megaliths like Stone Henge and monuments like the pyramids? I\u2019m not asking how they were erected. There\u2019s lots of theories there.  My question is, and I\u2019ve searched, what kind of base material was used when placing ancient megaliths like Stonehenge? If any?  They don\u2019t seem to have moved much, if at all.  Were they placed deep on aggregate material? Were they just stood on the surface? (Surely not!)  The same question applies to menhirs. How are they still securely standing?  I\u2019ve searched and searched and I can find any real answers. Maybe someone is better at Googling than I...", "c_root_id_A": "e5d7d7g", "c_root_id_B": "e5ddl2f", "created_at_utc_A": 1536050556, "created_at_utc_B": 1536062518, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "A few millennia isn't really enough time for something to actually *sink* into normal ground.  Burial is the only phenomenon that would cause these structures to end up significantly below the surface, and the ones that are still above ground simply aren't in areas where sediment buildup is an issue.", "human_ref_B": "My interest is European prehistory so maybe I can give you some answers relating to those sites...  Firstly - standing stones do move but admittedly not the scale that other stones do over longer geological time scales. Stonehenge for example has been re-erected by early archaeologists.  At Calanais in Scotland the site was buried in 1.5m of peat before it became the site we know today.   As far as I know, there are no 'base materials' at prehistoric sites but for standing stones, deep holes were dug and a sizeable proportion is buried beneath the surface to ensure it stays upright. Also at Calanais, they rediscovered a buried standing stone and found other smaller stones which formed a socket around the base of it (which it slotted back into), presumably put there to keep it in place when erected. So stones often don't remain standing for thousands of years and do collapse, get buried and are often re-erected.  On a side note (if this is the sort of thing that interests you!) often stone circles were the latest in a long line of other structures built on the same site. Again at Calanais there are post-holes for a wooden structure that predates it and at sites like Maeshowe in Orkney archaeologists think the tomb was previously a stone circle and perhaps an even earlier structure existed there before that. Stone may have been used because they wanted something more permanent and stable, or as some archaeologists have argued, because stone may be connected more with the dead than the living.  Hope that helps!  https://www.historicenvironment.scot/archives-and-research/publications/publication/?publicationId=b6aee5fd-5980-4872-a2e0-a63c00cc7b68 \\- excavation of Calanais stone circle, Isle of Lewis, Scotland  http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/history/research/ \\- history of stonehenge", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11962.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9cqbjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What\u2019s beneath megaliths like Stone Henge and monuments like the pyramids? I\u2019m not asking how they were erected. There\u2019s lots of theories there.  My question is, and I\u2019ve searched, what kind of base material was used when placing ancient megaliths like Stonehenge? If any?  They don\u2019t seem to have moved much, if at all.  Were they placed deep on aggregate material? Were they just stood on the surface? (Surely not!)  The same question applies to menhirs. How are they still securely standing?  I\u2019ve searched and searched and I can find any real answers. Maybe someone is better at Googling than I...", "c_root_id_A": "e5div5y", "c_root_id_B": "e5fpiq4", "created_at_utc_A": 1536068990, "created_at_utc_B": 1536158118, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Like, a foundation?  The pyramids don't need a foundation; given the shape, they're already stable. A pyramid can't really topple over - there was a pyramid attempted on a site which couldn't support the weight: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bent_Pyramid.  Menhirs and Stonehenge are stable enough not to fall over, but they're much shorter than the pyramids, and very heavy rock. Some of the stones taper a bit toward the top, which helps, and were placed in dug-out sockets. But there's no grand foundational substructure.", "human_ref_B": "The chalk bedrock is relatively shallow at the site (see these photos of a nearby dig), so the combination of a hole deep enough to stand them in the first place plus not much further to sink before resting on solid substrate is probably a reasonable first pass explanation.   There's some suggestion that e.g. the heel stone were already on site as part of the natural geology, and were just stood vertical from an original horizontal resting place resting on bedrock and showing through the soil, evidenced by traces of a corresponding pit nearby. One proposal is that an alignment of naturally occurring stones prompted the gradual creation of the more elaborate monument.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 89128.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9cqbjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "What\u2019s beneath megaliths like Stone Henge and monuments like the pyramids? I\u2019m not asking how they were erected. There\u2019s lots of theories there.  My question is, and I\u2019ve searched, what kind of base material was used when placing ancient megaliths like Stonehenge? If any?  They don\u2019t seem to have moved much, if at all.  Were they placed deep on aggregate material? Were they just stood on the surface? (Surely not!)  The same question applies to menhirs. How are they still securely standing?  I\u2019ve searched and searched and I can find any real answers. Maybe someone is better at Googling than I...", "c_root_id_A": "e5fpiq4", "c_root_id_B": "e5do858", "created_at_utc_A": 1536158118, "created_at_utc_B": 1536074164, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The chalk bedrock is relatively shallow at the site (see these photos of a nearby dig), so the combination of a hole deep enough to stand them in the first place plus not much further to sink before resting on solid substrate is probably a reasonable first pass explanation.   There's some suggestion that e.g. the heel stone were already on site as part of the natural geology, and were just stood vertical from an original horizontal resting place resting on bedrock and showing through the soil, evidenced by traces of a corresponding pit nearby. One proposal is that an alignment of naturally occurring stones prompted the gradual creation of the more elaborate monument.", "human_ref_B": "For the Egyptian sites, a lot of those structures were covered in sand before they were dug out. For example, This is what the sphinx looked like before the rest was uncovered", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 83954.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "48ugag", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "GPS satellites work because they adjust for similar bending of spacetime to coordinate with systems on Earth. Why wouldn't they? What possible errors could they make without this adjustment? I thought all they do is to point us direction or pinpoint our location. Why are they really concerned about time?", "c_root_id_A": "d0mum6k", "c_root_id_B": "d0n8afd", "created_at_utc_A": 1457058436, "created_at_utc_B": 1457092039, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "GPS satellites are basically just broadcasting the time and their position, that's all they do. Let's say you have a very precise timekeeping instrument locally as well. You then get the signal from one GPS satellite, and by determining the difference between the broadcasted time and your local time you can determine how long that signal spent in flight, and thus your distance to that satellite. You know the position of the satellite so then that give you a sphere of possible points where you could be. Taking a reading from another satellite gives you another sphere of possible positions relative to that one, combining them together you get a circle of position. Adding a third satellite narrows it down to the intersection of another sphere and that circle, which would be two points. Generally you could guess which one it had to be since one will be near Earth's surface while the other would not.  In practice you'd need a 4th satellite since you're unlikely to have a properly synchronized atomic clock on your person in most circumstances, and with 4 satellites you only have one possible location answer which unambiguously determines your position. With 3 satellites you can still make a guess that you're on the surface of the Earth and still get a reasonably accurate answer, but it will be in error depending on your elevation.  Anyway, all of that relies utterly on every clock in the GPS fleet being able to keep their clocks precisely synchronized. And without taking into account the effects of relativity then the clocks would end up no longer in sync and position determinations would then be off by a considerable margin.", "human_ref_B": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_analysis_for_the_Global_Positioning_System#Special_and_General_Relativity  >When combining the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift, the discrepancy is about 38 microseconds per day, a difference of 4.465 parts in 10^10 . Without correction, errors in the initial pseudorange of roughly 10 km/day would accumulate.  So if GPS satellites didn't account for relativistic effect, they would get off by few kilometers every day, making them practically useless.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33603.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bscmfm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Why does anemia make you crave chewing ice?", "c_root_id_A": "eon2qqf", "c_root_id_B": "eon2ugt", "created_at_utc_A": 1558702711, "created_at_utc_B": 1558702807, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "As far as I've searched n a book of pathophysiology, in wikipedia, and in a 1971 JAMA article \"*Food Pica and Iron Deficiency*\" by William H. Crosby, MD; there just isn't a clear explanation.  Edit: And a more recent research article: \"Pathophysiology and management of pica\"", "human_ref_B": "Pica is the symptom of wanting to eat non-nutritive substances like ice, soil or metal  It is a symptom specifically of iron deficiency which is one of the causes of anemia. Presumably some of these otherwise non-nutritive substances might actually have iron in them, but the reason for the symptom is not otherwise well described as far as I am aware  Pica is not a symptom of all causes of anemia", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 96.0, "score_ratio": 7.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mqpxv", "c_root_id_B": "c2mpzkv", "created_at_utc_A": 1317064313, "created_at_utc_B": 1317058989, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Wolfram Alpha makes it really easy to calculate this stuff.  Go to that site and enter: relativistic time dilation at 299,000 km/s  You'll get a calculation page with another input box for moving time. Enter: 4 years  The calculation will come back and tell you that the subjective time is 0.2906 years, or 106 days. That's about three months.  If you're interested in learning the math instead of just reading the answer, any necessary equations and constants are included at the bottom of the page.", "human_ref_B": "The equation when you're going near the speed of light is (4 years)*sqrt(1-v^2 /c^2 ). Plug v in and see.  Here's a graph, which is more valid towards the right side.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5324.0, "score_ratio": 1.4545454545, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mpxbp", "c_root_id_B": "c2mqpxv", "created_at_utc_A": 1317058610, "created_at_utc_B": 1317064313, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "An arbitrarily small amount of time for any distance, depending on your quantification of \"just below\".", "human_ref_B": "Wolfram Alpha makes it really easy to calculate this stuff.  Go to that site and enter: relativistic time dilation at 299,000 km/s  You'll get a calculation page with another input box for moving time. Enter: 4 years  The calculation will come back and tell you that the subjective time is 0.2906 years, or 106 days. That's about three months.  If you're interested in learning the math instead of just reading the answer, any necessary equations and constants are included at the bottom of the page.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5703.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mqd26", "c_root_id_B": "c2mqpxv", "created_at_utc_A": 1317061347, "created_at_utc_B": 1317064313, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Forgive a potentially ignorant question, but from the space traveler's perspective, what's to stop him from assuming he's moving faster than light, considering he measures four months to reach 4ly?", "human_ref_B": "Wolfram Alpha makes it really easy to calculate this stuff.  Go to that site and enter: relativistic time dilation at 299,000 km/s  You'll get a calculation page with another input box for moving time. Enter: 4 years  The calculation will come back and tell you that the subjective time is 0.2906 years, or 106 days. That's about three months.  If you're interested in learning the math instead of just reading the answer, any necessary equations and constants are included at the bottom of the page.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2966.0, "score_ratio": 3.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mqpxv", "c_root_id_B": "c2mq925", "created_at_utc_A": 1317064313, "created_at_utc_B": 1317060622, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Wolfram Alpha makes it really easy to calculate this stuff.  Go to that site and enter: relativistic time dilation at 299,000 km/s  You'll get a calculation page with another input box for moving time. Enter: 4 years  The calculation will come back and tell you that the subjective time is 0.2906 years, or 106 days. That's about three months.  If you're interested in learning the math instead of just reading the answer, any necessary equations and constants are included at the bottom of the page.", "human_ref_B": "Where's the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3691.0, "score_ratio": 16.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mpxbp", "c_root_id_B": "c2mpzkv", "created_at_utc_A": 1317058610, "created_at_utc_B": 1317058989, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "An arbitrarily small amount of time for any distance, depending on your quantification of \"just below\".", "human_ref_B": "The equation when you're going near the speed of light is (4 years)*sqrt(1-v^2 /c^2 ). Plug v in and see.  Here's a graph, which is more valid towards the right side.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 379.0, "score_ratio": 1.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mqd26", "c_root_id_B": "c2mq925", "created_at_utc_A": 1317061347, "created_at_utc_B": 1317060622, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Forgive a potentially ignorant question, but from the space traveler's perspective, what's to stop him from assuming he's moving faster than light, considering he measures four months to reach 4ly?", "human_ref_B": "Where's the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 725.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mquov", "c_root_id_B": "c2mq925", "created_at_utc_A": 1317066470, "created_at_utc_B": 1317060622, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Can I add that this effect is, at least for you in the spaceship, better thought of as a length contraction effect (the distance to Alpha Centauri decreases when you get up to near c) rather than a time dilation effect (which is what an earth-bound observer would observe for a clock on your ship that you see running at 1 tick / sec)?", "human_ref_B": "Where's the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5848.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mr3hd", "c_root_id_B": "c2mq925", "created_at_utc_A": 1317068199, "created_at_utc_B": 1317060622, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Additional question: how much energy would you need to accelerate a ~100 tons spaceship (assuming it's the minimal weight to carry a human crew) to c*0.99 and then decelerate it to reach alpha centauri ?  What kind of device can provide this energy in a reasonable weight/form factor?  In other words: are we doomed to stay inside the solar system?", "human_ref_B": "Where's the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7577.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ks03m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "How long would it take, in SUBJECTIVE time, travelling at just below the speed of light (say, 299,000 km/s) to reach Alpha Centauri? Which is to say, taking into account time dilation. It's about four years away from the point of view of a stationary observer, but how long would the man on the spaceship feel the journey lasting? Hours? Days? Months?  What about the nearest possibly inhabitable planet?", "c_root_id_A": "c2mw26m", "c_root_id_B": "c2msfpm", "created_at_utc_A": 1317106688, "created_at_utc_B": 1317077257, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -4, "human_ref_A": "That doesn't really make sense, there is no real limit to how fast we can travel when you take time dilation into account. When the speed from an earthlings perspective lim -> c, the time taken for the journey from the travelers perspective -> 0.  What you really need to think of is instead the acceleration. If the spacecraft, as an example, accelerated at a very comfortable 10 m/s^2 the 4 lightyear journey would feel like... I'm not qualified to make that calculation :(", "human_ref_B": "At least 12 parsecs.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 29431.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g4f8q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why did humans begin cooking their food? What affect did this have on human evolution?  I have always wondered why humans began cooking their food. While I realize that it may make it easier to digest, why would that have been a problem to begin with since we had evolved not cooking our food. Seems like our stomachs have since evolved, and weakened, necessitating that we now *have* to cook our food. If we had never started cooking our food, surely evolution would have gone the other way allowing us to adapt to a harsher digestion process(?).  Wouldn't it have been better if we never began down this road? It seems most nutrients are lost during the cooking process (more-so with vegetables).", "c_root_id_A": "c1ktmoh", "c_root_id_B": "c1kvcpi", "created_at_utc_A": 1300200173, "created_at_utc_B": 1300221564, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Probably people who cooked their food (especially meat) died less from bacteria and bugs in raw food than people who didn't cook it. There's no turning back after natural selection.", "human_ref_B": "Man, just when I was getting excited, this turns out to be a question about PREhistoric cooking.  Damn!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21391.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g4f8q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why did humans begin cooking their food? What affect did this have on human evolution?  I have always wondered why humans began cooking their food. While I realize that it may make it easier to digest, why would that have been a problem to begin with since we had evolved not cooking our food. Seems like our stomachs have since evolved, and weakened, necessitating that we now *have* to cook our food. If we had never started cooking our food, surely evolution would have gone the other way allowing us to adapt to a harsher digestion process(?).  Wouldn't it have been better if we never began down this road? It seems most nutrients are lost during the cooking process (more-so with vegetables).", "c_root_id_A": "c1kvcpi", "c_root_id_B": "c1ku5d2", "created_at_utc_A": 1300221564, "created_at_utc_B": 1300206741, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Man, just when I was getting excited, this turns out to be a question about PREhistoric cooking.  Damn!", "human_ref_B": "Layman:  Heat also breaks up really complex proteins, so heating your meat before you eat it allows the body simpler protein blocks to deal with. I'm not sure if this meant a better absorption rate, or if this meant less calories used to process the meat, or something along those lines, but complex proteins break down under intense heat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14823.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g4f8q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why did humans begin cooking their food? What affect did this have on human evolution?  I have always wondered why humans began cooking their food. While I realize that it may make it easier to digest, why would that have been a problem to begin with since we had evolved not cooking our food. Seems like our stomachs have since evolved, and weakened, necessitating that we now *have* to cook our food. If we had never started cooking our food, surely evolution would have gone the other way allowing us to adapt to a harsher digestion process(?).  Wouldn't it have been better if we never began down this road? It seems most nutrients are lost during the cooking process (more-so with vegetables).", "c_root_id_A": "c1kvcpi", "c_root_id_B": "c1kurv8", "created_at_utc_A": 1300221564, "created_at_utc_B": 1300214527, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Man, just when I was getting excited, this turns out to be a question about PREhistoric cooking.  Damn!", "human_ref_B": "On a side note: I remember from a documentary that because humans began cooking food that we were allowed more time to socialize. Given the fact that it required much more time and energy to gather fruits and vegetables, let alone digest the raw food, made it less feasible for us to socialize as often as we do now. Cooking food went hand-in-hand with the evolution of higher intelligence.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7037.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g4f8q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why did humans begin cooking their food? What affect did this have on human evolution?  I have always wondered why humans began cooking their food. While I realize that it may make it easier to digest, why would that have been a problem to begin with since we had evolved not cooking our food. Seems like our stomachs have since evolved, and weakened, necessitating that we now *have* to cook our food. If we had never started cooking our food, surely evolution would have gone the other way allowing us to adapt to a harsher digestion process(?).  Wouldn't it have been better if we never began down this road? It seems most nutrients are lost during the cooking process (more-so with vegetables).", "c_root_id_A": "c1ku8q3", "c_root_id_B": "c1ktmoh", "created_at_utc_A": 1300207795, "created_at_utc_B": 1300200173, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": ">Why did humans begin cooking their food?  Not sure.  Cooking breaks down starches and other components, making it easier to absorb more nutrients.  Cooking would also serve to limit exposure to food-borne pathogens.  Many mammals tend to like cooked food when they have the option.  In experiments with mice researchers have found that naive mice with no exposure to cooked foods don't have much of a preference when presented with cooked and uncooked options.  However, mice who have eaten cooked food greatly prefer it over the raw stuff.  Researchers observed baboons entering a burned area after a forest fire and chowing down on the \"cooked\" tubers left behind.  We don't know the exact why of cooking, we just know there seems to be benefits and a preference.  >What affect did this have on human evolution?  Some people hold that cooking is one of the prime movers of human evolution.  Anatomical changes with H. erectus suggest to some researchers that they were cooking by one million years ago while others believe the consistent, controlled use of fire for cooking only emerged in the last several hundred thousand years.  The suite of traits accompanying cooking include decreased intestine length, increased cranial capacity, and decreased tooth size.    Some also propose the use of fire enabled hominins to migrate into the temperate climates of Europe and Africa.  A personal pet theory of mine (warning: I have no proof) is that by cooking hominins were limiting their exposure to pathogens, thus decreasing adult and childhood mortality, thus removing the constraints on longer childhood development.  By the time H. sapiens roll around we have a growth/development pattern unlike other primates with this really strange stage of extended adolescence and cooking might have allowed that change.   Some, like Wrangham, argue for a complete change in social structure with cooking.  He thinks that the collection and preparation of a gathered resource would lead to pair bonding instead of the multi-male, multi-female groups we assume Australopithecines inherited from our chimp-like ancestors.  If there is pair bonding, is there complex language development?    We don't know but many researchers point to fire/cooking as the possible origin of a suite of morphological, developmental, and behavioral traits.", "human_ref_B": "Probably people who cooked their food (especially meat) died less from bacteria and bugs in raw food than people who didn't cook it. There's no turning back after natural selection.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7622.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g4f8q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why did humans begin cooking their food? What affect did this have on human evolution?  I have always wondered why humans began cooking their food. While I realize that it may make it easier to digest, why would that have been a problem to begin with since we had evolved not cooking our food. Seems like our stomachs have since evolved, and weakened, necessitating that we now *have* to cook our food. If we had never started cooking our food, surely evolution would have gone the other way allowing us to adapt to a harsher digestion process(?).  Wouldn't it have been better if we never began down this road? It seems most nutrients are lost during the cooking process (more-so with vegetables).", "c_root_id_A": "c1ku5d2", "c_root_id_B": "c1ku8q3", "created_at_utc_A": 1300206741, "created_at_utc_B": 1300207795, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Layman:  Heat also breaks up really complex proteins, so heating your meat before you eat it allows the body simpler protein blocks to deal with. I'm not sure if this meant a better absorption rate, or if this meant less calories used to process the meat, or something along those lines, but complex proteins break down under intense heat.", "human_ref_B": ">Why did humans begin cooking their food?  Not sure.  Cooking breaks down starches and other components, making it easier to absorb more nutrients.  Cooking would also serve to limit exposure to food-borne pathogens.  Many mammals tend to like cooked food when they have the option.  In experiments with mice researchers have found that naive mice with no exposure to cooked foods don't have much of a preference when presented with cooked and uncooked options.  However, mice who have eaten cooked food greatly prefer it over the raw stuff.  Researchers observed baboons entering a burned area after a forest fire and chowing down on the \"cooked\" tubers left behind.  We don't know the exact why of cooking, we just know there seems to be benefits and a preference.  >What affect did this have on human evolution?  Some people hold that cooking is one of the prime movers of human evolution.  Anatomical changes with H. erectus suggest to some researchers that they were cooking by one million years ago while others believe the consistent, controlled use of fire for cooking only emerged in the last several hundred thousand years.  The suite of traits accompanying cooking include decreased intestine length, increased cranial capacity, and decreased tooth size.    Some also propose the use of fire enabled hominins to migrate into the temperate climates of Europe and Africa.  A personal pet theory of mine (warning: I have no proof) is that by cooking hominins were limiting their exposure to pathogens, thus decreasing adult and childhood mortality, thus removing the constraints on longer childhood development.  By the time H. sapiens roll around we have a growth/development pattern unlike other primates with this really strange stage of extended adolescence and cooking might have allowed that change.   Some, like Wrangham, argue for a complete change in social structure with cooking.  He thinks that the collection and preparation of a gathered resource would lead to pair bonding instead of the multi-male, multi-female groups we assume Australopithecines inherited from our chimp-like ancestors.  If there is pair bonding, is there complex language development?    We don't know but many researchers point to fire/cooking as the possible origin of a suite of morphological, developmental, and behavioral traits.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1054.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "akmm0f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How were diffraction patterns for crystallography resolved before computers? Was it done using pencil and paper calculations that translated into structures or did the patterns more directly correspond to certain structures?  Edit: clarified in post body", "c_root_id_A": "ef6mjdo", "c_root_id_B": "ef6ruu5", "created_at_utc_A": 1548693542, "created_at_utc_B": 1548696753, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "If you're talking about for metals and other materials with repeating, mostly uniform crystal structures, then the math is not too difficult and you can do the fourier transforms and figure out everything from an X-ray diffraction pattern.  If you're talking about organics, then it's a lot harder and there wasn't much advancement because of the difficulty.  It's been about a decade since I took a class on protein crystallography, but bear with me.  The process is the same as for crystalline solids - make a diffraction pattern, do fourier transforms to get the real image, then do measurements or calculations and other math to get the numbers you're looking for.    Because of the complexity of proteins vs. solids, even if you could do the math and get a result, the result might be meaningless, because nothing was easily measurable or relatable, like with solids.   IIRC, you could do a whole dissertation (or apparently get a nobel prize) just from figuring out one protein. And on top of that, crystallizing proteins at all has had huge leaps forward in just the last 20 years. It used to take a long time just to get a sample you could put in the x-ray.", "human_ref_B": "You don\u2019t need computers for the calculations needed to solve crystal structures, you can do that by hand (using slide rules and lookup tables) if you really wanted. In fact if you read Dorothy Hodgkin\u2019s Nobel lecture, that was exactly what was done. She used the Patterson function to solve the phase problem, and Beevers-Lipson strips (essentially sine and cosine tables condensed into a form more useful for X-ray crystallography) were used to speed up the calculations of the Fourier transforms. She acknowledged in her lecture that those methods would\u2019ve been considered primitive even at that time (1964). But the tedium of these calculations is not what earned her the recognition she has today. Her contribution was that she was a pioneer, if not *the* pioneer, of X-ray crystallography for biomolecules. Before her no one even thought of using X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of biomolecules, even though we\u2019d known for decades that biomolecules *do* form crystals and X-rays can be used for structure determination of crystals.  A bit of a sidetrack, I work with \u03b2-lactam antibiotics and in the time after penicillin was discovered, there was much debate about the structure. Most of the chemical evidence was weighted towards what we now know is the correct structure, but the question was solved once and for all by the structure she obtained. I don\u2019t think it\u2019s possible to overstate the contributions she made in the field of biomolecule structure determination.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3211.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "akmm0f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How were diffraction patterns for crystallography resolved before computers? Was it done using pencil and paper calculations that translated into structures or did the patterns more directly correspond to certain structures?  Edit: clarified in post body", "c_root_id_A": "ef6p7ca", "c_root_id_B": "ef6ruu5", "created_at_utc_A": 1548695155, "created_at_utc_B": 1548696753, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Single crystal X ray diffraction patterns showed up as bright spots on an x ray sensitive film. Measuring the angles and distances between the spots and comparing them to the ratios of the possible crystal patterns allowed scientists to relate the patterns to the material being analyzed.", "human_ref_B": "You don\u2019t need computers for the calculations needed to solve crystal structures, you can do that by hand (using slide rules and lookup tables) if you really wanted. In fact if you read Dorothy Hodgkin\u2019s Nobel lecture, that was exactly what was done. She used the Patterson function to solve the phase problem, and Beevers-Lipson strips (essentially sine and cosine tables condensed into a form more useful for X-ray crystallography) were used to speed up the calculations of the Fourier transforms. She acknowledged in her lecture that those methods would\u2019ve been considered primitive even at that time (1964). But the tedium of these calculations is not what earned her the recognition she has today. Her contribution was that she was a pioneer, if not *the* pioneer, of X-ray crystallography for biomolecules. Before her no one even thought of using X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of biomolecules, even though we\u2019d known for decades that biomolecules *do* form crystals and X-rays can be used for structure determination of crystals.  A bit of a sidetrack, I work with \u03b2-lactam antibiotics and in the time after penicillin was discovered, there was much debate about the structure. Most of the chemical evidence was weighted towards what we now know is the correct structure, but the question was solved once and for all by the structure she obtained. I don\u2019t think it\u2019s possible to overstate the contributions she made in the field of biomolecule structure determination.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1598.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1cm309", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "\"Whiskey makes me an angry drunk.\" Do different types of liquor have different effects?  I thought alcohol was the only active ingredient in liquor. Yet people I know claim that alcohol X has effect Y on them. Is their any truth behind this? Or is it a coincidence that they were drinking X while feeling Y?", "c_root_id_A": "c9i89os", "c_root_id_B": "c9i0u50", "created_at_utc_A": 1366342426, "created_at_utc_B": 1366323237, "score_A": 174, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Hard alcohol is primarily three things: water, ethanol (ethyl alcohol), and a small amount of cogeners/flavorings/sugars either produced during fermentation and/or aging, or added afterwards. Liqueurs like Baileys, Kahlua, Pucker, etc aren't fundamentally different, but often contain less alcohol by volume and more flavorings and sweeteners.  Ethanol is ethanol - the ethanol in tequila isn't any different than that in vodka, wine or beer, though the different spirits may have different ethanol levels. Ultimately what makes you drunk is your Blood Alcohol Content, which is just a matter of how much ethanol you consume in a given timespan.  Some liquors contain moderate amounts of cogeners, which are by and large byproducts of fermentation. For a simple crash course in liquor making: you start with a sugar/water mixture, where the sugars are derived from all sorts of various ingredients, like the broken down starches of barley/corn/wheat/rye (for whisky-family liquors), sugarcane/molasses (rum), agave (tequila), etc. You ferment this mixture to a moderate alcohol strength in the 5-15% ethanol range (along with some cogeners - fermentation byproducts), similar to the way beer is made. Then you distill it, a process which increases the proportion of ethanol by removing water and/or other flavors. Some liquors are distilled completely, so that you are left with essentially 95% ethanol and 5% water, and then are watered down to drinking strength (say, 40% for vodka). The 95% pre-diluted product is often referred to as \"neutral grain spirits\" which is a fancy way of saying ethanol, and essentially all of the original base ingredient flavor compounds and cogeners are removed. Other liquors are only partially distilled, which increases the portion of ethanol significantly (for example into the 40%-70% range) which allows some of the flavors derived from the base ingredients and fermentation to remain (rum, whisky, tequila are all examples of this). These products are then often aged in barrels or bottled directly for consumption.  Now, back to the cogeners: these can include esters, acedaldehyde, acetone, fusel alcohols, etc, some of which can be mildly intoxicating (though they are much smaller ingredients by volume than the ethanol, the primary source of intoxication). Some can also trigger mild allergic reactions in some individuals, which may make them feel fuzzier... after all what does it really mean to get \"fucked up\"? The same goes for added sweeteners and extracts found in some liquors.  Don't neglect the mixers - is it fair to compare vodka on the rocks with margaritas, even if controlling for total volume of ethanol consumed? Our brains are bathed in a wash of consciousness-altering chemicals at all times, and consuming large amounts of sugars in a short period changes that state. Same goes for caffeine; if you're knocking back cuba libres or irish coffee your consciousness will be further altered. Historically there were alcoholic drinks that had other state-altering chemicals incorporated, such as henbane in beer/gruit or wormwood in absinthe (though the hallucinogenic qualities of it are very much disputed). If you are consuming anything \"standard\" in the modern world these kind of hallucinogenic ingredients will not be part of the experienced, so I'm writing them off for the sake of this post.  Lastly, and probably most importantly - don't neglect the power of social situations and ritualization of alcohol in our culture. What kind of social situations are you in when you decide to sip a glass of scotch? How about when you decide to take shots of tequila? The drinking environment can have a big impact on your energy level, mood, and the quantity and rate at which you consume alcohol, and provide fodder to the positive feedback loop of confirmation bias.  PS I have no formal scientific background in this topic, however I am a certified beer judge and homebrewer and have spent quite a lot of time studying the chemistry of alcoholic drinks. I'm happy to elaborate on any of the topics above with references if you would like.", "human_ref_B": "Would rate of consumption play a role?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19189.0, "score_ratio": 7.9090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1cm309", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "\"Whiskey makes me an angry drunk.\" Do different types of liquor have different effects?  I thought alcohol was the only active ingredient in liquor. Yet people I know claim that alcohol X has effect Y on them. Is their any truth behind this? Or is it a coincidence that they were drinking X while feeling Y?", "c_root_id_A": "c9idxzt", "c_root_id_B": "c9if5e4", "created_at_utc_A": 1366362133, "created_at_utc_B": 1366376258, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "It's worth mentioning that wine and beer both contain mildly psychoactive ingredients aside from ethanol. Beer has a decent amount of vitamin B from the yeast, although it's been shown that the ethanol might interfere with absorption. Red wine is known to cause headaches in some drinkers (the exact cause is debated).  Liquor isn't a pure mix of ethanol and water - esters and other alcohols get into the mix. The other alcohols are certainly 'active' in the sense you mean, but in much less quantity than the ethanol (unless something has gone horribly awry). This drives the difference between how you feel after drinking cheap booze vs. fine liquor.  I'm not sure if there's any research done on whether the esters in whiskey and the esters in tequila produce different psychoactive effects (my suspicion is that any differences people experience have to do with conditioning). That said, if what the people really mean is \"a margarita makes me feel different than a straight shot of whiskey\", remember that there's a lot more in a margarita than there is in a shot of tequila. Sugar certainly produces psychoactive effects.", "human_ref_B": "Different alcoholic beverages contain different amounts of psychoactive beta-carbolines: heterocyclic aromatic amines that inhibit enzymes known as monoamine oxidases.  MAOs are enzymes that deaminate (break down) monoamines. MAO-A deaminates the neurotransmitters serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline) and various others. MAO-B deaminates 2-phenylethylamine and dopamine. There is a considerable difference in the psychological effects of MAO-A inhibition and MAO-B inhibition.  Excessive MAO-A inhibition would slow down the rate at which adrenalines break down. Obviously, this could cause all kinds of aggressive behavior.  It is likely that the varying content of MAO-A/B-specific alkaloids across different alcoholic beverages is responsible for any objectively perceived variance in psychological effects.  ---  Factors That Affect the Content of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in Foods  Dietary inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A  Determination of \u00df-carbolines in foodstuffs by high-performance liquid chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography\u2014mass spectrometry  Harman and norharman in alcoholism: correlations with psychopathology and long-term changes.  The role of norharman in alcohol dependence and smoking: The potential inhibitory role of norharman on the urge for alcohol and nicotine use  Exposure to \u00df-carbolines norharman and harman", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14125.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1cm309", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "\"Whiskey makes me an angry drunk.\" Do different types of liquor have different effects?  I thought alcohol was the only active ingredient in liquor. Yet people I know claim that alcohol X has effect Y on them. Is their any truth behind this? Or is it a coincidence that they were drinking X while feeling Y?", "c_root_id_A": "c9i91rc", "c_root_id_B": "c9if5e4", "created_at_utc_A": 1366344552, "created_at_utc_B": 1366376258, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "There are two parts to this. The first is that what you experience while drunk is linked to the environment and your own mental state. Your expectations influence how you will feel and how you will react to that feeling. Numerous studies have been done where simulated alcohol (that is 100% non-alcoholic) is given to subjects who are told it is real alcohol. Often, the results of these studies are that the subjects act drunk even though they are sober because they are expecting to get drunk. The same can apply to expectations regarding different types of liquor. If you are convinced that whiskey gives you a different type of sensation than beer, wine, or any other spirit, then you are likely to react that way when drinking that type of liquor.   The second part is that there are  some subtle differences in different types of alcohol. One thing to consider when comparing beer vs. straight liquor for example is the rate at which you drink it. Most people drink a beer over a period of time that affects the way your body reacts. Conversely, when you take a shot of liquor, the alcohol is hitting your system all at once rather over the course of an extended period. Additionally, other non-alcohol ingredients in drinks can have effects on the drinker, although these usually are more noticeable in the hangover. Dark liquors like whiskey tend to have more impurities than clear liquors. This in turn can lead to different sensations during the morning after.   My source, I took several courses during college on Drug and alcohol use that covered both the physiological and psychological aspects of drinking.", "human_ref_B": "Different alcoholic beverages contain different amounts of psychoactive beta-carbolines: heterocyclic aromatic amines that inhibit enzymes known as monoamine oxidases.  MAOs are enzymes that deaminate (break down) monoamines. MAO-A deaminates the neurotransmitters serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline) and various others. MAO-B deaminates 2-phenylethylamine and dopamine. There is a considerable difference in the psychological effects of MAO-A inhibition and MAO-B inhibition.  Excessive MAO-A inhibition would slow down the rate at which adrenalines break down. Obviously, this could cause all kinds of aggressive behavior.  It is likely that the varying content of MAO-A/B-specific alkaloids across different alcoholic beverages is responsible for any objectively perceived variance in psychological effects.  ---  Factors That Affect the Content of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in Foods  Dietary inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A  Determination of \u00df-carbolines in foodstuffs by high-performance liquid chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography\u2014mass spectrometry  Harman and norharman in alcoholism: correlations with psychopathology and long-term changes.  The role of norharman in alcohol dependence and smoking: The potential inhibitory role of norharman on the urge for alcohol and nicotine use  Exposure to \u00df-carbolines norharman and harman", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31706.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1cm309", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "\"Whiskey makes me an angry drunk.\" Do different types of liquor have different effects?  I thought alcohol was the only active ingredient in liquor. Yet people I know claim that alcohol X has effect Y on them. Is their any truth behind this? Or is it a coincidence that they were drinking X while feeling Y?", "c_root_id_A": "c9idxzt", "c_root_id_B": "c9i91rc", "created_at_utc_A": 1366362133, "created_at_utc_B": 1366344552, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It's worth mentioning that wine and beer both contain mildly psychoactive ingredients aside from ethanol. Beer has a decent amount of vitamin B from the yeast, although it's been shown that the ethanol might interfere with absorption. Red wine is known to cause headaches in some drinkers (the exact cause is debated).  Liquor isn't a pure mix of ethanol and water - esters and other alcohols get into the mix. The other alcohols are certainly 'active' in the sense you mean, but in much less quantity than the ethanol (unless something has gone horribly awry). This drives the difference between how you feel after drinking cheap booze vs. fine liquor.  I'm not sure if there's any research done on whether the esters in whiskey and the esters in tequila produce different psychoactive effects (my suspicion is that any differences people experience have to do with conditioning). That said, if what the people really mean is \"a margarita makes me feel different than a straight shot of whiskey\", remember that there's a lot more in a margarita than there is in a shot of tequila. Sugar certainly produces psychoactive effects.", "human_ref_B": "There are two parts to this. The first is that what you experience while drunk is linked to the environment and your own mental state. Your expectations influence how you will feel and how you will react to that feeling. Numerous studies have been done where simulated alcohol (that is 100% non-alcoholic) is given to subjects who are told it is real alcohol. Often, the results of these studies are that the subjects act drunk even though they are sober because they are expecting to get drunk. The same can apply to expectations regarding different types of liquor. If you are convinced that whiskey gives you a different type of sensation than beer, wine, or any other spirit, then you are likely to react that way when drinking that type of liquor.   The second part is that there are  some subtle differences in different types of alcohol. One thing to consider when comparing beer vs. straight liquor for example is the rate at which you drink it. Most people drink a beer over a period of time that affects the way your body reacts. Conversely, when you take a shot of liquor, the alcohol is hitting your system all at once rather over the course of an extended period. Additionally, other non-alcohol ingredients in drinks can have effects on the drinker, although these usually are more noticeable in the hangover. Dark liquors like whiskey tend to have more impurities than clear liquors. This in turn can lead to different sensations during the morning after.   My source, I took several courses during college on Drug and alcohol use that covered both the physiological and psychological aspects of drinking.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17581.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "19e6nh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why is fusion beyond iron no longer exothermic? While the binding energy per nucleon is the highest for iron, total binding energy continues to rise, so it should be possible to gain additional energy by fusing the atom with more hydrogen atoms. Why is it not so?", "c_root_id_A": "c8nci14", "c_root_id_B": "c8n93dv", "created_at_utc_A": 1362075872, "created_at_utc_B": 1362065468, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Addressing this specific point:  >...total binding energy continues to rise, so it should be possible to gain additional energy by fusing the atom with more hydrogen atoms. Why is it not so?  Indeed, fusion of single protons or neutrons onto almost any isotope of any known element is exothermic.  People do overzealously throw around the claim that *any* fusion past iron is endothermic.  What is true is that nuclear reactions *between* two iron nuclei are endothermic.  A common context for this conversation is in stellar fusion.  Stars start out just fusing hydrogen because it takes higher temperatures to fuse helium due to its stronger electrostatic repulsion.  Thus the hydrogen in the core is depleted before it contracts and heats enough to start fusing helium to carbon.  The same goes with the next step and so on, until the so-called \"silicon burning\" phase.  At this point things have gotten so hot that the thermal photons are able to knock alphas back off the silicon (endothermically) and we enter this strange thermodynamic free-for-all where nuclei are trading alphas back and forth, sometimes endothermically, sometimes exothermically.  This will result, on average, in increasing the iron and nickel abundances and the release of energy because they have the highest binding energy per nucleon.  Once that equilibrium is reached, there is no more energy to be released, because adding nucleons to one of these nuclei means taking them away from another, which is a net endothermic reaction.  Thus it is correct to say that in practice, once the core is iron/nickel, it can no longer release energy because there are no more free light nuclei around to fuse onto them.  Back to the fundamental issue, there are boundaries at which fusion of additional protons or neutrons is not exothermic.  These boundaries are called the \"driplines\".  The driplines are extremely far from the stable isotopes, particularly the neutron dripline which can be many tens of extra neutrons away.  If such a fusion happens, the nucleus is \"unbound\", and can decay by emitting the particle back out.  Past the neutron dripline this happens virtually instantaneously.  Just past the proton dripline nuclei can actually hang around for a while and maybe beta decay instead.  This is for a similar reason that alpha decayers and spontaneous fissioners can be long-lived, because the protons are inside the Coulomb barrier and have to tunnel out.", "human_ref_B": "*(Intuitive explanation, not very rigorous.)*  *(Also, yes, this is a very general reply. A more direct answer to the original question was posted by Silpion below.)*  There are forces that favor fusion, such as the nuclear binding forces. There are forces that oppose it, such as the electrostatic force that repels protons from each other. The net outcome of fusion is a sum total of the work of all these forces.  The nuclear forces are limited and short-range. The electrostatic repulsion is unlimited. In very large nuclei, each proton is bound mostly to (and attracted to) its neighbors, but it's repelled by all the other protons in the nucleus. As you can see, the repelling force tends to become predominant as the nucleus grows.  As the nucleus grows, at first the energy from fusion diminishes. Then it's zero. Then it's negative. Then nuclei start splitting up spontaneously (radioactivity).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10404.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ves2z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What is a simple physics experiment that I can perform at home that has unexpected/surprising results? I need to find an experiment to perform at school that many people would get wrong by mere prediction or by common sense. can anyone help out?", "c_root_id_A": "cerl5ml", "c_root_id_B": "cerjiec", "created_at_utc_A": 1389927012, "created_at_utc_B": 1389923260, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I am a big fan of showing Lenz's Law.  Basically you need two tubes, one is copper the other can be PVC or anything nonconducting.  Both should be the same diameter. Drop a magnet that is snug down both.  You would think it will fall at the same rate if dropped from the same height.  However, the magnet will fall down the copper tube slower.    Edit:double words", "human_ref_B": "You could try the chain fountain  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zSj_xZaxvdU", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3752.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31b4jj", "c_root_id_B": "c31b4pw", "created_at_utc_A": 1321800562, "created_at_utc_B": 1321800635, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 200, "human_ref_A": "Salt makes the area uninhabitable to a multitude of bacteria (by changing your throat's pH and sucking water out of the microorganisms), it draws water out of swollen tissues, and it flushes mucous/bacteria/saliva out of your throat.", "human_ref_B": "It's the same reason that people have cured meat with salt for all of history. It makes bacteria sad.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 73.0, "score_ratio": 18.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31bezw", "c_root_id_B": "c31b4jj", "created_at_utc_A": 1321804370, "created_at_utc_B": 1321800562, "score_A": 168, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosis   From http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4607558_gargling-salt-water-sore-throat_.html  \"Osmosis and Bacteria  The first school of thought regarding gargling with salt water follows the premise that most cases of sore throat are caused by bacteria. If you can remember from middle school biology, bacteria are one-celled organisms that group together to cause some very hideous symptoms in humans. Although bacteria are sometimes helpful to the human body, they are the catalyst behind several human illnesses, including sore throats. These single-celled organisms are full of fluid, and the saltwater is highly concentrated, more so than the fluid inside the bacteria.  When gargling, the saltwater stays in contact with the bacteria long enough to start osmosis. The fluid inside the bacteria moves across its membrane into the briny salt water, until the concentration of fluid inside the bacteria is the same as outside. Of course, this leaves the bacteria sufficiently lacking in the fluid it needs to operate. Thus, the saltwater works to stop the throat infection by dehydrating the bacteria.  Osmosis and Edema Others believe that eliminating the bacteria with cold remedies like gargling with salt water, does nothing to relieve the swelling or edema in the throat. According to this school of thought, the immediate relief from gargling salt water wouldn't come from killing the bacteria, but rather from eliminating the swelling. This theory uses osmosis the same way, however. It holds that while you are gargling, the salt water is in contact with the swollen throat. The fluid in the throat tissue causing the edema or swelling is of a lower concentration than the briny salt water.   Therefore, the edema fluid passes through the throat tissue into the brine until the fluid on both sides of that tissue is of the same concentration. Since the soreness is caused by the edema and the edema by the fluid buildup, eliminating the fluid eliminates the sore throat.\"  As to changing PH, sodium chloride (table salt) doesn't do that surely?", "human_ref_B": "Salt makes the area uninhabitable to a multitude of bacteria (by changing your throat's pH and sucking water out of the microorganisms), it draws water out of swollen tissues, and it flushes mucous/bacteria/saliva out of your throat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3808.0, "score_ratio": 15.2727272727, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31b4jj", "c_root_id_B": "c31btm3", "created_at_utc_A": 1321800562, "created_at_utc_B": 1321808458, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 111, "human_ref_A": "Salt makes the area uninhabitable to a multitude of bacteria (by changing your throat's pH and sucking water out of the microorganisms), it draws water out of swollen tissues, and it flushes mucous/bacteria/saliva out of your throat.", "human_ref_B": "Its does not speed up healing per say.  What happens is the high concentration of salt helps draw liquid from the throat, the edema, that naturally occurs due to an infection, out of the tissue reducing the swelling and making you feel better.  The salt may kill some bacteria but most are resistant to the levels of sodium chloride, it is a common misconception that salt water 'kills' all the bacteria.  And besides which, a lot of sore throat infections will be lodged down in tonsillar crypts and not as exposed to the oral enviroment.  And, since salt is more soluble in warmer water, I would recommend gargling with warm salt water as frequently as you can, up to 8 times a day, if you have a sore throat, it will help.  But there is no 'speeding' up of healing.  As for cuts, salt water is essentially what saline is, just a sterile buffered water so yes it is good for washing cuts out mostly for the mechanical removal of bacteria.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7896.0, "score_ratio": 10.0909090909, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31bllz", "c_root_id_B": "c31btm3", "created_at_utc_A": 1321806307, "created_at_utc_B": 1321808458, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 111, "human_ref_A": "As to your second question, you could... but there are better methods of disinfecting a cut than salt water. Namely soap and running water (usually all that is necessary or helpful), or one of many other more powerful antimicrobials like iodine, rubbing alcohol, dettol, etc. After the initial cleansing and clotting, infection is a much rarer problem than most people assume (in small cuts and abrasions). The main reason ointments like neosporin are helpful is because they create a moist healing environment, preventing the formation of a scab and allowing epithelial cells to quickly proliferate across the top of the wound. If anything, getting the wound wet in salt water over and over would probably retard healing, as high salt concentrations wouldn't be good for the newly forming cells.", "human_ref_B": "Its does not speed up healing per say.  What happens is the high concentration of salt helps draw liquid from the throat, the edema, that naturally occurs due to an infection, out of the tissue reducing the swelling and making you feel better.  The salt may kill some bacteria but most are resistant to the levels of sodium chloride, it is a common misconception that salt water 'kills' all the bacteria.  And besides which, a lot of sore throat infections will be lodged down in tonsillar crypts and not as exposed to the oral enviroment.  And, since salt is more soluble in warmer water, I would recommend gargling with warm salt water as frequently as you can, up to 8 times a day, if you have a sore throat, it will help.  But there is no 'speeding' up of healing.  As for cuts, salt water is essentially what saline is, just a sterile buffered water so yes it is good for washing cuts out mostly for the mechanical removal of bacteria.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2151.0, "score_ratio": 37.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31btm3", "c_root_id_B": "c31bqhk", "created_at_utc_A": 1321808458, "created_at_utc_B": 1321807646, "score_A": 111, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Its does not speed up healing per say.  What happens is the high concentration of salt helps draw liquid from the throat, the edema, that naturally occurs due to an infection, out of the tissue reducing the swelling and making you feel better.  The salt may kill some bacteria but most are resistant to the levels of sodium chloride, it is a common misconception that salt water 'kills' all the bacteria.  And besides which, a lot of sore throat infections will be lodged down in tonsillar crypts and not as exposed to the oral enviroment.  And, since salt is more soluble in warmer water, I would recommend gargling with warm salt water as frequently as you can, up to 8 times a day, if you have a sore throat, it will help.  But there is no 'speeding' up of healing.  As for cuts, salt water is essentially what saline is, just a sterile buffered water so yes it is good for washing cuts out mostly for the mechanical removal of bacteria.", "human_ref_B": "i was wondering why Neti pots work so well for me when i get a cold....Now I know.  Does this mean that sea water is devoid of any bacteria?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 812.0, "score_ratio": 37.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31ddtr", "c_root_id_B": "c31bllz", "created_at_utc_A": 1321821048, "created_at_utc_B": 1321806307, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Gargling with salt water results in osmosis. When separated by a semi-permeable membrane, Solvents move from lower concentrations to higher concentrations, as the two sides move to equilibrium. Here, the cell membrane acts as the semi-permeable membrane. Essentially, water leaves the bacteria, resulting desiccation & death.  Saline, 0.9% NaCl, is used to wash wounds. It is close to the osmolarity of blood, making it safer to introduce to cells and tissues than water at large volumes.", "human_ref_B": "As to your second question, you could... but there are better methods of disinfecting a cut than salt water. Namely soap and running water (usually all that is necessary or helpful), or one of many other more powerful antimicrobials like iodine, rubbing alcohol, dettol, etc. After the initial cleansing and clotting, infection is a much rarer problem than most people assume (in small cuts and abrasions). The main reason ointments like neosporin are helpful is because they create a moist healing environment, preventing the formation of a scab and allowing epithelial cells to quickly proliferate across the top of the wound. If anything, getting the wound wet in salt water over and over would probably retard healing, as high salt concentrations wouldn't be good for the newly forming cells.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14741.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31bqhk", "c_root_id_B": "c31ddtr", "created_at_utc_A": 1321807646, "created_at_utc_B": 1321821048, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "i was wondering why Neti pots work so well for me when i get a cold....Now I know.  Does this mean that sea water is devoid of any bacteria?", "human_ref_B": "Gargling with salt water results in osmosis. When separated by a semi-permeable membrane, Solvents move from lower concentrations to higher concentrations, as the two sides move to equilibrium. Here, the cell membrane acts as the semi-permeable membrane. Essentially, water leaves the bacteria, resulting desiccation & death.  Saline, 0.9% NaCl, is used to wash wounds. It is close to the osmolarity of blood, making it safer to introduce to cells and tissues than water at large volumes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13402.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31ddtr", "c_root_id_B": "c31cz9d", "created_at_utc_A": 1321821048, "created_at_utc_B": 1321818063, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Gargling with salt water results in osmosis. When separated by a semi-permeable membrane, Solvents move from lower concentrations to higher concentrations, as the two sides move to equilibrium. Here, the cell membrane acts as the semi-permeable membrane. Essentially, water leaves the bacteria, resulting desiccation & death.  Saline, 0.9% NaCl, is used to wash wounds. It is close to the osmolarity of blood, making it safer to introduce to cells and tissues than water at large volumes.", "human_ref_B": "The salt dries out the bacteria because there is a hypertonic solution being introduced, this in turn pulls the water molecules out of the bacteria, causing them to shrivel up and die. The same thing happens to your mouth/throat cells, but because they reproduce so fast, it does not impact them in any drastic way.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2985.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31bugb", "c_root_id_B": "c31bllz", "created_at_utc_A": 1321808673, "created_at_utc_B": 1321806307, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If gargling with NaCl works because it causes osmosis, why doesn't gargling distilled water work, too? It would rush *into* the bacteria and cause them to burst.", "human_ref_B": "As to your second question, you could... but there are better methods of disinfecting a cut than salt water. Namely soap and running water (usually all that is necessary or helpful), or one of many other more powerful antimicrobials like iodine, rubbing alcohol, dettol, etc. After the initial cleansing and clotting, infection is a much rarer problem than most people assume (in small cuts and abrasions). The main reason ointments like neosporin are helpful is because they create a moist healing environment, preventing the formation of a scab and allowing epithelial cells to quickly proliferate across the top of the wound. If anything, getting the wound wet in salt water over and over would probably retard healing, as high salt concentrations wouldn't be good for the newly forming cells.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2366.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mj0wr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why does gargling with salt water speed healing of throat/mouth stuff? Or does it even?  And why don't we sort of \"soak\" cuts in a salt watery solution to speed up healing if gargling does help?  (Of coures the pain that could cause might be a limiting factor on that...)", "c_root_id_A": "c31bqhk", "c_root_id_B": "c31bugb", "created_at_utc_A": 1321807646, "created_at_utc_B": 1321808673, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "i was wondering why Neti pots work so well for me when i get a cold....Now I know.  Does this mean that sea water is devoid of any bacteria?", "human_ref_B": "If gargling with NaCl works because it causes osmosis, why doesn't gargling distilled water work, too? It would rush *into* the bacteria and cause them to burst.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1027.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pz84vu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Which of a nuclear explosion's effects are unique to it being nuclear? Radiation and fallout are obviously due to the radioactive fuel source, but what about things like the flash or mushroom cloud? How many of, say, Little Boy's effects could be replicated with 12,000 tons of conventional explosives?", "c_root_id_A": "hezkj68", "c_root_id_B": "hezk5ni", "created_at_utc_A": 1633103552, "created_at_utc_B": 1633103394, "score_A": 218, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "The specific feature unique to nuclear explosions in atmosphere is the double flash - essentially the explosion generates a bright flash which is briefly dimmed by the shockwave passing through it, before brightening up again... this does not happen with conventional explosives, so much so that detecting the double flash is how a Bhangmeter detects a nuclear explosion in atmosphere.", "human_ref_B": "A mushroom cloud can be caused by any hot cloud that rises until it cools enough that it can't rise any further. then it spreads out sideways.    any large explosion, volcanic eruption, or even a forest fire can create a similar cloud.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 158.0, "score_ratio": -218.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pz84vu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Which of a nuclear explosion's effects are unique to it being nuclear? Radiation and fallout are obviously due to the radioactive fuel source, but what about things like the flash or mushroom cloud? How many of, say, Little Boy's effects could be replicated with 12,000 tons of conventional explosives?", "c_root_id_A": "hezknlj", "c_root_id_B": "hezk5ni", "created_at_utc_A": 1633103604, "created_at_utc_B": 1633103394, "score_A": 82, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "The flash. The initial nuke explosion is way way hotter. So before the pressure wave reaches you, you get a flash of broad spectrum electromagnetic radiation. The visible light/IR components of this are strong enough to heat flammable substances like wood to combustion temperature almost immediately. No amount of TNT emits enough light to ignite a shed half a mile away.", "human_ref_B": "A mushroom cloud can be caused by any hot cloud that rises until it cools enough that it can't rise any further. then it spreads out sideways.    any large explosion, volcanic eruption, or even a forest fire can create a similar cloud.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 210.0, "score_ratio": -82.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pz84vu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Which of a nuclear explosion's effects are unique to it being nuclear? Radiation and fallout are obviously due to the radioactive fuel source, but what about things like the flash or mushroom cloud? How many of, say, Little Boy's effects could be replicated with 12,000 tons of conventional explosives?", "c_root_id_A": "hezs0cc", "c_root_id_B": "hezvixp", "created_at_utc_A": 1633106741, "created_at_utc_B": 1633108240, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "A thermal pulse is not unique to a nuclear explosion. It can be expected to occur in an asteroid impact event. When the asteroid strikes the ground it is almost completely vaporised into plasma. Depending on the size of the explosion, a thermal pulse can be emitted by the fireball that that travels outward at the speed of light and burns everything out to a distance of several hundred kilometres.", "human_ref_B": "I can\u2019t address the physics, but as a matter of history, the Trinity calibration test used 100 tons of conventional explosives to prepare instruments for the first nuclear detonation. One thing that leaps out from the photos is how much space all the crates of TNT take up.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1499.0, "score_ratio": 1.9166666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pz84vu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Which of a nuclear explosion's effects are unique to it being nuclear? Radiation and fallout are obviously due to the radioactive fuel source, but what about things like the flash or mushroom cloud? How many of, say, Little Boy's effects could be replicated with 12,000 tons of conventional explosives?", "c_root_id_A": "hezvixp", "c_root_id_B": "hezk5ni", "created_at_utc_A": 1633108240, "created_at_utc_B": 1633103394, "score_A": 23, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I can\u2019t address the physics, but as a matter of history, the Trinity calibration test used 100 tons of conventional explosives to prepare instruments for the first nuclear detonation. One thing that leaps out from the photos is how much space all the crates of TNT take up.", "human_ref_B": "A mushroom cloud can be caused by any hot cloud that rises until it cools enough that it can't rise any further. then it spreads out sideways.    any large explosion, volcanic eruption, or even a forest fire can create a similar cloud.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4846.0, "score_ratio": -23.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pz84vu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Which of a nuclear explosion's effects are unique to it being nuclear? Radiation and fallout are obviously due to the radioactive fuel source, but what about things like the flash or mushroom cloud? How many of, say, Little Boy's effects could be replicated with 12,000 tons of conventional explosives?", "c_root_id_A": "hezk5ni", "c_root_id_B": "hezs0cc", "created_at_utc_A": 1633103394, "created_at_utc_B": 1633106741, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "A mushroom cloud can be caused by any hot cloud that rises until it cools enough that it can't rise any further. then it spreads out sideways.    any large explosion, volcanic eruption, or even a forest fire can create a similar cloud.", "human_ref_B": "A thermal pulse is not unique to a nuclear explosion. It can be expected to occur in an asteroid impact event. When the asteroid strikes the ground it is almost completely vaporised into plasma. Depending on the size of the explosion, a thermal pulse can be emitted by the fireball that that travels outward at the speed of light and burns everything out to a distance of several hundred kilometres.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3347.0, "score_ratio": -12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pz84vu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Which of a nuclear explosion's effects are unique to it being nuclear? Radiation and fallout are obviously due to the radioactive fuel source, but what about things like the flash or mushroom cloud? How many of, say, Little Boy's effects could be replicated with 12,000 tons of conventional explosives?", "c_root_id_A": "hf1ec9h", "c_root_id_B": "hf0dzsg", "created_at_utc_A": 1633133517, "created_at_utc_B": 1633116279, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Oh i see im too late. Oops The one defining visible identifier of a nuclear explosion is the double flash.   The flash of the initial explosion is caused by the air near the detonation becoming ionized by the mechanism of the bomb. These components cause the air around the bomb to incandesce from the massive release of x-rays and ultraviolet light. This is the initial flash.    However immediately behind this is the shockwave from the overpressure caused by the explosion. This effect causes the air to compress and also to superheat and become incandescent. This glowing superheated shock front is opaque to the light created from the initial flash, which is still going on. But we can't see the still fiercely bright flash anymore as the shockwave expands outward from the immediate area of the explosion and blocks the initial flash.  A strange phenomenon happens in which this trapped light from the initial flash can now escape as the superheated air of the shockwave cools down as it races away from the detonation.  This results in a renewed flash but lasting longer as all that light can continue to race outward to be seen by us, hopefully from a safe distance.   There is no known way to replicate or fake this phenomena as it is mathematically modeled. Because of this, its a primary means of detecting a nuclear explosion from space.  because it is mathematically modeled, the yield of the explosion can be determined. With other instruments used to detect other radiations. A satellite can detect a nuclear explosion anywhere above the earth.  Now for the weird part. A 'Vela Hotel' satellite used for the detection of nuclear explosions, using the above described method was able to detect a \"nuclear explosion\" near Prince Edward island in the indian ocean in 1979.  The cause of this has never been identified as the only sensors to be triggered by this event was the sensors designed to see a double flash. The other radiation detecting sensors did not detect anything. Note, the long running Vela satellites have detected 41 confirmed nuclear explosions from 1959 - 1985.  Useful links:.  https://www.darpa.mil/about-us/timeline/vela   http://www.astronautix.com/v/vela.html   http://wordpress.mrreid.org/2015/04/18/the-nuclear-double-flash/   https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/revisiting-1979-vela-mystery-report-critical-oral-history-conference    All errors are mine as i was interested in weird phemomena some years back.", "human_ref_B": "A double-flash that is characteristic of nuclear explosions. At first, the massive heat of the explosion creates a flash of light. The shock wave compresses the air so hard that it becomes superhot and ionized, and therefore opaque to light, causing a momentary dimming. As the shock wave expands, it cools off and then becomes opaque to light again.     EDIT: A similar mechanism from the Big Bang is responsible for cosmic background radiation. The original products of the Big Bang was too hot for radiation to pass through, and the universe grew. When it cooled off, all the radiation finally started to be \"released\" and now it's everywhere.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17238.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pz84vu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Which of a nuclear explosion's effects are unique to it being nuclear? Radiation and fallout are obviously due to the radioactive fuel source, but what about things like the flash or mushroom cloud? How many of, say, Little Boy's effects could be replicated with 12,000 tons of conventional explosives?", "c_root_id_A": "hezk5ni", "c_root_id_B": "hf1ec9h", "created_at_utc_A": 1633103394, "created_at_utc_B": 1633133517, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "A mushroom cloud can be caused by any hot cloud that rises until it cools enough that it can't rise any further. then it spreads out sideways.    any large explosion, volcanic eruption, or even a forest fire can create a similar cloud.", "human_ref_B": "Oh i see im too late. Oops The one defining visible identifier of a nuclear explosion is the double flash.   The flash of the initial explosion is caused by the air near the detonation becoming ionized by the mechanism of the bomb. These components cause the air around the bomb to incandesce from the massive release of x-rays and ultraviolet light. This is the initial flash.    However immediately behind this is the shockwave from the overpressure caused by the explosion. This effect causes the air to compress and also to superheat and become incandescent. This glowing superheated shock front is opaque to the light created from the initial flash, which is still going on. But we can't see the still fiercely bright flash anymore as the shockwave expands outward from the immediate area of the explosion and blocks the initial flash.  A strange phenomenon happens in which this trapped light from the initial flash can now escape as the superheated air of the shockwave cools down as it races away from the detonation.  This results in a renewed flash but lasting longer as all that light can continue to race outward to be seen by us, hopefully from a safe distance.   There is no known way to replicate or fake this phenomena as it is mathematically modeled. Because of this, its a primary means of detecting a nuclear explosion from space.  because it is mathematically modeled, the yield of the explosion can be determined. With other instruments used to detect other radiations. A satellite can detect a nuclear explosion anywhere above the earth.  Now for the weird part. A 'Vela Hotel' satellite used for the detection of nuclear explosions, using the above described method was able to detect a \"nuclear explosion\" near Prince Edward island in the indian ocean in 1979.  The cause of this has never been identified as the only sensors to be triggered by this event was the sensors designed to see a double flash. The other radiation detecting sensors did not detect anything. Note, the long running Vela satellites have detected 41 confirmed nuclear explosions from 1959 - 1985.  Useful links:.  https://www.darpa.mil/about-us/timeline/vela   http://www.astronautix.com/v/vela.html   http://wordpress.mrreid.org/2015/04/18/the-nuclear-double-flash/   https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/revisiting-1979-vela-mystery-report-critical-oral-history-conference    All errors are mine as i was interested in weird phemomena some years back.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30123.0, "score_ratio": -12.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pz84vu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Which of a nuclear explosion's effects are unique to it being nuclear? Radiation and fallout are obviously due to the radioactive fuel source, but what about things like the flash or mushroom cloud? How many of, say, Little Boy's effects could be replicated with 12,000 tons of conventional explosives?", "c_root_id_A": "hf0dzsg", "c_root_id_B": "hezk5ni", "created_at_utc_A": 1633116279, "created_at_utc_B": 1633103394, "score_A": 8, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "A double-flash that is characteristic of nuclear explosions. At first, the massive heat of the explosion creates a flash of light. The shock wave compresses the air so hard that it becomes superhot and ionized, and therefore opaque to light, causing a momentary dimming. As the shock wave expands, it cools off and then becomes opaque to light again.     EDIT: A similar mechanism from the Big Bang is responsible for cosmic background radiation. The original products of the Big Bang was too hot for radiation to pass through, and the universe grew. When it cooled off, all the radiation finally started to be \"released\" and now it's everywhere.", "human_ref_B": "A mushroom cloud can be caused by any hot cloud that rises until it cools enough that it can't rise any further. then it spreads out sideways.    any large explosion, volcanic eruption, or even a forest fire can create a similar cloud.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12885.0, "score_ratio": -8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sv5za", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Can someone explain the weak interaction to me please?", "c_root_id_A": "c4h9cbw", "c_root_id_B": "c4haza0", "created_at_utc_A": 1335535996, "created_at_utc_B": 1335544060, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Simply put: radioactive particles exchange bosons between themselves, causing particles to move, which is what is responsible for radioactive decay.   To grasp why this happens: imagine you and I are standing opposite each other on a frictionless plane. I (a particle) throw a bowling ball (a boson) towards you. You'll then slide back because of the force. That's the weak force, or weak interaction.", "human_ref_B": "The weak force involves three bosons, the W^+ , W^- , and Z^0 bosons, which have charges of +1, -1, and 0 respectively.   Inside the nucleus of an atom you have protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are themselves composed of three quarks each. There are two types of quarks that form protons/neutrons, the up quark and down quark, with a charge of +2/3 and -1/3 respectively. So two up quarks and one down quark form one proton (4/3 - 1/3 = 1), and one up quark and two down quarks form a neutron (2/3 - 2/3 = 0).  There are two types of beta decay, beta plus, and beta minus.   In beta plus decay, also called positron emission, a proton decays into a neutron by emitting a positron (anti-electron) and a neutrino. The actual decay takes place when an up quark emits a W^+ boson, and decays into a down quark. The W^+ boson then decays into a positron and a neutrino.   Beta minus decay is also called electron admission. A down quark decays into an up quark through emission of a W^- boson, which then decays into an electron and an *anti*neutrino.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8064.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "i2hbzo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Are there \"waves\" on the top of the atmosphere like waves ossn the ocean?", "c_root_id_A": "g08q2ty", "c_root_id_B": "g0829mm", "created_at_utc_A": 1596480444, "created_at_utc_B": 1596471928, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Yes, there absolutely are.  Any time you have a gravity field and a fluid with different density layers, you can make waves.  It gets a little tricky, though, because the atmosphere doesn't really have a top: it just gets thinner and thinner as you go up.  And yet, the atmosphere sloshes up and down and back and forth, just like the ocean does.  There are two main kinds of waves in the atmosphere.  First, you can have large-scale sloshing motions of the whole planet's atmosphere all together: these are called \"atmospheric tides\", and can be caused by the pull of the Moon or Sun, or by solar heating of the atmosphere.  Second, you can set up waves along interfaces between different density layers *within* the atmosphere.  These \"internal gravity waves\" are usually smaller, and generate the stripy cloud patterns you're probably familiar with:  https://blog.radarscope.app/hubfs/blog-files/gravity%20wave%20clouds.jpg https://youtu.be/YGg0SxRYAvA", "human_ref_B": "It depends on how you define waves. If you are looking at the interface between gas and water then no. There aren't. That is because there is no hard boundary in the atmosphere, gases just become increasingly less dense. If you mean some form of ripple without really defining it, then yeah. You could see something similar to ripples  in the wind. But it wouldn't look like a \"wave\" because a wave gets its shape due to there boundary between gas and loud liquid", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8516.0, "score_ratio": 16000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ffyql", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "I'm on a starship traveling from the Milky Way to Andromeda. I look out the window. What do I see? Specifically, the visible starscape around the ship. We are not going faster than the speed of light and this trip will take millions of years.  If the ship is much closer to one galaxy than the other, will the light from it dominate all the rest?  If the ship is roughly at the halfway point between the two, do surrounding galaxies appear as stars in the sky or bright clusters?  Or would the starscape be completely dark except for the closest two galaxies?  This is my first post in this subreddit. Apologies if this breaks the \"Avoid hypothetical questions that require speculation\" guideline, but I think it is theoretically possible to move between galaxies. Hopefully I didn't break a rule my first time.", "c_root_id_A": "ck8xqbh", "c_root_id_B": "ck8uozt", "created_at_utc_A": 1409840184, "created_at_utc_B": 1409830925, "score_A": 24, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": ">Or would the starscape be completely dark except for the closest two galaxies?  Pretty much, yes.  The only stars you can see as individual stars with the naked eye are within a few thousand light years. The Milky Way and Andromeda would be visible as faint patches of light a couple of degrees or so across. They would look like faint white clouds, as the Milky Way and Andromeda do from Earth. You might be able to make out some other smaller galaxies - the Triangulum galaxy is roughly in the same direction as Andromeda - but they won't be as easy to see as the big two.  Unless you're extremely lucky, you likely won't be near any \"rogue\" stars hanging out between galaxies. So the sky will be completely black except for faint patches of light for each galaxy.  If you're closer to one galaxy than the other, it will just take up more of the sky. But you should still be able to see both galaxies, as you are able to from Earth.", "human_ref_B": "Take the ride yourself with Celestia a free space travel simulator.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9259.0, "score_ratio": -4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ffyql", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "I'm on a starship traveling from the Milky Way to Andromeda. I look out the window. What do I see? Specifically, the visible starscape around the ship. We are not going faster than the speed of light and this trip will take millions of years.  If the ship is much closer to one galaxy than the other, will the light from it dominate all the rest?  If the ship is roughly at the halfway point between the two, do surrounding galaxies appear as stars in the sky or bright clusters?  Or would the starscape be completely dark except for the closest two galaxies?  This is my first post in this subreddit. Apologies if this breaks the \"Avoid hypothetical questions that require speculation\" guideline, but I think it is theoretically possible to move between galaxies. Hopefully I didn't break a rule my first time.", "c_root_id_A": "ck8uozt", "c_root_id_B": "ck91la3", "created_at_utc_A": 1409830925, "created_at_utc_B": 1409848244, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Take the ride yourself with Celestia a free space travel simulator.", "human_ref_B": "Indeed, the light of the nearest object will tend to be the dominant one, due to the inverse square law for the intensity of EM radiation. If you are observing between half-way between the two galaxies with the naked eye, you will most likely see the a faint glow  emanating from the nuclei of galaxies in the local group and a diffuse haze from the disks of the Milky Way, the Andromeda and the Triangulum galaxies.  But without more advanced observing equipment the journey could become a bit dull, due to the fairly slow variation of the scenery.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17319.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "grumu", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "If we can control dog breeds, what makes human breeding different? Say that morally there is no problem, are we able to breed a super genius or super strong specimens?", "c_root_id_A": "c1ptd1o", "c_root_id_B": "c1pu00f", "created_at_utc_A": 1303012438, "created_at_utc_B": 1303022510, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "You should read up on Lebensborn, the Nazi Aryan breeding program.", "human_ref_B": "Humans take like 20 years per generation, dogs take about 20 months. Dogs won't mind if you control whom they breed with, humans will.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10072.0, "score_ratio": 2.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a35w3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How did people discover that the Earth rotated a little more than 365 times each year? How did they discover this, and why did they choose to put the extra day in February?", "c_root_id_A": "c8tt3qt", "c_root_id_B": "c8tp7ru", "created_at_utc_A": 1363036136, "created_at_utc_B": 1363022630, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "\"Archaeological evidence, including stone circles such as Stonehenge, indicates the importance attached to periodic astronomical phenomena by prehistoric communities. The ancient Egyptians, worshippers of the sun god Ra, established a calendar year of 365 days c. 4500 BC; in Lower Egypt this was combined with months of 29/30 days based on observation of moon, and in Upper Egypt with observation of the star Sirius, whose heliacal [glossary] rising coincided with the flooding of the Nile. Later, the months were regularised to 30 days each, and five extra days completed the year. The Mesopotamians employed a luni-solar calendar; at first they determined the beginning of months by observations of the moon, but were utilising a computational method by the fifth century BC. An intercalary month was added at irregular intervals to keep the lunar calendar in line with the solar year. From about 500 BC, this was regularised according to the so-called Metonic cycle [Glossary] of 7 intercalations in 19 years. In Ancient Greece, calendars varied from city-state to city-state, but were also of the luni-solar variety.\"  Directly lifted from: http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/calendar.html", "human_ref_B": "Its a simple question of sidereal time vs. solar time.  The amount of time it takes the sun to rise and set is different than the amount of time it takes the stars to rise and set, and this is because the sun is mobile relative to the rest of the stars.  It appears that the sun goes across the whole sky once every year (the zodiac constellations is the result of this phenomenon).  Anyway, this isn't a perfect ratio and so we have to compensate for it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13506.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1a35w3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "How did people discover that the Earth rotated a little more than 365 times each year? How did they discover this, and why did they choose to put the extra day in February?", "c_root_id_A": "c8tp7ru", "c_root_id_B": "c8u31mj", "created_at_utc_A": 1363022630, "created_at_utc_B": 1363067565, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Its a simple question of sidereal time vs. solar time.  The amount of time it takes the sun to rise and set is different than the amount of time it takes the stars to rise and set, and this is because the sun is mobile relative to the rest of the stars.  It appears that the sun goes across the whole sky once every year (the zodiac constellations is the result of this phenomenon).  Anyway, this isn't a perfect ratio and so we have to compensate for it.", "human_ref_B": "You can also use Kepler's law of planetary motion (p^2 = a^3 ) Or the modified version p^2 = (4*pi*a^3 ) /(G*M), where a is the distance from the sun and p is the period, deriving it from circular velocities.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 44935.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vowv9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Is it possible that unpredictability of the quantum world is there just because we can't figure out some underlaying laws of nature that just make it appear that way ? In other words, is it possible that we could some day completely abandon this 'roll of the dice' thinking and that we could find something similar to Newton's Mechanics bellow this whole quantum theory? I hope that you've got what I said. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "ceuhnj0", "c_root_id_B": "ceuhfec", "created_at_utc_A": 1390252683, "created_at_utc_B": 1390252217, "score_A": 45, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It's possible, yes.  But, only if certain assumptions we have about how the universe *should* work are abandoned.  In terms of fully-deterministic theories, they can be categorized into two categories:  *local hidden variable theories* and *global hidden variable theories*.  In local hidden variable theories, the extra variables that would control what seems to be happening in quantum processes are local variables -- meaning, the information these variables carry cannot move faster than the speed of light, and the information may depend on the local configuration of the system.  These local hidden variables could take any form -- new particles we can't detect, or unknown properties of existing particles, etc.  Examples of local properties would include things like velocity, momentum, energy, electric charge, etc.  In global hidden variable theories, the extra variables are global, meaning the needed information is available at all points in space (and thus it does not have any need to travel), and isn't different for different locations in space.  Examples of global variables would include things like the gravitational constant G, or the fine-structure constant alpha, etc.  It turns out that John Bell was able to formulate a theorem (called Bell's theorem) that demonstrates that a quantum theory will make different predictions from a local hidden variable theory, under certain circumstances.  It turns out it is possible to test this, and we've done a bunch of tests.  While none of the tests have been \"perfect\" (there are unpatched loopholes in each test that allow that test's results to be considered faulty), there have been dozens of tests and every test has shown that quantum mechanics' predictions are correct, and local hidden variable theory predictions are not.  Therefore, it's pretty safe to say that a local hidden variable theory CANNOT explain the apparent non-determinism of quantum mechanics.  However, global hidden variable theories are still possible, and are not ruled out by the Bell tests.  In fact, there is at least one widely-known global hidden variable theory which does seem to be able to reproduce QM's predictions:  it's called de Broglie-Bohm theory, also called \"pilot wave theory.\"  This theory hypothesizes that in addition to the wavefunction of quantum mechanics which governs the evolution of the universe's state, there is also a global \"real configuration\" that exists even when some things are not observed/measured, and parts of that configuration can affect the results of measurements in a non-local way (in other words, this information can travel faster than the speed of light and relativity is broken).  It's actually quite an interesting theory if you ask me.  But, it's probably safe to say that a majority of the quantum physics community believes a global hidden variable theory is wrong or somehow insufficient compared to quantum mechanics.  Either way, if something like de Broglie-Bohm theory is correct, then there is no actual randomness, but things appear random because we cannot have access to the information of the entire actual configuration of the universe, all at once, so there will always be parts which affect the results of experiments which we can't know.  So the fundamental problem (of predicting the results of experiments) remains.  Hope that helps!", "human_ref_B": "Not if we assume that the Theory of Relativity is correct.  Bell's Theorem states, that quantum mechanics cannot be governed by local hidden variables. \"Local\" is physicist talk for \"communicating slower or equal to the speed of light\".    There might still exist non-local hidden variables, but they would (in most cases) break the theory of relativity. Since the ToR is pretty fundamental this is rather unlikely to happen.  On a side note: this question has been asked many times before, please use the search function in the future before asking a question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 466.0, "score_ratio": 45.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vowv9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Is it possible that unpredictability of the quantum world is there just because we can't figure out some underlaying laws of nature that just make it appear that way ? In other words, is it possible that we could some day completely abandon this 'roll of the dice' thinking and that we could find something similar to Newton's Mechanics bellow this whole quantum theory? I hope that you've got what I said. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "ceulre7", "c_root_id_B": "ceujtbr", "created_at_utc_A": 1390261678, "created_at_utc_B": 1390257310, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "One thing that goes woefully without mention in pretty much all quantum mechanics text books is that we can actually *almost* explain the randomness we see when we do experiments on quantum mechanical systems. We actually have a tightly knit theory which predicts that if you have a quantum system involving several particles [1], say *A*, *B*, and *C*, but you only make measurements on *A*, then the information available to you when you make the measurement is equivalent to a classical probability distribution. In any real experiment you never have access to all of the particles involved in the system, so it's kind of no surprise that we only access probability distributions.  That may sound like no improvement over the standard idea that the measurement results are just random, but it is. If you just say that wave functions collapse into a random result when you make a measurement, then you get a theory that's not self consistent. To see this, just imagine you put the entire laboratory and the experiment inside a giant box. Now I regard the contents of the box as my own experiment. If we say the guy in the box observes a random collapse of the wave function, then we're saying that for some reason the contents of my box stopped obeying the laws of quantum mechanics that are supposed to take place when I'm not looking.  To be clear, nobody is really sure what's going on.  [1] I use the term \"particle\" very loosely here.", "human_ref_B": "I believe the common consensus is that there are no hidden 'local variables', see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_variable_theory .  The EPR Paradox was formed to fight some of these features of QM, and instead the paradox has been confirmed as the actual behavior, ie entanglement.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4368.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vowv9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Is it possible that unpredictability of the quantum world is there just because we can't figure out some underlaying laws of nature that just make it appear that way ? In other words, is it possible that we could some day completely abandon this 'roll of the dice' thinking and that we could find something similar to Newton's Mechanics bellow this whole quantum theory? I hope that you've got what I said. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "ceulre7", "c_root_id_B": "ceuhfec", "created_at_utc_A": 1390261678, "created_at_utc_B": 1390252217, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "One thing that goes woefully without mention in pretty much all quantum mechanics text books is that we can actually *almost* explain the randomness we see when we do experiments on quantum mechanical systems. We actually have a tightly knit theory which predicts that if you have a quantum system involving several particles [1], say *A*, *B*, and *C*, but you only make measurements on *A*, then the information available to you when you make the measurement is equivalent to a classical probability distribution. In any real experiment you never have access to all of the particles involved in the system, so it's kind of no surprise that we only access probability distributions.  That may sound like no improvement over the standard idea that the measurement results are just random, but it is. If you just say that wave functions collapse into a random result when you make a measurement, then you get a theory that's not self consistent. To see this, just imagine you put the entire laboratory and the experiment inside a giant box. Now I regard the contents of the box as my own experiment. If we say the guy in the box observes a random collapse of the wave function, then we're saying that for some reason the contents of my box stopped obeying the laws of quantum mechanics that are supposed to take place when I'm not looking.  To be clear, nobody is really sure what's going on.  [1] I use the term \"particle\" very loosely here.", "human_ref_B": "Not if we assume that the Theory of Relativity is correct.  Bell's Theorem states, that quantum mechanics cannot be governed by local hidden variables. \"Local\" is physicist talk for \"communicating slower or equal to the speed of light\".    There might still exist non-local hidden variables, but they would (in most cases) break the theory of relativity. Since the ToR is pretty fundamental this is rather unlikely to happen.  On a side note: this question has been asked many times before, please use the search function in the future before asking a question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9461.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vowv9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Is it possible that unpredictability of the quantum world is there just because we can't figure out some underlaying laws of nature that just make it appear that way ? In other words, is it possible that we could some day completely abandon this 'roll of the dice' thinking and that we could find something similar to Newton's Mechanics bellow this whole quantum theory? I hope that you've got what I said. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "ceujtbr", "c_root_id_B": "ceuhfec", "created_at_utc_A": 1390257310, "created_at_utc_B": 1390252217, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I believe the common consensus is that there are no hidden 'local variables', see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_variable_theory .  The EPR Paradox was formed to fight some of these features of QM, and instead the paradox has been confirmed as the actual behavior, ie entanglement.", "human_ref_B": "Not if we assume that the Theory of Relativity is correct.  Bell's Theorem states, that quantum mechanics cannot be governed by local hidden variables. \"Local\" is physicist talk for \"communicating slower or equal to the speed of light\".    There might still exist non-local hidden variables, but they would (in most cases) break the theory of relativity. Since the ToR is pretty fundamental this is rather unlikely to happen.  On a side note: this question has been asked many times before, please use the search function in the future before asking a question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5093.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1vowv9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Is it possible that unpredictability of the quantum world is there just because we can't figure out some underlaying laws of nature that just make it appear that way ? In other words, is it possible that we could some day completely abandon this 'roll of the dice' thinking and that we could find something similar to Newton's Mechanics bellow this whole quantum theory? I hope that you've got what I said. Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "ceuzypr", "c_root_id_B": "ceuhfec", "created_at_utc_A": 1390305626, "created_at_utc_B": 1390252217, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Of course it is possible. I would even go as far as saying that our current idea of how the universe works is almost certainly false - as it has always been the case. If you are interested in the philosophy of science: Ludwik Flek had some interesting thoughts on the development of scientific theories:   > \"When people begin to exchange ideas, a thought collective arises, bonded by a specific mood, and as a result of a series of understandings and misunderstandings a peculiar thought style is developed. When a thought style becomes sufficiently sophisticated, the collective divides itself into an esoteric circle (professionals) and an exoteric circle (laymen). A thought style consists of the active elements, which shape ways in which members of the collective see and think about the world, and of the passive elements, the sum of which is perceived as an \u201cobjective reality\u201d. What we call \u201cfacts\u201d, are social constructs: only what is true to culture is true to nature.\"  http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/fleck/", "human_ref_B": "Not if we assume that the Theory of Relativity is correct.  Bell's Theorem states, that quantum mechanics cannot be governed by local hidden variables. \"Local\" is physicist talk for \"communicating slower or equal to the speed of light\".    There might still exist non-local hidden variables, but they would (in most cases) break the theory of relativity. Since the ToR is pretty fundamental this is rather unlikely to happen.  On a side note: this question has been asked many times before, please use the search function in the future before asking a question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 53409.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "oxwn4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "How are the angles in molecules figured out? For example on PCl3 the angles are 107 degrees. How are these angles figured out?", "c_root_id_A": "c3kxhez", "c_root_id_B": "c3kyj1d", "created_at_utc_A": 1327606637, "created_at_utc_B": 1327611716, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "People often use computational methods to determine what the bond angle should be to adopt the lowest energy conformation.  This is not always observed to exactly agree with experiments, but they're often very close. Remember that bonds are always stretching and bending very rapidly.", "human_ref_B": "in addition to the other responses here, X-ray crystallography can also measure bond angles.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5079.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5g77ks", "c_root_id_B": "c5g5k7m", "created_at_utc_A": 1342685077, "created_at_utc_B": 1342675451, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Random number generation algorithms don't need to be very complicated. It is true that if you're generating random numbers for cryptographic purposes or something similar you need to make sure you have a good generator but for many purposes a simpler one is perfectly suitable.  For example the linear congruential generator, which sounds much fancier than it is. It is really very simple, but it's still sometimes the standard random number generator. And despite its simplicity, and known weaknesses, it's perfectly good for a lot of uses, like providing randomness in computer games.  So the method requires us to always remember what the previous generated number was, it'll be used to generate the next one. But of course there is no previous number for the first number we generate, instead we just pick some number and pretend it was the previous one. This number is called the seed, and a common way to pick it is to use the number of milliseconds passed since January 1st 1970. Just changing this number by one will cause a completely different sequence of random numbers to be generated.  So let's call the previous number (or the seed when generating the first one) P. Then our next random number, let's call it R, is  R = a * P + c (mod m).  So we have a couple more letters here, a, c and m. These are all constants and do not change ever for one particular generator. But you can build different generators by choosing different values for them. There are some requirements they should satisfy for the method to work well (see the Wikipedia page if you're interested). One particular compiler uses values a=22695477, c=1 and m=2^32 . So our method looks like this now,  R = 22695477*P+1 ( mod 2^32 ).  So we multiply P, the previous number, by some large number and then add one. And the last part with mod means dividing by 2^32 and taking the remainder. Taking the remainder after dividing by 2^32 for a computer is a bit like us dividing by 1,000,000 and taking the remainder. Simply take the first six numbers (from right) and ignore the rest, so you don't actually need to do any division at all. Computer will do the same thing in binary for the first 32 bits. And that's it, that's the random number generator, one multiplication, add one, and cut off the carry bits after first 32 bits.  We can try the generator with smaller numbers to get a feel for how it works. For example, a=9, c=5, m=16 and using the seed 1 gives the sequence 1, 14, 3, 0, 5, 2, 7, 4, 9, 6, 11, 8, 13, 10, 15, 12, 1, ... And it repeats from start. Because next number only depends on the last number generated, it should be easy to see that the sequence will repeat when we encounter the seed number 1 again. Because I chose the a, c and m in a specific way, we got every number between 0 and 15, and every number exactly once. Also you can see that it's alternating between even and odd numbers.  A real random number generator would overcome these problems by further dividing the generated random number. The raw random sequence would be numbers between 0 and 2^32 -1, each number exactly once before repeating the sequence. You rarely need such huge numbers anyway. So you can divide each generated number by, for example, 2^22 and then get random numbers between 0 and 1023. And then you may get repeating numbers and you don't always get even and odd numbers alternating.", "human_ref_B": "This was posted to reddit a few months ago. It's explains a new process scientists are using to generate truly random numbers faster than ever before.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9626.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5g7pst", "c_root_id_B": "c5g5k7m", "created_at_utc_A": 1342689432, "created_at_utc_B": 1342675451, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There are also sources of entropy that the computer can use for better random numbers:  In Linux /dev/random outputs good random gathered from various sources. (You can even write into it if you have a source of your own.)  Windows' CryptGenRandom gathers entropy from hardware: \"This is usually based on user input latency, or the jitter from one or more hardware components.\"", "human_ref_B": "This was posted to reddit a few months ago. It's explains a new process scientists are using to generate truly random numbers faster than ever before.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13981.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5g9s9u", "c_root_id_B": "c5g9jco", "created_at_utc_A": 1342706273, "created_at_utc_B": 1342705018, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "As a person who regularly does Monte Carlo / quantum Monte Carlo, I tend not to rely on how a computer (or particular programming language) generates random numbers. It's not very safe unless you are sure you know they are \"good\" pseudo-random numbers.  This is the current algorithm we use for the most part  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_twister", "human_ref_B": "A good question! While it's true most languages have built in functions based of time or some other values in order to generate a random number I feel like this doesn't really answer your question as to \"how\" this actually happens. From what I remember, there was this old program created that generated patterns based of input (0-255) and applied a rule set on this input; this program was known as cellular automata and gave birth to what I remember as one of the first effectively random number generators. Anyways... how about I show you the c++ code:      #include <iostream>     #include <string>     using namespace std;      class Automaton     {     private:     bool rules8];     string this_gen;      public:     static const int MAX_LEN = 80;     static const int MAX_GENS = 500;      Automaton(int new_rule, string first_gen);     void ShowResults(int num_generations);     void SetRule(int new_rule);      // change rule set     bool SetFirstGen(string first_gen); // reset to new first generation      private:     void PropagateNewGeneration();     };      int main()     {     int rule;      // get rule from user     do     {        cout << \"Enter Rule (0 - 255): \";        cin >> rule;     } while (rule < 0 || rule > 255);      // create automaton with this rule and single central dot     Automaton         aut(rule,         \"                                    *                                    \");      // now show it     cout << \"   start\"  << endl;     aut.ShowResults(80);     cout << \"   end\"  << endl;     }      Automaton::Automaton(int new_rule, string first_gen)     {     SetRule(new_rule);     SetFirstGen(first_gen);     }      bool Automaton::SetFirstGen(string first_gen)     {     // don't allow super-short automata (long ones handled later)     if ( first_gen.length() < 3 )     {        this_gen = \" *** \";        return false;     }         // sanitize first_gen so all non-blank chars converted to '*'     for (int k = 0; k < first_gen.length(); k++)        if (first_gen[k] != ' ')           first_gen[k] = '*';      this_gen = \" \";     this_gen += first_gen;     this_gen += \" \";         // don't allow long automata (long ones handled later)     if ( this_gen.length() > MAX_LEN )     {        this_gen = this_gen.substr(0, MAX_LEN - 2);  // this chops 2 chars         this_gen += \" \";  // we have to put back the right blank.           return false;     // we return false, but still they are getting a                         // version of first_gen     }     return true;     }      void Automaton::ShowResults(int num_generations)     {     if (num_generations < 1 || num_generations > MAX_GENS )        num_generations = MAX_GENS;     for (int k = 0; k < num_generations; k++)     {        cout << this_gen << endl;        PropagateNewGeneration();     }     }      void Automaton::SetRule(int new_rule)     {     int bit_to_examine, k, n, bit_result;     bit_to_examine = new_rule;     bit_result = 1;     n = 2;      for (k = 0; k < 8; k++)     {       if ((bit_to_examine & bit_result) != 0) rules[k] = true;       else rules[k] = false;       bit_result = (bit_result * n);     }     }      void Automaton::PropagateNewGeneration()     {     int triplet_val, a, b, c;     string next_gen;     triplet_val = 0;      // add leading position to far left     next_gen = \" \";         for (int pos = 0; pos < this_gen.length() -2; pos++)     {        triplet_val = 0;        a = 0;        b = 0;        c = 0;        if (this_gen[pos] == '*')        {           a = 4;        }        if (this_gen[pos+1] == '*')        {           b = 2;        }        if (this_gen[pos+2] == '*')        {           c = 1;        }        triplet_val = (a+b+c);        if (rules[triplet_val] == true)        {           next_gen += \"*\";        }        else        {           next_gen += \" \";        }     }     // add extra position to far right     next_gen += \" \";      // and finally pass the torch to the new generation     this_gen = next_gen;     }  [//seed output for rule 30:", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1255.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5g9s9u", "c_root_id_B": "c5g8tz3", "created_at_utc_A": 1342706273, "created_at_utc_B": 1342700624, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "As a person who regularly does Monte Carlo / quantum Monte Carlo, I tend not to rely on how a computer (or particular programming language) generates random numbers. It's not very safe unless you are sure you know they are \"good\" pseudo-random numbers.  This is the current algorithm we use for the most part  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_twister", "human_ref_B": "Obligatory xkcd: http://xkcd.com/221/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5649.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5g9jco", "c_root_id_B": "c5gilop", "created_at_utc_A": 1342705018, "created_at_utc_B": 1342739190, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A good question! While it's true most languages have built in functions based of time or some other values in order to generate a random number I feel like this doesn't really answer your question as to \"how\" this actually happens. From what I remember, there was this old program created that generated patterns based of input (0-255) and applied a rule set on this input; this program was known as cellular automata and gave birth to what I remember as one of the first effectively random number generators. Anyways... how about I show you the c++ code:      #include <iostream>     #include <string>     using namespace std;      class Automaton     {     private:     bool rules8];     string this_gen;      public:     static const int MAX_LEN = 80;     static const int MAX_GENS = 500;      Automaton(int new_rule, string first_gen);     void ShowResults(int num_generations);     void SetRule(int new_rule);      // change rule set     bool SetFirstGen(string first_gen); // reset to new first generation      private:     void PropagateNewGeneration();     };      int main()     {     int rule;      // get rule from user     do     {        cout << \"Enter Rule (0 - 255): \";        cin >> rule;     } while (rule < 0 || rule > 255);      // create automaton with this rule and single central dot     Automaton         aut(rule,         \"                                    *                                    \");      // now show it     cout << \"   start\"  << endl;     aut.ShowResults(80);     cout << \"   end\"  << endl;     }      Automaton::Automaton(int new_rule, string first_gen)     {     SetRule(new_rule);     SetFirstGen(first_gen);     }      bool Automaton::SetFirstGen(string first_gen)     {     // don't allow super-short automata (long ones handled later)     if ( first_gen.length() < 3 )     {        this_gen = \" *** \";        return false;     }         // sanitize first_gen so all non-blank chars converted to '*'     for (int k = 0; k < first_gen.length(); k++)        if (first_gen[k] != ' ')           first_gen[k] = '*';      this_gen = \" \";     this_gen += first_gen;     this_gen += \" \";         // don't allow long automata (long ones handled later)     if ( this_gen.length() > MAX_LEN )     {        this_gen = this_gen.substr(0, MAX_LEN - 2);  // this chops 2 chars         this_gen += \" \";  // we have to put back the right blank.           return false;     // we return false, but still they are getting a                         // version of first_gen     }     return true;     }      void Automaton::ShowResults(int num_generations)     {     if (num_generations < 1 || num_generations > MAX_GENS )        num_generations = MAX_GENS;     for (int k = 0; k < num_generations; k++)     {        cout << this_gen << endl;        PropagateNewGeneration();     }     }      void Automaton::SetRule(int new_rule)     {     int bit_to_examine, k, n, bit_result;     bit_to_examine = new_rule;     bit_result = 1;     n = 2;      for (k = 0; k < 8; k++)     {       if ((bit_to_examine & bit_result) != 0) rules[k] = true;       else rules[k] = false;       bit_result = (bit_result * n);     }     }      void Automaton::PropagateNewGeneration()     {     int triplet_val, a, b, c;     string next_gen;     triplet_val = 0;      // add leading position to far left     next_gen = \" \";         for (int pos = 0; pos < this_gen.length() -2; pos++)     {        triplet_val = 0;        a = 0;        b = 0;        c = 0;        if (this_gen[pos] == '*')        {           a = 4;        }        if (this_gen[pos+1] == '*')        {           b = 2;        }        if (this_gen[pos+2] == '*')        {           c = 1;        }        triplet_val = (a+b+c);        if (rules[triplet_val] == true)        {           next_gen += \"*\";        }        else        {           next_gen += \" \";        }     }     // add extra position to far right     next_gen += \" \";      // and finally pass the torch to the new generation     this_gen = next_gen;     }  [//seed output for rule 30:", "human_ref_B": "You can buy chips to put in your computer that create quite randome numbers by firing multiple photons a a plane of glass and seeing if each one gets reflected or not.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34172.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5gilop", "c_root_id_B": "c5g8tz3", "created_at_utc_A": 1342739190, "created_at_utc_B": 1342700624, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "You can buy chips to put in your computer that create quite randome numbers by firing multiple photons a a plane of glass and seeing if each one gets reflected or not.", "human_ref_B": "Obligatory xkcd: http://xkcd.com/221/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 38566.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5g9jco", "c_root_id_B": "c5gjtam", "created_at_utc_A": 1342705018, "created_at_utc_B": 1342744256, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A good question! While it's true most languages have built in functions based of time or some other values in order to generate a random number I feel like this doesn't really answer your question as to \"how\" this actually happens. From what I remember, there was this old program created that generated patterns based of input (0-255) and applied a rule set on this input; this program was known as cellular automata and gave birth to what I remember as one of the first effectively random number generators. Anyways... how about I show you the c++ code:      #include <iostream>     #include <string>     using namespace std;      class Automaton     {     private:     bool rules8];     string this_gen;      public:     static const int MAX_LEN = 80;     static const int MAX_GENS = 500;      Automaton(int new_rule, string first_gen);     void ShowResults(int num_generations);     void SetRule(int new_rule);      // change rule set     bool SetFirstGen(string first_gen); // reset to new first generation      private:     void PropagateNewGeneration();     };      int main()     {     int rule;      // get rule from user     do     {        cout << \"Enter Rule (0 - 255): \";        cin >> rule;     } while (rule < 0 || rule > 255);      // create automaton with this rule and single central dot     Automaton         aut(rule,         \"                                    *                                    \");      // now show it     cout << \"   start\"  << endl;     aut.ShowResults(80);     cout << \"   end\"  << endl;     }      Automaton::Automaton(int new_rule, string first_gen)     {     SetRule(new_rule);     SetFirstGen(first_gen);     }      bool Automaton::SetFirstGen(string first_gen)     {     // don't allow super-short automata (long ones handled later)     if ( first_gen.length() < 3 )     {        this_gen = \" *** \";        return false;     }         // sanitize first_gen so all non-blank chars converted to '*'     for (int k = 0; k < first_gen.length(); k++)        if (first_gen[k] != ' ')           first_gen[k] = '*';      this_gen = \" \";     this_gen += first_gen;     this_gen += \" \";         // don't allow long automata (long ones handled later)     if ( this_gen.length() > MAX_LEN )     {        this_gen = this_gen.substr(0, MAX_LEN - 2);  // this chops 2 chars         this_gen += \" \";  // we have to put back the right blank.           return false;     // we return false, but still they are getting a                         // version of first_gen     }     return true;     }      void Automaton::ShowResults(int num_generations)     {     if (num_generations < 1 || num_generations > MAX_GENS )        num_generations = MAX_GENS;     for (int k = 0; k < num_generations; k++)     {        cout << this_gen << endl;        PropagateNewGeneration();     }     }      void Automaton::SetRule(int new_rule)     {     int bit_to_examine, k, n, bit_result;     bit_to_examine = new_rule;     bit_result = 1;     n = 2;      for (k = 0; k < 8; k++)     {       if ((bit_to_examine & bit_result) != 0) rules[k] = true;       else rules[k] = false;       bit_result = (bit_result * n);     }     }      void Automaton::PropagateNewGeneration()     {     int triplet_val, a, b, c;     string next_gen;     triplet_val = 0;      // add leading position to far left     next_gen = \" \";         for (int pos = 0; pos < this_gen.length() -2; pos++)     {        triplet_val = 0;        a = 0;        b = 0;        c = 0;        if (this_gen[pos] == '*')        {           a = 4;        }        if (this_gen[pos+1] == '*')        {           b = 2;        }        if (this_gen[pos+2] == '*')        {           c = 1;        }        triplet_val = (a+b+c);        if (rules[triplet_val] == true)        {           next_gen += \"*\";        }        else        {           next_gen += \" \";        }     }     // add extra position to far right     next_gen += \" \";      // and finally pass the torch to the new generation     this_gen = next_gen;     }  [//seed output for rule 30:", "human_ref_B": "Related question: Wouldn't it be sufficient as \"true\" random numbers to have a measurement of voltage on some appropriate part of the computer motherboard and do some really cheap logic trick to it, like shift lo/hi and do a modulo on another measurement or something?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 39238.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5g8tz3", "c_root_id_B": "c5gjtam", "created_at_utc_A": 1342700624, "created_at_utc_B": 1342744256, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Obligatory xkcd: http://xkcd.com/221/", "human_ref_B": "Related question: Wouldn't it be sufficient as \"true\" random numbers to have a measurement of voltage on some appropriate part of the computer motherboard and do some really cheap logic trick to it, like shift lo/hi and do a modulo on another measurement or something?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 43632.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wsw20", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "how does a computer pick a random number? pretty straight forward question... i hope  im wondering what process or program allows it to generate a random number? is it really random if the computer picks it? is it subject to some kind of physical bias?", "c_root_id_A": "c5g9jco", "c_root_id_B": "c5g8tz3", "created_at_utc_A": 1342705018, "created_at_utc_B": 1342700624, "score_A": -1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "A good question! While it's true most languages have built in functions based of time or some other values in order to generate a random number I feel like this doesn't really answer your question as to \"how\" this actually happens. From what I remember, there was this old program created that generated patterns based of input (0-255) and applied a rule set on this input; this program was known as cellular automata and gave birth to what I remember as one of the first effectively random number generators. Anyways... how about I show you the c++ code:      #include <iostream>     #include <string>     using namespace std;      class Automaton     {     private:     bool rules8];     string this_gen;      public:     static const int MAX_LEN = 80;     static const int MAX_GENS = 500;      Automaton(int new_rule, string first_gen);     void ShowResults(int num_generations);     void SetRule(int new_rule);      // change rule set     bool SetFirstGen(string first_gen); // reset to new first generation      private:     void PropagateNewGeneration();     };      int main()     {     int rule;      // get rule from user     do     {        cout << \"Enter Rule (0 - 255): \";        cin >> rule;     } while (rule < 0 || rule > 255);      // create automaton with this rule and single central dot     Automaton         aut(rule,         \"                                    *                                    \");      // now show it     cout << \"   start\"  << endl;     aut.ShowResults(80);     cout << \"   end\"  << endl;     }      Automaton::Automaton(int new_rule, string first_gen)     {     SetRule(new_rule);     SetFirstGen(first_gen);     }      bool Automaton::SetFirstGen(string first_gen)     {     // don't allow super-short automata (long ones handled later)     if ( first_gen.length() < 3 )     {        this_gen = \" *** \";        return false;     }         // sanitize first_gen so all non-blank chars converted to '*'     for (int k = 0; k < first_gen.length(); k++)        if (first_gen[k] != ' ')           first_gen[k] = '*';      this_gen = \" \";     this_gen += first_gen;     this_gen += \" \";         // don't allow long automata (long ones handled later)     if ( this_gen.length() > MAX_LEN )     {        this_gen = this_gen.substr(0, MAX_LEN - 2);  // this chops 2 chars         this_gen += \" \";  // we have to put back the right blank.           return false;     // we return false, but still they are getting a                         // version of first_gen     }     return true;     }      void Automaton::ShowResults(int num_generations)     {     if (num_generations < 1 || num_generations > MAX_GENS )        num_generations = MAX_GENS;     for (int k = 0; k < num_generations; k++)     {        cout << this_gen << endl;        PropagateNewGeneration();     }     }      void Automaton::SetRule(int new_rule)     {     int bit_to_examine, k, n, bit_result;     bit_to_examine = new_rule;     bit_result = 1;     n = 2;      for (k = 0; k < 8; k++)     {       if ((bit_to_examine & bit_result) != 0) rules[k] = true;       else rules[k] = false;       bit_result = (bit_result * n);     }     }      void Automaton::PropagateNewGeneration()     {     int triplet_val, a, b, c;     string next_gen;     triplet_val = 0;      // add leading position to far left     next_gen = \" \";         for (int pos = 0; pos < this_gen.length() -2; pos++)     {        triplet_val = 0;        a = 0;        b = 0;        c = 0;        if (this_gen[pos] == '*')        {           a = 4;        }        if (this_gen[pos+1] == '*')        {           b = 2;        }        if (this_gen[pos+2] == '*')        {           c = 1;        }        triplet_val = (a+b+c);        if (rules[triplet_val] == true)        {           next_gen += \"*\";        }        else        {           next_gen += \" \";        }     }     // add extra position to far right     next_gen += \" \";      // and finally pass the torch to the new generation     this_gen = next_gen;     }  [//seed output for rule 30:", "human_ref_B": "Obligatory xkcd: http://xkcd.com/221/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4394.0, "score_ratio": 0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1owp09", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If oil takes millions of years to be made, how much of it is made each year? We are always told at school that using oil is unsustainable as it takes millions of years to be made, so what is a sustainable amount we can use each year so that it gets remade for the next year. I apologize if this sounds confusing", "c_root_id_A": "ccwey40", "c_root_id_B": "ccwev4p", "created_at_utc_A": 1382374872, "created_at_utc_B": 1382374675, "score_A": 979, "score_B": 63, "human_ref_A": "Here's an article at livescience that says essentially what others in this thread are saying.  * We don't know how much oil reserves are in the Earth.  * There's no defined length of time that is required for organic material to be converted into petroleum.  * The rate at which oil is created is ~~likely~~ orders of magnitude less than the rate at which we use it.    > \"The rate at which petroleum is forming is not going to be the solution to our petroleum supplies.\"   Edit: Strikethrough.  Also, /u/Sexual_Thunder69 mentioned that we aren't sure oil is still being produced within the Earth (or perhaps not at as high a rate as it was once created), and from a practicality standpoint, /u/ScienceMonster points out that oil production within Earth happens on geological time scales.  That said, several other redditors worked out that average numbers are on the order of 10,000 barrels per year.", "human_ref_B": "'Oil' as I think you are using it to mean a mixture a heavy hydrocarbons that is commonly referred to as 'crude oil'.  Does not take millions of years to be made.  With the right catalyst, equipment, enough energy (heat), and an appropriate source of syngas I can make you all the crude oil you want, and if your quality tolerances are loose, I can make it fairly cheap too.    The colloquial expression that it 'takes millions of years for oil to be made' comes from the fact that it takes millions/billions of years for nature to produce the conditions necessary for oil to form/accumulate into large underground/near-surface reservoirs that we can then drill and collect to use for our own purposes.  So I guess my answer is that there is no answer on the year, decade, or even millennial scale.  You are dealing in a geological timescale where billions of tons of organic matter have to be subducted into the ground, and cooked down into oil.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 197.0, "score_ratio": 15.5396825397, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1owp09", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If oil takes millions of years to be made, how much of it is made each year? We are always told at school that using oil is unsustainable as it takes millions of years to be made, so what is a sustainable amount we can use each year so that it gets remade for the next year. I apologize if this sounds confusing", "c_root_id_A": "ccwev4p", "c_root_id_B": "ccwg66y", "created_at_utc_A": 1382374675, "created_at_utc_B": 1382377823, "score_A": 63, "score_B": 202, "human_ref_A": "'Oil' as I think you are using it to mean a mixture a heavy hydrocarbons that is commonly referred to as 'crude oil'.  Does not take millions of years to be made.  With the right catalyst, equipment, enough energy (heat), and an appropriate source of syngas I can make you all the crude oil you want, and if your quality tolerances are loose, I can make it fairly cheap too.    The colloquial expression that it 'takes millions of years for oil to be made' comes from the fact that it takes millions/billions of years for nature to produce the conditions necessary for oil to form/accumulate into large underground/near-surface reservoirs that we can then drill and collect to use for our own purposes.  So I guess my answer is that there is no answer on the year, decade, or even millennial scale.  You are dealing in a geological timescale where billions of tons of organic matter have to be subducted into the ground, and cooked down into oil.", "human_ref_B": "It has been postulated that fossil fuels are no longer forming the way they used too.  The woody, high carbon content plants that we are familiar with today evolved some time ago and at that time there were next to no organisms that had the metabolic capacity to break them down.  For this reason, dead plant matter just piled up for millennia, eventually forming the fossil fuels we use today.  Since then, however, fungi as well as some prokaryotes have developed the ability to consume cellulose and lignin.  This prevents the pile up of organic matter we saw during the carboniferous period.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3148.0, "score_ratio": 3.2063492063, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1owp09", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If oil takes millions of years to be made, how much of it is made each year? We are always told at school that using oil is unsustainable as it takes millions of years to be made, so what is a sustainable amount we can use each year so that it gets remade for the next year. I apologize if this sounds confusing", "c_root_id_A": "ccwev4p", "c_root_id_B": "ccwmlxq", "created_at_utc_A": 1382374675, "created_at_utc_B": 1382392416, "score_A": 63, "score_B": 71, "human_ref_A": "'Oil' as I think you are using it to mean a mixture a heavy hydrocarbons that is commonly referred to as 'crude oil'.  Does not take millions of years to be made.  With the right catalyst, equipment, enough energy (heat), and an appropriate source of syngas I can make you all the crude oil you want, and if your quality tolerances are loose, I can make it fairly cheap too.    The colloquial expression that it 'takes millions of years for oil to be made' comes from the fact that it takes millions/billions of years for nature to produce the conditions necessary for oil to form/accumulate into large underground/near-surface reservoirs that we can then drill and collect to use for our own purposes.  So I guess my answer is that there is no answer on the year, decade, or even millennial scale.  You are dealing in a geological timescale where billions of tons of organic matter have to be subducted into the ground, and cooked down into oil.", "human_ref_B": "Petroleum Engineer chiming in. As others have said, oil comes from algae/other organisms prodominatly 300-400 million years ago. But it doesn't take this long to make in relation to your question. I'll try to keep this concise, this first paragraph will be background science though.  The carbon based organisms such as algae would thrive in warm, calm, shallow seas. The organisms would die and settle on the bottom to then be covered by sand/silt/other sediments. As these piled up the organisms would be subjected to higher temperatures and pressures which would 'cook' these into kerogen, then as the temperature and pressure continued to increase as things got deeper, oil and natural gas. It took hundreds of millions of years for the rock layer containing the organisms to reach a depth suitable to cook the kerogen into oil/gas.  We do not drill into and produce from the 'kitchen'. These are generally much deeper and very 'tight' rock. The oil we produce has migrated out of the kitchen upward, getting trapped in specific types of rock structures (anticlines/pinchouts/unconformities/etc...) that are easier to get at.  How does this relate to the question? It takes hundreds of millions of years to go from organisms on the seafloor to oil. But oil reservoirs that we consider exploitable are not reliant on orgamisms on the seafloor. They are reliant on oil migrating from the kitchens to the traps. There are case studies of oil reservoirs currently being 'refilled' by migrating oil. These are exceptions though and enough examples have certainly not been found to even discuss this as a relevent topic in sustainable oil.  So why bring it up? The precursor. The kerogen that is still stuck in the kitchens. There are VAST quantities of the stuff and if we find a way to exploit these economically, it would be a game changer. We don't have to wait hundreds of millions of years for carbon based organisms on the seafloor to be buried, there is plenty already down there. It is just a matter of getting to it.   Fun fact: the British Crown offered a patent in 1684 for changing kerogen to oil, so it is certainly nothing new.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17741.0, "score_ratio": 1.126984127, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1owp09", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If oil takes millions of years to be made, how much of it is made each year? We are always told at school that using oil is unsustainable as it takes millions of years to be made, so what is a sustainable amount we can use each year so that it gets remade for the next year. I apologize if this sounds confusing", "c_root_id_A": "ccwmlxq", "c_root_id_B": "ccwiles", "created_at_utc_A": 1382392416, "created_at_utc_B": 1382383476, "score_A": 71, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Petroleum Engineer chiming in. As others have said, oil comes from algae/other organisms prodominatly 300-400 million years ago. But it doesn't take this long to make in relation to your question. I'll try to keep this concise, this first paragraph will be background science though.  The carbon based organisms such as algae would thrive in warm, calm, shallow seas. The organisms would die and settle on the bottom to then be covered by sand/silt/other sediments. As these piled up the organisms would be subjected to higher temperatures and pressures which would 'cook' these into kerogen, then as the temperature and pressure continued to increase as things got deeper, oil and natural gas. It took hundreds of millions of years for the rock layer containing the organisms to reach a depth suitable to cook the kerogen into oil/gas.  We do not drill into and produce from the 'kitchen'. These are generally much deeper and very 'tight' rock. The oil we produce has migrated out of the kitchen upward, getting trapped in specific types of rock structures (anticlines/pinchouts/unconformities/etc...) that are easier to get at.  How does this relate to the question? It takes hundreds of millions of years to go from organisms on the seafloor to oil. But oil reservoirs that we consider exploitable are not reliant on orgamisms on the seafloor. They are reliant on oil migrating from the kitchens to the traps. There are case studies of oil reservoirs currently being 'refilled' by migrating oil. These are exceptions though and enough examples have certainly not been found to even discuss this as a relevent topic in sustainable oil.  So why bring it up? The precursor. The kerogen that is still stuck in the kitchens. There are VAST quantities of the stuff and if we find a way to exploit these economically, it would be a game changer. We don't have to wait hundreds of millions of years for carbon based organisms on the seafloor to be buried, there is plenty already down there. It is just a matter of getting to it.   Fun fact: the British Crown offered a patent in 1684 for changing kerogen to oil, so it is certainly nothing new.", "human_ref_B": "Its my understanding that there can be no further development of oil reservoirs. The period of time produced the majority of oil, natural gas, and coal deposits was unique in that the organisms responsible for decomposition (primarily fungi and specialized bacteria) did not exist yet. So as organisms died their material would only slowly break down from heat and light exposure, which led to great depths of organic matter and sediment building up.   On land, the major source organic matter were gigantic ferns (trees hadnt yet evolved). These would fall over dead on top of each other over and over again, until you had depths of many meters of dead ferns. These were eventually covered by sediment and formed our current coal deposits.   Oil reservoirs were similarly formed from the repeated buildup of dead sea organisms, primarily algae. These would form on the bottom of the ocean, and again would not break down or be eaten because few organisms had evolved for that purpose yet. FUN FACT - This is the reason that when we produce oil reservoirs we get a ton of salt water too. Its old sea water that was trapped alongside the organic matter!  Eventually though, organisms DID evolve which specialized in using dead organic matter for food. This rapidly sped up the process of decomposition and most organisms now break down well before they are able to be trapped under layers of sediment.  Of course, it does happen occasionally which is what provides us with things like dinosaur bones, but these are extremely rare occurrences. It certainly doesnt happen in great enough quantities for vast reserves of oil to ever build up to a point where the would be economically exploitable.   TL;DR - The oil we have is all we are ever gonna get.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8940.0, "score_ratio": 8.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f0cfs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "I'd like some advice on biomedical sciences graduate programs.  Has anyone been through one?  What are your thoughts? I received a BS in biology in 2008 and have been working in an AIDS/HIV immunology lab for the past two years.  I've been interested in going to medical school, but have started to look at other graduate programs.  I had only just heard of the biomedical sciences style program offered at many top research universities.  I am really interested in them because they allow you to rotate through labs exploring your interests before you commit to a specific program.    Has anyone been through this style program?", "c_root_id_A": "c1cc0ou", "c_root_id_B": "c1ccjwt", "created_at_utc_A": 1294774920, "created_at_utc_B": 1294781441, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The program I'm in umbrellas Biology and Biomed.  I think many programs offer rotations.  I skipped them because I was already working for who I wanted to do my PhD with, but I know a few students who did rotations in labs in both Biology and Biomed.  Not sure how it is at other universities, but I'd still spend some time looking at the faculty and their research before you decide on a program.  That way, you'll have an idea about which labs you want to rotate through.  Good luck!", "human_ref_B": "I'm in a biochemistry/biophysics graduate program that does rotations.  The advantages of it are:  1) Students are much more likely to be in the lab of their choice.  This reduces the graduate student attrition rate a lot and makes graduate students much happier in general since they have less regrets about the lab they picked.  It also improves the general \"mood\" of a program and makes it more social and friendly.  This is by far the biggest benefit of a rotation program.  2) It fosters collaboration between labs more.  A rotation student will often collaborate with labs they rotated in even if they didn't join them.  3) It exposes students to multiple techniques outside of the lab that they finally join so they don't feel afraid to try techniques that are \"outside\" of their lab's box.  The biggest disadvantage to rotations is that they extend the time to graduate.  In my program's case, it's 3 half-semester rotations, which means you defend a year and half later.  This brings up the average total time (including rotations) to around 6.5 years for my program, which is a considerable amount of time to spend doing graduate study, especially when you are making a low salary.  Remember that if you are considering a career in academics that you still have a postdoc to follow that for a few years (also at a somewhat low salary), so you're talking at least a decade after graduating from college before you start making a good salary if you take the academic path.  And that completely ignores the challenges of getting tenured, which is extremely competitive right now because lots of people are taking the academic path due to the slow job market.  Overall, I recommend the rotation style, but just be aware of the opportunity cost of an extra year or so of working a low salary.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6521.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f0cfs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.95, "history": "I'd like some advice on biomedical sciences graduate programs.  Has anyone been through one?  What are your thoughts? I received a BS in biology in 2008 and have been working in an AIDS/HIV immunology lab for the past two years.  I've been interested in going to medical school, but have started to look at other graduate programs.  I had only just heard of the biomedical sciences style program offered at many top research universities.  I am really interested in them because they allow you to rotate through labs exploring your interests before you commit to a specific program.    Has anyone been through this style program?", "c_root_id_A": "c1ccjwt", "c_root_id_B": "c1cc6sp", "created_at_utc_A": 1294781441, "created_at_utc_B": 1294776972, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I'm in a biochemistry/biophysics graduate program that does rotations.  The advantages of it are:  1) Students are much more likely to be in the lab of their choice.  This reduces the graduate student attrition rate a lot and makes graduate students much happier in general since they have less regrets about the lab they picked.  It also improves the general \"mood\" of a program and makes it more social and friendly.  This is by far the biggest benefit of a rotation program.  2) It fosters collaboration between labs more.  A rotation student will often collaborate with labs they rotated in even if they didn't join them.  3) It exposes students to multiple techniques outside of the lab that they finally join so they don't feel afraid to try techniques that are \"outside\" of their lab's box.  The biggest disadvantage to rotations is that they extend the time to graduate.  In my program's case, it's 3 half-semester rotations, which means you defend a year and half later.  This brings up the average total time (including rotations) to around 6.5 years for my program, which is a considerable amount of time to spend doing graduate study, especially when you are making a low salary.  Remember that if you are considering a career in academics that you still have a postdoc to follow that for a few years (also at a somewhat low salary), so you're talking at least a decade after graduating from college before you start making a good salary if you take the academic path.  And that completely ignores the challenges of getting tenured, which is extremely competitive right now because lots of people are taking the academic path due to the slow job market.  Overall, I recommend the rotation style, but just be aware of the opportunity cost of an extra year or so of working a low salary.", "human_ref_B": "All the universities that I am familiar, in the US, use this system.  In fact, most require rotations before settling on a lab to do a thesis in.  My university requires 3 and very rarely make exceptions.  Some colleagues have done as many as 5 rotations, though this is uncommon.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4469.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3bisn3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Where do electrons come from when you generate electrical energy? I mean, if you have flow of electrons, wouldn't eventually the material run empty of electrons to flow? Also, even if it'd take really long, wouldn't if be harder for each electron to leave the material as it would start to become highly positively charged, thus decreasing electrical current?  I know its silly, but it's a real question. Thanks guys!", "c_root_id_A": "csmkuk1", "c_root_id_B": "csmjjt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1435599139, "created_at_utc_B": 1435597148, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "> Where do electrons come from when you generate electrical energy?  They don't come from anywhere. The electrical power companies do not create or destroy electrons\\*. They don't even pipe pre-existing electrons from outside of your house into your house. They simply apply an electromagnetic field which gets the already-existing electrons in the metal of the wires in your house to being oscillating back and forth. When you switch off a light bulb, the wires disconnect and the electric field from the power company now no longer extends to the light bulb, so that the electrons in the light bulb stop oscillating. But they don't go anywhere. The electrons are still in the wires and in the light bulb. (More accurately, the ordered oscillations of the electrons as driven by the power company's electric field becomes disordered movements as the the electrons smash into each other. Macroscopically, we describe this effect by saying that electrical energy is converted to waste heat. The power companies generate strong electromagnetic fields by having something hot (e.g. burning coal) boil water to steam, which steam pushes a turbine blade causing it to turn, which turbine blade makes magnets spin around bundles of metal wires, which changing magnetic field causes electrons in the wires to oscillate, which electrons then create an oscillating electromagnetic field which propagates down the wire.  > I mean, if you have flow of electrons, wouldn't eventually the material run empty of electrons to flow?  As stated previously, in an alternating current (AC) system such as power companies use, electrons don't flow at all. They just oscillate in place. In a direct current (DC) system, electrons do indeed flow. But even in a traditional DC system overall, new electrons always arrive from another part of the circuit to replace the ones that are flowing away. However, parts of electrical components can indeed be drained of their electrons, the most notable example being a capacitor. When a capacitor is connected in a simple circuit, one side of the capacitor is drained of its free electrons and the other side is saturated with free electrons. Once the one side is drained of its free electrons, it can't lose anymore, and the electrical current stops flowing. In this way, capacitors can indeed be used to control electron flow in a circuit. But a standard wire in an electrical circuit does not lose or gain electrons as the electrons flow through it. Most electrical circuit components are always overall neutrally charged, meaning that there are always the same number of electrons present as there are protons in the atomic nuclei.  \\*Note that it is possible to create and destroy electrons using high energy particle physics/nuclear reactions, but that does not happen in most electrical systems.", "human_ref_B": "When you turn on your lights, for instance, your power company is only providing an electric field. The electrons are already in the wires in whatever device you are powering. The wire itself is still neutrally charged since electrons are not leaving one area of the wire to go to the other. The wire without the field looks like this, more or less.       ++++++++++      ----------  You should imagine the wire going on in both direction, infinitely. (Technically, it's not infinitely, obviously, but at the very least it's one large loop.) The field is turned on, and the electrons all move in the same direction. So no one area ever gets devoid of electrons. It's not as if the wire is sucked free of electrons and then has to be replenished or something.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1991.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmq1jb", "c_root_id_B": "ckmhrmn", "created_at_utc_A": 1411133970, "created_at_utc_B": 1411100895, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I can't believe no one has made the following obvious point yet:  Classically,  Momentum = mv = integral of force per unit time  Kinetic energy = 1/2 m v^2 = integral of force per unit distance  In other words, the momentum of an object describes how *long* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero. While the kinetic energy of an object describes how *far* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero.   In a classical context, this is the reason *why* we define momentum and kinetic energy to be what they are. That is how they are *defined*. So personally this is by far the most intuitive explanation for what the momentum and kinetic energy represents.  **EDIT** fixed a silly mistake  in the momentum equation, saying derivative when I meant integral", "human_ref_B": "The momentum (both linear and angular) that a particle has is associated with certain a quantity pointing in a specific direction in *space* and at a certain *time* whereas the kinetic energy that a particle has is a certain quantity at a given *time* only. The differences are easier to demonstrate with the mathematics, but essentially you can distinguish between the two by keeping this key difference in mind.  For example, if I throw a ball at the wall in a straight line to the right you can say that it has a certain amount of momentum to the right (but it would have zero momentum pointing downwards for instance). While traveling to the right, this ball also has a certain amount of energy associated with it, and this amount doesn't depend on the direction it is traveling in.   If I now threw a second ball the same way but downwards, it's momentum would now point downwards, but the energy would be exactly the same for the second ball as it for the first ball. As far as intuition, think of energy as like money in your bank account. It can go up and down, and you can measure the amount you have at any point with a certain number. On the other hand, momentum is a measure of how fast an object is moving in a certain direction (more easily visualized as an object like a ball flying through space at a certain speed in a certain direction).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 33075.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmlxqw", "c_root_id_B": "ckmq1jb", "created_at_utc_A": 1411117056, "created_at_utc_B": 1411133970, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "> Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   Well, that really sounds more like *elasticity* If you get hit by something soft, then the energy of the impact gets converted into deformation, heat, etc.  On the other hand if you get hit by something hard or sharp, it goes through.  Momentum and Kinetic energy are tightly related.  The one difference is that Kenetic energy goes up with the square of speed, and momentum is linear with speed.  So, if you are driving 50 miles an hour, and accelerate to 100, your kinetic energy quadruples, while your momentum doubles.    So in a way you kind of have it backwards.  More kinetic energy means you have more 'energy' that can be used to deform something, or be converted into heat, so high KE impacts can be more elastic.    Anyway, the thing is - what's intuitive to one person isn't the same as what's intuitive to another.  If you learn a lot about math and science, your *intuition changes* and becomes more scientific. Eventually you get to the point where you can look at an equation and intuitively \"get\" what it means, while a qualitative description about \"oomph\" and \"ouch\" doesn't make much sense.", "human_ref_B": "I can't believe no one has made the following obvious point yet:  Classically,  Momentum = mv = integral of force per unit time  Kinetic energy = 1/2 m v^2 = integral of force per unit distance  In other words, the momentum of an object describes how *long* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero. While the kinetic energy of an object describes how *far* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero.   In a classical context, this is the reason *why* we define momentum and kinetic energy to be what they are. That is how they are *defined*. So personally this is by far the most intuitive explanation for what the momentum and kinetic energy represents.  **EDIT** fixed a silly mistake  in the momentum equation, saying derivative when I meant integral", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16914.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmq1jb", "c_root_id_B": "ckmor57", "created_at_utc_A": 1411133970, "created_at_utc_B": 1411130343, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I can't believe no one has made the following obvious point yet:  Classically,  Momentum = mv = integral of force per unit time  Kinetic energy = 1/2 m v^2 = integral of force per unit distance  In other words, the momentum of an object describes how *long* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero. While the kinetic energy of an object describes how *far* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero.   In a classical context, this is the reason *why* we define momentum and kinetic energy to be what they are. That is how they are *defined*. So personally this is by far the most intuitive explanation for what the momentum and kinetic energy represents.  **EDIT** fixed a silly mistake  in the momentum equation, saying derivative when I meant integral", "human_ref_B": "Just for pedantic reasons, they are, technically, the *exact same thing*. (mc\u00b2)\u00b2 = E\u00b2 - (**p**c)\u00b2. <- from relativity, right? The magnitude of the energy-momentum 4-vector is equivalent to the mass of the particle or system.   We can rearrange that, if we'd like (and also going to c=1 units for convenience's sake), to E\u00b2 = m\u00b2 + **p**\u00b2. Energy is exactly the sum (in quadrature) of the mass of an object/system and its motion, momentum. Energy only has two \"forms,\" mass and motion, m and **p**.   ---  Of course when we're talking about every-day nonrelativistic physics, it does help to distinguish the two concepts.   So in that case their difference is the following:  Momentum is what you get when the \"physical description\" of an object stays the same as you translate left-and-right or up-and-down or forward-and-back or some linear combination thereof. If I start my pendulum at this location or at that location, the overall description of its motion will be the same. Thus, there will be some value that is conserved that corresponds to that space-translation invariance. That's momentum.  Energy is what you get when you shift the physical description forward or backward in time. If I start my pendulum now, or later, will anything change about its description? If no, then energy is the quantity conserved in the process. Energy is the conserved quantity of time translation invariance.   ---  Which circles back around to my initial point. Relativity tells us that space-and-time are inextricably linked. Just like I can form a linear combination of two space axes (ie rotate in space) and still conserve momentum, so too can I rotate in space-time (though this rotation is technically a Lorentz boost, since space-time has a hyperbolic, rather than circular metric).  Space-and-time translation invariance means an invariance in Momentum-and-energy respectively. Which leads to my personal favorite definition of mass: \"Mass is the Lorentz invariant measure of the conserved quantities of a system that is invariant under space-time translations\"", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3627.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmdt3y", "c_root_id_B": "ckmq1jb", "created_at_utc_A": 1411091837, "created_at_utc_B": 1411133970, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Generally speaking, momentum measures how much force is required to bring an object from rest into motion or how much force is required to slow down or stop an object in motion.  Kinetic energy is a measure of how much work is required to accelerate a mass to a certain speed.  The \"ouch\" you're talking about is more about force and pressure than kinetic energy.   I like to think of it this way. Lets say you're in a car and you're driving. A deer decides to prance about the road and you hit it. The \"oomph\" the deer will feel is because of momentum AND the kinetic energy. Assuming this is perfectly inelastic and all the kinetic energy is transferred to the deer, that's a pretty big \"oomph\".   In other words, I think of momentum and kinetic energy to both contribute to the \"oomph\" factor and I leave the \"ouch\" factor up to the pressure.", "human_ref_B": "I can't believe no one has made the following obvious point yet:  Classically,  Momentum = mv = integral of force per unit time  Kinetic energy = 1/2 m v^2 = integral of force per unit distance  In other words, the momentum of an object describes how *long* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero. While the kinetic energy of an object describes how *far* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero.   In a classical context, this is the reason *why* we define momentum and kinetic energy to be what they are. That is how they are *defined*. So personally this is by far the most intuitive explanation for what the momentum and kinetic energy represents.  **EDIT** fixed a silly mistake  in the momentum equation, saying derivative when I meant integral", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 42133.0, "score_ratio": 13000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmq1jb", "c_root_id_B": "ckmg761", "created_at_utc_A": 1411133970, "created_at_utc_B": 1411096773, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I can't believe no one has made the following obvious point yet:  Classically,  Momentum = mv = integral of force per unit time  Kinetic energy = 1/2 m v^2 = integral of force per unit distance  In other words, the momentum of an object describes how *long* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero. While the kinetic energy of an object describes how *far* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero.   In a classical context, this is the reason *why* we define momentum and kinetic energy to be what they are. That is how they are *defined*. So personally this is by far the most intuitive explanation for what the momentum and kinetic energy represents.  **EDIT** fixed a silly mistake  in the momentum equation, saying derivative when I meant integral", "human_ref_B": "Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. Energy overall is conserved, but can change forms within the system.  They have different equations. Both are linear with mass, but momentum is v and energy is v^2. Momentum also strictly governs physical masses moving around, with the exception of the momentum in light. Energy is different, since it can be converted into heat, used to deform materials, and various other things.  If you look at a situation where a bullet is fired into a block of wood on a pendulum, conservation of momentum tells you the velocity of the block and bullet system together after the impact. If you look at the energy of the system before and after, you will find that the combined kinematic system has a lot less energy. Where did it go? It went into deforming the bullet, drilling a big hole into the wood block, and heating the whole thing up!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 37197.0, "score_ratio": 13000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmjhi8", "c_root_id_B": "ckmq1jb", "created_at_utc_A": 1411105970, "created_at_utc_B": 1411133970, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "The difference is similar to the difference between space dimension and time dimension.  Energy density is amount of mass in a volume. Components of momentum vector (x,y,z) are flow of mass across surface (perpendicular to x,y,z). If you look at it in 4-dimensional space (t,x,y,z) they appear very similar: energy density - dM/(dx * dy * dz), x-component of momentum - dM/(dt * dy * dz)", "human_ref_B": "I can't believe no one has made the following obvious point yet:  Classically,  Momentum = mv = integral of force per unit time  Kinetic energy = 1/2 m v^2 = integral of force per unit distance  In other words, the momentum of an object describes how *long* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero. While the kinetic energy of an object describes how *far* it takes for a given force to reduce the velocity to zero.   In a classical context, this is the reason *why* we define momentum and kinetic energy to be what they are. That is how they are *defined*. So personally this is by far the most intuitive explanation for what the momentum and kinetic energy represents.  **EDIT** fixed a silly mistake  in the momentum equation, saying derivative when I meant integral", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28000.0, "score_ratio": -6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmhrmn", "c_root_id_B": "ckmdt3y", "created_at_utc_A": 1411100895, "created_at_utc_B": 1411091837, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The momentum (both linear and angular) that a particle has is associated with certain a quantity pointing in a specific direction in *space* and at a certain *time* whereas the kinetic energy that a particle has is a certain quantity at a given *time* only. The differences are easier to demonstrate with the mathematics, but essentially you can distinguish between the two by keeping this key difference in mind.  For example, if I throw a ball at the wall in a straight line to the right you can say that it has a certain amount of momentum to the right (but it would have zero momentum pointing downwards for instance). While traveling to the right, this ball also has a certain amount of energy associated with it, and this amount doesn't depend on the direction it is traveling in.   If I now threw a second ball the same way but downwards, it's momentum would now point downwards, but the energy would be exactly the same for the second ball as it for the first ball. As far as intuition, think of energy as like money in your bank account. It can go up and down, and you can measure the amount you have at any point with a certain number. On the other hand, momentum is a measure of how fast an object is moving in a certain direction (more easily visualized as an object like a ball flying through space at a certain speed in a certain direction).", "human_ref_B": "Generally speaking, momentum measures how much force is required to bring an object from rest into motion or how much force is required to slow down or stop an object in motion.  Kinetic energy is a measure of how much work is required to accelerate a mass to a certain speed.  The \"ouch\" you're talking about is more about force and pressure than kinetic energy.   I like to think of it this way. Lets say you're in a car and you're driving. A deer decides to prance about the road and you hit it. The \"oomph\" the deer will feel is because of momentum AND the kinetic energy. Assuming this is perfectly inelastic and all the kinetic energy is transferred to the deer, that's a pretty big \"oomph\".   In other words, I think of momentum and kinetic energy to both contribute to the \"oomph\" factor and I leave the \"ouch\" factor up to the pressure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9058.0, "score_ratio": 6000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmhrmn", "c_root_id_B": "ckmg761", "created_at_utc_A": 1411100895, "created_at_utc_B": 1411096773, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The momentum (both linear and angular) that a particle has is associated with certain a quantity pointing in a specific direction in *space* and at a certain *time* whereas the kinetic energy that a particle has is a certain quantity at a given *time* only. The differences are easier to demonstrate with the mathematics, but essentially you can distinguish between the two by keeping this key difference in mind.  For example, if I throw a ball at the wall in a straight line to the right you can say that it has a certain amount of momentum to the right (but it would have zero momentum pointing downwards for instance). While traveling to the right, this ball also has a certain amount of energy associated with it, and this amount doesn't depend on the direction it is traveling in.   If I now threw a second ball the same way but downwards, it's momentum would now point downwards, but the energy would be exactly the same for the second ball as it for the first ball. As far as intuition, think of energy as like money in your bank account. It can go up and down, and you can measure the amount you have at any point with a certain number. On the other hand, momentum is a measure of how fast an object is moving in a certain direction (more easily visualized as an object like a ball flying through space at a certain speed in a certain direction).", "human_ref_B": "Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. Energy overall is conserved, but can change forms within the system.  They have different equations. Both are linear with mass, but momentum is v and energy is v^2. Momentum also strictly governs physical masses moving around, with the exception of the momentum in light. Energy is different, since it can be converted into heat, used to deform materials, and various other things.  If you look at a situation where a bullet is fired into a block of wood on a pendulum, conservation of momentum tells you the velocity of the block and bullet system together after the impact. If you look at the energy of the system before and after, you will find that the combined kinematic system has a lot less energy. Where did it go? It went into deforming the bullet, drilling a big hole into the wood block, and heating the whole thing up!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4122.0, "score_ratio": 6000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmlxqw", "c_root_id_B": "ckmdt3y", "created_at_utc_A": 1411117056, "created_at_utc_B": 1411091837, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "> Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   Well, that really sounds more like *elasticity* If you get hit by something soft, then the energy of the impact gets converted into deformation, heat, etc.  On the other hand if you get hit by something hard or sharp, it goes through.  Momentum and Kinetic energy are tightly related.  The one difference is that Kenetic energy goes up with the square of speed, and momentum is linear with speed.  So, if you are driving 50 miles an hour, and accelerate to 100, your kinetic energy quadruples, while your momentum doubles.    So in a way you kind of have it backwards.  More kinetic energy means you have more 'energy' that can be used to deform something, or be converted into heat, so high KE impacts can be more elastic.    Anyway, the thing is - what's intuitive to one person isn't the same as what's intuitive to another.  If you learn a lot about math and science, your *intuition changes* and becomes more scientific. Eventually you get to the point where you can look at an equation and intuitively \"get\" what it means, while a qualitative description about \"oomph\" and \"ouch\" doesn't make much sense.", "human_ref_B": "Generally speaking, momentum measures how much force is required to bring an object from rest into motion or how much force is required to slow down or stop an object in motion.  Kinetic energy is a measure of how much work is required to accelerate a mass to a certain speed.  The \"ouch\" you're talking about is more about force and pressure than kinetic energy.   I like to think of it this way. Lets say you're in a car and you're driving. A deer decides to prance about the road and you hit it. The \"oomph\" the deer will feel is because of momentum AND the kinetic energy. Assuming this is perfectly inelastic and all the kinetic energy is transferred to the deer, that's a pretty big \"oomph\".   In other words, I think of momentum and kinetic energy to both contribute to the \"oomph\" factor and I leave the \"ouch\" factor up to the pressure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 25219.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmg761", "c_root_id_B": "ckmlxqw", "created_at_utc_A": 1411096773, "created_at_utc_B": 1411117056, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. Energy overall is conserved, but can change forms within the system.  They have different equations. Both are linear with mass, but momentum is v and energy is v^2. Momentum also strictly governs physical masses moving around, with the exception of the momentum in light. Energy is different, since it can be converted into heat, used to deform materials, and various other things.  If you look at a situation where a bullet is fired into a block of wood on a pendulum, conservation of momentum tells you the velocity of the block and bullet system together after the impact. If you look at the energy of the system before and after, you will find that the combined kinematic system has a lot less energy. Where did it go? It went into deforming the bullet, drilling a big hole into the wood block, and heating the whole thing up!", "human_ref_B": "> Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   Well, that really sounds more like *elasticity* If you get hit by something soft, then the energy of the impact gets converted into deformation, heat, etc.  On the other hand if you get hit by something hard or sharp, it goes through.  Momentum and Kinetic energy are tightly related.  The one difference is that Kenetic energy goes up with the square of speed, and momentum is linear with speed.  So, if you are driving 50 miles an hour, and accelerate to 100, your kinetic energy quadruples, while your momentum doubles.    So in a way you kind of have it backwards.  More kinetic energy means you have more 'energy' that can be used to deform something, or be converted into heat, so high KE impacts can be more elastic.    Anyway, the thing is - what's intuitive to one person isn't the same as what's intuitive to another.  If you learn a lot about math and science, your *intuition changes* and becomes more scientific. Eventually you get to the point where you can look at an equation and intuitively \"get\" what it means, while a qualitative description about \"oomph\" and \"ouch\" doesn't make much sense.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20283.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmjhi8", "c_root_id_B": "ckmlxqw", "created_at_utc_A": 1411105970, "created_at_utc_B": 1411117056, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The difference is similar to the difference between space dimension and time dimension.  Energy density is amount of mass in a volume. Components of momentum vector (x,y,z) are flow of mass across surface (perpendicular to x,y,z). If you look at it in 4-dimensional space (t,x,y,z) they appear very similar: energy density - dM/(dx * dy * dz), x-component of momentum - dM/(dt * dy * dz)", "human_ref_B": "> Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   Well, that really sounds more like *elasticity* If you get hit by something soft, then the energy of the impact gets converted into deformation, heat, etc.  On the other hand if you get hit by something hard or sharp, it goes through.  Momentum and Kinetic energy are tightly related.  The one difference is that Kenetic energy goes up with the square of speed, and momentum is linear with speed.  So, if you are driving 50 miles an hour, and accelerate to 100, your kinetic energy quadruples, while your momentum doubles.    So in a way you kind of have it backwards.  More kinetic energy means you have more 'energy' that can be used to deform something, or be converted into heat, so high KE impacts can be more elastic.    Anyway, the thing is - what's intuitive to one person isn't the same as what's intuitive to another.  If you learn a lot about math and science, your *intuition changes* and becomes more scientific. Eventually you get to the point where you can look at an equation and intuitively \"get\" what it means, while a qualitative description about \"oomph\" and \"ouch\" doesn't make much sense.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11086.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmor57", "c_root_id_B": "ckmdt3y", "created_at_utc_A": 1411130343, "created_at_utc_B": 1411091837, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Just for pedantic reasons, they are, technically, the *exact same thing*. (mc\u00b2)\u00b2 = E\u00b2 - (**p**c)\u00b2. <- from relativity, right? The magnitude of the energy-momentum 4-vector is equivalent to the mass of the particle or system.   We can rearrange that, if we'd like (and also going to c=1 units for convenience's sake), to E\u00b2 = m\u00b2 + **p**\u00b2. Energy is exactly the sum (in quadrature) of the mass of an object/system and its motion, momentum. Energy only has two \"forms,\" mass and motion, m and **p**.   ---  Of course when we're talking about every-day nonrelativistic physics, it does help to distinguish the two concepts.   So in that case their difference is the following:  Momentum is what you get when the \"physical description\" of an object stays the same as you translate left-and-right or up-and-down or forward-and-back or some linear combination thereof. If I start my pendulum at this location or at that location, the overall description of its motion will be the same. Thus, there will be some value that is conserved that corresponds to that space-translation invariance. That's momentum.  Energy is what you get when you shift the physical description forward or backward in time. If I start my pendulum now, or later, will anything change about its description? If no, then energy is the quantity conserved in the process. Energy is the conserved quantity of time translation invariance.   ---  Which circles back around to my initial point. Relativity tells us that space-and-time are inextricably linked. Just like I can form a linear combination of two space axes (ie rotate in space) and still conserve momentum, so too can I rotate in space-time (though this rotation is technically a Lorentz boost, since space-time has a hyperbolic, rather than circular metric).  Space-and-time translation invariance means an invariance in Momentum-and-energy respectively. Which leads to my personal favorite definition of mass: \"Mass is the Lorentz invariant measure of the conserved quantities of a system that is invariant under space-time translations\"", "human_ref_B": "Generally speaking, momentum measures how much force is required to bring an object from rest into motion or how much force is required to slow down or stop an object in motion.  Kinetic energy is a measure of how much work is required to accelerate a mass to a certain speed.  The \"ouch\" you're talking about is more about force and pressure than kinetic energy.   I like to think of it this way. Lets say you're in a car and you're driving. A deer decides to prance about the road and you hit it. The \"oomph\" the deer will feel is because of momentum AND the kinetic energy. Assuming this is perfectly inelastic and all the kinetic energy is transferred to the deer, that's a pretty big \"oomph\".   In other words, I think of momentum and kinetic energy to both contribute to the \"oomph\" factor and I leave the \"ouch\" factor up to the pressure.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 38506.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmor57", "c_root_id_B": "ckmg761", "created_at_utc_A": 1411130343, "created_at_utc_B": 1411096773, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Just for pedantic reasons, they are, technically, the *exact same thing*. (mc\u00b2)\u00b2 = E\u00b2 - (**p**c)\u00b2. <- from relativity, right? The magnitude of the energy-momentum 4-vector is equivalent to the mass of the particle or system.   We can rearrange that, if we'd like (and also going to c=1 units for convenience's sake), to E\u00b2 = m\u00b2 + **p**\u00b2. Energy is exactly the sum (in quadrature) of the mass of an object/system and its motion, momentum. Energy only has two \"forms,\" mass and motion, m and **p**.   ---  Of course when we're talking about every-day nonrelativistic physics, it does help to distinguish the two concepts.   So in that case their difference is the following:  Momentum is what you get when the \"physical description\" of an object stays the same as you translate left-and-right or up-and-down or forward-and-back or some linear combination thereof. If I start my pendulum at this location or at that location, the overall description of its motion will be the same. Thus, there will be some value that is conserved that corresponds to that space-translation invariance. That's momentum.  Energy is what you get when you shift the physical description forward or backward in time. If I start my pendulum now, or later, will anything change about its description? If no, then energy is the quantity conserved in the process. Energy is the conserved quantity of time translation invariance.   ---  Which circles back around to my initial point. Relativity tells us that space-and-time are inextricably linked. Just like I can form a linear combination of two space axes (ie rotate in space) and still conserve momentum, so too can I rotate in space-time (though this rotation is technically a Lorentz boost, since space-time has a hyperbolic, rather than circular metric).  Space-and-time translation invariance means an invariance in Momentum-and-energy respectively. Which leads to my personal favorite definition of mass: \"Mass is the Lorentz invariant measure of the conserved quantities of a system that is invariant under space-time translations\"", "human_ref_B": "Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. Energy overall is conserved, but can change forms within the system.  They have different equations. Both are linear with mass, but momentum is v and energy is v^2. Momentum also strictly governs physical masses moving around, with the exception of the momentum in light. Energy is different, since it can be converted into heat, used to deform materials, and various other things.  If you look at a situation where a bullet is fired into a block of wood on a pendulum, conservation of momentum tells you the velocity of the block and bullet system together after the impact. If you look at the energy of the system before and after, you will find that the combined kinematic system has a lot less energy. Where did it go? It went into deforming the bullet, drilling a big hole into the wood block, and heating the whole thing up!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 33570.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2gtfno", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What is the intuitive difference between momentum and kinetic energy? Unscientifically speaking, I think of momentum as total \"oomph\" something has behind it, and kinetic energy as the total \"ouch\". Can someone help me clarify these concepts?   I'm asking for intuition. I already know all the mathematical/physical differences (I used to be a math major).", "c_root_id_A": "ckmjhi8", "c_root_id_B": "ckmor57", "created_at_utc_A": 1411105970, "created_at_utc_B": 1411130343, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The difference is similar to the difference between space dimension and time dimension.  Energy density is amount of mass in a volume. Components of momentum vector (x,y,z) are flow of mass across surface (perpendicular to x,y,z). If you look at it in 4-dimensional space (t,x,y,z) they appear very similar: energy density - dM/(dx * dy * dz), x-component of momentum - dM/(dt * dy * dz)", "human_ref_B": "Just for pedantic reasons, they are, technically, the *exact same thing*. (mc\u00b2)\u00b2 = E\u00b2 - (**p**c)\u00b2. <- from relativity, right? The magnitude of the energy-momentum 4-vector is equivalent to the mass of the particle or system.   We can rearrange that, if we'd like (and also going to c=1 units for convenience's sake), to E\u00b2 = m\u00b2 + **p**\u00b2. Energy is exactly the sum (in quadrature) of the mass of an object/system and its motion, momentum. Energy only has two \"forms,\" mass and motion, m and **p**.   ---  Of course when we're talking about every-day nonrelativistic physics, it does help to distinguish the two concepts.   So in that case their difference is the following:  Momentum is what you get when the \"physical description\" of an object stays the same as you translate left-and-right or up-and-down or forward-and-back or some linear combination thereof. If I start my pendulum at this location or at that location, the overall description of its motion will be the same. Thus, there will be some value that is conserved that corresponds to that space-translation invariance. That's momentum.  Energy is what you get when you shift the physical description forward or backward in time. If I start my pendulum now, or later, will anything change about its description? If no, then energy is the quantity conserved in the process. Energy is the conserved quantity of time translation invariance.   ---  Which circles back around to my initial point. Relativity tells us that space-and-time are inextricably linked. Just like I can form a linear combination of two space axes (ie rotate in space) and still conserve momentum, so too can I rotate in space-time (though this rotation is technically a Lorentz boost, since space-time has a hyperbolic, rather than circular metric).  Space-and-time translation invariance means an invariance in Momentum-and-energy respectively. Which leads to my personal favorite definition of mass: \"Mass is the Lorentz invariant measure of the conserved quantities of a system that is invariant under space-time translations\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24373.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mqosk4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "What is the difference between P-wave (longitudinal) modulus of a material versus its Young's modulus? Studying Brillouin microscopy and these moduli can be very different. Can't seem to understand why the difference in their definition", "c_root_id_A": "guib7tf", "c_root_id_B": "guhz5lw", "created_at_utc_A": 1618420438, "created_at_utc_B": 1618415207, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Young's modulus is the axial stiffness of a long rod or bar. I'm sure you know that axial loads in this case generally bring lateral strain (i.e., Poisson effects), and a key aspect of the definition is that the sides of the material are unconstrained to allow this Poisson expansion or contraction.  The P-wave modulus is the axial stiffness of a material in the bulk, where such lateral deformation is constrained to be zero. This is the arrangement associated with longitudinal vibrational (e.g., seismic) waves moving through the material, and the P-wave modulus governs this wave speed.  I write about the different moduli here. Plugging the lateral constraints mentioned above into generalized Hooke's Law, we find that they're different by a factor of (1-\u03bd)/(1+\u03bd)(1-2\u03bd), where \u03bd is Poisson's ratio.", "human_ref_B": "By definition, P-wave modulus involves a purely one-dimensional stress/strain state. Young's modulus has a uniaxial applied force, but that gives rise to non-zero strains in the other axes (assuming Poisson's ratio is nonzero). In the case where Poisson's ratio is zero, P-wave modulus = Young's modulus.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5231.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "io4k1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Can there be a limit to how hot something can be? If there is an absolute zero, can there be an absolute opposite of it?", "c_root_id_A": "c25auhq", "c_root_id_B": "c25apv3", "created_at_utc_A": 1310532752, "created_at_utc_B": 1310531445, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The idea has been called \"absolute hot\".  One fun thing is that that there is also negative temperature, which is (in some sense) hotter than any positive temperature.", "human_ref_B": "Two limits.  * The binding energy of the system.  * The speed of light.  If you exceed the binding energy of the system, you'll cause it to disassociate. For example, if I dump lots and lots of thermal energy into an orange, you would eventually vaporize it.  Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of a collection of particles, so there is a limit in that the particles have an upper limit on their velocity. But this is a \"fuzzy\" limit in that we're playing with mass at the same time, thus increasing heat capacity.  So there is no upper bound on heat beyond the energy you can transfer, but there could be depending on how you define the problem.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1307.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gyyfv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What constitutes quantum observation? According to the most accepted interpretations of the double-slit experiment and other quantum phenomena, a particle behaving as a wave function collapses in the act of observation.  New Age b.s. movies such as \"What the bleep do we know\" makes use of this knowledge to make the case that somehow the universe is sentient, and \"knows\" it's being observed.  But it seems obvious to me that by \"observation\" what the scientists means is actually \"intrusive measuring\" such as shooting particles into a given particle in order to detect it's position or momentum... If it is the case, it doesn't seem very difficult to postulate a reason for the collapse of the 'particle-as-a-wave' and discard the utterly non-parsimonious idea of a self-aware particle.  But in reality I'm actually pretty ignorant about what such observations - the kind that usually changes the state of a wave into a particle - actually are.  Could anyone enlighten me on that and also give your 2 cents about how \"sentient\" a particle actually is?  Thank you very much", "c_root_id_A": "c1rc1ji", "c_root_id_B": "c1rbplh", "created_at_utc_A": 1303961576, "created_at_utc_B": 1303958022, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Quantum mechanics is a set of postulates and a linear algebra based formalism. While this formalism has stood the test of rigorous experimentation, there are several schools of thought that choose to interpret the postulates of quantum mechanics in differing ways. For starters.  The Copenhagen interpretation is the most widely accepted one and in this picture, *observations* are not very strictly defined. Any interaction of a microscopic object with a bulk one generally constitutes measurement. The process of measurement involves the so called 'wave function collapse', which is a non-unitary, or random process that cannot be reversed.  However, all interactions between objects are governed by the Schrodinger equation, which is unitary and deterministic, and only allows for reversible processes. This creates a dilemma, all processes in QM are unitary, except for measurement, which is not.  Reconciling this measurement process with other unitary processes in quantum mechanics, is a topic of debate. I say debate because many scientists out there subscribe to the *shut up and calculate* school of thought, and couldn't care less about how theory is interpreted.  Most people choose not to care about interpretations because our current level of experimental finesse is inadequate to sustain the kind of setups that we could use to probe the realm of QM where the Copenhagen interpretation might potentially run into problems ; where bulk objects exist in coherent superpositions.", "human_ref_B": "It means allowing the system to interact with the environment in such a way that the environment is macroscopically changed by its interaction with the system.  That forces the system into a particular state which is then observable classically.  Quantum mechanics is often thought as the physics of small things.  A more accurate description is that quantum mechanics is the physics of things that don't interact with other things very often.  So, particles are not sentient and \"What the bleep do we know?\" is an atrocious movie.  Go on wikipedia and read about the total headcases that made it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3554.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gyyfv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What constitutes quantum observation? According to the most accepted interpretations of the double-slit experiment and other quantum phenomena, a particle behaving as a wave function collapses in the act of observation.  New Age b.s. movies such as \"What the bleep do we know\" makes use of this knowledge to make the case that somehow the universe is sentient, and \"knows\" it's being observed.  But it seems obvious to me that by \"observation\" what the scientists means is actually \"intrusive measuring\" such as shooting particles into a given particle in order to detect it's position or momentum... If it is the case, it doesn't seem very difficult to postulate a reason for the collapse of the 'particle-as-a-wave' and discard the utterly non-parsimonious idea of a self-aware particle.  But in reality I'm actually pretty ignorant about what such observations - the kind that usually changes the state of a wave into a particle - actually are.  Could anyone enlighten me on that and also give your 2 cents about how \"sentient\" a particle actually is?  Thank you very much", "c_root_id_A": "c1rbnn2", "c_root_id_B": "c1rc1ji", "created_at_utc_A": 1303957422, "created_at_utc_B": 1303961576, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "It just means forcing the system into a specific state.", "human_ref_B": "Quantum mechanics is a set of postulates and a linear algebra based formalism. While this formalism has stood the test of rigorous experimentation, there are several schools of thought that choose to interpret the postulates of quantum mechanics in differing ways. For starters.  The Copenhagen interpretation is the most widely accepted one and in this picture, *observations* are not very strictly defined. Any interaction of a microscopic object with a bulk one generally constitutes measurement. The process of measurement involves the so called 'wave function collapse', which is a non-unitary, or random process that cannot be reversed.  However, all interactions between objects are governed by the Schrodinger equation, which is unitary and deterministic, and only allows for reversible processes. This creates a dilemma, all processes in QM are unitary, except for measurement, which is not.  Reconciling this measurement process with other unitary processes in quantum mechanics, is a topic of debate. I say debate because many scientists out there subscribe to the *shut up and calculate* school of thought, and couldn't care less about how theory is interpreted.  Most people choose not to care about interpretations because our current level of experimental finesse is inadequate to sustain the kind of setups that we could use to probe the realm of QM where the Copenhagen interpretation might potentially run into problems ; where bulk objects exist in coherent superpositions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4154.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gyyfv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What constitutes quantum observation? According to the most accepted interpretations of the double-slit experiment and other quantum phenomena, a particle behaving as a wave function collapses in the act of observation.  New Age b.s. movies such as \"What the bleep do we know\" makes use of this knowledge to make the case that somehow the universe is sentient, and \"knows\" it's being observed.  But it seems obvious to me that by \"observation\" what the scientists means is actually \"intrusive measuring\" such as shooting particles into a given particle in order to detect it's position or momentum... If it is the case, it doesn't seem very difficult to postulate a reason for the collapse of the 'particle-as-a-wave' and discard the utterly non-parsimonious idea of a self-aware particle.  But in reality I'm actually pretty ignorant about what such observations - the kind that usually changes the state of a wave into a particle - actually are.  Could anyone enlighten me on that and also give your 2 cents about how \"sentient\" a particle actually is?  Thank you very much", "c_root_id_A": "c1rbplh", "c_root_id_B": "c1rbnn2", "created_at_utc_A": 1303958022, "created_at_utc_B": 1303957422, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It means allowing the system to interact with the environment in such a way that the environment is macroscopically changed by its interaction with the system.  That forces the system into a particular state which is then observable classically.  Quantum mechanics is often thought as the physics of small things.  A more accurate description is that quantum mechanics is the physics of things that don't interact with other things very often.  So, particles are not sentient and \"What the bleep do we know?\" is an atrocious movie.  Go on wikipedia and read about the total headcases that made it.", "human_ref_B": "It just means forcing the system into a specific state.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 600.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gyyfv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What constitutes quantum observation? According to the most accepted interpretations of the double-slit experiment and other quantum phenomena, a particle behaving as a wave function collapses in the act of observation.  New Age b.s. movies such as \"What the bleep do we know\" makes use of this knowledge to make the case that somehow the universe is sentient, and \"knows\" it's being observed.  But it seems obvious to me that by \"observation\" what the scientists means is actually \"intrusive measuring\" such as shooting particles into a given particle in order to detect it's position or momentum... If it is the case, it doesn't seem very difficult to postulate a reason for the collapse of the 'particle-as-a-wave' and discard the utterly non-parsimonious idea of a self-aware particle.  But in reality I'm actually pretty ignorant about what such observations - the kind that usually changes the state of a wave into a particle - actually are.  Could anyone enlighten me on that and also give your 2 cents about how \"sentient\" a particle actually is?  Thank you very much", "c_root_id_A": "c1rbnn2", "c_root_id_B": "c1rck78", "created_at_utc_A": 1303957422, "created_at_utc_B": 1303967661, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "It just means forcing the system into a specific state.", "human_ref_B": "Previous discussions:  * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gwbny/i_have_a_question_about_quantum_mechanics/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/f5xcb/if_quantum_mechanics_states_that_a_particles/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/davyw/quantum_mechanics_question_what_counts_as/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gs69u/what_constitutes_an_observer_in_quantum/ * http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/g427f/does_the_presence_of_a_measurement_device_alone/  It's so nice that the reddit search actually works these days.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10239.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gyyfv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What constitutes quantum observation? According to the most accepted interpretations of the double-slit experiment and other quantum phenomena, a particle behaving as a wave function collapses in the act of observation.  New Age b.s. movies such as \"What the bleep do we know\" makes use of this knowledge to make the case that somehow the universe is sentient, and \"knows\" it's being observed.  But it seems obvious to me that by \"observation\" what the scientists means is actually \"intrusive measuring\" such as shooting particles into a given particle in order to detect it's position or momentum... If it is the case, it doesn't seem very difficult to postulate a reason for the collapse of the 'particle-as-a-wave' and discard the utterly non-parsimonious idea of a self-aware particle.  But in reality I'm actually pretty ignorant about what such observations - the kind that usually changes the state of a wave into a particle - actually are.  Could anyone enlighten me on that and also give your 2 cents about how \"sentient\" a particle actually is?  Thank you very much", "c_root_id_A": "c1rbnn2", "c_root_id_B": "c1rdfm1", "created_at_utc_A": 1303957422, "created_at_utc_B": 1303986128, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It just means forcing the system into a specific state.", "human_ref_B": "The other answers here are, delightfully, all on-point and excellent. But just to clarify something, the use of the word \"observation\" in this context comes from the technical term \"observable,\" which means any property or quantity that can be measured in a *single experiment,* and by extension any property or quantity that can be *definite* at a single instant. It's another case in which physicists co-opt a term in common use and apply a nuanced and specific technical meaning to it, but in this case it's not that egregious; if it can be *observed* then it's an *observable.* If it's not something that can be observed \u2014 say, the spin orientation of a fermion along *two* spacelike axes at the same time \u2014 then it's not an observable, and you have to take that into account when you do the maths. That's where non-commutation relations and uncertainty come into the picture.  But as you rightly say, some people of, well, let's just call it *diminished comprehension* of the subject matter have heard the word \"observable\" and taken it to have something to do with \"being watched.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28706.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gyyfv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What constitutes quantum observation? According to the most accepted interpretations of the double-slit experiment and other quantum phenomena, a particle behaving as a wave function collapses in the act of observation.  New Age b.s. movies such as \"What the bleep do we know\" makes use of this knowledge to make the case that somehow the universe is sentient, and \"knows\" it's being observed.  But it seems obvious to me that by \"observation\" what the scientists means is actually \"intrusive measuring\" such as shooting particles into a given particle in order to detect it's position or momentum... If it is the case, it doesn't seem very difficult to postulate a reason for the collapse of the 'particle-as-a-wave' and discard the utterly non-parsimonious idea of a self-aware particle.  But in reality I'm actually pretty ignorant about what such observations - the kind that usually changes the state of a wave into a particle - actually are.  Could anyone enlighten me on that and also give your 2 cents about how \"sentient\" a particle actually is?  Thank you very much", "c_root_id_A": "c1rco1g", "c_root_id_B": "c1rdfm1", "created_at_utc_A": 1303969054, "created_at_utc_B": 1303986128, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": ">But in reality I'm actually pretty ignorant about what such observations - the kind that usually changes the state of a wave into a particle - actually are.  Observations are really just a special case of separating configurations. A configuration of the entire experiment is the same when all the things are in the same state. When there are multiple ways to get into the same configuration, you get the sum of the complex amplitudes of the flows, which you then take the squared modulus to get the frequency. When you have analogous ways to get into different configurations, you take the squared modulus first and then add them up. Since the sum of the squared moduli isn't the squared modulus of the sum, this results in different experimental results.  If you observe which slit the photon goes through in the double-slit experiment, at least one particle is in a different state depending on which slit it went through (since your brain is made of particles, and the thingy which tells you is made up of particles, etc). Since there is a difference in at least one particle, the amplitude from the left slit and the amplitude from the right slit now no longer add up together before detecting the squared modulus (as a statistical frequency), since \"photon went through right slit and hit detector\" is now a different configuration than \"photon went through left slit and hit detector\".  tl;dr all you need for a quantum observation is for a single particle to do something different, it can be as little as sending a single photon off to the vastness of space, never to return.", "human_ref_B": "The other answers here are, delightfully, all on-point and excellent. But just to clarify something, the use of the word \"observation\" in this context comes from the technical term \"observable,\" which means any property or quantity that can be measured in a *single experiment,* and by extension any property or quantity that can be *definite* at a single instant. It's another case in which physicists co-opt a term in common use and apply a nuanced and specific technical meaning to it, but in this case it's not that egregious; if it can be *observed* then it's an *observable.* If it's not something that can be observed \u2014 say, the spin orientation of a fermion along *two* spacelike axes at the same time \u2014 then it's not an observable, and you have to take that into account when you do the maths. That's where non-commutation relations and uncertainty come into the picture.  But as you rightly say, some people of, well, let's just call it *diminished comprehension* of the subject matter have heard the word \"observable\" and taken it to have something to do with \"being watched.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17074.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "33np6j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "If I drink water before a long run, can I avoid peeing if I sweat it all out?", "c_root_id_A": "cqn4stt", "c_root_id_B": "cqnd3o6", "created_at_utc_A": 1429882113, "created_at_utc_B": 1429895715, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "No matter what you take home from this discussion: Just make sure that you drink enough water not just for cooling yourself during a run, but also for removing unusable substances from your body. If you start to employ a special \"drink to sweat for sport\" strategy, check if your urine is considerably yellow (saturated color) or even orange - that is a bad sign. Keep it at at least 25% between yellow and transparent, if not even more on the transparent side (>25%).", "human_ref_B": "Urine carries various other waste products out of the body. Believe me, it isn't getting rid of extra water just for the sake of it. Water is one of the most valuable things to your body. It's just that if it doesn't excrete the dissolved waste products you would run into other problems.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13602.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3hmh9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "Why can't we use helium balloons to get to space? It is conceivable that we could use balloons to gain the majority of altitude, then use a compressor to deflate the balloons.  At this point you would need a lot of speed to maintain orbit, but wouldn't it be easier to gain that at higher altitudes?", "c_root_id_A": "cu8rdt8", "c_root_id_B": "cu8ojk7", "created_at_utc_A": 1440020056, "created_at_utc_B": 1440015944, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The hard part about rockets isn't going up, it's going sideway very fast (here is a very good explanation of this). For example when you launch something to ISS you need it to be at roughly 400km from the ground and 7km/s. Finding the energy you need to get there is fairly easy, in the end only 15% of your energy is used to get up. The other 85% is spent making you go sideway.  But balloons only go up to around 40km, not 400. So at the very best you would save 1.5% of your total energy.  Of course this neglects drag forces in the lower portion of the atmosphere, but you get the idea. Air launches are not a good way to save fuel.", "human_ref_B": "Helium balloons rely on the force of buoyancy. An upwards force is exerted on an object immersed in a fluid if the weight of the object is *less* than the weight of the fluid it displaces. In other words, if the object displaces volume V and mass M, the weight of V volume of fluid must be greater than mass M.  The atmosphere gets thinner as you go up, so the weight of the displaced volume will decrease as you get closer to space. The other thing is in order to carry any significant amount of weight by buoyant force, the helium balloon would have to be utterly *massive* - and since it won't be able to carry you into orbit, you will still need to carry the rockets and fuel required to take you the rest of the way to orbital velocity - which is about 10 times the geostationary velocity in LEO, and is even faster if you are lower down.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4112.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3hmh9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "Why can't we use helium balloons to get to space? It is conceivable that we could use balloons to gain the majority of altitude, then use a compressor to deflate the balloons.  At this point you would need a lot of speed to maintain orbit, but wouldn't it be easier to gain that at higher altitudes?", "c_root_id_A": "cu8oezt", "c_root_id_B": "cu8rdt8", "created_at_utc_A": 1440015765, "created_at_utc_B": 1440020056, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "I'll assume a balloon can take you to the stratosphere at an altitude of 30 km (IRL I doubt it could even be half that number considering how heavy a rocket is). Let's say you're trying to reach a low orbit at 300 km... there aren't many satellites lower than that. The balloon would only be doing 1/10 of the job on the altitude part and nothing on the speed part.  Disadvantages are meaningful: you don't have a launch pad, the launch cannot be easily aborted in case of trouble, and since it takes a lot of time to get that high it could be a problem for cryogenic propellants (the thermal insulation of a rocket is not enough to keep them liquid for a very long time).  However launching from airplanes is feasible and it's taken into practice sometimes. In this case it helps a bit more since the airplane can provide some initial speed to the rocket.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegasus_(rocket)  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_launch_to_orbit", "human_ref_B": "The hard part about rockets isn't going up, it's going sideway very fast (here is a very good explanation of this). For example when you launch something to ISS you need it to be at roughly 400km from the ground and 7km/s. Finding the energy you need to get there is fairly easy, in the end only 15% of your energy is used to get up. The other 85% is spent making you go sideway.  But balloons only go up to around 40km, not 400. So at the very best you would save 1.5% of your total energy.  Of course this neglects drag forces in the lower portion of the atmosphere, but you get the idea. Air launches are not a good way to save fuel.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4291.0, "score_ratio": 13.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3hmh9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "Why can't we use helium balloons to get to space? It is conceivable that we could use balloons to gain the majority of altitude, then use a compressor to deflate the balloons.  At this point you would need a lot of speed to maintain orbit, but wouldn't it be easier to gain that at higher altitudes?", "c_root_id_A": "cu8oezt", "c_root_id_B": "cu8ojk7", "created_at_utc_A": 1440015765, "created_at_utc_B": 1440015944, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I'll assume a balloon can take you to the stratosphere at an altitude of 30 km (IRL I doubt it could even be half that number considering how heavy a rocket is). Let's say you're trying to reach a low orbit at 300 km... there aren't many satellites lower than that. The balloon would only be doing 1/10 of the job on the altitude part and nothing on the speed part.  Disadvantages are meaningful: you don't have a launch pad, the launch cannot be easily aborted in case of trouble, and since it takes a lot of time to get that high it could be a problem for cryogenic propellants (the thermal insulation of a rocket is not enough to keep them liquid for a very long time).  However launching from airplanes is feasible and it's taken into practice sometimes. In this case it helps a bit more since the airplane can provide some initial speed to the rocket.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegasus_(rocket)  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_launch_to_orbit", "human_ref_B": "Helium balloons rely on the force of buoyancy. An upwards force is exerted on an object immersed in a fluid if the weight of the object is *less* than the weight of the fluid it displaces. In other words, if the object displaces volume V and mass M, the weight of V volume of fluid must be greater than mass M.  The atmosphere gets thinner as you go up, so the weight of the displaced volume will decrease as you get closer to space. The other thing is in order to carry any significant amount of weight by buoyant force, the helium balloon would have to be utterly *massive* - and since it won't be able to carry you into orbit, you will still need to carry the rockets and fuel required to take you the rest of the way to orbital velocity - which is about 10 times the geostationary velocity in LEO, and is even faster if you are lower down.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 179.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e8orz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can a computer program can prevent the computer from \"knowing\" its code? (like closed source programs) In non open-source programs, you can't check the source code from the program, but it still executes and runs on the computer. Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?  From what I understand it works like a blackbox, you feed it input and it gives outputs acording to the code. But how can it prevent me from checking the code?", "c_root_id_A": "d1xzyl5", "c_root_id_B": "d1xzudn", "created_at_utc_A": 1460341331, "created_at_utc_B": 1460341125, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "There are ways of viewing the code of an executable program, using tools called decompilers, disassemblers, or debuggers,  for instance. The thing to remember is that you won't be looking at source code, but rather machine code. Unless it was intentionally compiled with debugging symbols intact , you're not going to get anything like clean  variable and function names.   There are also many anti-disassembly techniques in common  use these days (they overlap often with security techniques to avoid stack attacks and the like, too) , like randomized memory addresses and even checks for known debuggers that will cause the execution to abort.", "human_ref_B": "Most computer languages are compiled.  This means that program known as a compiler, such as Java, takes the code written by humans and converts it into something readable by machines.  The plain English code you're used to reading, for example, \"int x = 10\", gets converted and optimized into a string of bits, 1's and 0's.  When the compiled program is downloaded to a different machine, the only thing the new machine can see is this series of bits.  By optimizing the code, the compiler both scrambles things up and cuts out a lot of the fat.  In general, this makes it difficult to reconstruct the source code, since a lot of unnecessary information is lost during the compiling process.  There are, however, a lot of workarounds, and depending on the language, people can often pretty accurately crack the source code on smaller programs.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 206.0, "score_ratio": 2.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e8orz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can a computer program can prevent the computer from \"knowing\" its code? (like closed source programs) In non open-source programs, you can't check the source code from the program, but it still executes and runs on the computer. Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?  From what I understand it works like a blackbox, you feed it input and it gives outputs acording to the code. But how can it prevent me from checking the code?", "c_root_id_A": "d1xzzrk", "c_root_id_B": "d1y2e7w", "created_at_utc_A": 1460341390, "created_at_utc_B": 1460345867, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Computers run on binary machine code, ones and zeros. It's very difficult for people to read and interpret it. We write programs in human-readable programming languages and then run it through a program called a compiler to translate it into machine code. This process is essentially one-way, decompiling machine code into source code is very difficult and imprecise and practically never gives you the original source code, just something that does the same thing once it's compiled.  The only difference between open-source and proprietary software is that the source code for proprietary software is not released, only the compiled machine code program. Open source software makes the source code available *separately* from the compiled program, it's not actually part of the software.", "human_ref_B": "> Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?\r \r You may need a decompiler or disassembler. The output is not guaranteed to be easily readable. Even if you know assembly programming, it may still be tough to crack.\r \r > But how can it prevent me from checking the code? \r \r It can't. And it doesn't. The human limitation is that we are very likely not machine language fluent.\r \r BTW, I sense a misunderstanding of the open-source movement in your post... You might want to review on it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4477.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e8orz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can a computer program can prevent the computer from \"knowing\" its code? (like closed source programs) In non open-source programs, you can't check the source code from the program, but it still executes and runs on the computer. Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?  From what I understand it works like a blackbox, you feed it input and it gives outputs acording to the code. But how can it prevent me from checking the code?", "c_root_id_A": "d1y2e7w", "c_root_id_B": "d1y1v6h", "created_at_utc_A": 1460345867, "created_at_utc_B": 1460344850, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "> Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?\r \r You may need a decompiler or disassembler. The output is not guaranteed to be easily readable. Even if you know assembly programming, it may still be tough to crack.\r \r > But how can it prevent me from checking the code? \r \r It can't. And it doesn't. The human limitation is that we are very likely not machine language fluent.\r \r BTW, I sense a misunderstanding of the open-source movement in your post... You might want to review on it.", "human_ref_B": "As others have posted, code must be compiled from a human readable language into a computer readable language.  However, one thing that may interest you is that the computer readable program can be decompiled to show the source code.  This can be accomplished using tools like ILSpy.  Developers can use obfuscation to prevent the program from being decompiled, or make it look like nonsense.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1017.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e8orz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can a computer program can prevent the computer from \"knowing\" its code? (like closed source programs) In non open-source programs, you can't check the source code from the program, but it still executes and runs on the computer. Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?  From what I understand it works like a blackbox, you feed it input and it gives outputs acording to the code. But how can it prevent me from checking the code?", "c_root_id_A": "d1y1v6h", "c_root_id_B": "d1ybjna", "created_at_utc_A": 1460344850, "created_at_utc_B": 1460374085, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As others have posted, code must be compiled from a human readable language into a computer readable language.  However, one thing that may interest you is that the computer readable program can be decompiled to show the source code.  This can be accomplished using tools like ILSpy.  Developers can use obfuscation to prevent the program from being decompiled, or make it look like nonsense.", "human_ref_B": "The language that the computer is running is assembly. It probably looks something like this:    0x000000000040062d <+0>:\tpush   rbp    0x000000000040062e <+1>:\tmov    rbp,rsp    0x0000000000400631 <+4>:\tpush   rbx    0x0000000000400632 <+5>:\tsub    rsp,0x1038    0x0000000000400639 <+12>:\tmov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x1034],edi    0x000000000040063f <+18>:\tmov    QWORD PTR [rbp-0x1040],rsi    0x0000000000400646 <+25>:\tmov    rax,QWORD PTR fs:0x28    0x000000000040064f <+34>:\tmov    QWORD PTR [rbp-0x18],rax    0x0000000000400653 <+38>:\txor    eax,eax    0x0000000000400655 <+40>:\tmov    esi,0x0    0x000000000040065a <+45>:\tmov    edi,0x400744    0x000000000040065f <+50>:\tmov    eax,0x0    0x0000000000400664 <+55>:\tcall   0x400530 <open@plt>    0x0000000000400669 <+60>:\tmov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x1024],eax    0x000000000040066f <+66>:\tlea    rcx,[rbp-0x1020]    0x0000000000400676 <+73>:\tmov    eax,DWORD PTR [rbp-0x1024]    0x000000000040067c <+79>:\tmov    edx,0x1000    0x0000000000400681 <+84>:\tmov    rsi,rcx    0x0000000000400684 <+87>:\tmov    edi,eax    0x0000000000400686 <+89>:\tcall   0x400500 <read@plt>    0x000000000040068b <+94>:\tlea    rax,[rbp-0x1020]    0x0000000000400692 <+101>:\tmov    rdi,rax    0x0000000000400695 <+104>:\tcall   0x4004e0 <puts@plt>    0x000000000040069a <+109>:\tmov    rbx,QWORD PTR [rbp-0x18]    0x000000000040069e <+113>:\txor    rbx,QWORD PTR fs:0x28    0x00000000004006a7 <+122>:\tje     0x4006ae <main+129>    0x00000000004006a9 <+124>:\tcall   0x4004f0 <__stack_chk_fail@plt>    0x00000000004006ae <+129>:\tadd    rsp,0x1038    0x00000000004006b5 <+136>:\tpop    rbx    0x00000000004006b6 <+137>:\tpop    rbp    0x00000000004006b7 <+138>:\tret     which is not easy/fun to read. The source code might look like this: File Edit Options Buffers Tools C Help                                                                                                          #include <unistd.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char** str){   char buf[4096];   int fd;   fd=open(\"tempFile\",O_RDONLY);   read(fd,buf,4096);   printf(\"%s\\n\",buf); }  which is much easier to read. So companies just release the machine code version, which can be run but it is hard to turn it back into the source code which is easy to read.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 29235.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e8orz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can a computer program can prevent the computer from \"knowing\" its code? (like closed source programs) In non open-source programs, you can't check the source code from the program, but it still executes and runs on the computer. Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?  From what I understand it works like a blackbox, you feed it input and it gives outputs acording to the code. But how can it prevent me from checking the code?", "c_root_id_A": "d1yb6zf", "c_root_id_B": "d1ybjna", "created_at_utc_A": 1460372950, "created_at_utc_B": 1460374085, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Because the file you're running usually doesn't contain the source code. When the programmer compiles the code, the compiler translates the source code into \"machine code\", which is essentially a binary translation of the original source code. The machine can execute it easily, but it would be very difficult for a human to read.  This is only the case for compiled languages though. Some languages, such as Python, are interpreted languages, which means that instead of compiling them the machine just \"translates\" them as you're running them. For these languages the sourcecode would be accessible.", "human_ref_B": "The language that the computer is running is assembly. It probably looks something like this:    0x000000000040062d <+0>:\tpush   rbp    0x000000000040062e <+1>:\tmov    rbp,rsp    0x0000000000400631 <+4>:\tpush   rbx    0x0000000000400632 <+5>:\tsub    rsp,0x1038    0x0000000000400639 <+12>:\tmov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x1034],edi    0x000000000040063f <+18>:\tmov    QWORD PTR [rbp-0x1040],rsi    0x0000000000400646 <+25>:\tmov    rax,QWORD PTR fs:0x28    0x000000000040064f <+34>:\tmov    QWORD PTR [rbp-0x18],rax    0x0000000000400653 <+38>:\txor    eax,eax    0x0000000000400655 <+40>:\tmov    esi,0x0    0x000000000040065a <+45>:\tmov    edi,0x400744    0x000000000040065f <+50>:\tmov    eax,0x0    0x0000000000400664 <+55>:\tcall   0x400530 <open@plt>    0x0000000000400669 <+60>:\tmov    DWORD PTR [rbp-0x1024],eax    0x000000000040066f <+66>:\tlea    rcx,[rbp-0x1020]    0x0000000000400676 <+73>:\tmov    eax,DWORD PTR [rbp-0x1024]    0x000000000040067c <+79>:\tmov    edx,0x1000    0x0000000000400681 <+84>:\tmov    rsi,rcx    0x0000000000400684 <+87>:\tmov    edi,eax    0x0000000000400686 <+89>:\tcall   0x400500 <read@plt>    0x000000000040068b <+94>:\tlea    rax,[rbp-0x1020]    0x0000000000400692 <+101>:\tmov    rdi,rax    0x0000000000400695 <+104>:\tcall   0x4004e0 <puts@plt>    0x000000000040069a <+109>:\tmov    rbx,QWORD PTR [rbp-0x18]    0x000000000040069e <+113>:\txor    rbx,QWORD PTR fs:0x28    0x00000000004006a7 <+122>:\tje     0x4006ae <main+129>    0x00000000004006a9 <+124>:\tcall   0x4004f0 <__stack_chk_fail@plt>    0x00000000004006ae <+129>:\tadd    rsp,0x1038    0x00000000004006b5 <+136>:\tpop    rbx    0x00000000004006b6 <+137>:\tpop    rbp    0x00000000004006b7 <+138>:\tret     which is not easy/fun to read. The source code might look like this: File Edit Options Buffers Tools C Help                                                                                                          #include <unistd.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char** str){   char buf[4096];   int fd;   fd=open(\"tempFile\",O_RDONLY);   read(fd,buf,4096);   printf(\"%s\\n\",buf); }  which is much easier to read. So companies just release the machine code version, which can be run but it is hard to turn it back into the source code which is easy to read.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1135.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e8orz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can a computer program can prevent the computer from \"knowing\" its code? (like closed source programs) In non open-source programs, you can't check the source code from the program, but it still executes and runs on the computer. Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?  From what I understand it works like a blackbox, you feed it input and it gives outputs acording to the code. But how can it prevent me from checking the code?", "c_root_id_A": "d1y1v6h", "c_root_id_B": "d20160a", "created_at_utc_A": 1460344850, "created_at_utc_B": 1460481570, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As others have posted, code must be compiled from a human readable language into a computer readable language.  However, one thing that may interest you is that the computer readable program can be decompiled to show the source code.  This can be accomplished using tools like ILSpy.  Developers can use obfuscation to prevent the program from being decompiled, or make it look like nonsense.", "human_ref_B": "One of the big problems with trying to \"reverse\" compliation is that you lose a bunch of context that helps you understand what is going on.  For instance, the source code to print out the student with the best grade might be might be:      int numstudents=10     array testscores(numstudents);     sort(testscores)     print, student(testscores(numstudents))  When decompiled, this gives the logically equivalent statement          array x(10)     print, location(max(x))  So you know you are finding the maximum value of something, but what is the significance of the largest number in array x? And you lose the fact that the original program sorted the array in addition to finding the maximum, so you don't know that the programmer is planning to use the sorted array in a later version of the program.   When you consider how large programs can be, not understanding why the program is doing something can make it extremely difficult to understand the structure of the program and how it works on an overall level. You might think that the school program is actually developed for evaluating stock performance and completely misunderstand its purpose. Obviously in this simple example it doesn't matter what the application is, but understanding the interaction between parts of the program may depend on knowing the overall context.  And it gets worse- it is possible to obfuscate the source code to make it more difficult to crack. So reversing compilation is impractical for large programs, though it can be done for small ones.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 136720.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e8orz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can a computer program can prevent the computer from \"knowing\" its code? (like closed source programs) In non open-source programs, you can't check the source code from the program, but it still executes and runs on the computer. Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?  From what I understand it works like a blackbox, you feed it input and it gives outputs acording to the code. But how can it prevent me from checking the code?", "c_root_id_A": "d1yb6zf", "c_root_id_B": "d20160a", "created_at_utc_A": 1460372950, "created_at_utc_B": 1460481570, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Because the file you're running usually doesn't contain the source code. When the programmer compiles the code, the compiler translates the source code into \"machine code\", which is essentially a binary translation of the original source code. The machine can execute it easily, but it would be very difficult for a human to read.  This is only the case for compiled languages though. Some languages, such as Python, are interpreted languages, which means that instead of compiling them the machine just \"translates\" them as you're running them. For these languages the sourcecode would be accessible.", "human_ref_B": "One of the big problems with trying to \"reverse\" compliation is that you lose a bunch of context that helps you understand what is going on.  For instance, the source code to print out the student with the best grade might be might be:      int numstudents=10     array testscores(numstudents);     sort(testscores)     print, student(testscores(numstudents))  When decompiled, this gives the logically equivalent statement          array x(10)     print, location(max(x))  So you know you are finding the maximum value of something, but what is the significance of the largest number in array x? And you lose the fact that the original program sorted the array in addition to finding the maximum, so you don't know that the programmer is planning to use the sorted array in a later version of the program.   When you consider how large programs can be, not understanding why the program is doing something can make it extremely difficult to understand the structure of the program and how it works on an overall level. You might think that the school program is actually developed for evaluating stock performance and completely misunderstand its purpose. Obviously in this simple example it doesn't matter what the application is, but understanding the interaction between parts of the program may depend on knowing the overall context.  And it gets worse- it is possible to obfuscate the source code to make it more difficult to crack. So reversing compilation is impractical for large programs, though it can be done for small ones.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 108620.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4e8orz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "How can a computer program can prevent the computer from \"knowing\" its code? (like closed source programs) In non open-source programs, you can't check the source code from the program, but it still executes and runs on the computer. Shouldn't there be a way to know what that code is?  From what I understand it works like a blackbox, you feed it input and it gives outputs acording to the code. But how can it prevent me from checking the code?", "c_root_id_A": "d1yq1gw", "c_root_id_B": "d20160a", "created_at_utc_A": 1460397829, "created_at_utc_B": 1460481570, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "You can take an executable and disassemble it to see the machine code that the CPU executes.  There are decompilers that can take this machine code and convert it back to C code, though it won't be identical to the original code (optimization), and variable names, function names will be lost.  They analyze all jump/call instructions to build a control-flow graph and determine loops, if-else statements, etc.  I've written a decompiler that works on ARM and x86 instructions.  Some programs can obfuscate what they are doing by adding in dead code paths, self-modifying code, etc.  Someone just posted this link over on /r/reverseengineering.  https://www.reddit.com/r/ReverseEngineering/comments/4e9tps/pdf_dynamic_binary_analysis_and_obfuscated_codes/", "human_ref_B": "One of the big problems with trying to \"reverse\" compliation is that you lose a bunch of context that helps you understand what is going on.  For instance, the source code to print out the student with the best grade might be might be:      int numstudents=10     array testscores(numstudents);     sort(testscores)     print, student(testscores(numstudents))  When decompiled, this gives the logically equivalent statement          array x(10)     print, location(max(x))  So you know you are finding the maximum value of something, but what is the significance of the largest number in array x? And you lose the fact that the original program sorted the array in addition to finding the maximum, so you don't know that the programmer is planning to use the sorted array in a later version of the program.   When you consider how large programs can be, not understanding why the program is doing something can make it extremely difficult to understand the structure of the program and how it works on an overall level. You might think that the school program is actually developed for evaluating stock performance and completely misunderstand its purpose. Obviously in this simple example it doesn't matter what the application is, but understanding the interaction between parts of the program may depend on knowing the overall context.  And it gets worse- it is possible to obfuscate the source code to make it more difficult to crack. So reversing compilation is impractical for large programs, though it can be done for small ones.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 83741.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zfz77", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Husband bought a magnetizer/demagnetizer but cannot tell me why it works.  Can someone explain this to me? Ok so at home depot the other day I spotted a magnetizer/demagnetizer for under $3 and thought it was nifty so I talked my husband into buying it.  Now i  want to know how it works and what the expected functional life of this thing is.  I mean, do they run out of their umph after so long?  For less than a fiver I cannot believe this does not lose its efficacy after so many uses.", "c_root_id_A": "c648j86", "c_root_id_B": "c64acwy", "created_at_utc_A": 1346927991, "created_at_utc_B": 1346940682, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "I've never seen one of those. How exactly is it used? Does it need a power source? From your question, it doesn't seem like it.  You can demagnetize things by degaussing, but that would require a power source. I have no idea how this would work otherwise.", "human_ref_B": "My thought: Ok, so every ferrous metal has the ability to be magnetized.  There are a couple ways to do this.  It looks like that tool uses a magnetic field to align the domains.  Domains are basically a region where the magnetic fields of atoms are grouped and aligned.  So, your standard screwdrives have all the atomic fields (domains) pointing all over the place.    Now, if you look, you put the screwdriver in one way along the top, then again along the bottom (going in the opposite direction).  This basically gets all of your domains lined up and in formation.  Once that happens you've got yourself a magnet.  You can do this by just rubbing a magnet over anything metal as long as you go in the same direction.  The tool is basically a few strong magnets aligned properly.  Now, to make something demagnetized, you need to scramble all those domains back up.  It looks like the upper part of the tool takes care of scrambling stuff, probably by having magnets pointing all over the place.  Ok, on to the question:  Does it lose its efficiency?  I don't think it will.  But, the tool you magnetized will over time become less magnetic as the domains don't really have any reason to stay in the order you put them and will return to pointing every which direction until forced to line back up by your tool.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12691.0, "score_ratio": 4.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zfz77", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Husband bought a magnetizer/demagnetizer but cannot tell me why it works.  Can someone explain this to me? Ok so at home depot the other day I spotted a magnetizer/demagnetizer for under $3 and thought it was nifty so I talked my husband into buying it.  Now i  want to know how it works and what the expected functional life of this thing is.  I mean, do they run out of their umph after so long?  For less than a fiver I cannot believe this does not lose its efficacy after so many uses.", "c_root_id_A": "c64acwy", "c_root_id_B": "c64a8f6", "created_at_utc_A": 1346940682, "created_at_utc_B": 1346940109, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "My thought: Ok, so every ferrous metal has the ability to be magnetized.  There are a couple ways to do this.  It looks like that tool uses a magnetic field to align the domains.  Domains are basically a region where the magnetic fields of atoms are grouped and aligned.  So, your standard screwdrives have all the atomic fields (domains) pointing all over the place.    Now, if you look, you put the screwdriver in one way along the top, then again along the bottom (going in the opposite direction).  This basically gets all of your domains lined up and in formation.  Once that happens you've got yourself a magnet.  You can do this by just rubbing a magnet over anything metal as long as you go in the same direction.  The tool is basically a few strong magnets aligned properly.  Now, to make something demagnetized, you need to scramble all those domains back up.  It looks like the upper part of the tool takes care of scrambling stuff, probably by having magnets pointing all over the place.  Ok, on to the question:  Does it lose its efficiency?  I don't think it will.  But, the tool you magnetized will over time become less magnetic as the domains don't really have any reason to stay in the order you put them and will return to pointing every which direction until forced to line back up by your tool.", "human_ref_B": "The magnetizer part is probably an ordinary magnet. The demagnetizer would, I assume, be small magnets with different polarities which would scramble the electrons.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 573.0, "score_ratio": 5.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zfz77", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Husband bought a magnetizer/demagnetizer but cannot tell me why it works.  Can someone explain this to me? Ok so at home depot the other day I spotted a magnetizer/demagnetizer for under $3 and thought it was nifty so I talked my husband into buying it.  Now i  want to know how it works and what the expected functional life of this thing is.  I mean, do they run out of their umph after so long?  For less than a fiver I cannot believe this does not lose its efficacy after so many uses.", "c_root_id_A": "c64bp7w", "c_root_id_B": "c648j86", "created_at_utc_A": 1346946264, "created_at_utc_B": 1346927991, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "The expected functional life for your magnet is decades of proper use. A way to weaken/destroy it would be to place a large, very strong magnet inside it. The only other reasonable way to ruin it would be to smash it into something to the point where it shatters. The least reasonable way to ruin it would be to place it in a hot fire.  It works by using a specific alignment of magnets. Here is a patent with diagrams, specifically look at Figure 4. The magnets are arranged in an orientation that will either align or randomize the magnetic domains in your tool, depending on whether you're magnetizing or demagnetizing your tool. Steel tools are essentially soft magnets, which means they behave similar to the magnets on your refrigerator, only they tend to be much weaker. Like refrigerator magnets, steel tools can be magnetized and demagnetized through processes that align or randomize the electron spins in the material.  The reason why it's so cheap is because the magnets the device uses are ferrite magnets, which are pretty much dirt cheap (ferrite is literally found in dirt). The world makes more ferrite magnets by mass than any other magnet by an order of magnitude, and at the same time they're an order of magnitude cheaper than strong magnets like neodymium or samarium cobalt.  Want to know the specifics of the demagnetization or magnetization process, or are you good with that? I'd be happy to explain more.", "human_ref_B": "I've never seen one of those. How exactly is it used? Does it need a power source? From your question, it doesn't seem like it.  You can demagnetize things by degaussing, but that would require a power source. I have no idea how this would work otherwise.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18273.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zfz77", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Husband bought a magnetizer/demagnetizer but cannot tell me why it works.  Can someone explain this to me? Ok so at home depot the other day I spotted a magnetizer/demagnetizer for under $3 and thought it was nifty so I talked my husband into buying it.  Now i  want to know how it works and what the expected functional life of this thing is.  I mean, do they run out of their umph after so long?  For less than a fiver I cannot believe this does not lose its efficacy after so many uses.", "c_root_id_A": "c64bp7w", "c_root_id_B": "c64a8f6", "created_at_utc_A": 1346946264, "created_at_utc_B": 1346940109, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The expected functional life for your magnet is decades of proper use. A way to weaken/destroy it would be to place a large, very strong magnet inside it. The only other reasonable way to ruin it would be to smash it into something to the point where it shatters. The least reasonable way to ruin it would be to place it in a hot fire.  It works by using a specific alignment of magnets. Here is a patent with diagrams, specifically look at Figure 4. The magnets are arranged in an orientation that will either align or randomize the magnetic domains in your tool, depending on whether you're magnetizing or demagnetizing your tool. Steel tools are essentially soft magnets, which means they behave similar to the magnets on your refrigerator, only they tend to be much weaker. Like refrigerator magnets, steel tools can be magnetized and demagnetized through processes that align or randomize the electron spins in the material.  The reason why it's so cheap is because the magnets the device uses are ferrite magnets, which are pretty much dirt cheap (ferrite is literally found in dirt). The world makes more ferrite magnets by mass than any other magnet by an order of magnitude, and at the same time they're an order of magnitude cheaper than strong magnets like neodymium or samarium cobalt.  Want to know the specifics of the demagnetization or magnetization process, or are you good with that? I'd be happy to explain more.", "human_ref_B": "The magnetizer part is probably an ordinary magnet. The demagnetizer would, I assume, be small magnets with different polarities which would scramble the electrons.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6155.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zfz77", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Husband bought a magnetizer/demagnetizer but cannot tell me why it works.  Can someone explain this to me? Ok so at home depot the other day I spotted a magnetizer/demagnetizer for under $3 and thought it was nifty so I talked my husband into buying it.  Now i  want to know how it works and what the expected functional life of this thing is.  I mean, do they run out of their umph after so long?  For less than a fiver I cannot believe this does not lose its efficacy after so many uses.", "c_root_id_A": "c64ata3", "c_root_id_B": "c64bp7w", "created_at_utc_A": 1346942669, "created_at_utc_B": 1346946264, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Was I the only one who learned in elementary school that if you rubbed a magnet in one direction on something with iron in it, it would make a magnet?", "human_ref_B": "The expected functional life for your magnet is decades of proper use. A way to weaken/destroy it would be to place a large, very strong magnet inside it. The only other reasonable way to ruin it would be to smash it into something to the point where it shatters. The least reasonable way to ruin it would be to place it in a hot fire.  It works by using a specific alignment of magnets. Here is a patent with diagrams, specifically look at Figure 4. The magnets are arranged in an orientation that will either align or randomize the magnetic domains in your tool, depending on whether you're magnetizing or demagnetizing your tool. Steel tools are essentially soft magnets, which means they behave similar to the magnets on your refrigerator, only they tend to be much weaker. Like refrigerator magnets, steel tools can be magnetized and demagnetized through processes that align or randomize the electron spins in the material.  The reason why it's so cheap is because the magnets the device uses are ferrite magnets, which are pretty much dirt cheap (ferrite is literally found in dirt). The world makes more ferrite magnets by mass than any other magnet by an order of magnitude, and at the same time they're an order of magnitude cheaper than strong magnets like neodymium or samarium cobalt.  Want to know the specifics of the demagnetization or magnetization process, or are you good with that? I'd be happy to explain more.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3595.0, "score_ratio": 10000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hsir9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is there a generally accepted scientific definition for brainwashing in the psychology field? You see a lot of people talking about brainwashing on reddit- particularly when talking about politics. Is brainwashing generally accepted as being a real and measurable phenomenon, or just a loose concept?", "c_root_id_A": "fycs3bf", "c_root_id_B": "fycfkfp", "created_at_utc_A": 1594990421, "created_at_utc_B": 1594979720, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I think the field calls active attempts to change someone's point of view \"coercive persuasion\"; \"brainwashing\" in the public sphere, I think has spilled over into things like what is termed Stockholm Syndrome and group dynamics. This group has apparently made a scale to measure how coercive groups are. There's also a decent literature on power, persuasion and group dynamics.", "human_ref_B": "Brainwashing as it's practiced is essentially just various methods of hypnosis. Hypnotic induction and suggestion exists along a spectrum, and can range from creating amnesiac states, to influence as mundane as manipulating peoples posture to affect their mood.   Project DELTA and Project Monarch focused on hypnotic methods of control. Of course, if you google these you'll finds loads of misinformation and kooky webpages, but look up Chase Hughes. He was a career US Navy SNCO who now teaches LE and Gov't elements these methods, among others.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10701.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hsir9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is there a generally accepted scientific definition for brainwashing in the psychology field? You see a lot of people talking about brainwashing on reddit- particularly when talking about politics. Is brainwashing generally accepted as being a real and measurable phenomenon, or just a loose concept?", "c_root_id_A": "fycfkfp", "c_root_id_B": "fyd3t79", "created_at_utc_A": 1594979720, "created_at_utc_B": 1594997023, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Brainwashing as it's practiced is essentially just various methods of hypnosis. Hypnotic induction and suggestion exists along a spectrum, and can range from creating amnesiac states, to influence as mundane as manipulating peoples posture to affect their mood.   Project DELTA and Project Monarch focused on hypnotic methods of control. Of course, if you google these you'll finds loads of misinformation and kooky webpages, but look up Chase Hughes. He was a career US Navy SNCO who now teaches LE and Gov't elements these methods, among others.", "human_ref_B": "No, there is not a medical or scientific definition for brainwashing that I'm aware of.  Thus, any discussion of brainwashing can mean any of a dozen different things, from /u/dtmc 's \"coercive persuasion\" to /u/ash_modeus 's \"hypnosis\" to general reddit usage as a synonym for propaganda.  In stricter terms I think brainwashing would be defined as \"changing someone's opinion without convincing or coercing them\" and I think that has no scientific evidence that it exists.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17303.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hsir9t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Is there a generally accepted scientific definition for brainwashing in the psychology field? You see a lot of people talking about brainwashing on reddit- particularly when talking about politics. Is brainwashing generally accepted as being a real and measurable phenomenon, or just a loose concept?", "c_root_id_A": "fydgyon", "c_root_id_B": "fycfkfp", "created_at_utc_A": 1595003558, "created_at_utc_B": 1594979720, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It's a social concept (involuntary re-education) - not a falsifiable feature of coercive procedures. \"Brainwashing\" appears twice in the DSM-5 (see: Identity Disturbance and Dissociative Disorder) as an all-purpose synonym for undue social influence.  Robert Lifton (1961) outlined eight criteria (which Margaret Thaler Singer characterized as themes; also note her differentiation of indoctrination as \"recruitment by deceit\") for \"thought reform\". Schein, Schneier, & Barker (1961) provided three stages of \"coercive persuasion\" concurrently. Singer and similar often used the terms interchangeably.  Robert Baron (2000) provided a great overview of the literature pre-2000, if you're interested.", "human_ref_B": "Brainwashing as it's practiced is essentially just various methods of hypnosis. Hypnotic induction and suggestion exists along a spectrum, and can range from creating amnesiac states, to influence as mundane as manipulating peoples posture to affect their mood.   Project DELTA and Project Monarch focused on hypnotic methods of control. Of course, if you google these you'll finds loads of misinformation and kooky webpages, but look up Chase Hughes. He was a career US Navy SNCO who now teaches LE and Gov't elements these methods, among others.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23838.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ddbq0r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.58, "history": "How did evolution create mirrored body parts through random mutations? My left and right arm are virtually identical mirrored of each other, along with my feet and legs and ears etc.   How does evolution create so many identically mirrored objects of one another through random mutations?", "c_root_id_A": "f2frs4c", "c_root_id_B": "f2fqdat", "created_at_utc_A": 1570221778, "created_at_utc_B": 1570221321, "score_A": 37, "score_B": 19, "human_ref_A": "You haven't conceived of the problem correctly. It's not the case that you have separate sets of genes for your left and right arm. Rather, there is a *single* set of genes that builds both.  With this in mind, now consider a system in which a group of cells forms a plane in the center of an embryo. The gene systems that construct the skeleton and gross anatomy grow *out* from opposite sides of this plane, and because both systems are building the same thing in opposite directions, bilateral symmetry emerges automatically. Bilateral and radial symmetry allow organisms to build complex systems with fewer genes, and for this reason symmetry appears frequently in biology at all scales.", "human_ref_B": "Bilateral organisms, that have the symmetry you speak of, came later in evolution. The transition to get all of us bilateral organisms came with the notochord, the predecessor to the spinal cord. With the development of the spinal cord, organisms had the ability to make coordinated, directed movements possible. To have more effective coordinated movements with a spinal cord, having a \u201cbalanced\u201d organism (that is, mirrored) is optimal. There are also ideas about the fact that if vertebrates first started with paired eyes, then the remaining body parts followed unsuitable because it made sense to have the ability to react to each visual field as escape maneuvers. There is a documentary on BBC called Rise of The Vertebrates that explains it pretty well.  Now the real question is, what biologically allowed mirrored body parts or even brain parts. One of the first concepts is that the earliest animals had certain cell types to work with, say the skin cells and motor cells to help guide their appendages (think an octopus). Now, if you had a mutation, it\u2019s occurring within the existing cells you have. A single mutation might keep the essence of that cell in tact, but over time enough mutations can make it a distinct cell type.   How does that contribute to mirrored regions or patterning? Well, the way your cells decide how to set up a given body part is dictated by a gene regulatory network early in embryological development. This determines exactly what the cell will do as it makes it connections and sets up the body part of interest. In evolution what has happened again and again is this concept of Co-linearity, which is that to add extra regions (in the brain in particular), you simply duplicated on the chromosome the set of genes that created that first region. Thus, your body started with a basic template and then likely copied a template that worked again to create a duplication.  Sources:  Co-linearity: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/26260684/  MIT open courseware has some great information on developmental evolution: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/brain-and-cognitive-sciences/9-14-brain-structure-and-its-origins-spring-2014/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 457.0, "score_ratio": 1.9473684211, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ddbq0r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.58, "history": "How did evolution create mirrored body parts through random mutations? My left and right arm are virtually identical mirrored of each other, along with my feet and legs and ears etc.   How does evolution create so many identically mirrored objects of one another through random mutations?", "c_root_id_A": "f2fskng", "c_root_id_B": "f2jc4rp", "created_at_utc_A": 1570222054, "created_at_utc_B": 1570270406, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Early, very simple organisms evolved a \"coordinate system\" for gene regulation, so that genes could be switched on or off based on a cell's location on (or in) the animal. This included various symmetries, so that if a feature was switched on \"halfway down the arm\", it would be switched on halfway down *both* arms in mirrored animals on us, or halfway down *all* arms on a radially-symmetric animal (like a starfish).  Once this robust coordinate system had evolved, most evolutionary adaptation could take place *within* the coordinate system, so that new features appear on both sides of the body in the same place, or on the same digit of each finger, etc, etc.  So evolution did not independently evolve the elbow twice, once on each side. It evolved a coordinate system once, and then a \"limb\" (mirrored thanks to the coordinate system) and then adapted its coordinate system to the limb, and then evolved features along the length of the limb like \"elbow\" (but mirrored thanks to the limb and body coordinate systems).  Check out the book \"Endless Forms Most Beautiful\" for a really, really interesting discussion about the coordinate systems and our body's amazing regulatory networks.", "human_ref_B": "As with many misunderstandings of evolution, I think a lot of this comes from seeing the end result without understanding how we got there. I think you're imagining an arm growing out the left side in one event, and then a right arm popping out in another event, in which case it would be odd if they were identical.  But bilateral symmetry came long before arms. The earliest bilaterally symmetric animal probably looked something like this guy; a very simple flat-worm like animal, with only the most basic body plan to be mirrored over.  Still, how did this early worm get what little symmetry it does have? Well, it's achieved during development of the embryo by a small set of genes that direct the overall arrangement of the animal, primarily hox genes. The exact mechanism varies between species and there's some debate on the specifics, but in general it works through using certain regions of the body as landmarks to locate everything else: You might, for example, get a set of cells designated as the \"head\", which start producing hormones that diffuse through the body and so tell every other cell roughly how far and in what direction they are from the head. Another cluster of cells about halfway down the body from the head might then move out to the edge of the body perpendicular to the direction towards the head and designate itself as the \"top\" and produce another type of hormone, and then another 2 clusters of cells can move out in opposite directions perpendicular to both the head and top directions and designate themselves the \"sides\" (again to be clear I'm not sure if this is exactly how it works, it's just a kind of abstract example, but hopefully it conveys how simple developmental mechanisms can produce this sort of internal organization).  With these references established, complex structures can be built with reference to these directions; so the genetic instructions wouldn't be \"grow left, then forward, then down\" but more \"grow towards the nearest 'side' cluster of cells, then towards the 'head' cluster, then away from the 'top' cluster\". You can see how, by following these sorts of instructions, you can get mirror-symmetric structures on either side of the animal.  It wouldn't be too hard for such an internal reference system to develop. The use of a \"head\" cluster to direct organization appears to have occurred in the earliest animals, so the genes responsible for that could have been duplicated and modified to make the other clusters. Most morphological evolution occurs by duplication and modification of existing genes, rather than creating whole new genes. And once bilateral symmetry exists, it's very useful because it gives the animal a clear \"forward\" direction which can be directed towards food, and the body can be designed to move in a straight line.  After that, new structures are built using this existing set of references. You can have a new gene encoding for a limb bud to be grown on the surface at a certain position relative to head, top, and side references, and because 2 sites exist that match that position, 2 limb buds will be grown that are identical but mirrored from that same set of genes. And then the limb bud can establish its own set of clusters for direction reference based on those in the body, and use these new clusters for internal organization, and so on iteratively down to individual fingers.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 48352.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ddbq0r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.58, "history": "How did evolution create mirrored body parts through random mutations? My left and right arm are virtually identical mirrored of each other, along with my feet and legs and ears etc.   How does evolution create so many identically mirrored objects of one another through random mutations?", "c_root_id_A": "f2jc4rp", "c_root_id_B": "f2h7rfk", "created_at_utc_A": 1570270406, "created_at_utc_B": 1570240461, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As with many misunderstandings of evolution, I think a lot of this comes from seeing the end result without understanding how we got there. I think you're imagining an arm growing out the left side in one event, and then a right arm popping out in another event, in which case it would be odd if they were identical.  But bilateral symmetry came long before arms. The earliest bilaterally symmetric animal probably looked something like this guy; a very simple flat-worm like animal, with only the most basic body plan to be mirrored over.  Still, how did this early worm get what little symmetry it does have? Well, it's achieved during development of the embryo by a small set of genes that direct the overall arrangement of the animal, primarily hox genes. The exact mechanism varies between species and there's some debate on the specifics, but in general it works through using certain regions of the body as landmarks to locate everything else: You might, for example, get a set of cells designated as the \"head\", which start producing hormones that diffuse through the body and so tell every other cell roughly how far and in what direction they are from the head. Another cluster of cells about halfway down the body from the head might then move out to the edge of the body perpendicular to the direction towards the head and designate itself as the \"top\" and produce another type of hormone, and then another 2 clusters of cells can move out in opposite directions perpendicular to both the head and top directions and designate themselves the \"sides\" (again to be clear I'm not sure if this is exactly how it works, it's just a kind of abstract example, but hopefully it conveys how simple developmental mechanisms can produce this sort of internal organization).  With these references established, complex structures can be built with reference to these directions; so the genetic instructions wouldn't be \"grow left, then forward, then down\" but more \"grow towards the nearest 'side' cluster of cells, then towards the 'head' cluster, then away from the 'top' cluster\". You can see how, by following these sorts of instructions, you can get mirror-symmetric structures on either side of the animal.  It wouldn't be too hard for such an internal reference system to develop. The use of a \"head\" cluster to direct organization appears to have occurred in the earliest animals, so the genes responsible for that could have been duplicated and modified to make the other clusters. Most morphological evolution occurs by duplication and modification of existing genes, rather than creating whole new genes. And once bilateral symmetry exists, it's very useful because it gives the animal a clear \"forward\" direction which can be directed towards food, and the body can be designed to move in a straight line.  After that, new structures are built using this existing set of references. You can have a new gene encoding for a limb bud to be grown on the surface at a certain position relative to head, top, and side references, and because 2 sites exist that match that position, 2 limb buds will be grown that are identical but mirrored from that same set of genes. And then the limb bud can establish its own set of clusters for direction reference based on those in the body, and use these new clusters for internal organization, and so on iteratively down to individual fingers.", "human_ref_B": "Random mutations occurred that involved non-mirrored body parts as well. Hence they were random, so all outcomes were possible. However, the organisms with mirrored body parts either survived cause they were better built for it or simply by chance. Either way they survived, so that\u2019s what remains.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 29945.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ddbq0r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.58, "history": "How did evolution create mirrored body parts through random mutations? My left and right arm are virtually identical mirrored of each other, along with my feet and legs and ears etc.   How does evolution create so many identically mirrored objects of one another through random mutations?", "c_root_id_A": "f2h7rfk", "c_root_id_B": "f2kfgy9", "created_at_utc_A": 1570240461, "created_at_utc_B": 1570284815, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Random mutations occurred that involved non-mirrored body parts as well. Hence they were random, so all outcomes were possible. However, the organisms with mirrored body parts either survived cause they were better built for it or simply by chance. Either way they survived, so that\u2019s what remains.", "human_ref_B": "Your genetic code is a recipe, not a blueprint.  The recipe for 'arm' gets started when it gets the correct signals.  The signals are that is it this far from the center of the body, this far forward, that height from the top.  This signal is the same on both the right and left hand sides, so gets called on both sides.   The recipe causes the arm to grow out (away from the center) and forward.  Since the recipe gets called in the local coordinates, they both grow in the same direction.    Do some reading in developmental biology and it will make sense.  The actions of development occur due to signals of the right levels and chemical gradients which give the developing embryo coordinates.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 44354.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sc4qsl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why aren't lasers installed *on-board* laser-pushed lightsail spacecraft? I've seen proposals for craft pushed by a ground based laser, but since the laser is creating momentum why not just install it on the craft itself and power it with some atomic batteries? Seems to me such a craft could accelerate as long as it had energy to generate photons, without being limited by working mass. What an I missing here?", "c_root_id_A": "hu4ucuc", "c_root_id_B": "hu4tt88", "created_at_utc_A": 1643103316, "created_at_utc_B": 1643102866, "score_A": 27, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Energy requirements. Assuming you're going to use that laser as a thruster rather then pointing it at a sail. Lasers of that kind require very large amounts of energy. A spacecraft needs to generate that energy, which would mean taking fuel along. Which increases the weight of the craft, which in turn increases the energy requirements to get it moving.  Lightsail spacecraft essentially have their \"engine\" and fuel outside of the spacecraft which significantly reduces their complexity and weight.", "human_ref_B": "Conservation of momentum! When the laser creates photons, that pushes the laser backwards - the photons have \"forwards\" momentum so the laser must have \"backwards\" momentum for total momentum to be conserved. When those photons hit something, they push it forward. So the photons push the craft backwards when they are fired, and then push it forwards by the same amount when they're captured. The net change in momentum is zero - the spacecraft doesn't accelerate.  If your laser is on Earth, then you're pushing the Earth down a little bit by firing these photons into the air. But the Earth is so massive that you don't notice its momentum changing. Basically you're transferring momentum from the Earth to the spacecraft, which is fine. Transferring momentum from the spacecraft to the spacecraft doesn't work though.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 450.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sc4qsl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why aren't lasers installed *on-board* laser-pushed lightsail spacecraft? I've seen proposals for craft pushed by a ground based laser, but since the laser is creating momentum why not just install it on the craft itself and power it with some atomic batteries? Seems to me such a craft could accelerate as long as it had energy to generate photons, without being limited by working mass. What an I missing here?", "c_root_id_A": "hu7w5nz", "c_root_id_B": "hu64zvv", "created_at_utc_A": 1643152142, "created_at_utc_B": 1643128258, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The practical reason is we have much more electrical power here on Earth than anything we've put in space. The USSR's Topaz-II nuclear fission reactor (designed for space but only ever ground tested) produced a mere 10 kilowatts and the International Space Station's solar arrays produce a maximum of 240 kW. By contrast the Breakthrough Starshot project is talking about up to 100 gigawatts of laser power.  There is however a more theoretical reason. A rocket in the broadest sense is a spacecraft that's propelled by expelling reaction mass it carries. A spacecraft propelled by a laser powered by an onboard reactor is a rocket, specifically a photon rocket - remember that by mass-energy equivalence the emitted laser beam must carry mass away from the spacecraft, and the used-up fuel for the reactor has less mass than the fresh fuel did.  This means that like all rockets, a photon rocket is limited by the rocket equation, which relates the change in velocity (delta-V) to the mass ratio of the spacecraft - the fully fuelled mass divided by the empty mass. The example Wikipedia gives is that a 2 tonne spacecraft with a fusion reactor and laser and 1 tonne of fusion fuel would reach a maximum speed of 0.001c. The theoretical limit would be 100% mass to energy conversion, and even that is still capable of a finite amount of delta-V for a given mass ratio.  While there is no theoretical limit to the mass ratio (considering that multiple stages could be used), the practical limit is from engineering and economics. How big a spacecraft are you prepared to build to propel a certain payload?  But a light sail propelled by an external laser bypasses the rocket equation because it is not a rocket, and can therefore potentially reach much greater speeds without requiring extreme mass ratios.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon_rocket", "human_ref_B": "You're completely correct that firing a laser in space will create acceleration, but as noted by others, it is not very practical for propulsion. The Starshot nanocraft, while mostly coasting at .2c for 22 years, is expected to have some navigation to nudge its trajectory using diode lasers.  An extra detail here is that the onboard propulsion force is power/c while the reflected force is 2\\*power/c for a perfect reflector. The craft and sail are expected to be of order a couple grams to reach these speeds and there is no known way to produce high power lasers at these weights let alone store the energy.  Some extra info here.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23884.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sc4qsl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why aren't lasers installed *on-board* laser-pushed lightsail spacecraft? I've seen proposals for craft pushed by a ground based laser, but since the laser is creating momentum why not just install it on the craft itself and power it with some atomic batteries? Seems to me such a craft could accelerate as long as it had energy to generate photons, without being limited by working mass. What an I missing here?", "c_root_id_A": "hu7w5nz", "c_root_id_B": "hu4uo7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1643152142, "created_at_utc_B": 1643103577, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The practical reason is we have much more electrical power here on Earth than anything we've put in space. The USSR's Topaz-II nuclear fission reactor (designed for space but only ever ground tested) produced a mere 10 kilowatts and the International Space Station's solar arrays produce a maximum of 240 kW. By contrast the Breakthrough Starshot project is talking about up to 100 gigawatts of laser power.  There is however a more theoretical reason. A rocket in the broadest sense is a spacecraft that's propelled by expelling reaction mass it carries. A spacecraft propelled by a laser powered by an onboard reactor is a rocket, specifically a photon rocket - remember that by mass-energy equivalence the emitted laser beam must carry mass away from the spacecraft, and the used-up fuel for the reactor has less mass than the fresh fuel did.  This means that like all rockets, a photon rocket is limited by the rocket equation, which relates the change in velocity (delta-V) to the mass ratio of the spacecraft - the fully fuelled mass divided by the empty mass. The example Wikipedia gives is that a 2 tonne spacecraft with a fusion reactor and laser and 1 tonne of fusion fuel would reach a maximum speed of 0.001c. The theoretical limit would be 100% mass to energy conversion, and even that is still capable of a finite amount of delta-V for a given mass ratio.  While there is no theoretical limit to the mass ratio (considering that multiple stages could be used), the practical limit is from engineering and economics. How big a spacecraft are you prepared to build to propel a certain payload?  But a light sail propelled by an external laser bypasses the rocket equation because it is not a rocket, and can therefore potentially reach much greater speeds without requiring extreme mass ratios.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon_rocket", "human_ref_B": "We don't have efficient enough lasers.  Lightsails need many gigawatts of light going into them to generate any useful amount of thrust, but gigawatt lasers are very heavy, and the power supply even more so. Which means the tiny thrust from the laser isn't going to meaningfully accellerate the laser and power supply. But if we point the laser at a lightweight spacecraft the same few newtons give it useful accelleration.  arxiv.org paper suggests about 3.34 x 10\u22129 newtons per watt, so you'd get about 0.3kgf per gigawatt. And a 1 GW nuclear power plant on earth weighs many thousands of tonnes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 48565.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sc4qsl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why aren't lasers installed *on-board* laser-pushed lightsail spacecraft? I've seen proposals for craft pushed by a ground based laser, but since the laser is creating momentum why not just install it on the craft itself and power it with some atomic batteries? Seems to me such a craft could accelerate as long as it had energy to generate photons, without being limited by working mass. What an I missing here?", "c_root_id_A": "hu64zvv", "c_root_id_B": "hu4uo7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1643128258, "created_at_utc_B": 1643103577, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You're completely correct that firing a laser in space will create acceleration, but as noted by others, it is not very practical for propulsion. The Starshot nanocraft, while mostly coasting at .2c for 22 years, is expected to have some navigation to nudge its trajectory using diode lasers.  An extra detail here is that the onboard propulsion force is power/c while the reflected force is 2\\*power/c for a perfect reflector. The craft and sail are expected to be of order a couple grams to reach these speeds and there is no known way to produce high power lasers at these weights let alone store the energy.  Some extra info here.", "human_ref_B": "We don't have efficient enough lasers.  Lightsails need many gigawatts of light going into them to generate any useful amount of thrust, but gigawatt lasers are very heavy, and the power supply even more so. Which means the tiny thrust from the laser isn't going to meaningfully accellerate the laser and power supply. But if we point the laser at a lightweight spacecraft the same few newtons give it useful accelleration.  arxiv.org paper suggests about 3.34 x 10\u22129 newtons per watt, so you'd get about 0.3kgf per gigawatt. And a 1 GW nuclear power plant on earth weighs many thousands of tonnes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24681.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "clrtp0w", "c_root_id_B": "clrua3j", "created_at_utc_A": 1415035548, "created_at_utc_B": 1415036645, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "Planes can steer from the front, using special flaps called canards.) Since a plane's center of lift must be behind the center of mass, it is often more stable to steer (vertically) from the back. Note that the ailerons, which are really how an airplane steers, are on the wings, which are more or less centered.  Cars etc. steer from the front because when you steer with the front wheels, the vehicle turns about the point level with (or just behind) the driver. This makes intuitive sense and helps avoid hitting the curb and such when turning. Some specialized vehicles turn from the back to help align the front with loads or docks.", "human_ref_B": "We don't steer airplanes with the tail surfaces.  Turns are made by banking (motion around the roll axis) initiated by the ailerons. The rudder serves to keep the turn coordinated, neither slipping nor skidding. Another way of seeing the rudder's job is correcting for adverse yaw induced by the ailerons.  The tail's horizontal control surface, or \"elevator,\" has to do with controlling the aircraft's pitch attitude, which mostly affects airspeed.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1097.0, "score_ratio": 3.3846153846, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "clru0mi", "c_root_id_B": "clrua3j", "created_at_utc_A": 1415036159, "created_at_utc_B": 1415036645, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 44, "human_ref_A": "Aircraft generally turn using ailerons or other types of control surfaces on their wings. This can be pretty close to the CG. Once banked, elevator is used to perform a turn, and rudder only coordinates it to keep G forces aligned.  Your question is more about why we don't flip the wings, engines, and control surfaces around and fly the plane backward. Like the top answer says, stability is a factor, but you could have a stable aircraft with basically the same CG in relation to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC). Drag plays a factor, but that could be worked around by sweeping the control surfaces, and they wouldn't create more drag for the amount of useful input they could provide. Visibility plays a factor, but you can always put the pilots farther forward.  I would say that the only reason is that it would be a radical design change, more expensive as a result, and offer no real benefit while being a little more complex. The current design is more simple to achieve because of previous work. However, you could sweep back the fuselage more and possibly gain some efficiency there through reduced drag, but you could cause turbulent flow over the fuselage and wings, leading to increased drag as well.   TL;DR It's possible to do it either way, but would be more work to design, test, and market with pitch and yaw controls in the front of the aircraft.", "human_ref_B": "We don't steer airplanes with the tail surfaces.  Turns are made by banking (motion around the roll axis) initiated by the ailerons. The rudder serves to keep the turn coordinated, neither slipping nor skidding. Another way of seeing the rudder's job is correcting for adverse yaw induced by the ailerons.  The tail's horizontal control surface, or \"elevator,\" has to do with controlling the aircraft's pitch attitude, which mostly affects airspeed.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 486.0, "score_ratio": 5.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "cls1mte", "c_root_id_B": "clrzcd8", "created_at_utc_A": 1415050076, "created_at_utc_B": 1415045996, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Something of note in regards to ground vehicles: One reason cars don't steer from the rear is wall trapping. If you're driving beside a fixed barrier, turning away will move you away. Whereas if the vehicle was rear steer, it would swing towards the barrier before moving away. If there isn't enough room, you'd strike the barrier and essentially get pulled into it. This was a problem with early (rear steer) ice resurfacing machines, they couldn't get close enough to the edge of an arena without risking getting stuck against the wall.", "human_ref_B": "Tire Engineer here, this has to do with the way that slip angles are generated and how the lateral forces effect the vehicle's yaw.  Tires are a lot less like railroad tracks and a lot more like rudders than people realize. Tires are always slipping if they are cornering or driving / braking.   Slip angle is a function of wheel steering angle, but there is a phase lag between the drivers input and the actual force being generated by the tire.    So, when you steer the front axle, there is a delay, and then lateral force builds in the front of the vehicle.  This force induces a torque about the vehicle's center of mass which starts yaw rotation.  Yaw causes slip angle to build in the non-steering tires in the rear, and they begin to build lateral force.  This behavior is stable and comfortable to the driver because the vehicle will initially yaw in the direction of the turn (lateral force is is in the direction you are turning, so lateral force in front of the CG will turn the vehicle into the turn).  If the rear wheels steer first, the initial yaw is in the opposite direction of the turn, which causes the vehicle's inertia to be opposite of the turn, causing an understeer feeling even if there is none, as well as requiring more total yaw moment to turn the vehicle.  This is also typically why vehicles have a 'stiffer' front roll gradient than the rear, so lateral force will build more quickly in the front axle, and start to induce the correct direction yaw from the initial turn in.  E: clarity", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4080.0, "score_ratio": 2.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "cls1mte", "c_root_id_B": "clrtp0w", "created_at_utc_A": 1415050076, "created_at_utc_B": 1415035548, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Something of note in regards to ground vehicles: One reason cars don't steer from the rear is wall trapping. If you're driving beside a fixed barrier, turning away will move you away. Whereas if the vehicle was rear steer, it would swing towards the barrier before moving away. If there isn't enough room, you'd strike the barrier and essentially get pulled into it. This was a problem with early (rear steer) ice resurfacing machines, they couldn't get close enough to the edge of an arena without risking getting stuck against the wall.", "human_ref_B": "Planes can steer from the front, using special flaps called canards.) Since a plane's center of lift must be behind the center of mass, it is often more stable to steer (vertically) from the back. Note that the ailerons, which are really how an airplane steers, are on the wings, which are more or less centered.  Cars etc. steer from the front because when you steer with the front wheels, the vehicle turns about the point level with (or just behind) the driver. This makes intuitive sense and helps avoid hitting the curb and such when turning. Some specialized vehicles turn from the back to help align the front with loads or docks.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14528.0, "score_ratio": 2.9230769231, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "cls1mte", "c_root_id_B": "clru0mi", "created_at_utc_A": 1415050076, "created_at_utc_B": 1415036159, "score_A": 38, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Something of note in regards to ground vehicles: One reason cars don't steer from the rear is wall trapping. If you're driving beside a fixed barrier, turning away will move you away. Whereas if the vehicle was rear steer, it would swing towards the barrier before moving away. If there isn't enough room, you'd strike the barrier and essentially get pulled into it. This was a problem with early (rear steer) ice resurfacing machines, they couldn't get close enough to the edge of an arena without risking getting stuck against the wall.", "human_ref_B": "Aircraft generally turn using ailerons or other types of control surfaces on their wings. This can be pretty close to the CG. Once banked, elevator is used to perform a turn, and rudder only coordinates it to keep G forces aligned.  Your question is more about why we don't flip the wings, engines, and control surfaces around and fly the plane backward. Like the top answer says, stability is a factor, but you could have a stable aircraft with basically the same CG in relation to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC). Drag plays a factor, but that could be worked around by sweeping the control surfaces, and they wouldn't create more drag for the amount of useful input they could provide. Visibility plays a factor, but you can always put the pilots farther forward.  I would say that the only reason is that it would be a radical design change, more expensive as a result, and offer no real benefit while being a little more complex. The current design is more simple to achieve because of previous work. However, you could sweep back the fuselage more and possibly gain some efficiency there through reduced drag, but you could cause turbulent flow over the fuselage and wings, leading to increased drag as well.   TL;DR It's possible to do it either way, but would be more work to design, test, and market with pitch and yaw controls in the front of the aircraft.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13917.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "clrzcd8", "c_root_id_B": "clrtp0w", "created_at_utc_A": 1415045996, "created_at_utc_B": 1415035548, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Tire Engineer here, this has to do with the way that slip angles are generated and how the lateral forces effect the vehicle's yaw.  Tires are a lot less like railroad tracks and a lot more like rudders than people realize. Tires are always slipping if they are cornering or driving / braking.   Slip angle is a function of wheel steering angle, but there is a phase lag between the drivers input and the actual force being generated by the tire.    So, when you steer the front axle, there is a delay, and then lateral force builds in the front of the vehicle.  This force induces a torque about the vehicle's center of mass which starts yaw rotation.  Yaw causes slip angle to build in the non-steering tires in the rear, and they begin to build lateral force.  This behavior is stable and comfortable to the driver because the vehicle will initially yaw in the direction of the turn (lateral force is is in the direction you are turning, so lateral force in front of the CG will turn the vehicle into the turn).  If the rear wheels steer first, the initial yaw is in the opposite direction of the turn, which causes the vehicle's inertia to be opposite of the turn, causing an understeer feeling even if there is none, as well as requiring more total yaw moment to turn the vehicle.  This is also typically why vehicles have a 'stiffer' front roll gradient than the rear, so lateral force will build more quickly in the front axle, and start to induce the correct direction yaw from the initial turn in.  E: clarity", "human_ref_B": "Planes can steer from the front, using special flaps called canards.) Since a plane's center of lift must be behind the center of mass, it is often more stable to steer (vertically) from the back. Note that the ailerons, which are really how an airplane steers, are on the wings, which are more or less centered.  Cars etc. steer from the front because when you steer with the front wheels, the vehicle turns about the point level with (or just behind) the driver. This makes intuitive sense and helps avoid hitting the curb and such when turning. Some specialized vehicles turn from the back to help align the front with loads or docks.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10448.0, "score_ratio": 1.0769230769, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "clru0mi", "c_root_id_B": "clrzcd8", "created_at_utc_A": 1415036159, "created_at_utc_B": 1415045996, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Aircraft generally turn using ailerons or other types of control surfaces on their wings. This can be pretty close to the CG. Once banked, elevator is used to perform a turn, and rudder only coordinates it to keep G forces aligned.  Your question is more about why we don't flip the wings, engines, and control surfaces around and fly the plane backward. Like the top answer says, stability is a factor, but you could have a stable aircraft with basically the same CG in relation to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC). Drag plays a factor, but that could be worked around by sweeping the control surfaces, and they wouldn't create more drag for the amount of useful input they could provide. Visibility plays a factor, but you can always put the pilots farther forward.  I would say that the only reason is that it would be a radical design change, more expensive as a result, and offer no real benefit while being a little more complex. The current design is more simple to achieve because of previous work. However, you could sweep back the fuselage more and possibly gain some efficiency there through reduced drag, but you could cause turbulent flow over the fuselage and wings, leading to increased drag as well.   TL;DR It's possible to do it either way, but would be more work to design, test, and market with pitch and yaw controls in the front of the aircraft.", "human_ref_B": "Tire Engineer here, this has to do with the way that slip angles are generated and how the lateral forces effect the vehicle's yaw.  Tires are a lot less like railroad tracks and a lot more like rudders than people realize. Tires are always slipping if they are cornering or driving / braking.   Slip angle is a function of wheel steering angle, but there is a phase lag between the drivers input and the actual force being generated by the tire.    So, when you steer the front axle, there is a delay, and then lateral force builds in the front of the vehicle.  This force induces a torque about the vehicle's center of mass which starts yaw rotation.  Yaw causes slip angle to build in the non-steering tires in the rear, and they begin to build lateral force.  This behavior is stable and comfortable to the driver because the vehicle will initially yaw in the direction of the turn (lateral force is is in the direction you are turning, so lateral force in front of the CG will turn the vehicle into the turn).  If the rear wheels steer first, the initial yaw is in the opposite direction of the turn, which causes the vehicle's inertia to be opposite of the turn, causing an understeer feeling even if there is none, as well as requiring more total yaw moment to turn the vehicle.  This is also typically why vehicles have a 'stiffer' front roll gradient than the rear, so lateral force will build more quickly in the front axle, and start to induce the correct direction yaw from the initial turn in.  E: clarity", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9837.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "cls7peb", "c_root_id_B": "clsckju", "created_at_utc_A": 1415062036, "created_at_utc_B": 1415071960, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "No need to get into the physics and honestly, the equations and concepts are a little difficult to get across anyways without having a board to draw on, but the answer is actually very very simple:  For aircraft, forward control surfaces are less stable than rear control surfaces because on a forward control surface lift increases as pitch increases, while on a rear control surface the opposite happens - the ailerons force reduces as pitch increases.  For cars/trucks/land craft forward control surfaces are more stable than rear control surfaces.   Despite the mathematical complexity of proving this it's actually not that hard to visualize either.  Just think, when you drive backwards and turn the wheel a little bit the car very quickly wants to turn too much due to an increase in loading on the control surfaces which will act to move those control surfaces farther from the neutral point, making the car want to skid sideways.  This effect can be reduced by putting those control surfaces farther back and putting more vehicle weight towards the front  Aircraft are the same - when a canard acts to increase pitch that action actually inherently increases lift on those canards, making them want to increase pitch more than was intended.  This effect can be neutralized in an aircraft by sizing the canards appropriately and placing them further forward on the fuselage.", "human_ref_B": "Airplanes aren't \"steered\" by the rudder. Their turns are controlled by adjusting the direction of lift created by the wings.  In straight-and-level flight, the lift created by the wings has one directional component which is straight up or vertical. But when you roll the aircraft via the ailerons, the lift component is split into two parts, vertical and horizontal. As the aircraft rolls more, the vertical lift component shrinks as it transitions into the increasing horizontal component. The horizontal component of lift is what pulls the plane around a turn.  As for steering cars, the reason we use the front wheels is because it is more stable than using the rears. If the rear wheels were used, cars would be prone to a pendulum effect where the rear end would swing back and forth uncontrollably, making people spin out all the time.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9924.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "clsayqj", "c_root_id_B": "clsckju", "created_at_utc_A": 1415068618, "created_at_utc_B": 1415071960, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Aircraft don't turn using the tail. A pilot turns in the air by rolling the aircraft left or right. As the aircraft rolls the lift acting on it gets a horizontal component. This is what turns the aircraft.  As for a car, if only the rear wheels turned, the car would be unstable at high speeds. There are some trucks that have four wheel steering though.", "human_ref_B": "Airplanes aren't \"steered\" by the rudder. Their turns are controlled by adjusting the direction of lift created by the wings.  In straight-and-level flight, the lift created by the wings has one directional component which is straight up or vertical. But when you roll the aircraft via the ailerons, the lift component is split into two parts, vertical and horizontal. As the aircraft rolls more, the vertical lift component shrinks as it transitions into the increasing horizontal component. The horizontal component of lift is what pulls the plane around a turn.  As for steering cars, the reason we use the front wheels is because it is more stable than using the rears. If the rear wheels were used, cars would be prone to a pendulum effect where the rear end would swing back and forth uncontrollably, making people spin out all the time.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3342.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l5pe1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why do we steer vehicles from the front, but aircraft (elevators/rudder) from the rear?", "c_root_id_A": "clsckju", "c_root_id_B": "cls9jt4", "created_at_utc_A": 1415071960, "created_at_utc_B": 1415065827, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Airplanes aren't \"steered\" by the rudder. Their turns are controlled by adjusting the direction of lift created by the wings.  In straight-and-level flight, the lift created by the wings has one directional component which is straight up or vertical. But when you roll the aircraft via the ailerons, the lift component is split into two parts, vertical and horizontal. As the aircraft rolls more, the vertical lift component shrinks as it transitions into the increasing horizontal component. The horizontal component of lift is what pulls the plane around a turn.  As for steering cars, the reason we use the front wheels is because it is more stable than using the rears. If the rear wheels were used, cars would be prone to a pendulum effect where the rear end would swing back and forth uncontrollably, making people spin out all the time.", "human_ref_B": "In the beginning of the automotive era there was one car that had rear wheel steering.  It had better maneuverability and control than contemporary designs.  Unfortunately the car got in an accident at the World's Fair and the design was abandoned.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dymaxion_car for more info!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6133.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "70x0b1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "Why Does Distilled Water Evaporating Slower Than Tap Water? Sorry if this has been asked before, I searched around didn't see anything but assumed this would've come up before.  Anyways, so my wife uses distilled water to clean baby bottles and stuff like that in one of those steamers. Well she pointed out to me the other day that, when she sets the bottle down on the drying rack, the little droplets of distilled water don't evaporate very quickly.   They'll sit there for a few days without evaporating she said.   I didn't really believe her so we did an experiment where we had identical bottles. Both cleaned with distilled water in the steamer but we rinsed one with tap water, then set them both in the same position next to each other on the drying rack.  By the evening, the tap-water-rinsed bottle was completely dry but the distilled only bottle was still covered with those droplets on the inside.  What's going on here?", "c_root_id_A": "dn6opqo", "c_root_id_B": "dn6rzoi", "created_at_utc_A": 1505768756, "created_at_utc_B": 1505772540, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "You need to rinse the other bottle with distilled as well. Are the temperatures the same to start? Are the positions equivalent on the drying rack? Does one spot get more airflow or sunlight? Are you starting with the exact same amount of water on each bottle? (Weigh the dry bottles and wet bottles to check).  If everything were equal one possible explanation could be differences in surface tension. If one of the waters wets the plastic better then it will have more surface area for a given volune and evaporate faster.  Otherwise everything /u/platypuskeeper said is correct.", "human_ref_B": "Some kind of surfactant in the tap water is my guess.  By breaking the surface tension and letting the water spread out instead of bead up, it increases the surface area for evaporation.  That's how products like Jet-Dry work.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3784.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0n80k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Why is Fosbury-flop the most efficient way to do high jump ? While doing some research about it I saw that it allows the jumper to keep his center of mass below the bar. But in pole vault they also keep their center of mass below the bar but with their body facing the bar.   If one approach is more efficient than the other to keep its center of mass below the bar, why does high jumper don't adopt the technique of pole vaulter (or vice versa) ?", "c_root_id_A": "h88qub9", "c_root_id_B": "h88ullv", "created_at_utc_A": 1628476955, "created_at_utc_B": 1628479052, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "(Former pole vaulter here.)  This is an interesting question, but the PV and HJ are so different that it's not useful to compare.  In the PV, as a practical matter, you **must** go over he bar feet first. You can go over face up for face down. In fact, a lot of beginners go over face up until they start vaulting high enough to have time to pivot face down, which enables you to bend over the bar and keep a much lower center of mass (as you point out). I suspect that having more time and space to position your body might be a key difference between the events.   Why does the Fosbury Flop make more sense in the high jump, a headfirst event? I dunno because I never did the high jump. Why not jump headfirst, face down, and curl over the bar like a pole vaulter? You'll have to ask a high jumper. But I do know that comparing this to a pole vault probably isn't a useful thing because the two events are so different.", "human_ref_B": "If you read the history of the high jump, jumpers used to run straight at the bar and go over it face-down, straddling the bar - one leg, torso, other leg (I high-jumped in high school...no not that way). Fosbury discovered he could get higher off the ground by facing up. A lot of it comes from the knee lift. Driving the near knee up projects a lot more momentum vertically.  The reason you cannot compare the two events is with PV you are levering yourself up feet-first, as the other poster said, while with HJ you are propelling yourself up hands-first. Reverse directions of force. A HJer adopting the PV technique would be driving themselves upward with their arms. Your leg muscles are much more powerful, obviously.  Now if a PVer was talented enough to switch hands with feet at full pole extension - now that would be something to see.  Hope that helps!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2097.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0n80k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Why is Fosbury-flop the most efficient way to do high jump ? While doing some research about it I saw that it allows the jumper to keep his center of mass below the bar. But in pole vault they also keep their center of mass below the bar but with their body facing the bar.   If one approach is more efficient than the other to keep its center of mass below the bar, why does high jumper don't adopt the technique of pole vaulter (or vice versa) ?", "c_root_id_A": "h89akzm", "c_root_id_B": "h890r9r", "created_at_utc_A": 1628489939, "created_at_utc_B": 1628482776, "score_A": 8, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I read this as OP asking about facing the bar (like in pole vault) or having your back towards the bar (like the flop). Looking at how well formulated the question is I'm surprised that everyone seems to think that they are asking about going feet or head first, which is pretty obvious for each discipline.", "human_ref_B": "Pole vault uses the arms to drive the body upward; high jump does not. Do they grab the top of the pole and let their feet dangle downward, or do they flip themselves upside down to get as high above the pole as possible?   If they had a step at the top of the pole to kick off from, they would go headfirst over the bar.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7163.0, "score_ratio": -8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0n80k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Why is Fosbury-flop the most efficient way to do high jump ? While doing some research about it I saw that it allows the jumper to keep his center of mass below the bar. But in pole vault they also keep their center of mass below the bar but with their body facing the bar.   If one approach is more efficient than the other to keep its center of mass below the bar, why does high jumper don't adopt the technique of pole vaulter (or vice versa) ?", "c_root_id_A": "h89bse7", "c_root_id_B": "h890r9r", "created_at_utc_A": 1628490924, "created_at_utc_B": 1628482776, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "It isn't, it is the most efficient least stressful way that complies with the high jump rules (one foot take off/no tumbling). The jump has to get the entire body mass over the bar, but that doesn't mean that with bending the body the centre of mass has to at any stage above the bar.", "human_ref_B": "Pole vault uses the arms to drive the body upward; high jump does not. Do they grab the top of the pole and let their feet dangle downward, or do they flip themselves upside down to get as high above the pole as possible?   If they had a step at the top of the pole to kick off from, they would go headfirst over the bar.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8148.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5crq5t", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "How can I obtain ethanol 100% if at 95.4% is considered an azeotrope? I am currently in my thermodynamics class and was introduce to the term of azeotropics mixtures, and learned that ethanol 95% is considered one, my question therefore is if we can by other procedures other than distillation we can obtain ethanol 100%. Sorry for the poor grammar.", "c_root_id_A": "d9z4rpx", "c_root_id_B": "d9yy65u", "created_at_utc_A": 1479082804, "created_at_utc_B": 1479073712, "score_A": 397, "score_B": 142, "human_ref_A": "Independent distiller here. I don't know how to do flags, but I have a B.S. in micro/chem. No one's yet mentioned molecular seives which can be purchased from ebay. They have a higher affinity for water than alcohol and a terrifically large surface area.   As a man who makes ethanol for a living, I can certainly tell you from experience what drinking 100% ethanol is like. The thing that you have to remember is that the azeotrope forms because of molecular affinity between water and ethanol. When pure ethanol encounters water it very quickly attempts to return to the azeotrope phase.  As you are essentially a big sack of water, this makes drinking pure ethanol a very bad experience. Imagine the ethanol moving throughout your whole mouth without you motivating it. It touches your tongue and then cascades all the way around your mouth and back to your throat almost immediately and has a higher affinity for water than your teeth or pores do. It's very good at seeking out every nook and cranny of this soggy wet epithelium. When it gets to your nerves, it's just insanely high proof ETOH.  I can do a shot of 95.6%. I'm a manboy and am tempted by danger. It's unpleasant. I couldn't physically swallow 100%. It was all I could do to get it out of my mouth as fast as humanely possible.", "human_ref_B": "You can salt out the water with magnesium sulfate, aka Epsom salt. The crystals will convert into the hydrate form and will remain insoluble in the ethanol, turning from crystals to clumps in the bottom of the flask. Using a hydrometer, determine the mols of water remaining in the solution and add equal mols of magnesium sulfate crystals. Run it through a coffee filter and you've got absolute alcohol. Water from the air inside the storage container gets in that mixture so leave a small cake of salts in the jar and filter upon it's time of use.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9092.0, "score_ratio": 2.7957746479, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzkyk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Assuming caloric restriction extends human life, does caloric surplus coupled with a high rate of calorie burn (via exercise) have the same affect? More specifically, I lift heavy weights (for me), perform interval-style cardiovascular exercise throughout the week and I consciously consume extra calories to build muscle. Assuming my source of calories are \"healthy\", am I extending my life?", "c_root_id_A": "c3thg6m", "c_root_id_B": "c3tj2ms", "created_at_utc_A": 1329847627, "created_at_utc_B": 1329855732, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The hypothesis is that igf-1 is what makes calorie surplus shorten life span, so no.  but we really don't know", "human_ref_B": "Probably not. The oxidative stress caused by converting all those calories into usable fuel would start to cause cumulative damage. One of the theories behind the restricted calorie diet is that less fuel processing leaves less oxidative byproducts (such as free radicals) to accumulate in the body.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8105.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pzkyk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Assuming caloric restriction extends human life, does caloric surplus coupled with a high rate of calorie burn (via exercise) have the same affect? More specifically, I lift heavy weights (for me), perform interval-style cardiovascular exercise throughout the week and I consciously consume extra calories to build muscle. Assuming my source of calories are \"healthy\", am I extending my life?", "c_root_id_A": "c3thg6m", "c_root_id_B": "c3tn8vq", "created_at_utc_A": 1329847627, "created_at_utc_B": 1329876923, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The hypothesis is that igf-1 is what makes calorie surplus shorten life span, so no.  but we really don't know", "human_ref_B": "You are extending your life by exercising and staying at a healthy weight, much more than the average person. However, since you're asking about caloric restriction, I'll focus on mechanisms similar to that.  The real answer is \"we don't know\". There are studies (such as this one) that show exercise seems to activate similar molecular pathways as caloric restriction, particularly some of the sirtuins. While these studies are mostly in mice/flies/worms, it's believed to be a well conserved pathway.   The problem lies with the fact that exercise has never been shown to increase maximum lifespan. It can certainly improve median lifespan, decrease morbidity and mortality, but the oldest living rats who exercise live to about the same age as the oldest living rats that don't, and it's the same with humans. Caloric restriction has been proven in mice and other organisms to extend maximum lifespan, and this is what the longetivity movement is really about. This article gives a pretty good idea of the differences between exercise and caloric restriction and their effect on health.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 29296.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4lcfna", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "What makes rubber bands \"dry out\" (become brittle)? Is there a way to make them last longer?", "c_root_id_A": "d3mhbki", "c_root_id_B": "d3mdsnh", "created_at_utc_A": 1464397528, "created_at_utc_B": 1464391181, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Ozone.   Natural rubber is attacked by the trace amounts of ozone in ground-level air, and this turns them brittle.  If the rubber band manufacturers included anti-ozonants in their rubber recipe, the bands would last a lot longer.  However, rubber bands are made to be cheap, and so no anti-ozonants are added.  Anti-ozonants **are** used where rubber lifetime is critical.  Tires always contain anti-ozonants.", "human_ref_B": "I believe that it is due to the plasticiser evaporating.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6347.0, "score_ratio": 21.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zg2je", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Is anyone at NASA still working daily on the Voyager probes? If so, what data are they receiving?", "c_root_id_A": "c649xh6", "c_root_id_B": "c64aukz", "created_at_utc_A": 1346938600, "created_at_utc_B": 1346942819, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 64, "human_ref_A": "I cannot find the article (thought it was referenced from slashdot in the last few days) but I believe it said there were currently around 20 people working part time to decipher the data that comes back.   EDIT: FOUND IT!", "human_ref_B": "They are still publishing weekly mission reports:  http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/weekly-reports/index.htm", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4219.0, "score_ratio": 2.9090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zg2je", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Is anyone at NASA still working daily on the Voyager probes? If so, what data are they receiving?", "c_root_id_A": "c64aukz", "c_root_id_B": "c64a1fp", "created_at_utc_A": 1346942819, "created_at_utc_B": 1346939152, "score_A": 64, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "They are still publishing weekly mission reports:  http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/weekly-reports/index.htm", "human_ref_B": "All Things Considered covered this topic yesterday. The elder voyager is approaching interstellar space now and they're learning all sorts of things about the makeup of space in that area.  http://www.npr.org/2012/09/05/160609488/after-35-years-voyager-nears-edge-of-solar-system", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3667.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zg2je", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Is anyone at NASA still working daily on the Voyager probes? If so, what data are they receiving?", "c_root_id_A": "c64aukz", "c_root_id_B": "c64afn6", "created_at_utc_A": 1346942819, "created_at_utc_B": 1346941025, "score_A": 64, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "They are still publishing weekly mission reports:  http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/weekly-reports/index.htm", "human_ref_B": "Yes, they are. If you're curious, they actually have a twitter feed, as well as a couple spoof ones.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1794.0, "score_ratio": 10.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7wcwbd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Do all organisms exhale carbon dioxide? If not then which organisms don't exhale CO2 and what do they exhale instead?", "c_root_id_A": "du0vknl", "c_root_id_B": "du0xyau", "created_at_utc_A": 1518241206, "created_at_utc_B": 1518245509, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Pretty much every complex cell on Earth has mitochondria which take in oxygen and sugar to produce energy (ATP), water, and CO2. So the primary gas waste product for them are gonna be mostly the same, but there are some species anaerobic bacteria that take in nitrogen and some that \"exhale\" methane out there.", "human_ref_B": "All animals do, at least. Organisms that are autotrophic, or producers, take in c02 and expel 02 as a waste product of photosynthesis. The major autotrophs are plants and cyanobacteria. This is what is meant when you hear the expression \"plants make oxygen.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4303.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "7wcwbd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Do all organisms exhale carbon dioxide? If not then which organisms don't exhale CO2 and what do they exhale instead?", "c_root_id_A": "du0vknl", "c_root_id_B": "du1elzd", "created_at_utc_A": 1518241206, "created_at_utc_B": 1518278900, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Pretty much every complex cell on Earth has mitochondria which take in oxygen and sugar to produce energy (ATP), water, and CO2. So the primary gas waste product for them are gonna be mostly the same, but there are some species anaerobic bacteria that take in nitrogen and some that \"exhale\" methane out there.", "human_ref_B": "Every organism big enough to see -- even plants -- uses the chemical process of \"respiration\" to break down sugars into CO2.  (Plants also take *in* CO2 to make sugars, but that's a separate process.)  However, some microscopic organisms use a wide variety of chemical processes to power their cells that don't produce CO2.  Probably the most familiar is yeast, which, when deprived of oxygen, converts sugars into ethanol.  So it \"exhales\" alcohol instead of CO2 (though it doesn't have lungs of course.)  Other kinds of single-celled organisms power themselves using chemical processes that produce nitrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide, sulfuric acid, or iron compounds rather than CO2.  Even human muscle cells are capable of some surprising things: when starved of oxygen during hard exercise, they stop converting sugar to CO2 and start a much more inefficient process of converting it to lactic acid.  However this lactic acid is processed by the liver once you stop to rest and never leaves the body.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial_metabolism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cori_cycle https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37694.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yufck3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Would person with AIDS need to take immunosupressants for transplated organs? My logic looks something like this. The danger of transplants is that our immune system will constantly try to kill transplanted organ. To prevent this, we take immunosupresant drugs that weaken our immune system to the point it cant effectively kill our organs. AIDS weakens our immune system. Thus we dont need additional weakening.", "c_root_id_A": "iw9vxqo", "c_root_id_B": "iw9vvcp", "created_at_utc_A": 1668389241, "created_at_utc_B": 1668389209, "score_A": 51, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "First HIV positive recipient in USA received a live donor liver transplant in 1999 at New York\u2019s Mount Sinai Hospital. She is alive and well today and living a full and fabulous life. Immunosuppressive meds are necessary but were adjusted significantly due to HIV positive diagnosis. At the time, only New York\u2019s Mount Sinai Hospital and a hospital in Richmond, Virginia were willing to take the case.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, HIV targets mostly Helper Tcells, you still have quite a bit of immune system left even after you have AIDS that could kill the transplant.  So you would need to take immunosuppressants.  That being said the question most of the other comments seem more interested in would be if someone with AIDS would be a candidate, and I think a lot of the answers people are coming up with are flawed.    If someone happened to be in liver/kidney failure and it was somehow discovered that they had also had undiagnosed HIV/AIDS or an AIDS defining infection, they would unlikely be a candidate for transplant until their concomitant infections were resolved and they were undetactable and showing some improvement with cd4 count, if they survive to that point they would potentially get listed and potentially get a transplant, especially from an HIV positive donor.   In the US at least, we are pretty good about screening and catching HIV infections so that people live with the virus for a long time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32.0, "score_ratio": 4.6363636364, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yufck3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Would person with AIDS need to take immunosupressants for transplated organs? My logic looks something like this. The danger of transplants is that our immune system will constantly try to kill transplanted organ. To prevent this, we take immunosupresant drugs that weaken our immune system to the point it cant effectively kill our organs. AIDS weakens our immune system. Thus we dont need additional weakening.", "c_root_id_A": "iw99xrl", "c_root_id_B": "iw9vxqo", "created_at_utc_A": 1668379361, "created_at_utc_B": 1668389241, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 51, "human_ref_A": "just so you know.. there are plenty of medical reasons that make you INeligibile.. sometimes it depends on the transplant.. (kidneys can be donated - heart lungs not so much). - living donors.   lifelong smoker with messed up lungs not eligible.   need a liver because you drank too much? doubt it.   full blown AIDS patient might be able to get a kidney from matched donor..   possibly not for anything else.. (shorter expected life)   HIV can be managed for decades   Organ Transplants for HIV/AIDS Patients  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/sexual-and-reproductive-health/hiv-aids/treatments/organ-transplants.html  Until recently, people who had HIV were not considered good candidates for organ transplantations. Many patients were denied transplants under the **assumption that they had shorter life expectancies and less favorable survival rates than other patients in need of transplants**. However, now that patients are living longer lives, many groups are re-considering whether HIV patients should be transplant candidates.     >Thus we dont need additional weakening.  it's not a yes/no.   Since HAART prolongs the lives of HIV patients, it is possible for chronic conditions to progress to organ failure. For instance, HIV patients may experience end-stage liver disease as a complication of chronic hepatitis C virus. Glomeruli diseases are also common among HIV patients, and they may lead to kidney failure. In advanced stages of liver or kidney damage, organ transplants may be the patient's only chance of survival.", "human_ref_B": "First HIV positive recipient in USA received a live donor liver transplant in 1999 at New York\u2019s Mount Sinai Hospital. She is alive and well today and living a full and fabulous life. Immunosuppressive meds are necessary but were adjusted significantly due to HIV positive diagnosis. At the time, only New York\u2019s Mount Sinai Hospital and a hospital in Richmond, Virginia were willing to take the case.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9880.0, "score_ratio": 7.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "yufck3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Would person with AIDS need to take immunosupressants for transplated organs? My logic looks something like this. The danger of transplants is that our immune system will constantly try to kill transplanted organ. To prevent this, we take immunosupresant drugs that weaken our immune system to the point it cant effectively kill our organs. AIDS weakens our immune system. Thus we dont need additional weakening.", "c_root_id_A": "iw9vvcp", "c_root_id_B": "iw99xrl", "created_at_utc_A": 1668389209, "created_at_utc_B": 1668379361, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Yes, HIV targets mostly Helper Tcells, you still have quite a bit of immune system left even after you have AIDS that could kill the transplant.  So you would need to take immunosuppressants.  That being said the question most of the other comments seem more interested in would be if someone with AIDS would be a candidate, and I think a lot of the answers people are coming up with are flawed.    If someone happened to be in liver/kidney failure and it was somehow discovered that they had also had undiagnosed HIV/AIDS or an AIDS defining infection, they would unlikely be a candidate for transplant until their concomitant infections were resolved and they were undetactable and showing some improvement with cd4 count, if they survive to that point they would potentially get listed and potentially get a transplant, especially from an HIV positive donor.   In the US at least, we are pretty good about screening and catching HIV infections so that people live with the virus for a long time.", "human_ref_B": "just so you know.. there are plenty of medical reasons that make you INeligibile.. sometimes it depends on the transplant.. (kidneys can be donated - heart lungs not so much). - living donors.   lifelong smoker with messed up lungs not eligible.   need a liver because you drank too much? doubt it.   full blown AIDS patient might be able to get a kidney from matched donor..   possibly not for anything else.. (shorter expected life)   HIV can be managed for decades   Organ Transplants for HIV/AIDS Patients  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/sexual-and-reproductive-health/hiv-aids/treatments/organ-transplants.html  Until recently, people who had HIV were not considered good candidates for organ transplantations. Many patients were denied transplants under the **assumption that they had shorter life expectancies and less favorable survival rates than other patients in need of transplants**. However, now that patients are living longer lives, many groups are re-considering whether HIV patients should be transplant candidates.     >Thus we dont need additional weakening.  it's not a yes/no.   Since HAART prolongs the lives of HIV patients, it is possible for chronic conditions to progress to organ failure. For instance, HIV patients may experience end-stage liver disease as a complication of chronic hepatitis C virus. Glomeruli diseases are also common among HIV patients, and they may lead to kidney failure. In advanced stages of liver or kidney damage, organ transplants may be the patient's only chance of survival.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9848.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2hfmlw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Can sound travel in space if the noise is made in a gas cloud? I'm not really sure how to word it properly, but sound does not travel through space because there are no particles or at least very minimal atoms for sound to bounce off of and travel correct? So if a noise was made in a cluster of gas or nebula, would the sound travel?", "c_root_id_A": "cksfd6n", "c_root_id_B": "cksl011", "created_at_utc_A": 1411673349, "created_at_utc_B": 1411684580, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "If there was enough gas for the medium to be considered continuous, sound would travel fine.  Go to a gas giant like Jupiter (pretty much just a giant mass of hydrogen/helium and other non solid material traveling through our solar system) and sound would travel just fine.  I think you were asking about something far less dense though.  Since you brought up nebula I want to point out that Although denser than the space surrounding them, most nebulae are far less dense than any vacuum created in an Earthern environment - a nebular cloud the size of the Earth would weigh only a few kilograms.  So no, there just wouldn't be enough gas for a continuous medium for a sound wave to go through.", "human_ref_B": "Sort of.  To act like a gas, a cloud of atoms has to be *collisional*.  That is to say, the atoms must collide with each other, on average, more frequently than the period of the sound waves you're considering.  The time between collisions can grow surprisingly long surprisingly quickly.  In the low solar corona, for example, there are about 10^9 to 10^10 particles in any given cubic centimeter, and they're all moving really fast since the kinetic temperature is about 1 million Kelvin.  The collision time is a few seconds, so sound (like you and use to talk) doesn't propagate.  But long-period sound waves (say, 1 milliHz) propagate just fine.    In interplanetary space, the density is more like 10^0 to 10^1 particles in each cc, and they basically never collide, so sound can't propagate at all. But soundlike waves can!  The individual particles in the solar wind couple with the electromagnetic field, since most of them are ionized (the material is a *plasma*).  The magnetic field, in particular, mediates momentum exchange in much the same way that collisions do in gases. So magnetohydrodynamic waves, which include a variable-pressure element and thus are sort of like sound waves, propagate just fine: even though the individual atoms never hit one another, they \"feel\" each others' presence because of the electromagnetic field, so they can act collectively.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11231.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bmkibx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How do heat shield tiles work? Why are they black instead of white or shiny? I would expect a heat shield tile (such as those found on the bottom of the space shuttle, or around the engines of the Dragon spacecraft) to look more reflective if their job is to repel heat. How do they work?", "c_root_id_A": "emxoo98", "c_root_id_B": "emxkllq", "created_at_utc_A": 1557421526, "created_at_utc_B": 1557419275, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Something I would like to touch on that other commenters haven\u2019t of yet. While yes, conduction is the primary heat transfer mode in this situation, most people are forgetting the role that radiation plays; it is not negligible. In fact, as the skin temperature during re-entry can exceed 1600-1800 K, radiation will play a significant role, even if you consider a simple classical Stephan-Boltzmann relationship (recall that this scales to T^4).    The relation, for those who may not remember:  Q (heat flux) = emissivity * area * Stephan-Boltzmann constant * (T^4 - T(ambient/sink)^4)   A simple BOTE calculation will show that the radiation contribution when the skin temperature is 1800 K yields a very large heat flux, especially if your sink is space. Thus, maximizing the emissivity of the surface is important. This is why a black surface is chosen. Recall that the blacker a surface is, the more it absorbs, and the less it reflects.   To get more complicated, you could look at the Planck Blackbody distribution and show (or use Wien\u2019s displacement for simplicity) and that the maximal thermal emission is near 1.6 -  2 microns. this is near the optical spectrum (400-700 nm) and thus any structure that is highly emissive from 1.6-2 microns is also likely emissive optically. Perhaps more likely the structure is simply emissive through the entire spectrum. This has down sides when the skin temperature isn\u2019t huge, especially if you are in sunlight, but this is a separate topic,  TLDR: radiation plays a huge role in heat transfer. Maximizing the emissivity of the surface (I.e, making it more black) is crucial to heat transfer. A white surface or \u201cshiny\u201d reflective surface would be extremely counter productive", "human_ref_B": "Heat is transferred to materials via three methods: 1) Conduction 2) Convection 3) Radiation.   Absorbing light is part of radiation (why you get sunburns). Conduction occurs when two solid objects are directly touching one another (think stove top and pan). Conduction also occurs inside a solid object (why you have a cold and hot side of your pillow). Convection is the transfer of heat in regards to a gas or liquid (including touching a solid object, air conditioning or boiling water).   The primary source (by orders of magnitude) that the shuttle tiles heat from is conduction. As others have stated in comments, the air is compressed which drastically increases the temperature of the air (Ideal Gas Law: reduction in volume means increase in heat and pressure). The tiles are designed to have a very low heat transfer ability for conduction. If you put a torch onto one side of the tile, the other side would still be cool enough to touch (Youtube - Demonstration). The tiles are there to insulate the shuttle from the heat of the air, not from the heat of the sun.     TL:DR Think of the tiles as insulation not reflective panels. Protecting against hot air, not light.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2251.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bmkibx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How do heat shield tiles work? Why are they black instead of white or shiny? I would expect a heat shield tile (such as those found on the bottom of the space shuttle, or around the engines of the Dragon spacecraft) to look more reflective if their job is to repel heat. How do they work?", "c_root_id_A": "emxoo98", "c_root_id_B": "emxkzwl", "created_at_utc_A": 1557421526, "created_at_utc_B": 1557419495, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Something I would like to touch on that other commenters haven\u2019t of yet. While yes, conduction is the primary heat transfer mode in this situation, most people are forgetting the role that radiation plays; it is not negligible. In fact, as the skin temperature during re-entry can exceed 1600-1800 K, radiation will play a significant role, even if you consider a simple classical Stephan-Boltzmann relationship (recall that this scales to T^4).    The relation, for those who may not remember:  Q (heat flux) = emissivity * area * Stephan-Boltzmann constant * (T^4 - T(ambient/sink)^4)   A simple BOTE calculation will show that the radiation contribution when the skin temperature is 1800 K yields a very large heat flux, especially if your sink is space. Thus, maximizing the emissivity of the surface is important. This is why a black surface is chosen. Recall that the blacker a surface is, the more it absorbs, and the less it reflects.   To get more complicated, you could look at the Planck Blackbody distribution and show (or use Wien\u2019s displacement for simplicity) and that the maximal thermal emission is near 1.6 -  2 microns. this is near the optical spectrum (400-700 nm) and thus any structure that is highly emissive from 1.6-2 microns is also likely emissive optically. Perhaps more likely the structure is simply emissive through the entire spectrum. This has down sides when the skin temperature isn\u2019t huge, especially if you are in sunlight, but this is a separate topic,  TLDR: radiation plays a huge role in heat transfer. Maximizing the emissivity of the surface (I.e, making it more black) is crucial to heat transfer. A white surface or \u201cshiny\u201d reflective surface would be extremely counter productive", "human_ref_B": "The space shuttle did not make use of ablative shielding. It did use tile made of silica that was 94% air and a really poor conductor of heat. The black tiles help reflect heat and are made of glass and they are attached to the silica tiles. The white tiles don't need to absorb as much heat and are given a different lighter weight coating.There are you tube videos of people heating them up to over 2000 degrees and being able to pick them up after a short period of time.  The shuttle also made wide turns during entry to bleed of energy. Prior to the shuttle entry was more of an straight line to the landing area.  Ablative shielding makes sense on a small one use capsule but on a large vehicle like the shuttle it would raise the cost and danger significantly. Ablative shielding is made by hand with what amounts to filling little holes with caulking guns. Any flaw such as an air pocket meant scraping the hole clean and redoing it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2031.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bmkibx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How do heat shield tiles work? Why are they black instead of white or shiny? I would expect a heat shield tile (such as those found on the bottom of the space shuttle, or around the engines of the Dragon spacecraft) to look more reflective if their job is to repel heat. How do they work?", "c_root_id_A": "emziwui", "c_root_id_B": "emzcslw", "created_at_utc_A": 1557459650, "created_at_utc_B": 1557455427, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Black things both absorb EM energy **AND** emit it better than not black things.   The heat these tiles are facing is not from EM energy, they are being heated by compressing the air in front of them and some friction. Their color isn't going to have much impact on how much heat energy is going into them. However, they will see improved heat emission via infrared by being black instead of white.  Unfortunately, the improved heat emission is pretty negligible and the real reason they were black on the space shuttle was so they didn't look scorched and dirty.", "human_ref_B": "The primary function of a heat shield tile is to provide an insulative barrier between high temperature airflow and load bearing structure. As a supersonic/hypersonic vehicle flies, it changes the state of the air it flies through. The air increases in temperature as the pressure wave of the vehicle collides with the freestream. The temperature of the air increases sometimes to the point of disassociation and ionization. As the air comes into contact with the vehicle, it imparts energy into the vehicle surface. The heat shield tiles absorb the heat from forced convection. More importantly, they slow the heat waves down, preventing the energy from quickly reaching the structure.   Every surface emits radiative energy. The amount of energy that a surface emits depends on the surface temperature and emissivity. Black heat shield tiles take advantage of this concept by maximizing their emissivity, taking on a black color. This allows them to re-radiate a lot of energy that would otherwise be soaked into the tile.   Note: I design the thermal protection system for a high speed rocket plane.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4223.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3jbn", "c_root_id_B": "c6r4o3v", "created_at_utc_A": 1351095651, "created_at_utc_B": 1351099636, "score_A": 49, "score_B": 89, "human_ref_A": "Because this happens: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutraloaf", "human_ref_B": "We have, according to some sources. A delicious pizza, containing 30% of an adult's recommended daily amount (RDA) of vitamins and minerals.  According to this article \"The pizza has been developed by University of Glasgow scientist Mike Lean and entrepreneur Donnie Maclean and contains the proper proportions of calories, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, salts, sugar, fibre, vitamins and minerals that humans require for a balanced meal. To create the healthy pizza, the scientists have added locally grown seaweed to the dough to cut down the sodium levels and provide vitamin B12 and iodine. They also fortified the pizza with magnesium, potassium, folates and vitamin A, and added mixed red peppers to the sauce for extra vitamin C.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3985.0, "score_ratio": 1.8163265306, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3iza", "c_root_id_B": "c6r4o3v", "created_at_utc_A": 1351095617, "created_at_utc_B": 1351099636, "score_A": 42, "score_B": 89, "human_ref_A": "There is still quite a disagreement about what a person *needs* to eat for a healthy lifestyle.  Some would argue no carb or low carb, some would argue low fat, some would want no sugar but also no sugar substitute, etc., etc. This doesn't even count people that actually have special dietary needs.", "human_ref_B": "We have, according to some sources. A delicious pizza, containing 30% of an adult's recommended daily amount (RDA) of vitamins and minerals.  According to this article \"The pizza has been developed by University of Glasgow scientist Mike Lean and entrepreneur Donnie Maclean and contains the proper proportions of calories, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, salts, sugar, fibre, vitamins and minerals that humans require for a balanced meal. To create the healthy pizza, the scientists have added locally grown seaweed to the dough to cut down the sodium levels and provide vitamin B12 and iodine. They also fortified the pizza with magnesium, potassium, folates and vitamin A, and added mixed red peppers to the sauce for extra vitamin C.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4019.0, "score_ratio": 2.119047619, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r4o3v", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3eyb", "created_at_utc_A": 1351099636, "created_at_utc_B": 1351095222, "score_A": 89, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "We have, according to some sources. A delicious pizza, containing 30% of an adult's recommended daily amount (RDA) of vitamins and minerals.  According to this article \"The pizza has been developed by University of Glasgow scientist Mike Lean and entrepreneur Donnie Maclean and contains the proper proportions of calories, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, salts, sugar, fibre, vitamins and minerals that humans require for a balanced meal. To create the healthy pizza, the scientists have added locally grown seaweed to the dough to cut down the sodium levels and provide vitamin B12 and iodine. They also fortified the pizza with magnesium, potassium, folates and vitamin A, and added mixed red peppers to the sauce for extra vitamin C.\"", "human_ref_B": "I don't see why this isn't possible. Who says its not? What source do you have?  Are you asking why this isn't financially feasible? Who knows, but I imagine that eating a \"nutribar\" is a pretty off-putting proposal for most. People like to eat and cook different and tasty things.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4414.0, "score_ratio": 3.56, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r4o3v", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3qzl", "created_at_utc_A": 1351099636, "created_at_utc_B": 1351096403, "score_A": 89, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "We have, according to some sources. A delicious pizza, containing 30% of an adult's recommended daily amount (RDA) of vitamins and minerals.  According to this article \"The pizza has been developed by University of Glasgow scientist Mike Lean and entrepreneur Donnie Maclean and contains the proper proportions of calories, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, salts, sugar, fibre, vitamins and minerals that humans require for a balanced meal. To create the healthy pizza, the scientists have added locally grown seaweed to the dough to cut down the sodium levels and provide vitamin B12 and iodine. They also fortified the pizza with magnesium, potassium, folates and vitamin A, and added mixed red peppers to the sauce for extra vitamin C.\"", "human_ref_B": "You could, but you'd also have to account for different behavioral aspects of the diet.  If your body goes into a different life-history stage, this would change the ratios and necessities, quantities and composition of that food.  It would need to be tailored to a particular person.  For example, the food a baby need while fostering an early immune system may differ from that of a twenty-five year old man, or a woman who is pregnant.    You could develop a food with portions that you'd have to eat in greater or lesser quantities perhaps, but even this may be different.    It would also need to change based on environment to suit water needs, fat needs, etc.  For example, the diet in Antarctica versus the Neo-tropics.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3233.0, "score_ratio": 9.8888888889, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r4drl", "c_root_id_B": "c6r4o3v", "created_at_utc_A": 1351098622, "created_at_utc_B": 1351099636, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 89, "human_ref_A": "Mashed potatoes with a sufficient dairy component (milk, cream, butter or cheese) can sustain you forever. They include a roughly correct proportion of carbohydrate to protein and fat and include all micronutrients required and all essential amino acids. There's a question of whether they're sufficient for pregnant and breastfeeding women but for everyone else they'll suffice forever.", "human_ref_B": "We have, according to some sources. A delicious pizza, containing 30% of an adult's recommended daily amount (RDA) of vitamins and minerals.  According to this article \"The pizza has been developed by University of Glasgow scientist Mike Lean and entrepreneur Donnie Maclean and contains the proper proportions of calories, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, salts, sugar, fibre, vitamins and minerals that humans require for a balanced meal. To create the healthy pizza, the scientists have added locally grown seaweed to the dough to cut down the sodium levels and provide vitamin B12 and iodine. They also fortified the pizza with magnesium, potassium, folates and vitamin A, and added mixed red peppers to the sauce for extra vitamin C.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1014.0, "score_ratio": 9.8888888889, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r4o3v", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3q9r", "created_at_utc_A": 1351099636, "created_at_utc_B": 1351096329, "score_A": 89, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "We have, according to some sources. A delicious pizza, containing 30% of an adult's recommended daily amount (RDA) of vitamins and minerals.  According to this article \"The pizza has been developed by University of Glasgow scientist Mike Lean and entrepreneur Donnie Maclean and contains the proper proportions of calories, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, salts, sugar, fibre, vitamins and minerals that humans require for a balanced meal. To create the healthy pizza, the scientists have added locally grown seaweed to the dough to cut down the sodium levels and provide vitamin B12 and iodine. They also fortified the pizza with magnesium, potassium, folates and vitamin A, and added mixed red peppers to the sauce for extra vitamin C.\"", "human_ref_B": "Wouldn't different people have different dietary needs. Some people have diabetes and some people have different metabolisms. Some people are allergic to soy, some are allergic to entire classes of vegetables (like someone who has a carrot/parsnip allergy).  Children, pregnant women, seniors will all need different nutrition than a 20 something male. There really isn't a one size fits all when it comes to diet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3307.0, "score_ratio": 44.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3iza", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3jbn", "created_at_utc_A": 1351095617, "created_at_utc_B": 1351095651, "score_A": 42, "score_B": 49, "human_ref_A": "There is still quite a disagreement about what a person *needs* to eat for a healthy lifestyle.  Some would argue no carb or low carb, some would argue low fat, some would want no sugar but also no sugar substitute, etc., etc. This doesn't even count people that actually have special dietary needs.", "human_ref_B": "Because this happens: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutraloaf", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3eyb", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3jbn", "created_at_utc_A": 1351095222, "created_at_utc_B": 1351095651, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 49, "human_ref_A": "I don't see why this isn't possible. Who says its not? What source do you have?  Are you asking why this isn't financially feasible? Who knows, but I imagine that eating a \"nutribar\" is a pretty off-putting proposal for most. People like to eat and cook different and tasty things.", "human_ref_B": "Because this happens: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutraloaf", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 429.0, "score_ratio": 1.96, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3eyb", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3iza", "created_at_utc_A": 1351095222, "created_at_utc_B": 1351095617, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 42, "human_ref_A": "I don't see why this isn't possible. Who says its not? What source do you have?  Are you asking why this isn't financially feasible? Who knows, but I imagine that eating a \"nutribar\" is a pretty off-putting proposal for most. People like to eat and cook different and tasty things.", "human_ref_B": "There is still quite a disagreement about what a person *needs* to eat for a healthy lifestyle.  Some would argue no carb or low carb, some would argue low fat, some would want no sugar but also no sugar substitute, etc., etc. This doesn't even count people that actually have special dietary needs.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 395.0, "score_ratio": 1.68, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r4qwl", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3qzl", "created_at_utc_A": 1351099911, "created_at_utc_B": 1351096403, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Others have already mentioned Nutraloaf.  Another interesting example is Plumpy'nut, which designed for malnourished children, not healthy adults.  Here's a New York Times article about it.  Plumpynut is an example of a therapeutic food which (excerpting from Wikipedia):   > \"...are usually made of a mixture of protein, carbohydrate, lipid and vitamins and minerals. Therapeutic foods are usually produced by grinding all ingredients together and mixing the ingredients together. ... Using this method, the therapeutic food is produced and packaged without using water, which eliminates the issue of spoilage of the food. Some therapeutic foods require the addition of water before administering, while others can be consumed as is. Therapeutic foods are designed and manufactured to ensure that the foods are ready to eat straight from the packaging. Those foods resist bacterial contamination and require no cooking.\"  It's certainly possible to make foods like this designed for healthy adults.  But would you want to eat it?  A more palatable alternative might be a combination of multiple engineered foods, to avoid the taste issues that tend to arise when everything is contained in a single mixture.  But at that point you start overlapping regular foods: consider the peanut butter and jelly sandwich, which combines bread, a nut paste, and a thickened fruit juice-based spread.  It's pretty nutritious, but would you really prefer to combine all of this into a paste, and eat that instead?", "human_ref_B": "You could, but you'd also have to account for different behavioral aspects of the diet.  If your body goes into a different life-history stage, this would change the ratios and necessities, quantities and composition of that food.  It would need to be tailored to a particular person.  For example, the food a baby need while fostering an early immune system may differ from that of a twenty-five year old man, or a woman who is pregnant.    You could develop a food with portions that you'd have to eat in greater or lesser quantities perhaps, but even this may be different.    It would also need to change based on environment to suit water needs, fat needs, etc.  For example, the diet in Antarctica versus the Neo-tropics.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3508.0, "score_ratio": 2.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r4qwl", "c_root_id_B": "c6r4drl", "created_at_utc_A": 1351099911, "created_at_utc_B": 1351098622, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Others have already mentioned Nutraloaf.  Another interesting example is Plumpy'nut, which designed for malnourished children, not healthy adults.  Here's a New York Times article about it.  Plumpynut is an example of a therapeutic food which (excerpting from Wikipedia):   > \"...are usually made of a mixture of protein, carbohydrate, lipid and vitamins and minerals. Therapeutic foods are usually produced by grinding all ingredients together and mixing the ingredients together. ... Using this method, the therapeutic food is produced and packaged without using water, which eliminates the issue of spoilage of the food. Some therapeutic foods require the addition of water before administering, while others can be consumed as is. Therapeutic foods are designed and manufactured to ensure that the foods are ready to eat straight from the packaging. Those foods resist bacterial contamination and require no cooking.\"  It's certainly possible to make foods like this designed for healthy adults.  But would you want to eat it?  A more palatable alternative might be a combination of multiple engineered foods, to avoid the taste issues that tend to arise when everything is contained in a single mixture.  But at that point you start overlapping regular foods: consider the peanut butter and jelly sandwich, which combines bread, a nut paste, and a thickened fruit juice-based spread.  It's pretty nutritious, but would you really prefer to combine all of this into a paste, and eat that instead?", "human_ref_B": "Mashed potatoes with a sufficient dairy component (milk, cream, butter or cheese) can sustain you forever. They include a roughly correct proportion of carbohydrate to protein and fat and include all micronutrients required and all essential amino acids. There's a question of whether they're sufficient for pregnant and breastfeeding women but for everyone else they'll suffice forever.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1289.0, "score_ratio": 2.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r4qwl", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3q9r", "created_at_utc_A": 1351099911, "created_at_utc_B": 1351096329, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Others have already mentioned Nutraloaf.  Another interesting example is Plumpy'nut, which designed for malnourished children, not healthy adults.  Here's a New York Times article about it.  Plumpynut is an example of a therapeutic food which (excerpting from Wikipedia):   > \"...are usually made of a mixture of protein, carbohydrate, lipid and vitamins and minerals. Therapeutic foods are usually produced by grinding all ingredients together and mixing the ingredients together. ... Using this method, the therapeutic food is produced and packaged without using water, which eliminates the issue of spoilage of the food. Some therapeutic foods require the addition of water before administering, while others can be consumed as is. Therapeutic foods are designed and manufactured to ensure that the foods are ready to eat straight from the packaging. Those foods resist bacterial contamination and require no cooking.\"  It's certainly possible to make foods like this designed for healthy adults.  But would you want to eat it?  A more palatable alternative might be a combination of multiple engineered foods, to avoid the taste issues that tend to arise when everything is contained in a single mixture.  But at that point you start overlapping regular foods: consider the peanut butter and jelly sandwich, which combines bread, a nut paste, and a thickened fruit juice-based spread.  It's pretty nutritious, but would you really prefer to combine all of this into a paste, and eat that instead?", "human_ref_B": "Wouldn't different people have different dietary needs. Some people have diabetes and some people have different metabolisms. Some people are allergic to soy, some are allergic to entire classes of vegetables (like someone who has a carrot/parsnip allergy).  Children, pregnant women, seniors will all need different nutrition than a 20 something male. There really isn't a one size fits all when it comes to diet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3582.0, "score_ratio": 11.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3q9r", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3qzl", "created_at_utc_A": 1351096329, "created_at_utc_B": 1351096403, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Wouldn't different people have different dietary needs. Some people have diabetes and some people have different metabolisms. Some people are allergic to soy, some are allergic to entire classes of vegetables (like someone who has a carrot/parsnip allergy).  Children, pregnant women, seniors will all need different nutrition than a 20 something male. There really isn't a one size fits all when it comes to diet.", "human_ref_B": "You could, but you'd also have to account for different behavioral aspects of the diet.  If your body goes into a different life-history stage, this would change the ratios and necessities, quantities and composition of that food.  It would need to be tailored to a particular person.  For example, the food a baby need while fostering an early immune system may differ from that of a twenty-five year old man, or a woman who is pregnant.    You could develop a food with portions that you'd have to eat in greater or lesser quantities perhaps, but even this may be different.    It would also need to change based on environment to suit water needs, fat needs, etc.  For example, the diet in Antarctica versus the Neo-tropics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 74.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r4drl", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3q9r", "created_at_utc_A": 1351098622, "created_at_utc_B": 1351096329, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Mashed potatoes with a sufficient dairy component (milk, cream, butter or cheese) can sustain you forever. They include a roughly correct proportion of carbohydrate to protein and fat and include all micronutrients required and all essential amino acids. There's a question of whether they're sufficient for pregnant and breastfeeding women but for everyone else they'll suffice forever.", "human_ref_B": "Wouldn't different people have different dietary needs. Some people have diabetes and some people have different metabolisms. Some people are allergic to soy, some are allergic to entire classes of vegetables (like someone who has a carrot/parsnip allergy).  Children, pregnant women, seniors will all need different nutrition than a 20 something male. There really isn't a one size fits all when it comes to diet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2293.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r66dd", "c_root_id_B": "c6r7sbm", "created_at_utc_A": 1351104945, "created_at_utc_B": 1351110276, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Baked potato with cheese.   Apparently potato contains plenty of carbs and protein, most vitamins  just  shy of vitamin A and D. The milk, butter or cheese gets those two vitamins we missed.  Davidson, Stanley; Passmore, Reginald (1986) [1960]. Human Nutrition and Dietetics (8th revised ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 193\u20135. ISBN 978-0-443-02467-2.", "human_ref_B": "A) I've read that traditional pemmican works (ground jerky mixed with tallow, from grass-fed ruminants)  B) It's not entirely clear that we have isolated all essential nutrients. Perhaps some of the ailments that are currently un-explained, are dietary deficiencies that will highlight the importance of previously-overlooked nutrients.  C) People's needs for various sorts of nutrients fluctuate with time and circumstances. It makes sense to allow people some variety of foods, so that cravings can meet needs.   The following is a digression, but you might find it interesting:  For food cravings to work properly, as I understand them, nutrients should be grouped together into foods that are roughly what our instincts formed around: sweet foods should contain water-soluble vitamins and soluble fiber, in my opinion; greasy foods should contain fat-soluble vitamins; and salty foods should contain not just sodium, but also potassium, calcium, and magnesium, as living things with high mineral content tend to have. I think the market for processed food benefits from the easiest-to-get foods remaining deficient in a few craving-inducing nutrients, while offering other nutrients that our bodies use to assess overall nutrient content. Bonus points if the super-abundant nutrient competes with the deficient one.  For example, typical processed foods don't have omega-3 fatty acids in any great quantity. Originally, this was to prevent them from going rancid (hardtack can't be made with whole wheat for this reason). They sometimes have a lot of fat, and what fat they contain often includes a lot of omega-6 fatty acids. If a person's stores of an essential fatty acid decline, I'd expect them to crave fatty foods. If they address an omega-3 craving with packaged food, their omega-6 levels will usually increase, exacerbating any pre-existing omega-3 shortage and exacerbating the cravings.  A similar story goes for sports drinks and cravings for calcium or magnesium.  It's such an elegant system!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5331.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3q9r", "c_root_id_B": "c6r7sbm", "created_at_utc_A": 1351096329, "created_at_utc_B": 1351110276, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Wouldn't different people have different dietary needs. Some people have diabetes and some people have different metabolisms. Some people are allergic to soy, some are allergic to entire classes of vegetables (like someone who has a carrot/parsnip allergy).  Children, pregnant women, seniors will all need different nutrition than a 20 something male. There really isn't a one size fits all when it comes to diet.", "human_ref_B": "A) I've read that traditional pemmican works (ground jerky mixed with tallow, from grass-fed ruminants)  B) It's not entirely clear that we have isolated all essential nutrients. Perhaps some of the ailments that are currently un-explained, are dietary deficiencies that will highlight the importance of previously-overlooked nutrients.  C) People's needs for various sorts of nutrients fluctuate with time and circumstances. It makes sense to allow people some variety of foods, so that cravings can meet needs.   The following is a digression, but you might find it interesting:  For food cravings to work properly, as I understand them, nutrients should be grouped together into foods that are roughly what our instincts formed around: sweet foods should contain water-soluble vitamins and soluble fiber, in my opinion; greasy foods should contain fat-soluble vitamins; and salty foods should contain not just sodium, but also potassium, calcium, and magnesium, as living things with high mineral content tend to have. I think the market for processed food benefits from the easiest-to-get foods remaining deficient in a few craving-inducing nutrients, while offering other nutrients that our bodies use to assess overall nutrient content. Bonus points if the super-abundant nutrient competes with the deficient one.  For example, typical processed foods don't have omega-3 fatty acids in any great quantity. Originally, this was to prevent them from going rancid (hardtack can't be made with whole wheat for this reason). They sometimes have a lot of fat, and what fat they contain often includes a lot of omega-6 fatty acids. If a person's stores of an essential fatty acid decline, I'd expect them to crave fatty foods. If they address an omega-3 craving with packaged food, their omega-6 levels will usually increase, exacerbating any pre-existing omega-3 shortage and exacerbating the cravings.  A similar story goes for sports drinks and cravings for calcium or magnesium.  It's such an elegant system!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13947.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r6r05", "c_root_id_B": "c6r7sbm", "created_at_utc_A": 1351106900, "created_at_utc_B": 1351110276, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There is issue of absorption too.  If you have chelating agents like phytic acid present, then that will prevent absorption of certain minerals.", "human_ref_B": "A) I've read that traditional pemmican works (ground jerky mixed with tallow, from grass-fed ruminants)  B) It's not entirely clear that we have isolated all essential nutrients. Perhaps some of the ailments that are currently un-explained, are dietary deficiencies that will highlight the importance of previously-overlooked nutrients.  C) People's needs for various sorts of nutrients fluctuate with time and circumstances. It makes sense to allow people some variety of foods, so that cravings can meet needs.   The following is a digression, but you might find it interesting:  For food cravings to work properly, as I understand them, nutrients should be grouped together into foods that are roughly what our instincts formed around: sweet foods should contain water-soluble vitamins and soluble fiber, in my opinion; greasy foods should contain fat-soluble vitamins; and salty foods should contain not just sodium, but also potassium, calcium, and magnesium, as living things with high mineral content tend to have. I think the market for processed food benefits from the easiest-to-get foods remaining deficient in a few craving-inducing nutrients, while offering other nutrients that our bodies use to assess overall nutrient content. Bonus points if the super-abundant nutrient competes with the deficient one.  For example, typical processed foods don't have omega-3 fatty acids in any great quantity. Originally, this was to prevent them from going rancid (hardtack can't be made with whole wheat for this reason). They sometimes have a lot of fat, and what fat they contain often includes a lot of omega-6 fatty acids. If a person's stores of an essential fatty acid decline, I'd expect them to crave fatty foods. If they address an omega-3 craving with packaged food, their omega-6 levels will usually increase, exacerbating any pre-existing omega-3 shortage and exacerbating the cravings.  A similar story goes for sports drinks and cravings for calcium or magnesium.  It's such an elegant system!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3376.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3q9r", "c_root_id_B": "c6r66dd", "created_at_utc_A": 1351096329, "created_at_utc_B": 1351104945, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Wouldn't different people have different dietary needs. Some people have diabetes and some people have different metabolisms. Some people are allergic to soy, some are allergic to entire classes of vegetables (like someone who has a carrot/parsnip allergy).  Children, pregnant women, seniors will all need different nutrition than a 20 something male. There really isn't a one size fits all when it comes to diet.", "human_ref_B": "Baked potato with cheese.   Apparently potato contains plenty of carbs and protein, most vitamins  just  shy of vitamin A and D. The milk, butter or cheese gets those two vitamins we missed.  Davidson, Stanley; Passmore, Reginald (1986) [1960]. Human Nutrition and Dietetics (8th revised ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 193\u20135. ISBN 978-0-443-02467-2.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8616.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6r3q9r", "c_root_id_B": "c6rafdv", "created_at_utc_A": 1351096329, "created_at_utc_B": 1351120050, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Wouldn't different people have different dietary needs. Some people have diabetes and some people have different metabolisms. Some people are allergic to soy, some are allergic to entire classes of vegetables (like someone who has a carrot/parsnip allergy).  Children, pregnant women, seniors will all need different nutrition than a 20 something male. There really isn't a one size fits all when it comes to diet.", "human_ref_B": "It's less of can't, and more of won't. People make food because they want to sell it, and food sells based on it's taste and texture. Being nutritionally complete isn't really helpful to making food that sells well, so it doesn't get made.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23721.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rafdv", "c_root_id_B": "c6r6r05", "created_at_utc_A": 1351120050, "created_at_utc_B": 1351106900, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It's less of can't, and more of won't. People make food because they want to sell it, and food sells based on it's taste and texture. Being nutritionally complete isn't really helpful to making food that sells well, so it doesn't get made.", "human_ref_B": "There is issue of absorption too.  If you have chelating agents like phytic acid present, then that will prevent absorption of certain minerals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13150.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rcj6r", "c_root_id_B": "c6r3q9r", "created_at_utc_A": 1351129138, "created_at_utc_B": 1351096329, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "We can. Plumpy'nut is a food used in humanitarian disaster situations, and supposedly has all the stuff a human body needs.", "human_ref_B": "Wouldn't different people have different dietary needs. Some people have diabetes and some people have different metabolisms. Some people are allergic to soy, some are allergic to entire classes of vegetables (like someone who has a carrot/parsnip allergy).  Children, pregnant women, seniors will all need different nutrition than a 20 something male. There really isn't a one size fits all when it comes to diet.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32809.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "120d5z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "Why can't humans create a food that contains everything the body needs? All the minerals, vitamins, proteins, etc. We can isolate these things, we know what they are and what we need -- obviously everybody's body is different, but we should be able to even personalize it a little bit or find a happy medium, shouldn't we?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rcj6r", "c_root_id_B": "c6r6r05", "created_at_utc_A": 1351129138, "created_at_utc_B": 1351106900, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "We can. Plumpy'nut is a food used in humanitarian disaster situations, and supposedly has all the stuff a human body needs.", "human_ref_B": "There is issue of absorption too.  If you have chelating agents like phytic acid present, then that will prevent absorption of certain minerals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22238.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h2v6x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Could the Aperture Science long fall boot be plausible in any way, shape, or form? Seeing this Portal 2 promo got be thinking about whether any type of device similar to this could be designed to almost completely absorb the impact of a \"long fall.\"", "c_root_id_A": "c1s5ykm", "c_root_id_B": "c1s5jm2", "created_at_utc_A": 1304401631, "created_at_utc_B": 1304396512, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Human terminal velocity in an upright position is about 200 miles per hour, or about 90 meters per second.  Assuming that you can survive 50 g for landing, that would require that you stop in .18 seconds, which translates into 8 meters of stopping distance.  So basically, you will  need 8 meter long boots to survive any fall.", "human_ref_B": "Doubtful, as there is no way something like that could prevent you from feeling several Gs of force, which would at the very least make you black out.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5119.0, "score_ratio": 4.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h2v6x", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Could the Aperture Science long fall boot be plausible in any way, shape, or form? Seeing this Portal 2 promo got be thinking about whether any type of device similar to this could be designed to almost completely absorb the impact of a \"long fall.\"", "c_root_id_A": "c1s5ykm", "c_root_id_B": "c1s5n2t", "created_at_utc_A": 1304401631, "created_at_utc_B": 1304397623, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Human terminal velocity in an upright position is about 200 miles per hour, or about 90 meters per second.  Assuming that you can survive 50 g for landing, that would require that you stop in .18 seconds, which translates into 8 meters of stopping distance.  So basically, you will  need 8 meter long boots to survive any fall.", "human_ref_B": "The force of the impact needs to go somewhere. Watching that video it would seem that the force would just be spread over the calf area of the leg. So, instead of falling onto your feet you are falling on to the calf of the leg.   The problem is that you need to displace a lot of energy in a very short time. And that is difficult to do in such a small package. It is not impossible to do, just very difficult.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4008.0, "score_ratio": 4.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x6i2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Why is it when I stir my drinks, the bubbles all rush to the centre? Surely centripetal forces would force them to the edge? Sorry if this has been asked before, I didn't check.", "c_root_id_A": "c5jlu9s", "c_root_id_B": "c5jlu8o", "created_at_utc_A": 1343290643, "created_at_utc_B": 1343290639, "score_A": 8, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Buoyancy is still in effect. Just acting against centripetal acceleration instead of gravitational. The centripetal forces are acting more strongly on the denser liquid causing them to go towards the edge of the glass and the bubbles to \"rise\" to the center.   Think of a centrifuge. If you put samples in a centrifuge, the densest substances go to the bottom, or outside edge, while the lighter substances are in the middle.", "human_ref_B": "Hmm... fluid dynamics is difficult and not my thing, but I imagine this is to do with pressure.  The pressure will be lowest in the centre of a vortex, and so the bubbles will tend to be pushed towards there.  Maybe the full explanation is more complicated, but I think that is essentially it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4.0, "score_ratio": -8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x6i2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Why is it when I stir my drinks, the bubbles all rush to the centre? Surely centripetal forces would force them to the edge? Sorry if this has been asked before, I didn't check.", "c_root_id_A": "c5jlykt", "c_root_id_B": "c5jlu8o", "created_at_utc_A": 1343291566, "created_at_utc_B": 1343290639, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "Normally in a liquid the bubbles float up right? That's because the heavier liquid wants to go down and pushes the lighter stuff upwards, this is called buoyancy. If you stir your drink then the heavy stuff wants to go to the sides. Think of what happens when you have something tied to the end of a string and you flail it around. So if the heavy liquid goes to the side then buoyancy will cause the bubbles to float to the middle.", "human_ref_B": "Hmm... fluid dynamics is difficult and not my thing, but I imagine this is to do with pressure.  The pressure will be lowest in the centre of a vortex, and so the bubbles will tend to be pushed towards there.  Maybe the full explanation is more complicated, but I think that is essentially it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 927.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x6i2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Why is it when I stir my drinks, the bubbles all rush to the centre? Surely centripetal forces would force them to the edge? Sorry if this has been asked before, I didn't check.", "c_root_id_A": "c5jlu8o", "c_root_id_B": "c5jlzuy", "created_at_utc_A": 1343290639, "created_at_utc_B": 1343291850, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Hmm... fluid dynamics is difficult and not my thing, but I imagine this is to do with pressure.  The pressure will be lowest in the centre of a vortex, and so the bubbles will tend to be pushed towards there.  Maybe the full explanation is more complicated, but I think that is essentially it.", "human_ref_B": "Another related paradox: say you're in a car with a helium balloon, and you accelerate. The balloon will move (surprisingly) to the front of the car, because the heavier air will be also be pushed back by the acceleration.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1211.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x6i2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Why is it when I stir my drinks, the bubbles all rush to the centre? Surely centripetal forces would force them to the edge? Sorry if this has been asked before, I didn't check.", "c_root_id_A": "c5jlu8o", "c_root_id_B": "c5jp9vk", "created_at_utc_A": 1343290639, "created_at_utc_B": 1343314046, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Hmm... fluid dynamics is difficult and not my thing, but I imagine this is to do with pressure.  The pressure will be lowest in the centre of a vortex, and so the bubbles will tend to be pushed towards there.  Maybe the full explanation is more complicated, but I think that is essentially it.", "human_ref_B": "Even if the bubbles were of equal density to the fluid (centripetal forces being discarded), the stirring action creates a differential in speed between the inner and outer edges of the fluid, this differential in speed creates shearing forces which will take large bubbles and break them down into smaller and smaller bubbles. The bubbles in the center, which undergo less shear force will remain large and more visible.   So the actual distribution of 'bubble' content may be identical, the appearance of bubbles will seem greater in the center because large bubble can exist under lower shear forces.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23407.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "297v0h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "How much of the pro-biotic cultures in things like yogurt and kefir actually make it to your gut and help out?", "c_root_id_A": "ciigvvd", "c_root_id_B": "ciifx57", "created_at_utc_A": 1403876589, "created_at_utc_B": 1403873721, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It only take a small amount of living micro-organism to make it to your guts to have them grow there, but to answer your question, \"some\" Some of them die in the yogurt dish from old age, some die in your bowl, some die in your mouth, some die in your stomach acids, but the millions left make it all the way through.  The real interesting thing is that most of the beneficial qualitys of these little guys might be related to lateral gene transfer between your existing gut flora and these pro-biotics.  Giving your existing flora \"abilities\" they didn't have before, mostly reducing inflamation, and promoting healthy gut wall cells.  The cells of your lower GI trackt don't make their own energy they way other cells in your body do, they rely on symbiotic colonies of bacteria to do that for them (this is how you get energy from food ps.)  If you don't eat enough fiber, or other nutrients that can make it past your stomach and upper GI tract these colonies of helpful bacteria don't get enough to eat and they start to die, this causes the cells in your lower GI to get inflamed as they start to starve.  This inflamation can pass around to other parts of your body causing health problems.  Long story short, don't eat a bunch of processed foods, eat fiber, eat vegetables, and don't boil the every living shit out of them.   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21193902", "human_ref_B": "In a related application, infant formula, a significant amount reaches the gut and clinical trials document the improved digestive results claimed. Typically this is more like less gas, bloating, diarrhea, etc. Although, all indicators of a higher functioning digestive system.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2868.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "297v0h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "How much of the pro-biotic cultures in things like yogurt and kefir actually make it to your gut and help out?", "c_root_id_A": "ciibk05", "c_root_id_B": "ciigvvd", "created_at_utc_A": 1403851888, "created_at_utc_B": 1403876589, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "No answer here, but another question.  Is it possible for your surgeon botched an injection and kill your bacteria so you can no longer drink milk?  And if so, is there a way to get rid of your new found lactose intolerance?", "human_ref_B": "It only take a small amount of living micro-organism to make it to your guts to have them grow there, but to answer your question, \"some\" Some of them die in the yogurt dish from old age, some die in your bowl, some die in your mouth, some die in your stomach acids, but the millions left make it all the way through.  The real interesting thing is that most of the beneficial qualitys of these little guys might be related to lateral gene transfer between your existing gut flora and these pro-biotics.  Giving your existing flora \"abilities\" they didn't have before, mostly reducing inflamation, and promoting healthy gut wall cells.  The cells of your lower GI trackt don't make their own energy they way other cells in your body do, they rely on symbiotic colonies of bacteria to do that for them (this is how you get energy from food ps.)  If you don't eat enough fiber, or other nutrients that can make it past your stomach and upper GI tract these colonies of helpful bacteria don't get enough to eat and they start to die, this causes the cells in your lower GI to get inflamed as they start to starve.  This inflamation can pass around to other parts of your body causing health problems.  Long story short, don't eat a bunch of processed foods, eat fiber, eat vegetables, and don't boil the every living shit out of them.   http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21193902", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24701.0, "score_ratio": 14000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "297v0h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "How much of the pro-biotic cultures in things like yogurt and kefir actually make it to your gut and help out?", "c_root_id_A": "ciifx57", "c_root_id_B": "ciibk05", "created_at_utc_A": 1403873721, "created_at_utc_B": 1403851888, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "In a related application, infant formula, a significant amount reaches the gut and clinical trials document the improved digestive results claimed. Typically this is more like less gas, bloating, diarrhea, etc. Although, all indicators of a higher functioning digestive system.", "human_ref_B": "No answer here, but another question.  Is it possible for your surgeon botched an injection and kill your bacteria so you can no longer drink milk?  And if so, is there a way to get rid of your new found lactose intolerance?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21833.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "297v0h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "How much of the pro-biotic cultures in things like yogurt and kefir actually make it to your gut and help out?", "c_root_id_A": "ciii80e", "c_root_id_B": "ciibk05", "created_at_utc_A": 1403879963, "created_at_utc_B": 1403851888, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Quite a few of the microorganisms that you eat actually make it to your gut.  How much does it help? It depends. If you have bad dietary habits, it's probably a good idea to eat yogurt or similar things, along with fiber-rich veggies and so on, once in a while. If you have a balanced diet overall, it probably does not have much of an effect.  ---  NOTE: A lot of the yogurt you find today in stores has all sorts of stuff added to it. It's typically made of low-fat or zero-fat milk, which is flavorless (tastes like cardboard), which then needs to be compensated via adding carbs, which screws the macronutrient composition. Try and find plain yogurt, if possible. It doesn't have to be low-fat.  Seriously, just look at the label. If it has more carbs than protein, that's not the yogurt that your grand-grandpa was making on his farm, back in the day.  Plain yogurt, nothing added to it, made via simple fermentation processes from whole milk, tastes *awesome*. It's also one of the healthiest sources of protein you could possibly find.", "human_ref_B": "No answer here, but another question.  Is it possible for your surgeon botched an injection and kill your bacteria so you can no longer drink milk?  And if so, is there a way to get rid of your new found lactose intolerance?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28075.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rmcsc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "How possible is it to survive a botched skydive? We all hear those unbelievable stories every couple of years of a person who skydives, only to have their parachute become stuck during descent. I could never understand how surviving something like that was possible. I guess I'm interested in the body's capacity for resilience when I ask: how can it happen?  Is there anything one could do to increase the chances of survival in a situation like this?", "c_root_id_A": "c46z38k", "c_root_id_B": "c48b60a", "created_at_utc_A": 1333203073, "created_at_utc_B": 1333524273, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "JAT stewardess Vesna Vulovi\u0107 survived a fall of 33,000 feet (10,000\u00a0m)[7] on January 26, 1972 when she was aboard JAT Flight 367. The plane was brought down by explosives over Srbsk\u00e1 Kamenice in the former Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic). The Serbian stewardess suffered a broken skull, three broken vertebrae (one crushed completely), and was in a coma for 27 days. In an interview she commented that, according to the man who found her, \"...I was in the middle part of the plane. I was found with my head down and my colleague on top of me. One part of my body with my leg was in the plane and my head was out of the plane. A catering trolley was pinned against my spine and kept me in the plane. The man who found me, says I was very lucky. He was in the German Army as a medic during World War Two. He knew how to treat me at the site of the accident.\" [8]", "human_ref_B": "In most of these 'miraculous' stories, something either arrested their fall-rate or cushioned their fall.. likely a combination of both.  There are a variety of malfunctions a skydiver can encounter.  If the deployment handle get stuck and will not deploy, then deploying the reserve parachute is the answer.  If the skydiver is able to get a partial deployment (ie. there is some fabric over their heads, but its not flying right) then often the descent rate has been sometimes greatly reduced.  Also of note, most modern skydivers utilize better technology and equipment than the jumpers of old.  We use devices that will deploy a reserve parachute if we haven't slowed down sufficiently by a certain altitude.  We also have devices that will make audible noises at preset altitudes, useful for knowing key altitudes.  If you have any actual skydiving related questions, I would be happy to answer them.  I am an active skydiver and have been in the sport for 5+ years.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 321200.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "rmcsc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "How possible is it to survive a botched skydive? We all hear those unbelievable stories every couple of years of a person who skydives, only to have their parachute become stuck during descent. I could never understand how surviving something like that was possible. I guess I'm interested in the body's capacity for resilience when I ask: how can it happen?  Is there anything one could do to increase the chances of survival in a situation like this?", "c_root_id_A": "c46zej6", "c_root_id_B": "c48b60a", "created_at_utc_A": 1333205991, "created_at_utc_B": 1333524273, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "from wikipedia, but i've read about the stewardess elsewhere, as well.  article about freefall. I recommend aiming for deep snow or water and having medical personnel at the landing zone.", "human_ref_B": "In most of these 'miraculous' stories, something either arrested their fall-rate or cushioned their fall.. likely a combination of both.  There are a variety of malfunctions a skydiver can encounter.  If the deployment handle get stuck and will not deploy, then deploying the reserve parachute is the answer.  If the skydiver is able to get a partial deployment (ie. there is some fabric over their heads, but its not flying right) then often the descent rate has been sometimes greatly reduced.  Also of note, most modern skydivers utilize better technology and equipment than the jumpers of old.  We use devices that will deploy a reserve parachute if we haven't slowed down sufficiently by a certain altitude.  We also have devices that will make audible noises at preset altitudes, useful for knowing key altitudes.  If you have any actual skydiving related questions, I would be happy to answer them.  I am an active skydiver and have been in the sport for 5+ years.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 318282.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "sqqjm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Regarding James Cameron's supposed asteroid mining concept. What are the technological obstacles, currently? That's pretty much it. I would assume that we have the technology currently, it's just that applying the technology on the required scale is cost-prohibitive.   So, as a corollary, what technology is feasibly developable in the near term  (i.e., no space elevators) that could reduce the cost? What areas do you think are the best targets for research & development to get the most bang for their buck? That is, greatest cost reduction to effort.", "c_root_id_A": "c4g8zr8", "c_root_id_B": "c4g8vjj", "created_at_utc_A": 1335319992, "created_at_utc_B": 1335319436, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Aerospace engineer here. I think you have it right in that we could mine asteroids right now with unlimited money and resources, but it would be obscenely expensive. Platypuskeeper suggests fuel research, but even the space shuttle operated at close to the limits of rocket fuel efficiency (Hydrogen-liquid oxygen) with a specific impulse of ~450 seconds (about as good as you can get with a rocket).   But cheaper access to space would definitely be the key here. An interesting idea would be to use a scramjet, which is an airbreathing engine that would eliminate the need to carry onboard oxidizer, greatly increasing the efficiency of (and hopefully reducing the cost of) getting to orbit. The vehicle could then ideally be reused to deliver payloads cheaply and repeatedly to orbit. However, in my opinion this technology is also still a long way off for a lot of reasons. I'd be super stoked if we had any manned mission somewhere, but even that isn't going to happen soon with the current interest in space exploration :(", "human_ref_B": "Keeping in mind that ore is defined as rocks mineable for a profit, the key question is what can be mined and brought back economically. In Earth mines, one constant worry is dilution by wall rock which cuts down the average value of material sent to the mill. So gallery width is an issue: it has to be as narrow as possible for the deposit to remain economic, and small differences can make or break an operation. So making asteroid mining cost effective will be the greatest challenge.  Also: locating valuable stuff might be a challenge, as well as carrying out the ore-definition phase.  I do not believe finding a drilling method adapted to 0-g and ultra low temperatures will not be a walk in the park either. Neither will be finding methods of blasting which wont scatter the ore all over the place.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 556.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1yfvjg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "How probable are printed houses in 10 years? Are researchers right now accounting for all structural requirements? In light of the recent development in 3d-printing and the article about the USC professor who is working on printing a house in under 20 hours, I bet my dad that we would see a 3d-printed house in 10 years. He kept saying that it cannot be possible, speaking of at least a 2-story-house, because of structural requirements on ceilings and their weight-bearing capacities. So, how probable is a realization of this concept in the near future?", "c_root_id_A": "cfk5cll", "c_root_id_B": "cfk5eye", "created_at_utc_A": 1392908932, "created_at_utc_B": 1392909104, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "This might not be what you are looking for in terms of \"3D printing\", but the technology exists for the 20 hour time-frame.  The Chinese have developed a method where they create blocks that fit together to create a building, so construction time in minimized.   For example, a 6-story building in 24 hours- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=txhSY41G9Gw Or a hotel in 48 hours. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FynWETakS9U", "human_ref_B": "It depends on your definition of a 3D printed house. How much of the house has to come out of the printer nozzle for it to qualify as a printed house?  The technology exists right now to build a 2 story concrete shell with all the conduits for utilities. But they have to use pre-fabricated pieces to do the upper floor, the roof and the beams above windows and doors.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 172.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ob1aj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Can someone explain the current atomic model/orbital theory?  My understanding of physics is probably above average but certainly nowhere near doctorate level.  All through school you're taught about the Bohr model (good teachers will say it's not an accurate representation of reality, bad teachers will just hope nobody asks too many questions). I understand why as it's a good way to visualize and study atoms without overwhelming young students. Later on you learn more accurate valence shell atomic representation, which to my understanding means there's different quantum numbers instead of simple energy levels, and there is probability of finding electrons at certain levels but they can be other places.  So here comes my questions:  * Is it still correct that electrons travel in orbit around a nucleus? Do they all travel in the same direction? * Is it correct to say that electrons are negatively charged and the nucleus is positively charged? * I understand that an electron with a certain quantum number is much more likely to appear in certain regions around the atom - but *can* they be anywhere? Does the probability work like a function where the limit approaches infinity - asked in a simple way; the further away from the nucleus the less likely it will be you find an electron with a certain quantum number but there will always be a tiny possibility?  * This ties in with my previous question, is there a strict theoretical limit to how \"far away\" from the nucleus you could find electrons without it being a \"free electron\"? There must be a lower limit though as an electron would never \"crash into\" it's nucleus (not counting particle accelerators and such)? * I've learnt that when an electron changes to a lower states a photon(light) \"appears\", how does this fit in with modern theory as there are no \"shells\" but electrons can be \"anywhere\"? When is light created? When the quantum number changes? Due to the energy level changing? * In any molecule is it still true that electrons \"belong\" to a nucleus? Do we know if seamlessly electrons can \"move\" to circle another nucleus? I'm having great difficulty explain my thoughts here so please bare with me... Imagine water H2O, oxygen has 2 electrons in its outer shell (of a certain quantum number I guess?) so it binds to two hydrogen atoms and \"borrows\" two atoms so that it's \"complete\". Then the hydrogen atoms binds to other hydrogen atoms so it has 2 electrons making them \"complete\" too - hence we have amazing water. My question is: *can for instance two electrons in one instance belong to a certain nucleus but in the next instance they could swap places?* * A basic example to explain my next and final question: Euro coins are an \"alloy\" of copper-brass and copper-nickel but for my example lets say they are gold and silver instead. When for instance two different metals are \"fused\" together like this can (and do they) electrons move between the \"outer shell\" of two atoms of two different metals? (If they don't how do they stick together, is there a very small space between them where the two metals have mixed into a sort of \"gold-silver\" molecule?)  ***I know the questions are difficult and I'm terrible at writing down and explaining my thoughts but please could some physicists take pity and write some amazing answers?***  I hope none of my questions appear foolish because I am genuinely wondering about these things. As Einstein once said \"I have no special talents. I am only passionately curious.\".", "c_root_id_A": "c3ftm5d", "c_root_id_B": "c3ft7fj", "created_at_utc_A": 1326221369, "created_at_utc_B": 1326219267, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": ">Is it still correct that electrons travel in orbit around a nucleus? Do they all travel in the same direction?  No, the entire concept of classical trajectories is invalid in quantum mechanics, because a particle can't have an exact momentum and position at the same time. So both the concept of 'orbit' and 'direction' pretty much go out the window. Knowing where an electron is at one point in time doesn't enable you to predict where it'll be next.  >Is it correct to say that electrons are negatively charged and the nucleus is positively charged?  Yes.  >I understand that an electron with a certain quantum number is much more likely to appear in certain regions around the atom - but can they be anywhere?   An orbital is, by definition, a time-independent state of an electron.   >This ties in with my previous question, is there a strict theoretical limit to how \"far away\" from the nucleus you could find electrons without it being a \"free electron\"?   This isn't really quantum-mechanical; An electron is considered 'free' if its energy exceeds the ionization potential, rather than how far it is from the nucleus. In much the same way a celestial body is a satellite depending on whether its orbiting or not, not how far away it is.  >I've learnt that when an electron changes to a lower states a photon(light) \"appears\", how does this fit in with modern theory as there are no \"shells\" but electrons can be \"anywhere\"?   There are shells; these are defined by the different possible combinations of quantum numbers. It's just that a shell doesn't imply the electron is at a certain fixed radius.   >When is light created? When the quantum number changes? Due to the energy level changing?  The electron has to change state (meaning a change of quantum numbers), and has to change its energy, but it also has to change its angular momentum or spin, to match the angular momentum of the photon that's created. (these are known as selection rules)  >In any molecule is it still true that electrons \"belong\" to a nucleus?   No, electrons are indistinguishable, so we don't actually deal with specific electrons but the possible electronic _states_ (orbitals, or sub-shells). Depending on the orbital, it can be strongly located to a single atom, or it can be shared between two atoms (forming a bond), or it can even be 'delocalized' across the entire molecule.  >Do we know if seamlessly electrons can \"move\" to circle another nucleus?   Certainly. That's what chemists visualize with 'resonance structures'. E.g. a benzene molecule can be visualized as having 3 double bonds and 3 single bonds, whose locations are alternating. The underlying reality being that the double-bonding electrons are spread out equally among the six carbon atoms.  >can (and do they) electrons move between the \"outer shell\" of two atoms of two different metals?  Yes, that's why metals are conductors. The electrons are delocalized across the entire solid.", "human_ref_B": "There does exist a \"shell\" or *orbital* for each electron energy in an atom.  If you free a core electron, one that is near to the nucleus, and a higher energy electron will drop down to fill that new vacancy.  In order to compensate for the energy change, a photon of energy equivalent to the electron energy drop will be produced.  The energy of the photon is actually a characteristic of the material, as every element has different binding energies for electrons.  Therefore, by measuring the energy of the photon, one can determine chemical composition.    Electrons do maintain a negative charge, while the protons in the nucleus maintain positive charge.   As far as the direction, that's a tricky one.  However, two electrons in the same orbital will have opposing spins, as you cannot have two electrons with the same quantum number in an atom (which includes energy level and spin).  For the last question, yes, electrons can migrate around to other nuclei in the system, this happens in covalent and metallic materials.  In ionic materials, one element will give an electron to another, and due to this the individual atoms become charged.  They see that the atom they gave an electron two is oppositely charged so the two atoms get cozy together (opposites attract).  Metals are considered a \"sea of electrons\"  that is, electrons are delocalized and flow around like water.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2102.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ob1aj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Can someone explain the current atomic model/orbital theory?  My understanding of physics is probably above average but certainly nowhere near doctorate level.  All through school you're taught about the Bohr model (good teachers will say it's not an accurate representation of reality, bad teachers will just hope nobody asks too many questions). I understand why as it's a good way to visualize and study atoms without overwhelming young students. Later on you learn more accurate valence shell atomic representation, which to my understanding means there's different quantum numbers instead of simple energy levels, and there is probability of finding electrons at certain levels but they can be other places.  So here comes my questions:  * Is it still correct that electrons travel in orbit around a nucleus? Do they all travel in the same direction? * Is it correct to say that electrons are negatively charged and the nucleus is positively charged? * I understand that an electron with a certain quantum number is much more likely to appear in certain regions around the atom - but *can* they be anywhere? Does the probability work like a function where the limit approaches infinity - asked in a simple way; the further away from the nucleus the less likely it will be you find an electron with a certain quantum number but there will always be a tiny possibility?  * This ties in with my previous question, is there a strict theoretical limit to how \"far away\" from the nucleus you could find electrons without it being a \"free electron\"? There must be a lower limit though as an electron would never \"crash into\" it's nucleus (not counting particle accelerators and such)? * I've learnt that when an electron changes to a lower states a photon(light) \"appears\", how does this fit in with modern theory as there are no \"shells\" but electrons can be \"anywhere\"? When is light created? When the quantum number changes? Due to the energy level changing? * In any molecule is it still true that electrons \"belong\" to a nucleus? Do we know if seamlessly electrons can \"move\" to circle another nucleus? I'm having great difficulty explain my thoughts here so please bare with me... Imagine water H2O, oxygen has 2 electrons in its outer shell (of a certain quantum number I guess?) so it binds to two hydrogen atoms and \"borrows\" two atoms so that it's \"complete\". Then the hydrogen atoms binds to other hydrogen atoms so it has 2 electrons making them \"complete\" too - hence we have amazing water. My question is: *can for instance two electrons in one instance belong to a certain nucleus but in the next instance they could swap places?* * A basic example to explain my next and final question: Euro coins are an \"alloy\" of copper-brass and copper-nickel but for my example lets say they are gold and silver instead. When for instance two different metals are \"fused\" together like this can (and do they) electrons move between the \"outer shell\" of two atoms of two different metals? (If they don't how do they stick together, is there a very small space between them where the two metals have mixed into a sort of \"gold-silver\" molecule?)  ***I know the questions are difficult and I'm terrible at writing down and explaining my thoughts but please could some physicists take pity and write some amazing answers?***  I hope none of my questions appear foolish because I am genuinely wondering about these things. As Einstein once said \"I have no special talents. I am only passionately curious.\".", "c_root_id_A": "c3ftm5d", "c_root_id_B": "c3ftj20", "created_at_utc_A": 1326221369, "created_at_utc_B": 1326220935, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": ">Is it still correct that electrons travel in orbit around a nucleus? Do they all travel in the same direction?  No, the entire concept of classical trajectories is invalid in quantum mechanics, because a particle can't have an exact momentum and position at the same time. So both the concept of 'orbit' and 'direction' pretty much go out the window. Knowing where an electron is at one point in time doesn't enable you to predict where it'll be next.  >Is it correct to say that electrons are negatively charged and the nucleus is positively charged?  Yes.  >I understand that an electron with a certain quantum number is much more likely to appear in certain regions around the atom - but can they be anywhere?   An orbital is, by definition, a time-independent state of an electron.   >This ties in with my previous question, is there a strict theoretical limit to how \"far away\" from the nucleus you could find electrons without it being a \"free electron\"?   This isn't really quantum-mechanical; An electron is considered 'free' if its energy exceeds the ionization potential, rather than how far it is from the nucleus. In much the same way a celestial body is a satellite depending on whether its orbiting or not, not how far away it is.  >I've learnt that when an electron changes to a lower states a photon(light) \"appears\", how does this fit in with modern theory as there are no \"shells\" but electrons can be \"anywhere\"?   There are shells; these are defined by the different possible combinations of quantum numbers. It's just that a shell doesn't imply the electron is at a certain fixed radius.   >When is light created? When the quantum number changes? Due to the energy level changing?  The electron has to change state (meaning a change of quantum numbers), and has to change its energy, but it also has to change its angular momentum or spin, to match the angular momentum of the photon that's created. (these are known as selection rules)  >In any molecule is it still true that electrons \"belong\" to a nucleus?   No, electrons are indistinguishable, so we don't actually deal with specific electrons but the possible electronic _states_ (orbitals, or sub-shells). Depending on the orbital, it can be strongly located to a single atom, or it can be shared between two atoms (forming a bond), or it can even be 'delocalized' across the entire molecule.  >Do we know if seamlessly electrons can \"move\" to circle another nucleus?   Certainly. That's what chemists visualize with 'resonance structures'. E.g. a benzene molecule can be visualized as having 3 double bonds and 3 single bonds, whose locations are alternating. The underlying reality being that the double-bonding electrons are spread out equally among the six carbon atoms.  >can (and do they) electrons move between the \"outer shell\" of two atoms of two different metals?  Yes, that's why metals are conductors. The electrons are delocalized across the entire solid.", "human_ref_B": "Firstly, well done on a carefully considered question.  Secondly, I don't think that I will have time to answer all of them, but we will see. I will answer in the order that makes the most sense to me.  >\u2022Is it correct to say that electrons are negatively charged and the nucleus is positively charged?  Sure.  Electrons are negatively charged.  Protons are positively charged.  To be pedantic for a moment, neutrons are also in the nucleus and have no charge, so not everything in the nucleus is positively charged, but the only charged particle in the nucleus is always positive giving the nucleus a net positive charge.  By the way, these are naming and mathematical sign conventions *only*.  >\u2022Is it still correct that electrons travel in orbit around a nucleus? Do they all travel in the same direction?  Electrons are found in orbitals around the nucleus of an atom.  For the moment let's just consider an isolated neutral atom. The idea of electrons traveling around the nucleus is a bit of a hold-over from the old planetary type Bohr model.  The better way to describe the electrons around an atom is as a probability distribution function.  The probability function is determined by the shape of a self-consistent wave function.  >\u2022I understand that an electron with a certain quantum number is much more likely to appear in certain regions around the atom - but can they be anywhere? Does the probability work like a function where the limit approaches infinity - asked in a simple way; the further away from the nucleus the less likely it will be you find an electron with a certain quantum number but there will always be a tiny possibility?   The probability function exists everywhere, but is not non-zero everywhere for our isolated neutral atom.  Depending on which orbital the electron occupies (and hence what wave function and probability function apply) There can exist nodes in the wave function at which the probability of finding an electron is **exactly zero**.    >\u2022This ties in with my previous question, is there a strict theoretical limit to how \"far away\" from the nucleus you could find electrons without it being a \"free electron\"? There must be a lower limit though as an electron would never \"crash into\" it's nucleus (not counting particle accelerators and such)?  In the previously linked image you can see one orbital (the 2s) has one point at which the density function touches zero probability.  The electron cannot occupy this position.  However, the function only approaches zery as the distance from the nucleus approaches infinity.  Thus there is a small (arguably negligible) but non-zero probability of the electron being at any arbitrarily large distance from the nucleus.  >\u2022In any molecule is it still true that electrons \"belong\" to a nucleus? Do we know if seamlessly electrons can \"move\" to circle another nucleus? I'm having great difficulty explain my thoughts here so please bare with me... Imagine water H2O, oxygen has 2 electrons in its outer shell (of a certain quantum number I guess?) so it binds to two hydrogen atoms and \"borrows\" two atoms so that it's \"complete\". Then the hydrogen atoms binds to other hydrogen atoms so it has 2 electrons making them \"complete\" too - hence we have amazing water. My question is: can for instance two electrons in one instance belong to a certain nucleus but in the next instance they could swap places?  This is where the rubber really meets the road... I would like to momentarily skip your question about water for an even simpler molecule: HF.  Hydrogen has one electron this electron has a wave function. because it has spherical symmetry, it has all one phase sign (note that we are not talking about charge here). Flourine has one un-paired electron; it is in the 2p orbital and has two distinct phase regions.  The wave functions can be added together to yield two solutions.  If the hydrogen wave function constructively interferes with the fluorine wave function, a bonding orbital is formed. If the two destructively interfere, an anti-bonding orbital is formed.  The new bonding orbital has qualities of both of the orbitals which formed it and occupies space around both nucleii.  It would not be proper to say that the electrons belong to one nucleus or the other in this case.  They are shared.  The electrons will, with a higher degree of probability, be found near the fluorine atome more often than not, but they are both shared.  Water is just more complicated because of orbital hybridization. In ionic compounds, I should note, the \"electron sharing\" is so ridiculously one-sided as to make it pointless to call it sharing at all.  Ionic materials really can be treated quite well as a \"giving\" of an electron from one atom to another.  >\u2022A basic example to explain my next and final question: Euro coins are an \"alloy\" of copper-brass and copper-nickel but for my example lets say they are gold and silver instead. When for instance two different metals are \"fused\" together like this can (and do they) electrons move between the \"outer shell\" of two atoms of two different metals? (If they don't how do they stick together, is there a very small space between them where the two metals have mixed into a sort of \"gold-silver\" molecule?)  There are two questions here and you just don't know it yet... There exist materials in which combinations of metals make clusters like your imaginary \"gold-silver molecule\".  It just so happens that gold and silver don't do this at all.  These materials are called intermetallic compounds.  Heusler phases are a good example.  In intermetallic compounds, each atom type has an assigned position in the crystal structure.  If you go to position x,y,z in the lattice, you know what type of atom you should find there.  Alloys are more like solutions in \"suspended animation\".  Silver and gold do this quite well.  If you melt a solution of 30% silver and 70% gold, they will dissolve in one another.  This gives you a random distrobution of atoms.  If you pick one atom out of the solution it will have a 30% chance of being silver.  When this mixture solidifies, the atoms arrange themselves spatially but not in any **chemically** meaningful way.  So if you pick an atom out of the solid at coordinate x,y,z, you still only know that it has a 30% chance of being silver.  Hope that all of this helps, I feel spent.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 434.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5rnrg8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "If you drill a hole in a metal plate and then freeze the plate, does the hole get smaller, bigger or stays the same?", "c_root_id_A": "dd8yap6", "c_root_id_B": "dd8uws0", "created_at_utc_A": 1486064346, "created_at_utc_B": 1486060602, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If you want to think of the opposite, there is a way to make permanent rivet connections by freezing. Use a rivet of the same or slightly larger diameter of the hole it\u2019s going into, then dip the rivet into liquid N. It will shrink enough that it will fit into the hole and when it warms up it will be tight. You can\u2019t cool it to shrink it enough without also cooling and shrinking the metal plates it is securing. As well, heating and expanding the plates also heats and expands the rivet. This technique is sometimes used in the aerospace industry.", "human_ref_B": "The Hole will contract as you cool the plate, and the effect follows the materials coefficient of expansion. Most materials expand with heat and contract with loss of heat.   Here's a PDF of the the thermal coefficient of different metals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3744.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11qtfb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "I read on reddit recently that gold has its characteristic color due to special relativity. Could someone explain why this is?", "c_root_id_A": "c6otc18", "c_root_id_B": "c6ovuep", "created_at_utc_A": 1350657146, "created_at_utc_B": 1350666998, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 85, "human_ref_A": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold#Color http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry   Basically, once elements get \"heavy\" (their nucleus has a lot of mass relative to lighter elements), there are some perturbations to the \"standard\" quantum chemistry models. Color comes from light's interaction with the electron \"cloud\" around an atom; most metals are silvery, but gold is heavy enough to experience these perturbations to its electron cloud, which interacts with light a little differently to give it its color.", "human_ref_B": "Since you haven't detailed where you're coming from, I'll start with a general description of color. The color of an object tells you which wavelengths of light it absorbs and to what extent. White light is a mixture of all visible wavelengths, so something white absorbs weakly more-or-less equally across the visible spectrum, something which absorbs strongly across it is black, while things that absorb equally across the spectrum to intermediate extents are gray.   If something absorbs more of a certain wavelength range (or combination of them) than it re-emits, it appears to have the complementary color to what it's absorbing. Gold is absorbing in the violet/blue range, and therefore appears yellowish. (And also _reflects_ light like other metals, hence a metallic yellow rather than a matte yellow)  Quantum mechanics (QM) says that electromagnetic (EM) radiation carries energy (proportional to its frequency), and that this energy can be absorbed only if there's an energy state in the material that corresponds to it (plus some other conditions, as the energy state in question has to couple to the electromagnetic field in some way). QM gives us the tools to calculate these states and also determine the extent that the light will be absorbed. Just because a frequency _can_ be absorbed doesn't mean it's likely that they _will_ be. (Most molecules in your body are able to absorb X-rays, yet most X-ray radiation will still pass straight through you)  In terms of its energy, light - the visible range of EM radiation, tends to mostly correspond to energy states of the electrons in the matter. So the color of things usually (but not exclusively) depends mostly on what the electrons are up to. That, in turn, depends on the elements present, which molecules (if it's a molecular substance) they're forming, the structure and phase of the matter (how the molecules are arranged) - a whole bunch of stuff.   In the case of metallic gold specifically, the particle size (at the nano-scale) can change the color quite a bit. But we're talking about macroscopically-sized gold here, which, from the \"point of view\" of the electrons can be regarded as infinitely large (it's modeled that way. It's actually easier to deal with an infinite gold crystal than a small one). The color changes perceptibly when you go from 5 nm to 50 nm, but not from 1 mm to infinity.  We can eliminate the other factors I mentioned if we just compare metallic silver to gold. They both have the same number of valence electrons, the same (FCC) crystal structure, more or less the same inter-atomic distances within the crystal. So where did this obvious difference in light-absorption properties come from? That wasn't known until around the 1970's (I think).   One possible explanation could've been that it was due to the fact that gold has a filled electronic f-shell that silver doesn't, which does lead to some changes in properties; the f-shell is the main factor responsible for the lanthanide contraction, causing these heavy elements to have smaller radii than might be expected. But it's hard to predict these things without doing explicit calculations to solve the equations of quantum mechanics to determine the electronic states. So we didn't know why gold was yellow until we had enough computing power to calculate its color. It's a fun thought that Einstein in 1905 was coming up with a theory that appeared to have no effect on everyday objects, but which unbeknownst to him, was actually required to explain something _everyone_ had seen.   The equation in question is typically the Schr\u00f6dinger equation for the electrons. If you solve it for the electrons in metallic gold, you get the result that it should absorb in the ultraviolet and reflect in the visual range, as silver does. This means the f-orbitals (which are included in that calculation) aren't responsible, but something that the Schr\u00f6dinger equation doesn't account for.  That thing is Special Relativity. In simple terms, the Schr\u00f6dinger equation assumes that momentum is mass times velocity (p = mv), when it's _actually_ p=mv/\u221a(1 - (v/c)^2 ). So it's only valid when the velocities are much smaller than the speed of light and the denominator is thus close to 1.  So why does this become important with gold? Well, if you just look at the much-simplified Bohr model for an atom with one electron, you'll find that the velocity of the electron is proportional to the square root of the atomic number (charge of the nucleus). The heavier the element, the faster the electrons (in the lowest energy state closest to the nucleus) are moving. In the hydrogen atom (the energy states of which the Bohr model approximates decently), this is a measurable but not very significant effect, or the non-relativistic Bohr model would've said nothing useful. But it becomes increasingly important as the nuclear charge increases in heavier elements.  As the innermost electrons start moving differently because of how relativity changes their momentum, this ends up affecting all the other electrons in the atom, since electrons interact through electrical repulsion, if you change one, the rest change in response to it.   So the state (5d band) of the outermost (valence) electrons shifts up  a bit in energy, and the lowest unoccupied electronic state (6s band) shifts down a bit. The energy difference between these states are what give gold its color, and they're shifted from having an energy difference equivalent to ultraviolet light in silver, to being in the blue/violet range in gold - hence yellow!   It's worth noting though, that these outermost electrons involved in the actual absorption have much lower velocities than the innermost ones, and aren't very affected by special relativity. So it's actually an indirect effect of relativity affecting some electrons which affect other ones, which explains it.   If you do a QM calculation that takes relativity into account (by solving the Dirac equation for the electrons, which unlike Schr\u00f6dinger is relativistic), you get the correct result.   Unfortunately, the Dirac equation is a lot more complicated and takes more computing power to solve. In practice, you could still use the Schr\u00f6dinger equation here (saving time), if you approximate the effect of special relativity by adding an extra force on the (innermost) electrons (what's known as an _effective core potential_).   That approach doesn't always work though, as there's another (and more complicated) effect of Special Relativity known as spin-orbit coupling, which that approximation doesn't include. But the yellow color of gold isn't a result of it. (The yellow color of Pb(NO2)2 _is_ though)  TL;DR: Special relativity affects electrons in atoms, and does so increasingly as you go to higher elements. To the extent that it starts having a quite significant and noticeable effect on chemical and material properties around the fifth row of the periodic table. Once you get to the transuranium elements, you can hardly say anything without taking it into account, making relativistic quantum chemistry almost synonymous with the quantum chemical study of heavy elements.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9852.0, "score_ratio": 17.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgqo03", "c_root_id_B": "cbgq8t6", "created_at_utc_A": 1375631504, "created_at_utc_B": 1375629922, "score_A": 107, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The main reason is simply heat. During the early formation of the planets, the area within around 4 AU of the sun was too warm for gases such as oxygen and ethane to condense into solids. Only heavier compounds were able to group together to form planets. The reason for their small size was due to the relative rarity of metals in the molecular cloud. Further out, the temperature was low enough for some gases to solidify and due to the abundance of these gases, the gas planets were able to initially grow larger than the inner planets. This eventually allowed them to gather enough mass to be able to capture very light elements such as hydrogen and helium, which enabled them to grow to such enormous sizes.   And to your bonus question, yes but most do not. This is because of how a solar system is formed, from a protoplanetary disk. The reason we have some large outer planetary bodies such as Pluto and Eris is that some mass became detached from the disk in the early solar system, and the dwarf planets were formed as part of the Kuiper belt and Scattered disk respectively.", "human_ref_B": "Conversely why is it that many exosolar planets have gas giants orbiting extremely close to their star?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1582.0, "score_ratio": 9.7272727273, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgqfsf", "c_root_id_B": "cbgqo03", "created_at_utc_A": 1375630665, "created_at_utc_B": 1375631504, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 107, "human_ref_A": "You may enjoy this longform explanation.", "human_ref_B": "The main reason is simply heat. During the early formation of the planets, the area within around 4 AU of the sun was too warm for gases such as oxygen and ethane to condense into solids. Only heavier compounds were able to group together to form planets. The reason for their small size was due to the relative rarity of metals in the molecular cloud. Further out, the temperature was low enough for some gases to solidify and due to the abundance of these gases, the gas planets were able to initially grow larger than the inner planets. This eventually allowed them to gather enough mass to be able to capture very light elements such as hydrogen and helium, which enabled them to grow to such enormous sizes.   And to your bonus question, yes but most do not. This is because of how a solar system is formed, from a protoplanetary disk. The reason we have some large outer planetary bodies such as Pluto and Eris is that some mass became detached from the disk in the early solar system, and the dwarf planets were formed as part of the Kuiper belt and Scattered disk respectively.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 839.0, "score_ratio": 53.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgqdg9", "c_root_id_B": "cbgqo03", "created_at_utc_A": 1375630424, "created_at_utc_B": 1375631504, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 107, "human_ref_A": "There isn't necessarily any reason for it. It could possibly be completely random. In fact, many of the planets we find orbiting other stars besides the sun, exoplanets, are gas giants orbiting very closely to their respective stars, sometimes absurdly quickly.   Of course, our most popular technique for finding exoplanets is predisposed to finding large planets somewhat close to their stars (we lock for a slight wobble in the host stars around their barycenter due to the gravity of planets orbiting) so it would be premature to determine whether this is a rare or common phenomenon.  As for the bonus question, yes, the orbit of planets do deviate from a single plane. Before Pluto was reclassified out of its planethood, it would have been the best example of this, almost at a 45 degree angle to our orbit. Also, many orbits are better classified as elliptical rather than perfectly round, just something to keep in mind!", "human_ref_B": "The main reason is simply heat. During the early formation of the planets, the area within around 4 AU of the sun was too warm for gases such as oxygen and ethane to condense into solids. Only heavier compounds were able to group together to form planets. The reason for their small size was due to the relative rarity of metals in the molecular cloud. Further out, the temperature was low enough for some gases to solidify and due to the abundance of these gases, the gas planets were able to initially grow larger than the inner planets. This eventually allowed them to gather enough mass to be able to capture very light elements such as hydrogen and helium, which enabled them to grow to such enormous sizes.   And to your bonus question, yes but most do not. This is because of how a solar system is formed, from a protoplanetary disk. The reason we have some large outer planetary bodies such as Pluto and Eris is that some mass became detached from the disk in the early solar system, and the dwarf planets were formed as part of the Kuiper belt and Scattered disk respectively.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1080.0, "score_ratio": 107000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgqfsf", "c_root_id_B": "cbgqdg9", "created_at_utc_A": 1375630665, "created_at_utc_B": 1375630424, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "You may enjoy this longform explanation.", "human_ref_B": "There isn't necessarily any reason for it. It could possibly be completely random. In fact, many of the planets we find orbiting other stars besides the sun, exoplanets, are gas giants orbiting very closely to their respective stars, sometimes absurdly quickly.   Of course, our most popular technique for finding exoplanets is predisposed to finding large planets somewhat close to their stars (we lock for a slight wobble in the host stars around their barycenter due to the gravity of planets orbiting) so it would be premature to determine whether this is a rare or common phenomenon.  As for the bonus question, yes, the orbit of planets do deviate from a single plane. Before Pluto was reclassified out of its planethood, it would have been the best example of this, almost at a 45 degree angle to our orbit. Also, many orbits are better classified as elliptical rather than perfectly round, just something to keep in mind!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 241.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgwg2g", "c_root_id_B": "cbgqdg9", "created_at_utc_A": 1375650123, "created_at_utc_B": 1375630424, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "That's just our solar system. They've found a few with 'hot' jupiters orbiting inside of mercury's orbital distance.", "human_ref_B": "There isn't necessarily any reason for it. It could possibly be completely random. In fact, many of the planets we find orbiting other stars besides the sun, exoplanets, are gas giants orbiting very closely to their respective stars, sometimes absurdly quickly.   Of course, our most popular technique for finding exoplanets is predisposed to finding large planets somewhat close to their stars (we lock for a slight wobble in the host stars around their barycenter due to the gravity of planets orbiting) so it would be premature to determine whether this is a rare or common phenomenon.  As for the bonus question, yes, the orbit of planets do deviate from a single plane. Before Pluto was reclassified out of its planethood, it would have been the best example of this, almost at a 45 degree angle to our orbit. Also, many orbits are better classified as elliptical rather than perfectly round, just something to keep in mind!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19699.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgwg2g", "c_root_id_B": "cbgtsqc", "created_at_utc_A": 1375650123, "created_at_utc_B": 1375641737, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "That's just our solar system. They've found a few with 'hot' jupiters orbiting inside of mercury's orbital distance.", "human_ref_B": "About your bonus question: Here\u2019s some cool information about relationship between Pluto and Neptune.   There is a time in orbiting cycle of Pluto when it comes closer to the Sun than Neptune. Although it seems that the paths of those two celestial bodies could cross and they would collide, it can\u2019t happen.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8386.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgtsqc", "c_root_id_B": "cbgqdg9", "created_at_utc_A": 1375641737, "created_at_utc_B": 1375630424, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "About your bonus question: Here\u2019s some cool information about relationship between Pluto and Neptune.   There is a time in orbiting cycle of Pluto when it comes closer to the Sun than Neptune. Although it seems that the paths of those two celestial bodies could cross and they would collide, it can\u2019t happen.", "human_ref_B": "There isn't necessarily any reason for it. It could possibly be completely random. In fact, many of the planets we find orbiting other stars besides the sun, exoplanets, are gas giants orbiting very closely to their respective stars, sometimes absurdly quickly.   Of course, our most popular technique for finding exoplanets is predisposed to finding large planets somewhat close to their stars (we lock for a slight wobble in the host stars around their barycenter due to the gravity of planets orbiting) so it would be premature to determine whether this is a rare or common phenomenon.  As for the bonus question, yes, the orbit of planets do deviate from a single plane. Before Pluto was reclassified out of its planethood, it would have been the best example of this, almost at a 45 degree angle to our orbit. Also, many orbits are better classified as elliptical rather than perfectly round, just something to keep in mind!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11313.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgqdg9", "c_root_id_B": "cbh18w6", "created_at_utc_A": 1375630424, "created_at_utc_B": 1375665302, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There isn't necessarily any reason for it. It could possibly be completely random. In fact, many of the planets we find orbiting other stars besides the sun, exoplanets, are gas giants orbiting very closely to their respective stars, sometimes absurdly quickly.   Of course, our most popular technique for finding exoplanets is predisposed to finding large planets somewhat close to their stars (we lock for a slight wobble in the host stars around their barycenter due to the gravity of planets orbiting) so it would be premature to determine whether this is a rare or common phenomenon.  As for the bonus question, yes, the orbit of planets do deviate from a single plane. Before Pluto was reclassified out of its planethood, it would have been the best example of this, almost at a 45 degree angle to our orbit. Also, many orbits are better classified as elliptical rather than perfectly round, just something to keep in mind!", "human_ref_B": "For your bonus question, yes different planets orbit at different angles, depending on their orbital inclination.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 34878.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgqdg9", "c_root_id_B": "cbh44vc", "created_at_utc_A": 1375630424, "created_at_utc_B": 1375674230, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There isn't necessarily any reason for it. It could possibly be completely random. In fact, many of the planets we find orbiting other stars besides the sun, exoplanets, are gas giants orbiting very closely to their respective stars, sometimes absurdly quickly.   Of course, our most popular technique for finding exoplanets is predisposed to finding large planets somewhat close to their stars (we lock for a slight wobble in the host stars around their barycenter due to the gravity of planets orbiting) so it would be premature to determine whether this is a rare or common phenomenon.  As for the bonus question, yes, the orbit of planets do deviate from a single plane. Before Pluto was reclassified out of its planethood, it would have been the best example of this, almost at a 45 degree angle to our orbit. Also, many orbits are better classified as elliptical rather than perfectly round, just something to keep in mind!", "human_ref_B": "Interestingly, there seem to be other star systems with what we would refer to as terrestrial worlds further away, with gas giants huddled around the star in the inner solar system. One theory I have come across explains that as the sun formed, the heat in the inner solar system was able to get rid of any large accumulation of icey bodies, leaving tiny rocky worlds such as our own. Further away from our Sun where the intensity of solar radiation was of a lesser degree, massive icey bodies grouped together and had enough mass to hold on to the enormous amount of gas surrounding them. This may have lead to the gas giants as we know them. On a side note, binary star systems are actually very common, and had Jupiter been a few times larger, it would have undergone thermo-nuclear fusion and began to shine by its own light. (By the way, I'm not much of a scientific authority but i do love astronomy as much as the next curious citizen of the cosmos.) Cheers, Alex", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 43806.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1joebc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Why are all the gas planets further from the sun as opposed to closer to it? Bonus question: do planets orbit around the sun at different angles? From illustrations it seems like they orbit on one plane.", "c_root_id_A": "cbgqdg9", "c_root_id_B": "cbhdcwf", "created_at_utc_A": 1375630424, "created_at_utc_B": 1375717142, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There isn't necessarily any reason for it. It could possibly be completely random. In fact, many of the planets we find orbiting other stars besides the sun, exoplanets, are gas giants orbiting very closely to their respective stars, sometimes absurdly quickly.   Of course, our most popular technique for finding exoplanets is predisposed to finding large planets somewhat close to their stars (we lock for a slight wobble in the host stars around their barycenter due to the gravity of planets orbiting) so it would be premature to determine whether this is a rare or common phenomenon.  As for the bonus question, yes, the orbit of planets do deviate from a single plane. Before Pluto was reclassified out of its planethood, it would have been the best example of this, almost at a 45 degree angle to our orbit. Also, many orbits are better classified as elliptical rather than perfectly round, just something to keep in mind!", "human_ref_B": "It's probably just an accident. Star systems with gas giants near the star are not uncommon.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 86718.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mssn2h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Do plants ever feel \"full\" if they absorb enough sunlight? For humans, we have hormones that tell us we feel full when we eat enough food. Do plants have a similar system that tells them when they absorb enough sunlight? What do they do with the excess energy they absorb?", "c_root_id_A": "guzxir7", "c_root_id_B": "gv1yowu", "created_at_utc_A": 1618772674, "created_at_utc_B": 1618813963, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Disclaimer, I'm not basing this off of anything I've read, but logically I doubt this would be needed.    Hunger and fullness exist in some animals because locomotive species have to go acquire food when we need to eat. We need intrinsic motivation not to starve to death. Don't think of fullness so much as prevention from eating more, but rather as a respite from the hunger that keeps an animal alive.    Plants having some kind of impulse that they are \"full\" would be evolutionarily pointless. Like, they can't really move so what would they even do about it? For the same reason, plants can't really feel \"hunger\" either. The best they can really do is bend towards the light when there's not enough, or out of it when it's too intense (this is more about tissue damage than \"making too much energy.\") Also, after a certain point of light intensity, a plant can't produce any more energy. There's only a certain amount of photons a plant can absorb at any given time, so shining more intense light on the plant once it's reached that point will have no real impact on its energy production.    To answer this question: > What do they do with the excess energy they absorb?  They can use it to grow faster, or produce more energy stores (akin to how animals produce fat when they eat more than necessary).", "human_ref_B": "*Feeling* is (as far as we know) a concept limited to organisms with a nervous system. However, the sensations we experience serve biological functions, as you alluded to, and these biological needs can be met in ways other than with a nervous system. Therefore, plants of course don't actually *feel* anything the way we conceive of feeling, but they have cellular-level mechanisms which regulate their metabolism. While in animals, the nervous system serves as a centralized regulator, compiling sensory information from across the body and then instructing the entire body to perform various actions, plants are much more decentralized. (Plants have hormones too, but these are likewise decentralized in production, whereas animals have an endocrine system that produces hormones in specific locations.)  Excessive sunlight is indeed an issue that plants are adapted to deal with. Photosynthesis actually requires very little energy compared to the amount available in typical sunlight, and much of the photosynthetic machinery is devoted to dissipating some of the energy from high-energy light, leaving only just enough for photosynthesis to occur. This is important because excess energy would unleash uncontrolled electrons from chlorophyll, and free electrons are bad news for living cells. Plants have a whole host of methods for avoiding excess light, including producing various chemicals that absorb and harmlessly dissipate light energy, or simply moving chloroplasts around within the cell so that they're physically shaded.  And like all organisms, plants have to keep their metabolism in balance. Excessive nutrient availability isn't really an issue for plants (except for things like metal micronutrients which are toxic in high concentrations), but biomolecules must be produced in the proper ratios. Producing lots of cellulose for cell walls is a waste of energy and resources if you don't also produce lipids for cell membranes, for instance. Many photosynthetic enzymes are down-regulated by sucrose (one of the main products of photosynthesis), and many are also regulated by redox state. Basically, photosynthesis produces strong reducing agents (chemicals which readily donate electrons to other molecules), and these can become hazardous if over-produced - or similarly, cells can run out of their precursors, in which case electrons start spilling out of photosynthesis and produce all sorts of nasty compounds. When the generation of reducing agents exceeds the capacity of carbon fixation (turning carbon dioxide into usage biomolecules), plants divert energy to other activities, such as reducing nitrate to ammonia in order to produce amino acids and then proteins. This sort of molecular-level regulation is by no means unique to plants; merely the specifics of *photosynthetic* metabolism are.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 41289.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mssn2h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Do plants ever feel \"full\" if they absorb enough sunlight? For humans, we have hormones that tell us we feel full when we eat enough food. Do plants have a similar system that tells them when they absorb enough sunlight? What do they do with the excess energy they absorb?", "c_root_id_A": "gv1yowu", "c_root_id_B": "gv1hiua", "created_at_utc_A": 1618813963, "created_at_utc_B": 1618801700, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "*Feeling* is (as far as we know) a concept limited to organisms with a nervous system. However, the sensations we experience serve biological functions, as you alluded to, and these biological needs can be met in ways other than with a nervous system. Therefore, plants of course don't actually *feel* anything the way we conceive of feeling, but they have cellular-level mechanisms which regulate their metabolism. While in animals, the nervous system serves as a centralized regulator, compiling sensory information from across the body and then instructing the entire body to perform various actions, plants are much more decentralized. (Plants have hormones too, but these are likewise decentralized in production, whereas animals have an endocrine system that produces hormones in specific locations.)  Excessive sunlight is indeed an issue that plants are adapted to deal with. Photosynthesis actually requires very little energy compared to the amount available in typical sunlight, and much of the photosynthetic machinery is devoted to dissipating some of the energy from high-energy light, leaving only just enough for photosynthesis to occur. This is important because excess energy would unleash uncontrolled electrons from chlorophyll, and free electrons are bad news for living cells. Plants have a whole host of methods for avoiding excess light, including producing various chemicals that absorb and harmlessly dissipate light energy, or simply moving chloroplasts around within the cell so that they're physically shaded.  And like all organisms, plants have to keep their metabolism in balance. Excessive nutrient availability isn't really an issue for plants (except for things like metal micronutrients which are toxic in high concentrations), but biomolecules must be produced in the proper ratios. Producing lots of cellulose for cell walls is a waste of energy and resources if you don't also produce lipids for cell membranes, for instance. Many photosynthetic enzymes are down-regulated by sucrose (one of the main products of photosynthesis), and many are also regulated by redox state. Basically, photosynthesis produces strong reducing agents (chemicals which readily donate electrons to other molecules), and these can become hazardous if over-produced - or similarly, cells can run out of their precursors, in which case electrons start spilling out of photosynthesis and produce all sorts of nasty compounds. When the generation of reducing agents exceeds the capacity of carbon fixation (turning carbon dioxide into usage biomolecules), plants divert energy to other activities, such as reducing nitrate to ammonia in order to produce amino acids and then proteins. This sort of molecular-level regulation is by no means unique to plants; merely the specifics of *photosynthetic* metabolism are.", "human_ref_B": "Kinda so if you give a plant too much sunlight its leafs in it's growth will start to get all messed up and so whatever that feels like.. might be a question of conscious...but that's sort of the  physiologic response when they had too much photons", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12263.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n542n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Could DNA have a form of primitive \"password protection\"? This question is inspired by a recent post about Covid RNA and why it had a polyA tail (a long sequence of As) at the end. The answers explained that this was a way of tracking the health of the RNA and that it was required for the proteins to be expressed.  Could an organism create a unique or semi unique tail (rather than simply a long series of As), a sort of \"password\", and use that as a form of protection against viruses that would need to know the exact \"password\" to hijack the specific organism?", "c_root_id_A": "gwzfg64", "c_root_id_B": "gwzewq8", "created_at_utc_A": 1620183897, "created_at_utc_B": 1620183608, "score_A": 592, "score_B": 73, "human_ref_A": "Somewhat related, bacteria have an antivirus mechanism that is surprisingly similar to computer antivirus mechanisms! They keep a table of \"bad guy\" DNA sequences, and have \"code\" that says \"if you see anything from this table, cut it up\".  Scientists discovered they could put their own sequences in the \"table\" and trick the machinery into cutting DNA exactly where they wanted. They could then use this technique to make precise edits to lengths of DNA in living cells. This is the basis of the famous, revolutionary \"CRISPR\" technique that was developed a few years ago.", "human_ref_B": "There are some processes involving methylation and acetylation of DNA that more or less work in this way, however the polyA tail is designed more to control the level of expression of a protein and to prevent mRNA from lingering too long in a cell, the way it works it just protects the mRNA from exonucleases, which degrade DNA from one end to the other (longer polyAs yield longer lifespans for mRNA)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 289.0, "score_ratio": 8.1095890411, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n542n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Could DNA have a form of primitive \"password protection\"? This question is inspired by a recent post about Covid RNA and why it had a polyA tail (a long sequence of As) at the end. The answers explained that this was a way of tracking the health of the RNA and that it was required for the proteins to be expressed.  Could an organism create a unique or semi unique tail (rather than simply a long series of As), a sort of \"password\", and use that as a form of protection against viruses that would need to know the exact \"password\" to hijack the specific organism?", "c_root_id_A": "gwzfg64", "c_root_id_B": "gwzedbg", "created_at_utc_A": 1620183897, "created_at_utc_B": 1620183323, "score_A": 592, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "Somewhat related, bacteria have an antivirus mechanism that is surprisingly similar to computer antivirus mechanisms! They keep a table of \"bad guy\" DNA sequences, and have \"code\" that says \"if you see anything from this table, cut it up\".  Scientists discovered they could put their own sequences in the \"table\" and trick the machinery into cutting DNA exactly where they wanted. They could then use this technique to make precise edits to lengths of DNA in living cells. This is the basis of the famous, revolutionary \"CRISPR\" technique that was developed a few years ago.", "human_ref_B": "Your idea would have them self-destruct as soon as theres a single error or single letter lost off the tail, i.e. wrong password.  The sequences need to survive errors as well as continuously losing tail letters, then after a optimal point in time, they need to self-destruct due to not enough tail.  I think you need to think of a hypothesis where somehow the following difference doesnt occur, in order for it to be plausible. The PolyA tail is a sort of timer fuse based on degrading, so your password idea needs degrade in some error-robust way that works as a timer too:  AAAAAAAA survive  AAAAAAA survive  AAAAAA survive  AAAAA survive  AAAA survive  AAA survive  AA survive  A survive  self destruct   PASSWORD survive  PASSWOR self destruct", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 574.0, "score_ratio": 12.5957446809, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n542n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Could DNA have a form of primitive \"password protection\"? This question is inspired by a recent post about Covid RNA and why it had a polyA tail (a long sequence of As) at the end. The answers explained that this was a way of tracking the health of the RNA and that it was required for the proteins to be expressed.  Could an organism create a unique or semi unique tail (rather than simply a long series of As), a sort of \"password\", and use that as a form of protection against viruses that would need to know the exact \"password\" to hijack the specific organism?", "c_root_id_A": "gwzewq8", "c_root_id_B": "gwzedbg", "created_at_utc_A": 1620183608, "created_at_utc_B": 1620183323, "score_A": 73, "score_B": 47, "human_ref_A": "There are some processes involving methylation and acetylation of DNA that more or less work in this way, however the polyA tail is designed more to control the level of expression of a protein and to prevent mRNA from lingering too long in a cell, the way it works it just protects the mRNA from exonucleases, which degrade DNA from one end to the other (longer polyAs yield longer lifespans for mRNA)", "human_ref_B": "Your idea would have them self-destruct as soon as theres a single error or single letter lost off the tail, i.e. wrong password.  The sequences need to survive errors as well as continuously losing tail letters, then after a optimal point in time, they need to self-destruct due to not enough tail.  I think you need to think of a hypothesis where somehow the following difference doesnt occur, in order for it to be plausible. The PolyA tail is a sort of timer fuse based on degrading, so your password idea needs degrade in some error-robust way that works as a timer too:  AAAAAAAA survive  AAAAAAA survive  AAAAAA survive  AAAAA survive  AAAA survive  AAA survive  AA survive  A survive  self destruct   PASSWORD survive  PASSWOR self destruct", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 285.0, "score_ratio": 1.5531914894, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n542n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Could DNA have a form of primitive \"password protection\"? This question is inspired by a recent post about Covid RNA and why it had a polyA tail (a long sequence of As) at the end. The answers explained that this was a way of tracking the health of the RNA and that it was required for the proteins to be expressed.  Could an organism create a unique or semi unique tail (rather than simply a long series of As), a sort of \"password\", and use that as a form of protection against viruses that would need to know the exact \"password\" to hijack the specific organism?", "c_root_id_A": "gx0i3ux", "c_root_id_B": "gwzi873", "created_at_utc_A": 1620213561, "created_at_utc_B": 1620185391, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Covid does this! It has the opposite effect of what you described - Covid RNAs have a \u201cpassword\u201d that prevents the cell from efficiently making proteins from normal RNA, but \u201cunlocks\u201d the machinery when it recognizes a Covid RNA. It\u2019s kind of horrifying.  I actually have to review the paper today for a final exam - you\u2019ve given me a good reason to write a better summary of it.  I\u2019ll be back...   **EDIT**  I'm back! For those of you who want to take a deep dive, the paper I'm referencing is Banerjee et al., 2020. I'm just going to summarize the part that's relevant to OP's question, but they also describe a few other novel aspects of SARS-CoV2 biology.   Here's hoping I do it justice.   **tl;dr:** Viruses can't replicate by themselves - they hijack your cells machinery and force them to make more virus. Sars-CoV-2 has two features that prevent the cell from efficiently making normal cell proteins, but permit production of viral proteins. The first of these is a \"lock\" that inhibits your cell's protein production machinery. The second is a \"key\" on viral RNAs that move this lock out of the way. This ensures that an infected cell is really bad at doing anything besides making viral proteins.  Some important molecular biology background & jargon:   * mRNA is the genetic material that your cells copy (or \"*transcribe\"*) from your genome that contains instructions on how to make a protein. While your DNA has instructions for >20,000 proteins, each transcript only has instructions for one. * The instructions in mRNA are mostly for the **ribosome** \\- the cellular machinery that \"reads\" the mRNA nucleotides and *\"translates\"* them from a nucleotide language into the protein language - amino acids. As it reads the mRNA, it adds the correct amino acid to a growing chain - creating a functional protein based on the mRNA's instructions. * mRNA also contain other sorts of instructions - such as where the mRNA (and eventually protein) should be located, or how long the mRNA should exist before getting degraded by the cell. OP mentioned the Poly-A tail, which is located in the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) - all the way at the end. * Another one of these regions is the 5'-UTR. This contains lots of important instructions. Importantly, this region is recognized by machinery that causes the ribosome to assemble around the mRNA's 5'-UTR. * After the ribosome assembles around the 5'-UTR, it will \"scan\" down the mRNA until it finds the *\"start codon\"* \\- the first nucleotides in the mRNA molecule that represent *coding* instructions for the ribosome to *translate* into an amino acid.   Ok, cool. Most of you probably knew this, but hey - it's good practice for me.   As I said in the tl;dr, coronaviruses have two features that constitute this \"password\" system: a protein-based lock, and a mRNA-based password.  **The Lock:**  Coronaviruses (SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV2, etc) include instructions for a protein called **NSP1**. Once produced by an infected cell, NSP1 is sufficient to block translation - the process by which protein is synthesized based on an mRNA template. These authors show that NSP1 actually **binds to the ribosome** (Figure 4B) and **prevent it from \"scanning\" for the start codon** (Figure 4J)**.** This suppresses protein expression in the cell (Figure 4C, D, H, I)   This is a bit unintuitive at first, since the whole point of infection is that viruses require a host cell's ribosome. While a bit over-simplistic, we can imagine a single SARS-CoV-2 particle as a bunch of RNA in a protein container. The only way for the virus to replicate and go on to infect other cells is if the RNA it delivers is translated by the host cell's ribosome. Wouldn't inhibiting the ribosome be counter-productive?  **The Key:**  It turns out that SARS-CoV-2 mRNA has a \"leader sequence\" in its 5'-UTR. This leader sequence folds into a series of \"stem loops\" - the first of which binds to and displaces NSP1 (Figure 5F). After displacing NSP1, the ribosome is free to translate the viral RNA. In the same system where the authors showed that cells are inefficient at expressing an introduced protein like GFP or mCherry, they showed that adding leader sequences to GFP or mCherry mRNA dramatically improved their expression (Figure 5B, D). Similarly, when they took that leader sequence away from viral mRNAs, even viral proteins became inefficiently expressed (Figure 5C, E).   So there you have it! mRNA can, in fact, contain a password-like feature. In the case of SARS-CoV-2, this requires expression of an additional \"lock\" in order to be effective.", "human_ref_B": "That wouldn't really work for 1 main reason: viral DNA and DNA from the organism that's being infected aren't in contact until after infection. In most multicellular organisms, antiviral defense starts before infection into the cell. DNA based defense is a bit late in the game.  For unicellular organisms there are a bunch of ways to recognize foreign vs self DNA but bacteria and viruses are constantly evolving new defense mechanisms and ways to bypass those and so on.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 28170.0, "score_ratio": 3.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n542n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Could DNA have a form of primitive \"password protection\"? This question is inspired by a recent post about Covid RNA and why it had a polyA tail (a long sequence of As) at the end. The answers explained that this was a way of tracking the health of the RNA and that it was required for the proteins to be expressed.  Could an organism create a unique or semi unique tail (rather than simply a long series of As), a sort of \"password\", and use that as a form of protection against viruses that would need to know the exact \"password\" to hijack the specific organism?", "c_root_id_A": "gwznsns", "c_root_id_B": "gx0i3ux", "created_at_utc_A": 1620188644, "created_at_utc_B": 1620213561, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Well what you are talking about only relates to translation of proteins. Viruses can do much more than that.  We do have a primitive password protection via ribosome translation and degradation of RNA. But some viruses have already overcome that as well. Certain negative sense RNA viruses can \"snatch\" RNA caps from the host cells' RNAs (probably by using some CRSPR like mechanism), and/or making a \"fake\" poly A tails using similar structures so the host machinery can make viral proteins.   Other viruses like retrovirus, herpes and some other DNA viruses came in already armed to the teeth with \"accessories proteins\" (think of these are the viruses' bag of tricks\". With these proteins, they can do things such as copying themselves into host's DNA (retro) and basically alter the machine that makes the \"password\", hide (herpes) and make more copies when the host cell slips up when immune status changes. They can also make minute changes to the host cell's physiology to fit whatever the virus wants. Up-down regulating ions, hormones, immune receptors, manipulating cellular skeleton, etc...  Viruses have been here longer than probably most living things, and they've learned a few tricks along the way. They're the only organism on earth that blatantly disobey the central dogma of biology... that is just to say the least of what they can do.", "human_ref_B": "Covid does this! It has the opposite effect of what you described - Covid RNAs have a \u201cpassword\u201d that prevents the cell from efficiently making proteins from normal RNA, but \u201cunlocks\u201d the machinery when it recognizes a Covid RNA. It\u2019s kind of horrifying.  I actually have to review the paper today for a final exam - you\u2019ve given me a good reason to write a better summary of it.  I\u2019ll be back...   **EDIT**  I'm back! For those of you who want to take a deep dive, the paper I'm referencing is Banerjee et al., 2020. I'm just going to summarize the part that's relevant to OP's question, but they also describe a few other novel aspects of SARS-CoV2 biology.   Here's hoping I do it justice.   **tl;dr:** Viruses can't replicate by themselves - they hijack your cells machinery and force them to make more virus. Sars-CoV-2 has two features that prevent the cell from efficiently making normal cell proteins, but permit production of viral proteins. The first of these is a \"lock\" that inhibits your cell's protein production machinery. The second is a \"key\" on viral RNAs that move this lock out of the way. This ensures that an infected cell is really bad at doing anything besides making viral proteins.  Some important molecular biology background & jargon:   * mRNA is the genetic material that your cells copy (or \"*transcribe\"*) from your genome that contains instructions on how to make a protein. While your DNA has instructions for >20,000 proteins, each transcript only has instructions for one. * The instructions in mRNA are mostly for the **ribosome** \\- the cellular machinery that \"reads\" the mRNA nucleotides and *\"translates\"* them from a nucleotide language into the protein language - amino acids. As it reads the mRNA, it adds the correct amino acid to a growing chain - creating a functional protein based on the mRNA's instructions. * mRNA also contain other sorts of instructions - such as where the mRNA (and eventually protein) should be located, or how long the mRNA should exist before getting degraded by the cell. OP mentioned the Poly-A tail, which is located in the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) - all the way at the end. * Another one of these regions is the 5'-UTR. This contains lots of important instructions. Importantly, this region is recognized by machinery that causes the ribosome to assemble around the mRNA's 5'-UTR. * After the ribosome assembles around the 5'-UTR, it will \"scan\" down the mRNA until it finds the *\"start codon\"* \\- the first nucleotides in the mRNA molecule that represent *coding* instructions for the ribosome to *translate* into an amino acid.   Ok, cool. Most of you probably knew this, but hey - it's good practice for me.   As I said in the tl;dr, coronaviruses have two features that constitute this \"password\" system: a protein-based lock, and a mRNA-based password.  **The Lock:**  Coronaviruses (SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV2, etc) include instructions for a protein called **NSP1**. Once produced by an infected cell, NSP1 is sufficient to block translation - the process by which protein is synthesized based on an mRNA template. These authors show that NSP1 actually **binds to the ribosome** (Figure 4B) and **prevent it from \"scanning\" for the start codon** (Figure 4J)**.** This suppresses protein expression in the cell (Figure 4C, D, H, I)   This is a bit unintuitive at first, since the whole point of infection is that viruses require a host cell's ribosome. While a bit over-simplistic, we can imagine a single SARS-CoV-2 particle as a bunch of RNA in a protein container. The only way for the virus to replicate and go on to infect other cells is if the RNA it delivers is translated by the host cell's ribosome. Wouldn't inhibiting the ribosome be counter-productive?  **The Key:**  It turns out that SARS-CoV-2 mRNA has a \"leader sequence\" in its 5'-UTR. This leader sequence folds into a series of \"stem loops\" - the first of which binds to and displaces NSP1 (Figure 5F). After displacing NSP1, the ribosome is free to translate the viral RNA. In the same system where the authors showed that cells are inefficient at expressing an introduced protein like GFP or mCherry, they showed that adding leader sequences to GFP or mCherry mRNA dramatically improved their expression (Figure 5B, D). Similarly, when they took that leader sequence away from viral mRNAs, even viral proteins became inefficiently expressed (Figure 5C, E).   So there you have it! mRNA can, in fact, contain a password-like feature. In the case of SARS-CoV-2, this requires expression of an additional \"lock\" in order to be effective.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24917.0, "score_ratio": 5.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n542n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Could DNA have a form of primitive \"password protection\"? This question is inspired by a recent post about Covid RNA and why it had a polyA tail (a long sequence of As) at the end. The answers explained that this was a way of tracking the health of the RNA and that it was required for the proteins to be expressed.  Could an organism create a unique or semi unique tail (rather than simply a long series of As), a sort of \"password\", and use that as a form of protection against viruses that would need to know the exact \"password\" to hijack the specific organism?", "c_root_id_A": "gwzvyqf", "c_root_id_B": "gx0i3ux", "created_at_utc_A": 1620194271, "created_at_utc_B": 1620213561, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "The polyA tail doesn\u2019t serve any immunological function like you\u2019re implying, I.e a unique tail would not provide any protection.   RNA molecules generally are polyadenylated before leaving the nucleus, as the polyA tail prevents the RNA from being degraded by enzymes before being translated into a protein. The tail is gradually degraded, and its length determines how long it exists in the cytosine before being degraded.   The RNA COVID vaccine just has an especially long polyA tail because it spends more time in serum before being expressed, and we need it to not degrade as quickly as it would otherwise.", "human_ref_B": "Covid does this! It has the opposite effect of what you described - Covid RNAs have a \u201cpassword\u201d that prevents the cell from efficiently making proteins from normal RNA, but \u201cunlocks\u201d the machinery when it recognizes a Covid RNA. It\u2019s kind of horrifying.  I actually have to review the paper today for a final exam - you\u2019ve given me a good reason to write a better summary of it.  I\u2019ll be back...   **EDIT**  I'm back! For those of you who want to take a deep dive, the paper I'm referencing is Banerjee et al., 2020. I'm just going to summarize the part that's relevant to OP's question, but they also describe a few other novel aspects of SARS-CoV2 biology.   Here's hoping I do it justice.   **tl;dr:** Viruses can't replicate by themselves - they hijack your cells machinery and force them to make more virus. Sars-CoV-2 has two features that prevent the cell from efficiently making normal cell proteins, but permit production of viral proteins. The first of these is a \"lock\" that inhibits your cell's protein production machinery. The second is a \"key\" on viral RNAs that move this lock out of the way. This ensures that an infected cell is really bad at doing anything besides making viral proteins.  Some important molecular biology background & jargon:   * mRNA is the genetic material that your cells copy (or \"*transcribe\"*) from your genome that contains instructions on how to make a protein. While your DNA has instructions for >20,000 proteins, each transcript only has instructions for one. * The instructions in mRNA are mostly for the **ribosome** \\- the cellular machinery that \"reads\" the mRNA nucleotides and *\"translates\"* them from a nucleotide language into the protein language - amino acids. As it reads the mRNA, it adds the correct amino acid to a growing chain - creating a functional protein based on the mRNA's instructions. * mRNA also contain other sorts of instructions - such as where the mRNA (and eventually protein) should be located, or how long the mRNA should exist before getting degraded by the cell. OP mentioned the Poly-A tail, which is located in the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) - all the way at the end. * Another one of these regions is the 5'-UTR. This contains lots of important instructions. Importantly, this region is recognized by machinery that causes the ribosome to assemble around the mRNA's 5'-UTR. * After the ribosome assembles around the 5'-UTR, it will \"scan\" down the mRNA until it finds the *\"start codon\"* \\- the first nucleotides in the mRNA molecule that represent *coding* instructions for the ribosome to *translate* into an amino acid.   Ok, cool. Most of you probably knew this, but hey - it's good practice for me.   As I said in the tl;dr, coronaviruses have two features that constitute this \"password\" system: a protein-based lock, and a mRNA-based password.  **The Lock:**  Coronaviruses (SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV2, etc) include instructions for a protein called **NSP1**. Once produced by an infected cell, NSP1 is sufficient to block translation - the process by which protein is synthesized based on an mRNA template. These authors show that NSP1 actually **binds to the ribosome** (Figure 4B) and **prevent it from \"scanning\" for the start codon** (Figure 4J)**.** This suppresses protein expression in the cell (Figure 4C, D, H, I)   This is a bit unintuitive at first, since the whole point of infection is that viruses require a host cell's ribosome. While a bit over-simplistic, we can imagine a single SARS-CoV-2 particle as a bunch of RNA in a protein container. The only way for the virus to replicate and go on to infect other cells is if the RNA it delivers is translated by the host cell's ribosome. Wouldn't inhibiting the ribosome be counter-productive?  **The Key:**  It turns out that SARS-CoV-2 mRNA has a \"leader sequence\" in its 5'-UTR. This leader sequence folds into a series of \"stem loops\" - the first of which binds to and displaces NSP1 (Figure 5F). After displacing NSP1, the ribosome is free to translate the viral RNA. In the same system where the authors showed that cells are inefficient at expressing an introduced protein like GFP or mCherry, they showed that adding leader sequences to GFP or mCherry mRNA dramatically improved their expression (Figure 5B, D). Similarly, when they took that leader sequence away from viral mRNAs, even viral proteins became inefficiently expressed (Figure 5C, E).   So there you have it! mRNA can, in fact, contain a password-like feature. In the case of SARS-CoV-2, this requires expression of an additional \"lock\" in order to be effective.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19290.0, "score_ratio": 4.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n542n1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Could DNA have a form of primitive \"password protection\"? This question is inspired by a recent post about Covid RNA and why it had a polyA tail (a long sequence of As) at the end. The answers explained that this was a way of tracking the health of the RNA and that it was required for the proteins to be expressed.  Could an organism create a unique or semi unique tail (rather than simply a long series of As), a sort of \"password\", and use that as a form of protection against viruses that would need to know the exact \"password\" to hijack the specific organism?", "c_root_id_A": "gwzvyqf", "c_root_id_B": "gwznsns", "created_at_utc_A": 1620194271, "created_at_utc_B": 1620188644, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The polyA tail doesn\u2019t serve any immunological function like you\u2019re implying, I.e a unique tail would not provide any protection.   RNA molecules generally are polyadenylated before leaving the nucleus, as the polyA tail prevents the RNA from being degraded by enzymes before being translated into a protein. The tail is gradually degraded, and its length determines how long it exists in the cytosine before being degraded.   The RNA COVID vaccine just has an especially long polyA tail because it spends more time in serum before being expressed, and we need it to not degrade as quickly as it would otherwise.", "human_ref_B": "Well what you are talking about only relates to translation of proteins. Viruses can do much more than that.  We do have a primitive password protection via ribosome translation and degradation of RNA. But some viruses have already overcome that as well. Certain negative sense RNA viruses can \"snatch\" RNA caps from the host cells' RNAs (probably by using some CRSPR like mechanism), and/or making a \"fake\" poly A tails using similar structures so the host machinery can make viral proteins.   Other viruses like retrovirus, herpes and some other DNA viruses came in already armed to the teeth with \"accessories proteins\" (think of these are the viruses' bag of tricks\". With these proteins, they can do things such as copying themselves into host's DNA (retro) and basically alter the machine that makes the \"password\", hide (herpes) and make more copies when the host cell slips up when immune status changes. They can also make minute changes to the host cell's physiology to fit whatever the virus wants. Up-down regulating ions, hormones, immune receptors, manipulating cellular skeleton, etc...  Viruses have been here longer than probably most living things, and they've learned a few tricks along the way. They're the only organism on earth that blatantly disobey the central dogma of biology... that is just to say the least of what they can do.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5627.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdd356g", "c_root_id_B": "cdcuvcq", "created_at_utc_A": 1384313814, "created_at_utc_B": 1384294540, "score_A": 1011, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "Designing a computer language is a pretty tricky business, really. There are a lot of tradeoffs to be made, which explains why there are so dang many of them. When starting a new one from scratch, you ask yourself a lot of questions. Ultimately, the question that matters most is, \"What do I want to be _easy_ in this language?\" You might even call it the First Question of Computing.  That's only half the problem, however. To understand the second half, let's take a little detour into the mid 20th century, and look at computers themselves.  Now, ever since the first computers came online, we brave and foolish folks who program them have had a vast number of varied answers to this question. Some folks wanted to make war simpler, some wanted to make intelligence simpler. But in general, the early computers were often single purpose machines.  Enter ENIAC, which is often called the first \"general purpose\" computer. All of a sudden, we had a machine which could do a lot of different things. This was exciting! And terrifying at the same time. How do you tell a computer the size of a small house that you want to calculate the logarithm of any number you give it, just as a simple example?  The answer was to have a very small number of very simple instructions that the computer could perform, and then build up from this small instruction set, combining them in various orders, until you eventually make a \"program\" that does what you want. Amazingly, this still holds true today! Your typical PC running what's called the x86 instruction set is basically just performing a bunch of the same small(-ish) number of instructions over and over, until you get what you wanted to get.  As a brief aside, mathematicians had already attempted this reduction of an algorithm to the most [basic set of operations and postulates - let's just say it didn't go so well, and both mathematicians and computer programmers are struggling with some fundamental problems that fell out even today.]  One key feature of almost all instruction sets is their emphasis on arithmetic. There's a reason we call computers \"computers\", after all. The designers of the earliest computers answered the First Question of Computing with \"I want _math_ to be easy.\" So computers got really good at math, really quickly.  Unfortunately, as the things we asked computers to do became more and more complex, it became very tedious to construct programs using that very small set of possible instructions. One particularly forward thinking programmer decided one day to add a layer of indirection between the program writer, and the machine. Basically, she decided to answer the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make _writing complex mathematical algorithms_ easy.\" The first of the truly great computer programming languages, FORTRAN, was finally born.  FORTRAN allows the programmer to type things like \"do the following thing 10 times\", written not in instruction-set codes, but in plain old English. This was an enormous step forward, but involved some sleight of hand behind the scenes. Basically, the FORTRAN compiler would read in the program which was nice to human eyes, and for each line of code, it would create a bunch of those instructions from the instruction set that preserved the intent of that line of code, but could now be executed by the machine. This truly was wizardry of the highest order.  Very much like a growing baby, FORTRAN changed and grew as the years went by, as different people asked it to answer the First Question of Computing in different ways. Computers started to get smaller and faster, and made their way into the home. All of a sudden, folks much like myself started to give _very_ different answers to the First Question of Computing. We were playing with the computer, exploring what it would let us do, what it could be pushed to do.  With this large set of new things that people wanted to be _easy_ to do on a computer, a whole slew of new languages popped up. Some of them let you manipulate lists) really easily, some of them let you manipulate hardware really easily. In each language, it was easy to do some things, but remember those tradeoffs I mentioned right at the beginning? They were right about to bite us programmers in the butt.  In C, for instance, it is in fact very easy to manipulate hardware. Many operating systems are written in C for just this reason. Unfortunately, making it easy to manipulate hardware makes it really hard to manage your computer's memory, among other things. C programmers spend a lot of time worrying about where _exactly_ they stored this variable or that string, how to get rid of it, how to let other parts of the program know where it is. Needless to say, if you're not answering the First Question of Computing with \"I want to make hardware manipulation easy\", C is going to give you a rough ride.  The designers of Java), for instance, answered the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make running on lots of different machines easy\". While the jury may still be out on whether or not they succeeded, they did have a clear vision because they succinctly answered the First Question of Computing. (A few other global principles went into the design as well, of course.)  Now for each of these new computer languages, you'd have a different grammar) that defined what a legal line of code looks like, much like English grammar is different than Finnish grammar. Both let you speak and convey meaning, but they sound pretty darn different.  What's the same, however, is that for each line of code in the \"high-level\" language, we use a compiler or interpreter to transform our friendly code into the kind of instructions the machine likes to read. This constant, this fundamental purpose of the compiler, is the second half of designing a computer language. First it parses your friendly code, then generates) machine code.  We can now hopefully answer what it means to create a new programming language. First, you need to answer the First Question of Computing. Once you have decided how _you_ want to answer that question, then you write the grammar that fulfills your answer, and the compiler that translates your grammar to the grammar of the underlying machine instruction set.  This process, this mapping between two different levels of representation, but a map that _preserves meaning_, is far and away one of the most amazing ideas I've ever learned about. It has applications in a huge number of different endeavors, across all walks of life. It is the idea of a _code_. The fact that you asked this question means you've taken your first step into a truly amazing journey. Stay curious :)", "human_ref_B": "At the bottom, as /u/somethingpretentious said, it all has to be translated to 1s and 0s, or machine code, as that's the only thing the computer can understand.  So to see how a programming language tells the computer what to do, we should first look at how machine code tells the computer what to do. It does that by connecting certain sequences of those digits to certain actions.  This might be what a piece of machine code could look like. (I just invented these particular sequences, though. I've grouped it up in 8 digits because machine code is typically made up of bytes.)      00001100 00100100     00001000 00010000 00010011     00001011 00010000  The computer gets meaning out of this by sending these sequences through complicated arrangements of logic gates. Here's what this sequence *could* mean: (Register A is a place for storing a single number in the processor. Let's assume A is zero at the beginning.)      add the following number to Register A (00001100)                         36 (00100100)                              -- The value in A is now 36. (00100100 is 36 in binary)     store in this address in the RAM that number (00001000)             Address: 00010000 Number: 19 (00010011)          -- The RAM is basically a series of Registers, each of which have a number (or address) instead of a name, and in each of which you can store a number.     substract the number in the following RAM address from A (00001011) Address: 00010000                                -- The value in A is now 17.   You could now do other things, like printing the number in A onto the screen, for which there would be another sequence of digits.  The first thing you can do to make it easier for humans to read and write code is to write the numbers in hexadecimal instead of binary. This is very easy to translate back and forth. The code would then look like this (still grouped in Bytes):      0C 24     08 10 13     0B 10  That is a little bit easier to read, but still pretty much meaningless for a human without a lot of practice. The next step is to translate these numbers to words, which would be Assembly (0x means that it is a hexadecimal number):      ADD A 36             -- we need to write 'A' here, because the sequence 00001100 was only used for adding something to A, but 'ADD' is also used for other additions     STORE [0x10] 19      -- we use [x] to say that x is an address, not a number     SUB A [0x10]  The translation of this is still fairly straightforward, though slightly more complicated. Though from here on out, it gets much more difficult to make improvements. That is because we want the user to get away from the level of the machine. He should, for example, be able to introduce variables and give them names, and then refer to these names instead of the address in the RAM. He should also be able to write his own functions (or methods, if you prefer). This is quite a bit more complicated, but can be expressed in Assembly. Functions are just sequences of instructions which can be saved in the RAM, which might refer to specific addresses for getting their arguments.  He should also be able to have variables which store not just numbers, but Strings and Lists and Pictures. That means you have to encode them to look like numbers, and they will likely need more than one byte of RAM.  Many modern programming languages end at this step. Some go one step further: Their code is translated to code of other modern programming languages, which is then translated to assembly.  I hope this is somewhat understandable and gives you an insight.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19274.0, "score_ratio": 14.0416666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdcu0pv", "c_root_id_B": "cdd356g", "created_at_utc_A": 1384292699, "created_at_utc_B": 1384313814, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1011, "human_ref_A": "A compiler reads the text of your code and converts it into a list of machine instructions that is saved as an executable. The computer runs the executable by starting at the first instruction, executing it, then moving to the next instruction etc etc. Languages like C and C++ compile to binary, where each instruction is a number that is directly run by the CPU as a CPU instruction. Interpreted languages like Java don't directly compile to machine instructions, instead using a virtual machine.  To make your own language, you have to write a compiler. The first compilers were written in binary code by hand.", "human_ref_B": "Designing a computer language is a pretty tricky business, really. There are a lot of tradeoffs to be made, which explains why there are so dang many of them. When starting a new one from scratch, you ask yourself a lot of questions. Ultimately, the question that matters most is, \"What do I want to be _easy_ in this language?\" You might even call it the First Question of Computing.  That's only half the problem, however. To understand the second half, let's take a little detour into the mid 20th century, and look at computers themselves.  Now, ever since the first computers came online, we brave and foolish folks who program them have had a vast number of varied answers to this question. Some folks wanted to make war simpler, some wanted to make intelligence simpler. But in general, the early computers were often single purpose machines.  Enter ENIAC, which is often called the first \"general purpose\" computer. All of a sudden, we had a machine which could do a lot of different things. This was exciting! And terrifying at the same time. How do you tell a computer the size of a small house that you want to calculate the logarithm of any number you give it, just as a simple example?  The answer was to have a very small number of very simple instructions that the computer could perform, and then build up from this small instruction set, combining them in various orders, until you eventually make a \"program\" that does what you want. Amazingly, this still holds true today! Your typical PC running what's called the x86 instruction set is basically just performing a bunch of the same small(-ish) number of instructions over and over, until you get what you wanted to get.  As a brief aside, mathematicians had already attempted this reduction of an algorithm to the most [basic set of operations and postulates - let's just say it didn't go so well, and both mathematicians and computer programmers are struggling with some fundamental problems that fell out even today.]  One key feature of almost all instruction sets is their emphasis on arithmetic. There's a reason we call computers \"computers\", after all. The designers of the earliest computers answered the First Question of Computing with \"I want _math_ to be easy.\" So computers got really good at math, really quickly.  Unfortunately, as the things we asked computers to do became more and more complex, it became very tedious to construct programs using that very small set of possible instructions. One particularly forward thinking programmer decided one day to add a layer of indirection between the program writer, and the machine. Basically, she decided to answer the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make _writing complex mathematical algorithms_ easy.\" The first of the truly great computer programming languages, FORTRAN, was finally born.  FORTRAN allows the programmer to type things like \"do the following thing 10 times\", written not in instruction-set codes, but in plain old English. This was an enormous step forward, but involved some sleight of hand behind the scenes. Basically, the FORTRAN compiler would read in the program which was nice to human eyes, and for each line of code, it would create a bunch of those instructions from the instruction set that preserved the intent of that line of code, but could now be executed by the machine. This truly was wizardry of the highest order.  Very much like a growing baby, FORTRAN changed and grew as the years went by, as different people asked it to answer the First Question of Computing in different ways. Computers started to get smaller and faster, and made their way into the home. All of a sudden, folks much like myself started to give _very_ different answers to the First Question of Computing. We were playing with the computer, exploring what it would let us do, what it could be pushed to do.  With this large set of new things that people wanted to be _easy_ to do on a computer, a whole slew of new languages popped up. Some of them let you manipulate lists) really easily, some of them let you manipulate hardware really easily. In each language, it was easy to do some things, but remember those tradeoffs I mentioned right at the beginning? They were right about to bite us programmers in the butt.  In C, for instance, it is in fact very easy to manipulate hardware. Many operating systems are written in C for just this reason. Unfortunately, making it easy to manipulate hardware makes it really hard to manage your computer's memory, among other things. C programmers spend a lot of time worrying about where _exactly_ they stored this variable or that string, how to get rid of it, how to let other parts of the program know where it is. Needless to say, if you're not answering the First Question of Computing with \"I want to make hardware manipulation easy\", C is going to give you a rough ride.  The designers of Java), for instance, answered the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make running on lots of different machines easy\". While the jury may still be out on whether or not they succeeded, they did have a clear vision because they succinctly answered the First Question of Computing. (A few other global principles went into the design as well, of course.)  Now for each of these new computer languages, you'd have a different grammar) that defined what a legal line of code looks like, much like English grammar is different than Finnish grammar. Both let you speak and convey meaning, but they sound pretty darn different.  What's the same, however, is that for each line of code in the \"high-level\" language, we use a compiler or interpreter to transform our friendly code into the kind of instructions the machine likes to read. This constant, this fundamental purpose of the compiler, is the second half of designing a computer language. First it parses your friendly code, then generates) machine code.  We can now hopefully answer what it means to create a new programming language. First, you need to answer the First Question of Computing. Once you have decided how _you_ want to answer that question, then you write the grammar that fulfills your answer, and the compiler that translates your grammar to the grammar of the underlying machine instruction set.  This process, this mapping between two different levels of representation, but a map that _preserves meaning_, is far and away one of the most amazing ideas I've ever learned about. It has applications in a huge number of different endeavors, across all walks of life. It is the idea of a _code_. The fact that you asked this question means you've taken your first step into a truly amazing journey. Stay curious :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 21115.0, "score_ratio": 126.375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdd356g", "c_root_id_B": "cdcxzlo", "created_at_utc_A": 1384313814, "created_at_utc_B": 1384301648, "score_A": 1011, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Designing a computer language is a pretty tricky business, really. There are a lot of tradeoffs to be made, which explains why there are so dang many of them. When starting a new one from scratch, you ask yourself a lot of questions. Ultimately, the question that matters most is, \"What do I want to be _easy_ in this language?\" You might even call it the First Question of Computing.  That's only half the problem, however. To understand the second half, let's take a little detour into the mid 20th century, and look at computers themselves.  Now, ever since the first computers came online, we brave and foolish folks who program them have had a vast number of varied answers to this question. Some folks wanted to make war simpler, some wanted to make intelligence simpler. But in general, the early computers were often single purpose machines.  Enter ENIAC, which is often called the first \"general purpose\" computer. All of a sudden, we had a machine which could do a lot of different things. This was exciting! And terrifying at the same time. How do you tell a computer the size of a small house that you want to calculate the logarithm of any number you give it, just as a simple example?  The answer was to have a very small number of very simple instructions that the computer could perform, and then build up from this small instruction set, combining them in various orders, until you eventually make a \"program\" that does what you want. Amazingly, this still holds true today! Your typical PC running what's called the x86 instruction set is basically just performing a bunch of the same small(-ish) number of instructions over and over, until you get what you wanted to get.  As a brief aside, mathematicians had already attempted this reduction of an algorithm to the most [basic set of operations and postulates - let's just say it didn't go so well, and both mathematicians and computer programmers are struggling with some fundamental problems that fell out even today.]  One key feature of almost all instruction sets is their emphasis on arithmetic. There's a reason we call computers \"computers\", after all. The designers of the earliest computers answered the First Question of Computing with \"I want _math_ to be easy.\" So computers got really good at math, really quickly.  Unfortunately, as the things we asked computers to do became more and more complex, it became very tedious to construct programs using that very small set of possible instructions. One particularly forward thinking programmer decided one day to add a layer of indirection between the program writer, and the machine. Basically, she decided to answer the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make _writing complex mathematical algorithms_ easy.\" The first of the truly great computer programming languages, FORTRAN, was finally born.  FORTRAN allows the programmer to type things like \"do the following thing 10 times\", written not in instruction-set codes, but in plain old English. This was an enormous step forward, but involved some sleight of hand behind the scenes. Basically, the FORTRAN compiler would read in the program which was nice to human eyes, and for each line of code, it would create a bunch of those instructions from the instruction set that preserved the intent of that line of code, but could now be executed by the machine. This truly was wizardry of the highest order.  Very much like a growing baby, FORTRAN changed and grew as the years went by, as different people asked it to answer the First Question of Computing in different ways. Computers started to get smaller and faster, and made their way into the home. All of a sudden, folks much like myself started to give _very_ different answers to the First Question of Computing. We were playing with the computer, exploring what it would let us do, what it could be pushed to do.  With this large set of new things that people wanted to be _easy_ to do on a computer, a whole slew of new languages popped up. Some of them let you manipulate lists) really easily, some of them let you manipulate hardware really easily. In each language, it was easy to do some things, but remember those tradeoffs I mentioned right at the beginning? They were right about to bite us programmers in the butt.  In C, for instance, it is in fact very easy to manipulate hardware. Many operating systems are written in C for just this reason. Unfortunately, making it easy to manipulate hardware makes it really hard to manage your computer's memory, among other things. C programmers spend a lot of time worrying about where _exactly_ they stored this variable or that string, how to get rid of it, how to let other parts of the program know where it is. Needless to say, if you're not answering the First Question of Computing with \"I want to make hardware manipulation easy\", C is going to give you a rough ride.  The designers of Java), for instance, answered the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make running on lots of different machines easy\". While the jury may still be out on whether or not they succeeded, they did have a clear vision because they succinctly answered the First Question of Computing. (A few other global principles went into the design as well, of course.)  Now for each of these new computer languages, you'd have a different grammar) that defined what a legal line of code looks like, much like English grammar is different than Finnish grammar. Both let you speak and convey meaning, but they sound pretty darn different.  What's the same, however, is that for each line of code in the \"high-level\" language, we use a compiler or interpreter to transform our friendly code into the kind of instructions the machine likes to read. This constant, this fundamental purpose of the compiler, is the second half of designing a computer language. First it parses your friendly code, then generates) machine code.  We can now hopefully answer what it means to create a new programming language. First, you need to answer the First Question of Computing. Once you have decided how _you_ want to answer that question, then you write the grammar that fulfills your answer, and the compiler that translates your grammar to the grammar of the underlying machine instruction set.  This process, this mapping between two different levels of representation, but a map that _preserves meaning_, is far and away one of the most amazing ideas I've ever learned about. It has applications in a huge number of different endeavors, across all walks of life. It is the idea of a _code_. The fact that you asked this question means you've taken your first step into a truly amazing journey. Stay curious :)", "human_ref_B": "Most definitely, any programming language, compiled or otherwise eventually makes its way to a compiler (or another compiled program), which in turn takes a source file (user code) and makes machine code out of it. A caveat of this would be assembly, which as the name implies isn't compiled but simply assembled. You should definitely take at look at toy compilers, here and here. I wouldn't say making a toy language is trivial, and personally haven't done it, but simple logic operators wouldn't be too difficult to implement.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12166.0, "score_ratio": 202.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdd0tfb", "c_root_id_B": "cdd356g", "created_at_utc_A": 1384308353, "created_at_utc_B": 1384313814, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1011, "human_ref_A": "The top comment is talking about machine code in general. While what he is saying is correct, it only really explains one of the many examples of programming languages.  A programming language is just like any other language. I'm talking like English or Spanish, in the sense that it has it's own grammar. Grammar is extremely important, as it defines the structure of your language.   There is one huge difference between traditional languages and computer languages, and that is that traditional languages very often have \"ambiguous grammar\". Ambiguous grammar is when two identical series of words have multiple meanings.            An example of an ambiguous grammar would be \"Brave men run in my family.\"  Ambiguous grammar is detrimental to a programming language, as you cannot be functionally certain what the meaning is.  Going hand in hand with the grammar every language will have a lexicon, which is a catalog of all valid words and letters.  Moving beyond the language, there are tons of really interesting topics in the compilation world. A language is pretty much useless unless it can be compiled, which requires many different mechanics such as :  1. Bootstrapping the compiler (creating a compiler out of some other language) 2. Tokening inputs (creating a stream of 'tokens') 3. Parsing tokens (analyses the tokens against the grammar to validate syntax) 4. Code Generation (converting the token stream to a series of instructions that the CPU can understand) 5. Optimization (at this point you have a stream of tokens that can often times be 'rearranged' to improve execution time while being mathematically equivalent -- this is optional)  It's important to note that you don't necessarily need to write machine code in order to write a compiler. For example, I've written a compiler in \"Java Compiler Compiler\" that implements my own custom grammar while utilizing the visitor design pattern (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visitor_pattern).   I've had a class mate write a language that had a lexicon of only white-space characters (tab, space, new line, return, etc...). When opened a text editor, his programs were literally empty.   There is also the world of interpreters, like javascript. These languages are not compiled down into instructions that are executed by the CPU, at least not directly. Instead, there is a master 'process' that interprets the scripts meaning and executes it's own behavior based on that input.", "human_ref_B": "Designing a computer language is a pretty tricky business, really. There are a lot of tradeoffs to be made, which explains why there are so dang many of them. When starting a new one from scratch, you ask yourself a lot of questions. Ultimately, the question that matters most is, \"What do I want to be _easy_ in this language?\" You might even call it the First Question of Computing.  That's only half the problem, however. To understand the second half, let's take a little detour into the mid 20th century, and look at computers themselves.  Now, ever since the first computers came online, we brave and foolish folks who program them have had a vast number of varied answers to this question. Some folks wanted to make war simpler, some wanted to make intelligence simpler. But in general, the early computers were often single purpose machines.  Enter ENIAC, which is often called the first \"general purpose\" computer. All of a sudden, we had a machine which could do a lot of different things. This was exciting! And terrifying at the same time. How do you tell a computer the size of a small house that you want to calculate the logarithm of any number you give it, just as a simple example?  The answer was to have a very small number of very simple instructions that the computer could perform, and then build up from this small instruction set, combining them in various orders, until you eventually make a \"program\" that does what you want. Amazingly, this still holds true today! Your typical PC running what's called the x86 instruction set is basically just performing a bunch of the same small(-ish) number of instructions over and over, until you get what you wanted to get.  As a brief aside, mathematicians had already attempted this reduction of an algorithm to the most [basic set of operations and postulates - let's just say it didn't go so well, and both mathematicians and computer programmers are struggling with some fundamental problems that fell out even today.]  One key feature of almost all instruction sets is their emphasis on arithmetic. There's a reason we call computers \"computers\", after all. The designers of the earliest computers answered the First Question of Computing with \"I want _math_ to be easy.\" So computers got really good at math, really quickly.  Unfortunately, as the things we asked computers to do became more and more complex, it became very tedious to construct programs using that very small set of possible instructions. One particularly forward thinking programmer decided one day to add a layer of indirection between the program writer, and the machine. Basically, she decided to answer the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make _writing complex mathematical algorithms_ easy.\" The first of the truly great computer programming languages, FORTRAN, was finally born.  FORTRAN allows the programmer to type things like \"do the following thing 10 times\", written not in instruction-set codes, but in plain old English. This was an enormous step forward, but involved some sleight of hand behind the scenes. Basically, the FORTRAN compiler would read in the program which was nice to human eyes, and for each line of code, it would create a bunch of those instructions from the instruction set that preserved the intent of that line of code, but could now be executed by the machine. This truly was wizardry of the highest order.  Very much like a growing baby, FORTRAN changed and grew as the years went by, as different people asked it to answer the First Question of Computing in different ways. Computers started to get smaller and faster, and made their way into the home. All of a sudden, folks much like myself started to give _very_ different answers to the First Question of Computing. We were playing with the computer, exploring what it would let us do, what it could be pushed to do.  With this large set of new things that people wanted to be _easy_ to do on a computer, a whole slew of new languages popped up. Some of them let you manipulate lists) really easily, some of them let you manipulate hardware really easily. In each language, it was easy to do some things, but remember those tradeoffs I mentioned right at the beginning? They were right about to bite us programmers in the butt.  In C, for instance, it is in fact very easy to manipulate hardware. Many operating systems are written in C for just this reason. Unfortunately, making it easy to manipulate hardware makes it really hard to manage your computer's memory, among other things. C programmers spend a lot of time worrying about where _exactly_ they stored this variable or that string, how to get rid of it, how to let other parts of the program know where it is. Needless to say, if you're not answering the First Question of Computing with \"I want to make hardware manipulation easy\", C is going to give you a rough ride.  The designers of Java), for instance, answered the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make running on lots of different machines easy\". While the jury may still be out on whether or not they succeeded, they did have a clear vision because they succinctly answered the First Question of Computing. (A few other global principles went into the design as well, of course.)  Now for each of these new computer languages, you'd have a different grammar) that defined what a legal line of code looks like, much like English grammar is different than Finnish grammar. Both let you speak and convey meaning, but they sound pretty darn different.  What's the same, however, is that for each line of code in the \"high-level\" language, we use a compiler or interpreter to transform our friendly code into the kind of instructions the machine likes to read. This constant, this fundamental purpose of the compiler, is the second half of designing a computer language. First it parses your friendly code, then generates) machine code.  We can now hopefully answer what it means to create a new programming language. First, you need to answer the First Question of Computing. Once you have decided how _you_ want to answer that question, then you write the grammar that fulfills your answer, and the compiler that translates your grammar to the grammar of the underlying machine instruction set.  This process, this mapping between two different levels of representation, but a map that _preserves meaning_, is far and away one of the most amazing ideas I've ever learned about. It has applications in a huge number of different endeavors, across all walks of life. It is the idea of a _code_. The fact that you asked this question means you've taken your first step into a truly amazing journey. Stay curious :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5461.0, "score_ratio": 337.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdd0rrn", "c_root_id_B": "cdd356g", "created_at_utc_A": 1384308242, "created_at_utc_B": 1384313814, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 1011, "human_ref_A": "Java works a bit differently than C or C++:  Instead of compiling it into assembly code, it turns it into \"java bytecode\", which is then used by the Java Virtual Machine (which runs in assembly language, not java bytecode). Java bytecode is essentially machine code that can be interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). This gives it the advantage that as long as a JVM exists on a computer, it can run most java programs, but the disadvantage of having reduced performance because it has to go through an intermediate step.", "human_ref_B": "Designing a computer language is a pretty tricky business, really. There are a lot of tradeoffs to be made, which explains why there are so dang many of them. When starting a new one from scratch, you ask yourself a lot of questions. Ultimately, the question that matters most is, \"What do I want to be _easy_ in this language?\" You might even call it the First Question of Computing.  That's only half the problem, however. To understand the second half, let's take a little detour into the mid 20th century, and look at computers themselves.  Now, ever since the first computers came online, we brave and foolish folks who program them have had a vast number of varied answers to this question. Some folks wanted to make war simpler, some wanted to make intelligence simpler. But in general, the early computers were often single purpose machines.  Enter ENIAC, which is often called the first \"general purpose\" computer. All of a sudden, we had a machine which could do a lot of different things. This was exciting! And terrifying at the same time. How do you tell a computer the size of a small house that you want to calculate the logarithm of any number you give it, just as a simple example?  The answer was to have a very small number of very simple instructions that the computer could perform, and then build up from this small instruction set, combining them in various orders, until you eventually make a \"program\" that does what you want. Amazingly, this still holds true today! Your typical PC running what's called the x86 instruction set is basically just performing a bunch of the same small(-ish) number of instructions over and over, until you get what you wanted to get.  As a brief aside, mathematicians had already attempted this reduction of an algorithm to the most [basic set of operations and postulates - let's just say it didn't go so well, and both mathematicians and computer programmers are struggling with some fundamental problems that fell out even today.]  One key feature of almost all instruction sets is their emphasis on arithmetic. There's a reason we call computers \"computers\", after all. The designers of the earliest computers answered the First Question of Computing with \"I want _math_ to be easy.\" So computers got really good at math, really quickly.  Unfortunately, as the things we asked computers to do became more and more complex, it became very tedious to construct programs using that very small set of possible instructions. One particularly forward thinking programmer decided one day to add a layer of indirection between the program writer, and the machine. Basically, she decided to answer the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make _writing complex mathematical algorithms_ easy.\" The first of the truly great computer programming languages, FORTRAN, was finally born.  FORTRAN allows the programmer to type things like \"do the following thing 10 times\", written not in instruction-set codes, but in plain old English. This was an enormous step forward, but involved some sleight of hand behind the scenes. Basically, the FORTRAN compiler would read in the program which was nice to human eyes, and for each line of code, it would create a bunch of those instructions from the instruction set that preserved the intent of that line of code, but could now be executed by the machine. This truly was wizardry of the highest order.  Very much like a growing baby, FORTRAN changed and grew as the years went by, as different people asked it to answer the First Question of Computing in different ways. Computers started to get smaller and faster, and made their way into the home. All of a sudden, folks much like myself started to give _very_ different answers to the First Question of Computing. We were playing with the computer, exploring what it would let us do, what it could be pushed to do.  With this large set of new things that people wanted to be _easy_ to do on a computer, a whole slew of new languages popped up. Some of them let you manipulate lists) really easily, some of them let you manipulate hardware really easily. In each language, it was easy to do some things, but remember those tradeoffs I mentioned right at the beginning? They were right about to bite us programmers in the butt.  In C, for instance, it is in fact very easy to manipulate hardware. Many operating systems are written in C for just this reason. Unfortunately, making it easy to manipulate hardware makes it really hard to manage your computer's memory, among other things. C programmers spend a lot of time worrying about where _exactly_ they stored this variable or that string, how to get rid of it, how to let other parts of the program know where it is. Needless to say, if you're not answering the First Question of Computing with \"I want to make hardware manipulation easy\", C is going to give you a rough ride.  The designers of Java), for instance, answered the First Question of Computing with, \"I want to make running on lots of different machines easy\". While the jury may still be out on whether or not they succeeded, they did have a clear vision because they succinctly answered the First Question of Computing. (A few other global principles went into the design as well, of course.)  Now for each of these new computer languages, you'd have a different grammar) that defined what a legal line of code looks like, much like English grammar is different than Finnish grammar. Both let you speak and convey meaning, but they sound pretty darn different.  What's the same, however, is that for each line of code in the \"high-level\" language, we use a compiler or interpreter to transform our friendly code into the kind of instructions the machine likes to read. This constant, this fundamental purpose of the compiler, is the second half of designing a computer language. First it parses your friendly code, then generates) machine code.  We can now hopefully answer what it means to create a new programming language. First, you need to answer the First Question of Computing. Once you have decided how _you_ want to answer that question, then you write the grammar that fulfills your answer, and the compiler that translates your grammar to the grammar of the underlying machine instruction set.  This process, this mapping between two different levels of representation, but a map that _preserves meaning_, is far and away one of the most amazing ideas I've ever learned about. It has applications in a huge number of different endeavors, across all walks of life. It is the idea of a _code_. The fact that you asked this question means you've taken your first step into a truly amazing journey. Stay curious :)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5572.0, "score_ratio": 1011.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdcu0pv", "c_root_id_B": "cdcuvcq", "created_at_utc_A": 1384292699, "created_at_utc_B": 1384294540, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "A compiler reads the text of your code and converts it into a list of machine instructions that is saved as an executable. The computer runs the executable by starting at the first instruction, executing it, then moving to the next instruction etc etc. Languages like C and C++ compile to binary, where each instruction is a number that is directly run by the CPU as a CPU instruction. Interpreted languages like Java don't directly compile to machine instructions, instead using a virtual machine.  To make your own language, you have to write a compiler. The first compilers were written in binary code by hand.", "human_ref_B": "At the bottom, as /u/somethingpretentious said, it all has to be translated to 1s and 0s, or machine code, as that's the only thing the computer can understand.  So to see how a programming language tells the computer what to do, we should first look at how machine code tells the computer what to do. It does that by connecting certain sequences of those digits to certain actions.  This might be what a piece of machine code could look like. (I just invented these particular sequences, though. I've grouped it up in 8 digits because machine code is typically made up of bytes.)      00001100 00100100     00001000 00010000 00010011     00001011 00010000  The computer gets meaning out of this by sending these sequences through complicated arrangements of logic gates. Here's what this sequence *could* mean: (Register A is a place for storing a single number in the processor. Let's assume A is zero at the beginning.)      add the following number to Register A (00001100)                         36 (00100100)                              -- The value in A is now 36. (00100100 is 36 in binary)     store in this address in the RAM that number (00001000)             Address: 00010000 Number: 19 (00010011)          -- The RAM is basically a series of Registers, each of which have a number (or address) instead of a name, and in each of which you can store a number.     substract the number in the following RAM address from A (00001011) Address: 00010000                                -- The value in A is now 17.   You could now do other things, like printing the number in A onto the screen, for which there would be another sequence of digits.  The first thing you can do to make it easier for humans to read and write code is to write the numbers in hexadecimal instead of binary. This is very easy to translate back and forth. The code would then look like this (still grouped in Bytes):      0C 24     08 10 13     0B 10  That is a little bit easier to read, but still pretty much meaningless for a human without a lot of practice. The next step is to translate these numbers to words, which would be Assembly (0x means that it is a hexadecimal number):      ADD A 36             -- we need to write 'A' here, because the sequence 00001100 was only used for adding something to A, but 'ADD' is also used for other additions     STORE [0x10] 19      -- we use [x] to say that x is an address, not a number     SUB A [0x10]  The translation of this is still fairly straightforward, though slightly more complicated. Though from here on out, it gets much more difficult to make improvements. That is because we want the user to get away from the level of the machine. He should, for example, be able to introduce variables and give them names, and then refer to these names instead of the address in the RAM. He should also be able to write his own functions (or methods, if you prefer). This is quite a bit more complicated, but can be expressed in Assembly. Functions are just sequences of instructions which can be saved in the RAM, which might refer to specific addresses for getting their arguments.  He should also be able to have variables which store not just numbers, but Strings and Lists and Pictures. That means you have to encode them to look like numbers, and they will likely need more than one byte of RAM.  Many modern programming languages end at this step. Some go one step further: Their code is translated to code of other modern programming languages, which is then translated to assembly.  I hope this is somewhat understandable and gives you an insight.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1841.0, "score_ratio": 9.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdd0tfb", "c_root_id_B": "cdd0rrn", "created_at_utc_A": 1384308353, "created_at_utc_B": 1384308242, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The top comment is talking about machine code in general. While what he is saying is correct, it only really explains one of the many examples of programming languages.  A programming language is just like any other language. I'm talking like English or Spanish, in the sense that it has it's own grammar. Grammar is extremely important, as it defines the structure of your language.   There is one huge difference between traditional languages and computer languages, and that is that traditional languages very often have \"ambiguous grammar\". Ambiguous grammar is when two identical series of words have multiple meanings.            An example of an ambiguous grammar would be \"Brave men run in my family.\"  Ambiguous grammar is detrimental to a programming language, as you cannot be functionally certain what the meaning is.  Going hand in hand with the grammar every language will have a lexicon, which is a catalog of all valid words and letters.  Moving beyond the language, there are tons of really interesting topics in the compilation world. A language is pretty much useless unless it can be compiled, which requires many different mechanics such as :  1. Bootstrapping the compiler (creating a compiler out of some other language) 2. Tokening inputs (creating a stream of 'tokens') 3. Parsing tokens (analyses the tokens against the grammar to validate syntax) 4. Code Generation (converting the token stream to a series of instructions that the CPU can understand) 5. Optimization (at this point you have a stream of tokens that can often times be 'rearranged' to improve execution time while being mathematically equivalent -- this is optional)  It's important to note that you don't necessarily need to write machine code in order to write a compiler. For example, I've written a compiler in \"Java Compiler Compiler\" that implements my own custom grammar while utilizing the visitor design pattern (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visitor_pattern).   I've had a class mate write a language that had a lexicon of only white-space characters (tab, space, new line, return, etc...). When opened a text editor, his programs were literally empty.   There is also the world of interpreters, like javascript. These languages are not compiled down into instructions that are executed by the CPU, at least not directly. Instead, there is a master 'process' that interprets the scripts meaning and executes it's own behavior based on that input.", "human_ref_B": "Java works a bit differently than C or C++:  Instead of compiling it into assembly code, it turns it into \"java bytecode\", which is then used by the Java Virtual Machine (which runs in assembly language, not java bytecode). Java bytecode is essentially machine code that can be interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). This gives it the advantage that as long as a JVM exists on a computer, it can run most java programs, but the disadvantage of having reduced performance because it has to go through an intermediate step.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 111.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdd4lca", "c_root_id_B": "cdd0rrn", "created_at_utc_A": 1384317409, "created_at_utc_B": 1384308242, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Languages range from lower level to higher level. What does that mean? Let me try to explain.   Java is a High level language, that means, it has tools and utilities that make programming easier. Downside is that you can't control how well something can be optimized, to a certain degree you can but you can't make it perfect.  The first language would have been binary or Machine Code. It basically consists of 1s and 0s. The one means the transistor in a circuit is conducting electricity, the 0 means it isn't. Basically the very simple experiment of connecting a battery to a light bulb which you probably did in science class in middle school while learning about circuits. (I should mention that often Machine code is in hexadecimal)  It is basically unreadable by just looking at it, you need someway of converting it to something human beings can understand.  Gradually after using basic Machine code, comp scientists created simple languages that would be easier to work with. Initially these would be FORTRAN, probably the first language. Many languages like these were created, and while they performed with very high efficiency, they were tedious to code and read.   Using languages like assembly (which is different from fortran because it requires a process called compilation), languages like C were designed. While C was much easier to read and write and do complex computations with, it still had access to memory and such to a certain extent (not as good as lower level languages obviously). Using C as a stepping stones, something called higher level languages had started to be created. These languages were easy to code, read, and create software in because it had access to pre created libraries and such so that the user didn't have to manually assign memory and calculations to processors.   Basically there are other languages called lower level languages which have very high efficiency and performance due to them literally being able to react with the computer circuits, which the base of the so called language pyramid which slowly led to Higher Level Languages such as Java which are magnitudes easier to read, write, and make software with but aren't as high performance or efficient as lower languages.  Edit: Now obviously things are more complicated than this(such as Java bytecode is not exactly Assembly Code because it's unreadable, and that Assembly is the human readable form of machine code, compilers convert code to object code, but Java code actually runs in a virtual machine, so on so forth)", "human_ref_B": "Java works a bit differently than C or C++:  Instead of compiling it into assembly code, it turns it into \"java bytecode\", which is then used by the Java Virtual Machine (which runs in assembly language, not java bytecode). Java bytecode is essentially machine code that can be interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). This gives it the advantage that as long as a JVM exists on a computer, it can run most java programs, but the disadvantage of having reduced performance because it has to go through an intermediate step.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9167.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qhe1f", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do you invent a programming language? I'm just curious how someone is able to write a programming language like, say, Java. How does the language know what any of your code actually means?", "c_root_id_A": "cdd88c9", "c_root_id_B": "cdd0rrn", "created_at_utc_A": 1384330423, "created_at_utc_B": 1384308242, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This Coursera course on Programming Languages has just got to the stage where one of the homework exercises involves writing an interpreter for a new programming language in Racket.  The lectures have gradually built up the concepts you need, and are generally very clear and easy to follow (if you already have at least some experience in programming at some level).  The course has been running for 6 weeks now, so don't expect to be able to dash through all the previous lectures to catch up -- there's a lot of material to cover each week.  But all the materials should still be up on the site for several weeks after the course ends.", "human_ref_B": "Java works a bit differently than C or C++:  Instead of compiling it into assembly code, it turns it into \"java bytecode\", which is then used by the Java Virtual Machine (which runs in assembly language, not java bytecode). Java bytecode is essentially machine code that can be interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). This gives it the advantage that as long as a JVM exists on a computer, it can run most java programs, but the disadvantage of having reduced performance because it has to go through an intermediate step.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22181.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jy8rdo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "Why don't refineries reclaim their flare's energy to heat water or the distillation stack?", "c_root_id_A": "gd76ab6", "c_root_id_B": "gd4890w", "created_at_utc_A": 1606040701, "created_at_utc_B": 1605995648, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "These dates, all modern heat producing factories/refineries utilize a heat recovery system. It can be used for district heating, electric generation or whatever else needs is there. However it requires certain factors to be feasible for install and combustion system have flares for emergency/maintenance situations.   IIRC Lulea in Sweden has district heating provided by the steel factory.", "human_ref_B": "I have advocated as both an ExxonMobil and ChevronTexaco shareholder that natural gas be given away FREE to local communities instead of flaring.  You would only need to connect to the nearest pipeline to make this possible. A home,condo, or townhouse with almost free energy would help all Americans and remove most \u201cflaring\u201d.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 45053.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "31780c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why can't California just build a load of desalinization plants along its coasts? I know it's really expensive, but expensive water is better than no water. Or get Elon Musk to power them with a combination of Solar City panels and Tesla batteries or something.", "c_root_id_A": "cq0wl02", "c_root_id_B": "cpzqcdg", "created_at_utc_A": 1428152220, "created_at_utc_B": 1428040688, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Has anyone ever done a study of the costs of local desalinization and distribution versus the cost of using the current water distribution, i.e. pumping from northern California to southern California via the State Water Project?  The energy usage alone of the Edmonston pumping station is enormous. Plus the costs to maintain all of that infrastructure and pipeline. It would be interesting to see.", "human_ref_B": "This was done to some extent in the earlier 90's during the last drought.  The problem is (and what in fact happened) that once you've spent hundreds of millions of dollars building these desalination plants.  Is that it just started raining again, meaning the majority of these VERY expensive plants were never even used.    It just basically comes down to cost/benefit like so many other things, even with the massive drought currently it still just doesn't make sense to build these things.  I recommend this very recent podcast from \"Stuff You Should Know\" on the desalination process that specifically discusses your very question.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 111532.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "31780c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why can't California just build a load of desalinization plants along its coasts? I know it's really expensive, but expensive water is better than no water. Or get Elon Musk to power them with a combination of Solar City panels and Tesla batteries or something.", "c_root_id_A": "cq0b26r", "c_root_id_B": "cq0wl02", "created_at_utc_A": 1428092575, "created_at_utc_B": 1428152220, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The cost of construction plus the cost of operation (electrical power) outweigh the money that you get from the water. i.e. Water is too cheap at the moment for large scale desalination to make economic sense. If you have an isolated community that needs drinking water, then they'd be willing to pay more for water. If you have an entire state of farmers who rely on cheap water, desalination isn't going to be a reasonable soultion.", "human_ref_B": "Has anyone ever done a study of the costs of local desalinization and distribution versus the cost of using the current water distribution, i.e. pumping from northern California to southern California via the State Water Project?  The energy usage alone of the Edmonston pumping station is enormous. Plus the costs to maintain all of that infrastructure and pipeline. It would be interesting to see.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 59645.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ioqez", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How can we accurately radioactively date rocks on  Earth, if the elements within them were formed in  star or supernova billions of years before? To clarify; If we are to radioactively date rock on Earth, how can we be sure of the date when the radioactive element was formed within a supernova or star billions of years before, and has decayed since then?  I feel like I'm overlooking something very simple.", "c_root_id_A": "c25fl6s", "c_root_id_B": "c25fi7y", "created_at_utc_A": 1310587860, "created_at_utc_B": 1310587251, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If by \"radioactively date\" you radiocarbon dating, we don't use that for rocks.  That method is generally only useful for about dating things to 50000 years, requires organic material, and requires regional calibration.   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_dating  As for dating geological materials, I will pass the podium to someone else.", "human_ref_B": "Some minerals will accept into their structure certain radioactive elements but will reject the elements that they decay into so if we find the decay products in the mineral we know that they must have come from decay and then by looking at the ratio of product to source we can determine an age", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 609.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "74p8rm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Are there any known differences (other than color) between eye colors?", "c_root_id_A": "do0rvm5", "c_root_id_B": "do0v69x", "created_at_utc_A": 1507344097, "created_at_utc_B": 1507349437, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Eye colour is determined by a whole host of proteins and the genes that code for them. Amongst other things they are involved in the pathway to produce the pigment melanin. Some of the genes involved also contribute towards skin and hair colour so individuals with different eye colour will have those differences. But other genes may mask their presence.", "human_ref_B": "Blue eyes are quite a bit different from green and brown. While green and brown differ in the amounts of melanin, blue eyes have a complete lack of melanin. The mutation for this trait has been recently traced back to a single individual around 6-10000 years ago.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5340.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mo2zi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How is the environment/ecosystem affected by the energy that is removed by wind and solar power? Wind and solar power convert solar and wind energy into electricity. This energy is removed from that ecosystem. Instead of sunlight hitting the ground and heating the ground up, it hits solar cells to generate electricity. Instead of the wind blowing dust and seeds around, it is used to blow wind turbines to generate electricity. Is the energy removed negligible? Is the effect measurable? How is that ecosystem affected by this removal of energy?", "c_root_id_A": "c32k4sn", "c_root_id_B": "c32jwla", "created_at_utc_A": 1322193292, "created_at_utc_B": 1322191398, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I've heard the conservative talking point that wind farms will \"slow down air currents and suck energy out of the system\".    We (Europeans) have deforested over 90% of the United States.  How much wind energy did those forests absorb?  I can't imaging we could ever absorb more energy than that.", "human_ref_B": "In the case of solar panels, the sunlight that strikes the panel would otherwise have struck the ground (or something similar).  Whether panel or ground, there will be a fraction of the energy that is reflected, and some that is absorbed - ratio varies with the material.  What is reflected goes back to space (or bounces around the atmosphere, but we'll skip that).  For the part that is absorbed, there is a difference - a solar panel will convert some of the energy into electricity, whereas on the ground it will all be converted to heat.  So, locally, this means a solar panel will run a little cooler than an equivalent non-panel material.  But, globally, this power must be used - to power heaters, or fridges, or TVs, or whatever.  And when it's used, most of it will get converted back to heat.  Suggests that on a large scale there shouldn't be too much change.  Also, solar panels only operate at ~20% efficiency (lab versions are better, but you can't build a very big farm in the lab) - so most of the energy still does what it 'should' do without the panel present.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1894.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mo2zi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How is the environment/ecosystem affected by the energy that is removed by wind and solar power? Wind and solar power convert solar and wind energy into electricity. This energy is removed from that ecosystem. Instead of sunlight hitting the ground and heating the ground up, it hits solar cells to generate electricity. Instead of the wind blowing dust and seeds around, it is used to blow wind turbines to generate electricity. Is the energy removed negligible? Is the effect measurable? How is that ecosystem affected by this removal of energy?", "c_root_id_A": "c32k4sn", "c_root_id_B": "c32ikbg", "created_at_utc_A": 1322193292, "created_at_utc_B": 1322179243, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "I've heard the conservative talking point that wind farms will \"slow down air currents and suck energy out of the system\".    We (Europeans) have deforested over 90% of the United States.  How much wind energy did those forests absorb?  I can't imaging we could ever absorb more energy than that.", "human_ref_B": "Thank you. I've had this same question forever and I've never seen anyone actually address this question. Sooner or later if we keep extracting energy from the system we will cause problems sooner or later. Almost a reverse global warming. For now it will help to extract some of the extra energy we've introduced into the system (global warming). But sooner or later we will need to harvest energy that was never on/in the earth or coming from an outside source like the sun.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14049.0, "score_ratio": -0.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mo2zi", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How is the environment/ecosystem affected by the energy that is removed by wind and solar power? Wind and solar power convert solar and wind energy into electricity. This energy is removed from that ecosystem. Instead of sunlight hitting the ground and heating the ground up, it hits solar cells to generate electricity. Instead of the wind blowing dust and seeds around, it is used to blow wind turbines to generate electricity. Is the energy removed negligible? Is the effect measurable? How is that ecosystem affected by this removal of energy?", "c_root_id_A": "c32ikbg", "c_root_id_B": "c32jwla", "created_at_utc_A": 1322179243, "created_at_utc_B": 1322191398, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Thank you. I've had this same question forever and I've never seen anyone actually address this question. Sooner or later if we keep extracting energy from the system we will cause problems sooner or later. Almost a reverse global warming. For now it will help to extract some of the extra energy we've introduced into the system (global warming). But sooner or later we will need to harvest energy that was never on/in the earth or coming from an outside source like the sun.", "human_ref_B": "In the case of solar panels, the sunlight that strikes the panel would otherwise have struck the ground (or something similar).  Whether panel or ground, there will be a fraction of the energy that is reflected, and some that is absorbed - ratio varies with the material.  What is reflected goes back to space (or bounces around the atmosphere, but we'll skip that).  For the part that is absorbed, there is a difference - a solar panel will convert some of the energy into electricity, whereas on the ground it will all be converted to heat.  So, locally, this means a solar panel will run a little cooler than an equivalent non-panel material.  But, globally, this power must be used - to power heaters, or fridges, or TVs, or whatever.  And when it's used, most of it will get converted back to heat.  Suggests that on a large scale there shouldn't be too much change.  Also, solar panels only operate at ~20% efficiency (lab versions are better, but you can't build a very big farm in the lab) - so most of the energy still does what it 'should' do without the panel present.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12155.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4jyt8g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "What is the reason for the Dark Matter/Dark Energy hypothesis? In particular,it seems like there was a view of the way the universe worked (Big Bang, Expanding and/or contracting universe, etc.), what problem came up that made someone propose Dark matter and/or Dark Energy as a solution?", "c_root_id_A": "d3aq0pr", "c_root_id_B": "d3arlji", "created_at_utc_A": 1463604160, "created_at_utc_B": 1463606213, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "For dark matter, it was the realization that the measured rotation speed of galaxies is too fast for them to be held together by the gravity of the observed stars and gas. Dark energy originates with Einstein's cosmological constant that he came up with to explain the stability of the universe. Then it was realized that the universe was expanding, so this was not necessary. Then it was realized (in 1998) that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, which again required explanation.", "human_ref_B": "There's an important point to make here. Dark matter and dark energy often strike people as being completely made-up placeholders. And while that isn't entirely true (we have observations telling us very specific properties of both of these things, constraining what they can be), that way of looking at things is almost beside the point.  Our best theories of physics work very well, but there are a few scattered observations they can't explain. No matter what we do, *something* needs to give, whether it's adding new matter or energy or modifying the very laws of gravitational physics. The observations which led us to dark matter and dark energy are signs that our current understanding of physics, while extremely good, isn't perfect. Something new needs to be added in. \"Dark matter\" and \"dark energy\" are just fun names for those somethings new.  (And then, as physicists, it's our job to use the observations, and our theoretical ingenuity, to figure out what those somethings are.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2053.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4jyt8g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "What is the reason for the Dark Matter/Dark Energy hypothesis? In particular,it seems like there was a view of the way the universe worked (Big Bang, Expanding and/or contracting universe, etc.), what problem came up that made someone propose Dark matter and/or Dark Energy as a solution?", "c_root_id_A": "d3arlji", "c_root_id_B": "d3ar7el", "created_at_utc_A": 1463606213, "created_at_utc_B": 1463605681, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "There's an important point to make here. Dark matter and dark energy often strike people as being completely made-up placeholders. And while that isn't entirely true (we have observations telling us very specific properties of both of these things, constraining what they can be), that way of looking at things is almost beside the point.  Our best theories of physics work very well, but there are a few scattered observations they can't explain. No matter what we do, *something* needs to give, whether it's adding new matter or energy or modifying the very laws of gravitational physics. The observations which led us to dark matter and dark energy are signs that our current understanding of physics, while extremely good, isn't perfect. Something new needs to be added in. \"Dark matter\" and \"dark energy\" are just fun names for those somethings new.  (And then, as physicists, it's our job to use the observations, and our theoretical ingenuity, to figure out what those somethings are.)", "human_ref_B": "Just to add to what /u/iorgfeflkd said, there are also a bunch of other things which are all explained by the incorporation of dark matter. Some can be explained by other things but these explanations can't then explain all the other results.  The more successful \"alternatives\" don't actually do away with dark matter, they just reduce how much of it needs to be in certain places.  So the options are basically either dark matter, something which behaves exactly like dark matter in all of these circumstances or an alternative theory of gravity with slightly less dark matter.  The dark energy case has even less room to move, in some ways at least. The observation of accelerated expansion requires some explanation and this must be an effective \"dark energy\" (an effective matter component with negative pressure close in magnitude to its (energy density)*c^(2)).  There are possible alternatives to a cosmological constant though there are very good reasons to believe that there is a cosmological constant (see sections 2.1 and 2.2. of the linked paper). So any alternatives have to \"degravitate\" the vacuum energy and have some replacement which effectively acts (almost) exactly like it on large scales.  One popular alternative is massive gravity, which I believe warrants the summoning of /u/adamsolomon", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 532.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2t1yjq", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Do radioactive substances slow down radiation production in super cold temperatures?", "c_root_id_A": "cnv7rom", "c_root_id_B": "cnvgzon", "created_at_utc_A": 1421782929, "created_at_utc_B": 1421797471, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "The traditional answer is no, but there are some known exceptions, with Radon having a notable 4% seasonal variation to its rate of decay.  While this isn't necessarily due to temperature (it's speculated to be due to solar radiation variations), it is interesting and of a similar nature to the question.  Wikipedia can provide links and more information.", "human_ref_B": "One way to slow down decay rate is is to having the radiation source moving at a relativistic speed wrt you. Note that this doesn't change the decay rate in the source's frame of reference, just your own.  Muons have a mean lifetime of 2.2 us (10^-6 s). Even moving at 99.97% of the speed of light, half would survive only about 450 m in our atmosphere, after being created via cosmic ray collisions. Due to time dilation, their lifetime is increased in our frame of reference, and we can detect them streaming towards the ground.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14542.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2mbkdg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "I do not understand time dilation. How can a clock on a spaceship move slower than an exact same clock on earth?", "c_root_id_A": "cm32c9e", "c_root_id_B": "cm35zax", "created_at_utc_A": 1416032065, "created_at_utc_B": 1416049801, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "When you think about it is even more perplexing.  From the point of view of the clock on Earth, the travelling clock is going slow, but from the point of view of the travelling clock the Earth clock is going fast.  If everything is relative to the observer then why do the two observers see different effects.  The difference between the two observers is that one underwent acceleration in order to reach its speed, and the other stood still.", "human_ref_B": "You always travel through spacetime (a fourdimensional fabric) with the speed of light. *Always*. Even now, when you're probbably sitting comfortbly in your chair. But since you are not moving through space, you are moving with the speed of light through *time*. If you now start to move around through space, you have to start moving slower through time, so that the resulting velocity through spacetime is the speed of light again.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17736.0, "score_ratio": -1.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "78poee", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Is carbon monoxide toxic to plants like it is to humans?", "c_root_id_A": "dowf8n4", "c_root_id_B": "dowznwi", "created_at_utc_A": 1508987449, "created_at_utc_B": 1509026327, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I seriously doubt it.  They just want the carbon.  If you look at marine plants they take in hco3 co2 and one other molecule I forget off the top of my head- which one of those three is based on pH and availability.  You can track it with stable isotopes but it's also why marine plants can have stable isotope signitures of C4 when they are really C3 .  It may not get taken up as quickly in terrestrial plants based on a difference in stomatal openings but I'm not much of a cell botanist so I could be wrong there", "human_ref_B": "It contributes in its redox (reduction-oxidation) balance if oxygen is not available. It is not toxic, but it can influence photosynthesis.   Sources: Carbon monoxide fixation by plants R. G. S. Bidwell and Gail P. Bebee Canadian Journal of Botany Vol. 52: Issue. 8: Pages. 1841-1847 (1974)  Carbon Monoxide as a Signaling Molecule in Plants Meng Wang and Weibiao Liao Front Plant Sci. 2016; 7: 572", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 38878.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "78poee", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Is carbon monoxide toxic to plants like it is to humans?", "c_root_id_A": "dowznwi", "c_root_id_B": "dowf9ul", "created_at_utc_A": 1509026327, "created_at_utc_B": 1508987492, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It contributes in its redox (reduction-oxidation) balance if oxygen is not available. It is not toxic, but it can influence photosynthesis.   Sources: Carbon monoxide fixation by plants R. G. S. Bidwell and Gail P. Bebee Canadian Journal of Botany Vol. 52: Issue. 8: Pages. 1841-1847 (1974)  Carbon Monoxide as a Signaling Molecule in Plants Meng Wang and Weibiao Liao Front Plant Sci. 2016; 7: 572", "human_ref_B": "I don't know what it does to plants. In humans, CO binds hemoglobin at a much faster rate than oxygen. It kills humans because it keeps oxygen from getting to the body's cells. Plants don't breathe the same way we do. I imagine that it isn't great for them, but probably isn't quite as immediately toxic.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 38835.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x2ync", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Found this \"rock\" 15 years ago, finally trying to figure out what it is. I found this about 15 years ago (the 33 sticker is because this was the 33'rd unknown specimen from my collection). It was located on the shore of Lake Ontario near Selkirk Shores (Pulaski, NY).   The object itself weighs about 1.5lbs, is cloudy mostly but somewhat clear.  It is full of air bubbles and one bubble shown even has liquid and air in it which act as a bubble as a level would. It has chips and rough edges but nothing sharp. The green spots on the one side were as I found it, I cannot tell if paint or algae stains.  [Video of the bubble moving and me holding it] (http://youtu.be/YGyMjKl8ad4)  [Photo gallery] (http://imgur.com/a/PboM7/)  It may be glass, but I can\u2019t figure out why such a piece would exist full of air pockets.  What is it? Why would it be on a rocky beach? How did it get there?  And finally, what should I do with it (clean it up and polish it maybe?).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "c5iuvec", "c_root_id_B": "c5ipqd7", "created_at_utc_A": 1343170200, "created_at_utc_B": 1343152110, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "This is most likely a glass slag sample that was dropped in water and cooled very quickly. This would explain the fluid inclusions (most fluid inclusions in quartz are not visible to the naked eye, thus leading me to believe these inclusions are not natural in origin), and the conchoidal fractures.", "human_ref_B": "The bubble with liquid and gas isn't unheard of in quartz, specimens with liquid inclusions are called \"enhydro quartz\", and such inclusions are seen in other minerals too- three phase inclusions are common in natural emeralds, not in synthetic emerals.  Quartz has a conchoidial fracture pattern like glass.  Have you tried testing the hardness to determine if it is softer than quartz, as common varieties of glass would be?  It sure looks like glass slag, although I can't guess how liquid water would get into glass.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18090.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "x2ync", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Found this \"rock\" 15 years ago, finally trying to figure out what it is. I found this about 15 years ago (the 33 sticker is because this was the 33'rd unknown specimen from my collection). It was located on the shore of Lake Ontario near Selkirk Shores (Pulaski, NY).   The object itself weighs about 1.5lbs, is cloudy mostly but somewhat clear.  It is full of air bubbles and one bubble shown even has liquid and air in it which act as a bubble as a level would. It has chips and rough edges but nothing sharp. The green spots on the one side were as I found it, I cannot tell if paint or algae stains.  [Video of the bubble moving and me holding it] (http://youtu.be/YGyMjKl8ad4)  [Photo gallery] (http://imgur.com/a/PboM7/)  It may be glass, but I can\u2019t figure out why such a piece would exist full of air pockets.  What is it? Why would it be on a rocky beach? How did it get there?  And finally, what should I do with it (clean it up and polish it maybe?).  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "c5ipqfo", "c_root_id_B": "c5iuvec", "created_at_utc_A": 1343152117, "created_at_utc_B": 1343170200, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "It looks like quartz to me  http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/minerals/quartz.htm", "human_ref_B": "This is most likely a glass slag sample that was dropped in water and cooled very quickly. This would explain the fluid inclusions (most fluid inclusions in quartz are not visible to the naked eye, thus leading me to believe these inclusions are not natural in origin), and the conchoidal fractures.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18083.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "384kub", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "What did the Earth look like during the Pre-Cambrian? Today, if you look at an image of the Earth from space, you see that the land is mostly green, with some yellow/brown due to desert. What did the land look like before plants and animals colonised it? Was it all desert?", "c_root_id_A": "crsi7hh", "c_root_id_B": "crsfjlq", "created_at_utc_A": 1433208086, "created_at_utc_B": 1433203295, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Keeping in mind life did not exist outside of the oceans until the Ordovician, the precambrian earth would have looked like a water world with live oceans and dead desertic continents, you wouldn't recognize the continents, but the color of the ocean anthe atmosphere would look familiar for most of the precambrian. Life was mostly microscopic, with algal mats and stromatolites in interdidal zones.  There may have been a super glaciation in the tardi-proterozoic (snowball earth). But the earliest precambrian (Hadean) would be a shock: the earth was cooling down from an initially liquid state , sort of like a giant planetery lava lake.", "human_ref_B": "This doesn't exactly answer your question, but the earth probably looked a lot more barren than you realise for a much greater length of time than you realise. The first grasses don't appear in the fossil record until about 67 million years ago, which means unless there is heavy vegetation other than grass, you're going to see a relatively barren earth for a huge majority of its lifetime", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4791.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ktxq3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Does pure water really have no taste, or are we just so used to it that we recognize it as neutral?", "c_root_id_A": "cbslvhm", "c_root_id_B": "cbsp7za", "created_at_utc_A": 1377125002, "created_at_utc_B": 1377134604, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If you got the time and can appreciate a documentary once in awhile, [this movie] (http://movies.netflix.com/WiMovie/Tapped/70124097?locale=en-us) is pretty sick.", "human_ref_B": "Drinking water varies in flavors depending on the location.  This flavor is due to dissolved minerals present in your local watershed or the watershed of the bottling facility.    Another factor in water flavor in dissolved oxygen.  If you have ever tasted flat water, it has an \"off\" flavor.  This is most likely due to a lack of dissolved oxygen.  If it tastes like that from the faucet, it is probably due to a low turnover in a local storage tank in your water system.  If you want to give it a try, leave a glass of water out for an extended period of time and then drink it.  As far as *pure* water, where it is water that has no dissolved materials, it will also taste very flat.  The comments about distilled water also reflect upon this.  I can do nothing other than speculate as this point.  You could say it is due to getting used to the flavor, but it will require someone with more knowledge than I have.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9602.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2lj7pr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Whenever my father walks away from his radio, the station gets staticky. It even changed completely one time! What's going on?", "c_root_id_A": "clwj2rr", "c_root_id_B": "clvsry9", "created_at_utc_A": 1415441148, "created_at_utc_B": 1415376583, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Your father's body is a part of the tuning circuit, being a little bit of a capacitor. As he moves away the frequency changes because the total capacitance changes. Something like that, at least. To see a radio circuit that uses this on purpose look up the theremin.", "human_ref_B": "His proximity to the radio is acting of some sort of booster to the antenna, improving its reception. Walking farther away diminishes this effect. All he needs to do is connect a longer/biggerantenna to the radio for consistently improved reception.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 64565.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1c4p1i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far out into space have we sent something physical and had it return? For example if our solar system was USA and earth was DC have we passed the beltway, Manassas, Chicago or are we still one foot in the door of the white house?", "c_root_id_A": "c9d2tm0", "c_root_id_B": "c9d08hz", "created_at_utc_A": 1365695200, "created_at_utc_B": 1365687513, "score_A": 422, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Here is one data point: The Japanese Hayabusa mission was 290 million km from Earth when it landed on asteroid Itokawa, from which it later returned.  See http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4463254.stm and http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10285973", "human_ref_B": "I believe that the furthest we've sent a spacecraft, and had a portion *return* was the Stardust mission, which had an orbit at one point going out to ~2.7 AU.  In general, unmanned planetary missions do not return back to Earth.  The only exceptions are when we do sample return, or make use of Earth for a gravity assist, although in the latter, you're not actually stopping - you're just making use of the Earth to change your velocity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7687.0, "score_ratio": 52.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1c4p1i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far out into space have we sent something physical and had it return? For example if our solar system was USA and earth was DC have we passed the beltway, Manassas, Chicago or are we still one foot in the door of the white house?", "c_root_id_A": "c9d48p1", "c_root_id_B": "c9d08hz", "created_at_utc_A": 1365698953, "created_at_utc_B": 1365687513, "score_A": 53, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Well, it depends how you scale the United States, but it would look something like this.", "human_ref_B": "I believe that the furthest we've sent a spacecraft, and had a portion *return* was the Stardust mission, which had an orbit at one point going out to ~2.7 AU.  In general, unmanned planetary missions do not return back to Earth.  The only exceptions are when we do sample return, or make use of Earth for a gravity assist, although in the latter, you're not actually stopping - you're just making use of the Earth to change your velocity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11440.0, "score_ratio": 6.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1c4p1i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far out into space have we sent something physical and had it return? For example if our solar system was USA and earth was DC have we passed the beltway, Manassas, Chicago or are we still one foot in the door of the white house?", "c_root_id_A": "c9d4ly0", "c_root_id_B": "c9d08hz", "created_at_utc_A": 1365699904, "created_at_utc_B": 1365687513, "score_A": 40, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "According to the Stardust mission, the max distance the Stardust probe got , before returning the sample return module, was 537 million km . The sample-return module is back on earth; the rest of the spacecraft later visited another comet (Tempel 1) and has since had its mission ended.", "human_ref_B": "I believe that the furthest we've sent a spacecraft, and had a portion *return* was the Stardust mission, which had an orbit at one point going out to ~2.7 AU.  In general, unmanned planetary missions do not return back to Earth.  The only exceptions are when we do sample return, or make use of Earth for a gravity assist, although in the latter, you're not actually stopping - you're just making use of the Earth to change your velocity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12391.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1c4p1i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far out into space have we sent something physical and had it return? For example if our solar system was USA and earth was DC have we passed the beltway, Manassas, Chicago or are we still one foot in the door of the white house?", "c_root_id_A": "c9d4ly0", "c_root_id_B": "c9d4erf", "created_at_utc_A": 1365699904, "created_at_utc_B": 1365699385, "score_A": 40, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "According to the Stardust mission, the max distance the Stardust probe got , before returning the sample return module, was 537 million km . The sample-return module is back on earth; the rest of the spacecraft later visited another comet (Tempel 1) and has since had its mission ended.", "human_ref_B": "Using your example for comparison: take the solar system to be the mean distance out to Pluto to be the width of the contiguous US, and the Hayabusa probe as our furthest return exploration.  http://www.freemaptools.com/radius-around-point.htm?clat=38.89878185101316&clng=-77.03664779663086&r=241.40&lc=FFFFFF&lw=1&fc=00FF00", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 519.0, "score_ratio": 6.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1c4p1i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far out into space have we sent something physical and had it return? For example if our solar system was USA and earth was DC have we passed the beltway, Manassas, Chicago or are we still one foot in the door of the white house?", "c_root_id_A": "c9d08hz", "c_root_id_B": "c9d5m1b", "created_at_utc_A": 1365687513, "created_at_utc_B": 1365702510, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 36, "human_ref_A": "I believe that the furthest we've sent a spacecraft, and had a portion *return* was the Stardust mission, which had an orbit at one point going out to ~2.7 AU.  In general, unmanned planetary missions do not return back to Earth.  The only exceptions are when we do sample return, or make use of Earth for a gravity assist, although in the latter, you're not actually stopping - you're just making use of the Earth to change your velocity.", "human_ref_B": "Not sure why the original comment was removed, but the Stardust comet sample return mission reached 2.72 AU (408 million km) before returning to Earth. It also set a record for the furthest solar-powered object.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14997.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1c4p1i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "How far out into space have we sent something physical and had it return? For example if our solar system was USA and earth was DC have we passed the beltway, Manassas, Chicago or are we still one foot in the door of the white house?", "c_root_id_A": "c9d5m1b", "c_root_id_B": "c9d4erf", "created_at_utc_A": 1365702510, "created_at_utc_B": 1365699385, "score_A": 36, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Not sure why the original comment was removed, but the Stardust comet sample return mission reached 2.72 AU (408 million km) before returning to Earth. It also set a record for the furthest solar-powered object.", "human_ref_B": "Using your example for comparison: take the solar system to be the mean distance out to Pluto to be the width of the contiguous US, and the Hayabusa probe as our furthest return exploration.  http://www.freemaptools.com/radius-around-point.htm?clat=38.89878185101316&clng=-77.03664779663086&r=241.40&lc=FFFFFF&lw=1&fc=00FF00", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3125.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "64ze4c", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why do we like the taste of some foods but not others?", "c_root_id_A": "dg7bgdk", "c_root_id_B": "dg7e65m", "created_at_utc_A": 1492072226, "created_at_utc_B": 1492080416, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Some of it is hereditary. One extreme example is the chemical Phenylthiourea. So I'm sure other flavor chemicals may have similar variations. Evolution would favor us liking those that have the most energy. Like sugars and fats.", "human_ref_B": "Your sense of taste is a powerful survival tool. Sweet things and fatty things (generally) provoke pleasant reactions because they are full of sugar and fat, which is otherwise a fairly rare resource in nature!  Unpleasant tastes can be both innate and learned. Bitter flavors tend to be automatically offputting for kids because bitter is a fairly common flavor for substances poisonous to us in plants. Meanwhile we have something called taste aversion. Have uou ever eaten something, then been very ill (either due to the food or not!) And found that food now garners a very negative reaction for you? This is an evolutionary adaptation to teach us what foods we definitely SHOULDN'T eat again.   In that last case though this is less an effect on your sense of taste and more a brain thing.  Certainly you can get over your association if you really try, but taste is just one aspect of how you perceive a foods flavor!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8190.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6mo4fa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Does LSD/other psychoactive drug usage in pregnant women have an effect on the child?", "c_root_id_A": "dk3iokp", "c_root_id_B": "dk3kiao", "created_at_utc_A": 1499818172, "created_at_utc_B": 1499820557, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4994465  Most of the published literature was done quite some time ago. No recent studies are really available. I'm assuming because it is not exactly ethical to give pregnant women LSD or observe those already using it.", "human_ref_B": "Your question is Very specific, and possibly an attempt to take lsd whilst pregnant. Please don't. Only bad things can come of it.  That needs to be said for potential readers considering such actions too.  Here is more info:  https://mothertobaby.org/fact-sheets/lsd/  Little is known, but the speculation and consensus is that it is bad.   As a general rule, anything that can adversely effect the health of the mother, can potentially adversely effect the child at a sensitive time with exponential results, as it is the child's crucial development phase. Wheather it's a direct or secondary effect, is less relevant so much that it could cause harm.  Edit: reason the studies in the link are mostly from the 1970's is because the scientific and medical fraternity's best exposure and testing of lsd, was during that period. There was a spike of use, and it was the period just before/the time that drug was banned. Since there is no real theoretical medical use for lsd and is a banned substance, studies after that period, are unlikely. It is the best body of evidence we have.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2385.0, "score_ratio": 17.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6mo4fa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Does LSD/other psychoactive drug usage in pregnant women have an effect on the child?", "c_root_id_A": "dk4qz4y", "c_root_id_B": "dk3iokp", "created_at_utc_A": 1499885159, "created_at_utc_B": 1499818172, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Relatively few drugs can be considered safe in pregnancy and are only used if the benefits strongly outweighs the known risk. A developing human is ridiculously sensitive to drugs, hormones, basically everything. Would I advise taking LSD while pregnant? HELL NO!! Nopety nope nope.", "human_ref_B": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4994465  Most of the published literature was done quite some time ago. No recent studies are really available. I'm assuming because it is not exactly ethical to give pregnant women LSD or observe those already using it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 66987.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e8vy2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Currently, what is the best information as far as Nutrition goes? and What exercises are most effective? [More complete inside] **Currently, what is the best information as far as Nutrition goes?**  I'm talking about losing fat, and for gaining muscle (or healthy putting on more fat maybe). I read that low carbohydrates, low sugar is probably the best, as far as fat loss goes, how accurate is this? My main source for that was Gary Taubes. Can you give me the best information on this?   Also note I'm not sure I will be able to digest the more complex stuff, so any advice on that would also be very appreciated.    **What exercises are most effective?**  Again, what I read is high intensity interval training is possibly the most effective for fat loss, again how accurate would that be? Also for gaining muscle, what is the most healthy and effective techniques for that?    *I'm not sure if this is the right place,* I wanted to get some more in-depth information and this is why I am trying here.    Any guidance, advice, links, sources, etc would be greatly helpful.", "c_root_id_A": "c169tfn", "c_root_id_B": "c169rfu", "created_at_utc_A": 1290240522, "created_at_utc_B": 1290238633, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": ">What exercises are most effective?   Squats.", "human_ref_B": "/r/fitness is probably the best place to ask!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1889.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e8vy2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Currently, what is the best information as far as Nutrition goes? and What exercises are most effective? [More complete inside] **Currently, what is the best information as far as Nutrition goes?**  I'm talking about losing fat, and for gaining muscle (or healthy putting on more fat maybe). I read that low carbohydrates, low sugar is probably the best, as far as fat loss goes, how accurate is this? My main source for that was Gary Taubes. Can you give me the best information on this?   Also note I'm not sure I will be able to digest the more complex stuff, so any advice on that would also be very appreciated.    **What exercises are most effective?**  Again, what I read is high intensity interval training is possibly the most effective for fat loss, again how accurate would that be? Also for gaining muscle, what is the most healthy and effective techniques for that?    *I'm not sure if this is the right place,* I wanted to get some more in-depth information and this is why I am trying here.    Any guidance, advice, links, sources, etc would be greatly helpful.", "c_root_id_A": "c169xqr", "c_root_id_B": "c16a6i7", "created_at_utc_A": 1290245224, "created_at_utc_B": 1290258386, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Seconding Gary Taubes, also with two personal anecdotes that have pretty strongly confirmed everything I read in Gary Taubes' book - My dad was heavily overweight and prediabetic, high cholesterol, etc.  Went on a high fat, low carb diet for 3 months, and aside from losing 40 pounds, ALL of his blood tests came out drastically better, so as far as I'm concerned, claims that such diets are recipes for heart disease are BS.  I, on the other hand, was attempting to gain weight.  I was also doing low carbs (due to some sort of carbohydrate sensitivity I hadn't yet identified) and trying to eat as much protein and fat as possible, and I just couldn't do it.  Eventually I found that I could handle eating rice, and poof, I gained 40 pounds.", "human_ref_B": "> What exercises are most effective?  The ones that you have fun doing.  It might be that running is 3x cost effective as something you like, but if you hate it, you're gonna stop soon.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13162.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e8vy2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Currently, what is the best information as far as Nutrition goes? and What exercises are most effective? [More complete inside] **Currently, what is the best information as far as Nutrition goes?**  I'm talking about losing fat, and for gaining muscle (or healthy putting on more fat maybe). I read that low carbohydrates, low sugar is probably the best, as far as fat loss goes, how accurate is this? My main source for that was Gary Taubes. Can you give me the best information on this?   Also note I'm not sure I will be able to digest the more complex stuff, so any advice on that would also be very appreciated.    **What exercises are most effective?**  Again, what I read is high intensity interval training is possibly the most effective for fat loss, again how accurate would that be? Also for gaining muscle, what is the most healthy and effective techniques for that?    *I'm not sure if this is the right place,* I wanted to get some more in-depth information and this is why I am trying here.    Any guidance, advice, links, sources, etc would be greatly helpful.", "c_root_id_A": "c16a6i7", "c_root_id_B": "c16a3rd", "created_at_utc_A": 1290258386, "created_at_utc_B": 1290254010, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "> What exercises are most effective?  The ones that you have fun doing.  It might be that running is 3x cost effective as something you like, but if you hate it, you're gonna stop soon.", "human_ref_B": "Diet: A ketogenic diet with a weekly carb load is probably the most effective way of losing weight fast. This involves eating very low amounts of carbohydrates 6 days a week(under 30g a day) and then gorging one day(pizzas, lasagne, etc etc). Make sure you eat enough fat and proteins though as you don't want your body to go into starvation mode(that's when it starts Gluconeogenesis, which means it converts muscle tissue into fuel). Also make sure you get enough vitamin C, vitamin D, omega-3 and vitamin B-12.  Excercise: Heavy weight lifting at least twice a week to promote testosterone production. The other days I'd advice you to do low intensity(with longer duration of course) training such as jogging(or walking if you're very out of shape), mountain climbing, cycling and swimming(highly recommended as it's the least stressful for your joints).  You should do some more research on your own as I'm not a physician but I hope this will point you in the right direction.  [edit] Oh and I'd highly recommend you start doing a physical activity you actually enjoy doing rather than grind away at something boring. Martial Arts(kickboxing, jiu-jitsu, etc) is a ton of fun aswell as physically draining :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4376.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e8vy2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Currently, what is the best information as far as Nutrition goes? and What exercises are most effective? [More complete inside] **Currently, what is the best information as far as Nutrition goes?**  I'm talking about losing fat, and for gaining muscle (or healthy putting on more fat maybe). I read that low carbohydrates, low sugar is probably the best, as far as fat loss goes, how accurate is this? My main source for that was Gary Taubes. Can you give me the best information on this?   Also note I'm not sure I will be able to digest the more complex stuff, so any advice on that would also be very appreciated.    **What exercises are most effective?**  Again, what I read is high intensity interval training is possibly the most effective for fat loss, again how accurate would that be? Also for gaining muscle, what is the most healthy and effective techniques for that?    *I'm not sure if this is the right place,* I wanted to get some more in-depth information and this is why I am trying here.    Any guidance, advice, links, sources, etc would be greatly helpful.", "c_root_id_A": "c16bf0x", "c_root_id_B": "c16anov", "created_at_utc_A": 1290287955, "created_at_utc_B": 1290273262, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "energy in = energy out, if you dont use the energy you take in it will be stored as fat. don't get way to much of anything, all in moderation (even moderation). do what you like and the rest will follow", "human_ref_B": "http://cspinet.org/nah/index.htm  I can't stress enough how amazing their monthly snail-mail news letter is. For like $20 it's absolutely, absolutely worth it. Both of my parents (career FDA employees) have worked intimately with the Center for Science in the Public Interest, the publisher, and they have nothing but positive things to say about the people who work there and their overall goal.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14693.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6j4ak3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Have we put life on Mars? Unless the rovers that we sent to Mars were 100% Sterilized before they were launched, wouldn't they have carried with them lots of microorganisms, even ones that could eventually evolve into more advanced life forms?", "c_root_id_A": "djboh11", "c_root_id_B": "djbs8kc", "created_at_utc_A": 1498268525, "created_at_utc_B": 1498273622, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Had someone from NASA come in and talk to our class once. Supposedly the Rovers were sterilized but there are still pockets on the Rovers that contain organisms; however, these organisms cannot survive the harsh radiation coming through Mars' thin atmosphere. This means that exposed surfaces are sterile but life endures in small, unexposed patches. As far as I know, this is true of many Man-made objects in space", "human_ref_B": "It is possible that we put life on the Moon in 50 years ago, and that it survived for 3 years.  The Apollo 12 mission (Nov 19, 1969) landed within walking distance (about 200 m) of the Surveyor 3 lander which had landed in April of 1967.  During the second moonwalk of that mission, the astronauts examined the spacecraft and collected hardware samples, including its camera, for return to Earth.  Subsequent study of the camera back on Earth detected *living* samples of the common bacterium *Streptococcus mitis*.  NASA's official position, and what likely happened, is that contamination occurred due to shoddy clean-room procedures during the camera's examination.  In addition, the camera had not been placed in an airtight container by the astronauts when they collected it.  (Unlike other lunar samples, which were.)  So contamination could have occurred during the return flight.  At the time there was some controversy, but I don't know whether anyone still doubts the contamination explanation.  More info as well as additional links here", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5097.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cgeeqy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How can we accurately measure happiness? Happiness is such a subjective concept that has so many facets and factors. I was recently assigned to read the world happiness report, but self-reporting and 6 macro factors don't seem like an accurate way to quantify a qualitative variable. Is it even possible to quantify happiness?", "c_root_id_A": "eugr9tk", "c_root_id_B": "euhc0y3", "created_at_utc_A": 1563813398, "created_at_utc_B": 1563824623, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I don\u2019t think you can measure it accurately. But what you can is measure negative feelings. There are several depression and stress screening tools.  Functional MRI can show if a person is happy by monitoring brain activity, but that is not a measure of intensity as far as I know.", "human_ref_B": "Before you can measure anything, you have to have a workable **conceptual** definition of it.  In social science, we have numerous useful approaches to defining a concept, but until we've done so, we can't begin to measure it.  If we define happiness as, say, a positive subjective assessment of one's current state, then we can move on to **operationally** defining the concept (in this example, we could ask individuals to report on their perception of their current state).  Other definitions might require different measurement techniques, but measurement still must begin with a clear conceptual definition.  Furthermore, ANYTHING that can be adequately defined (conceptually), can be (operationally) measured.   In short, if you can tell me what you mean by \"happiness,\" I can tell you how to measure it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11225.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cgeeqy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How can we accurately measure happiness? Happiness is such a subjective concept that has so many facets and factors. I was recently assigned to read the world happiness report, but self-reporting and 6 macro factors don't seem like an accurate way to quantify a qualitative variable. Is it even possible to quantify happiness?", "c_root_id_A": "euhc0y3", "c_root_id_B": "eugubwr", "created_at_utc_A": 1563824623, "created_at_utc_B": 1563815031, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Before you can measure anything, you have to have a workable **conceptual** definition of it.  In social science, we have numerous useful approaches to defining a concept, but until we've done so, we can't begin to measure it.  If we define happiness as, say, a positive subjective assessment of one's current state, then we can move on to **operationally** defining the concept (in this example, we could ask individuals to report on their perception of their current state).  Other definitions might require different measurement techniques, but measurement still must begin with a clear conceptual definition.  Furthermore, ANYTHING that can be adequately defined (conceptually), can be (operationally) measured.   In short, if you can tell me what you mean by \"happiness,\" I can tell you how to measure it.", "human_ref_B": "Emotions are not quantifiable in quality and intensity by any test I know of, there just simply isn't some thing we can measure to see how happy a person is.  There are hormones that make people feel happier, but the intensity is not quantifiable.  It's like measuring customer satisfaction, did they really enjoy their shopping experience, or do they just want to say they did.  For example, Cuba has some of the highest satisfaction ratings with emergency care, even though it is objectively worse than many other countries (both in quality and wait times), but they have nothing else to compare it to", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9592.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "cgeeqy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.66, "history": "How can we accurately measure happiness? Happiness is such a subjective concept that has so many facets and factors. I was recently assigned to read the world happiness report, but self-reporting and 6 macro factors don't seem like an accurate way to quantify a qualitative variable. Is it even possible to quantify happiness?", "c_root_id_A": "euh1r3n", "c_root_id_B": "euhc0y3", "created_at_utc_A": 1563819229, "created_at_utc_B": 1563824623, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "We can't. However, like most social science experiments, we can come up with objective (or not) measurement which are in theory accurate proxies for experimental subject happiness. If the experiment gets repeatable results when performed by different lab/experimenters and different experimental populations, the proxy measurements may become recognized as legit proxies", "human_ref_B": "Before you can measure anything, you have to have a workable **conceptual** definition of it.  In social science, we have numerous useful approaches to defining a concept, but until we've done so, we can't begin to measure it.  If we define happiness as, say, a positive subjective assessment of one's current state, then we can move on to **operationally** defining the concept (in this example, we could ask individuals to report on their perception of their current state).  Other definitions might require different measurement techniques, but measurement still must begin with a clear conceptual definition.  Furthermore, ANYTHING that can be adequately defined (conceptually), can be (operationally) measured.   In short, if you can tell me what you mean by \"happiness,\" I can tell you how to measure it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5394.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "16yh33", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is there a way to accurately position a coordinate in space that would be the same for all space travel in the distant future? In watching Star Trek, it has occurred to me that they refer to space as being in 'sectors'. I've also played sci-fi games where the universe is mapped out in coordinates and the sun is the origin point. But I know that the solar system is itself moving, and many years from now the constellations will look way different because they're moving too. This led me to wonder:  It may be a long way off, but once we go extrasolar, since nothing in space is static, then how could we standardize a relative position? Assuming that with quantum computing we could eventually communicate across great distances, would it be worthwhile to develop such a system or will it be sufficient to say \"I'm within the vicinity of Alpha-Centauri\"? Or is this a case where we would make a system and the planets/stars within are just known to be in motion relative to their initial states?  If you think coordinates would work, what would we use as a standard origin point and where would you place the axes?", "c_root_id_A": "c80js3g", "c_root_id_B": "c80owgk", "created_at_utc_A": 1358729206, "created_at_utc_B": 1358745771, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": ">Assuming that with quantum computing we could eventually communicate across great distances  This notion is misguided.  Quantum mechanics does not allow communication at speeds any faster than those of classical communication.  As for the other question: The only was to specify positions in space is relative to some object; there is no absolute way to mark points in space.", "human_ref_B": "Guidance systems would be star based and constantly updated. They will take the position of major stars and unique phenomena and use projected movement calculations vs post movement results to determine probability of location to within <1%.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16565.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "le7m3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Question from my dad: Is there a measurement scale for fluffiness?  Is it something that can be defined and measured? We say something is fluffy and that things are fluffier than other things? But other than resorting to referring to softness or density of fur on an animal etc. can we express this specifically?", "c_root_id_A": "c2s0i8d", "c_root_id_B": "c2s0das", "created_at_utc_A": 1318805482, "created_at_utc_B": 1318804389, "score_A": 73, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "When selling goose down, manufacturers sort by a metric called \"fill\" or \"fill power.\"  To sort it, they put the unsorted down in front of a fan and the down that travels farthest is deemed high \"fill.\"    Edit:  Sorry, there were extra words and words missing.  Also, I didn't know I was a chemist.", "human_ref_B": "I think the most straight forward way to measure fluffiness is using relative density. Relative density is stated as a percentage (so 0 to 100%), and it basically measures how compact something is. If you have some fluffy stuff in a box with half being air and half being actual material then the relative density is 50%. I suppose really fluffy stuff has a relative density of less than 5%.  A secondary thing you need to consider is elastic modulus, which is going to measure how hard something is. You could image you have a pile of plastic fluff (like a pillow) and a pile of metal fluff (like steal wool), and probably you would think the plastic fluff is much softer and nicer to lay in than the metal fluff. A far as elastic modulus goes: plastic << metal < ceramic.  Now the question is how to combine those two factors to figure out an absolute fluffiness.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1093.0, "score_ratio": 5.2142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ma6e5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.59, "history": "Why does metal spark when in a microwave?", "c_root_id_A": "c2zaxk0", "c_root_id_B": "c2zaxle", "created_at_utc_A": 1321139972, "created_at_utc_B": 1321139975, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Metallic objects reflect the high-frequency electromagnetic waves in a microwave. When the microwaves hit the metal it forces the electrons into a high energy state and some of them enter into the surrounding air and electric currents are formed which are the sparks.", "human_ref_B": "LMGTFY: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_oven#Metal_objects  Which leads to more interesting bits:   > Certain foods such as grapes, if carefully arranged, can produce electric arc.[34] A naked flame which comprises conductive plasma, will do the same. Therefore, burning candles or other burning objects should not be put into a microwave oven, unless this is the desired effect.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "87ejwy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why do knives cut better when you slide the blade across the thing you're cutting? You can't really push a knife through something. Most often it cuts a heck of a lot better if you SLIDE the knife (almost like sawing, but only in one direction.)  For example, cutting raw chicken. If you try to just press your knife down against it, it doesn't really work, but if pull the knife back as you're cutting, it cuts great.  Another example... You can press your finger against the sharp edge of a blade without hurting yourself, but as SOON as you slide your finger across the blade, you get a cut. Why?  Of course, this is all related to how sharp the knife is, but the question still stands.", "c_root_id_A": "dwcosjk", "c_root_id_B": "dwcr58v", "created_at_utc_A": 1522134318, "created_at_utc_B": 1522139872, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 18, "human_ref_A": "Because if you push directly down on something the surface is supported by everything else beneath it, meanimg it require greater force to break the surface. When you move the knife forwards as you cut you're still applying downward pressure, so rather than the force going straight down (90\u00b0) it goes at a shallow gradient (say10\u00b0). This simply means that there is less substance supporting the surface being cut and so less force is needed.  Edit: I should point out that if you slide a knife agasint something and a perfect perpendicular angle and no downward force is being applied, you won't cut it.", "human_ref_B": "Because a good knife really is a microscopic saw, all these tiny serrations hook the plant fibers. This is why the best knife is always carbon steel, while stainless has difficulty cutting for example a tomato. Carbon steel has a crystalline structure with all these microscopic serrations that hook like a chainsaw. Stainless is relatively smooth and may just slide on a tomato.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5554.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3beut6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How did Einstein make the connection between the Equivalence Principle to curved spacetime? Something that I think is never explained well is how Einstein went from the equivalence principle to curved spacetime? In most layman books, they explain the initial thought experiment, then immediately talk about how Einstein used this to derive that spacetime is curved, but it's usually not explained the intermediate steps that led him to that conclusion.   I can understand the equivalence principle but going straight to General Relativity seems like he magically came up with it, when likely there was more work in between, but this is usually not detailed.   Can anyone explain how one leads to another?", "c_root_id_A": "cslibsj", "c_root_id_B": "cslllyq", "created_at_utc_A": 1435509739, "created_at_utc_B": 1435516458, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Any detailed textbook in general relativity should explain the thought process. Maybe not exactly in the path followed by Einstein, but the modern version is not that different. Try Hartle.", "human_ref_B": "The Einstein Equivalence Principle (EEP) states that \"in small enough regions of spacetime, the laws of physics reduce to those of special relativity, and it is impossible to detect the existence of a gravitational field by means of local experiments.\"  The EEP immediately implies that we cannot retain the concept of global inertial frames, like those seen in SR or classical physics. We can only define *local inertial frames*, which follow the motion of individually freely falling particles in small regions of spacetime. So any mathematical model of gravity must be consistent with these conclusions.  One such appropriate mathematical structure is that of a differentiable manifold. Manifolds are objects which locally look flat, but whose global structure may not be. Manifolds can also be described independently of coordinate systems and their intrinsic properties (such as curvature) can be described independently of any \"embedding\" or \"immersion\". (That is, the two-sphere has certain properties whether we think of it as existing in 3D-space or not.) This independence of coordinate system and embedding is good news because we don't think of the universe as being embedded in some other space.  It's important to understand that **we cannot prove that gravity should be thought of as the curvature of spacetime.** However, it certainly makes sense, we can propose the model, derive its consequences, and determine whether the model is reasonable by comparing the results to actual experiments. (It turns out, for instance, that gravitational redshift is a consequence of only the EEP, and you do not need any details of GR to derive it. This is good experimental evidence for the EEP.)  The precise equations of GR (Einstein's equation and the geodesic equation) are also of the same ilk. That is, we cannot prove they are correct; we can only propose them, and determine whether their consequences are reasonable and match experimentation. Carroll's GR notes describe how the equations are derived from the EEP, the requirement that they be tensorial, and the requirement that they reduce to Newton's gravity equations in the weak field limit. (Actually, the notes may not make it clear that the GR equations are only one set of possibly many consistent equations. The full textbook may do that. Regardless, the notes I linked are free and form the basis of one of the most common and modern intro GR textbooks.)  **edit:** To answer your original question about Einstein's thought process... I am not sure of the exact thought process that Einstein himself had, since a lot of the appropriate math has been thoroughly modernized in just the last 50 or 60 years. (Einstein proposed GR in 1916.) Differential geometry, Riemannian metrics, curvature, tangent spaces, etc. were all introduced at least 40-50 years before Einstein, so it's not as if Einstein had no tools at his disposal. I'm just saying the exact language and logical flow was probably slightly different from the modern approach.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6719.0, "score_ratio": 9.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3beut6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How did Einstein make the connection between the Equivalence Principle to curved spacetime? Something that I think is never explained well is how Einstein went from the equivalence principle to curved spacetime? In most layman books, they explain the initial thought experiment, then immediately talk about how Einstein used this to derive that spacetime is curved, but it's usually not explained the intermediate steps that led him to that conclusion.   I can understand the equivalence principle but going straight to General Relativity seems like he magically came up with it, when likely there was more work in between, but this is usually not detailed.   Can anyone explain how one leads to another?", "c_root_id_A": "cslq8lh", "c_root_id_B": "cslsw6k", "created_at_utc_A": 1435525560, "created_at_utc_B": 1435530533, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "I was told during my education that this is how Einstein did it, but I can't really be sure if that's literally true:  If standing in an elevator on the surface of Earth is the same as standing in an elevator that is accelerating upwards, then immediately you can see something strange about Earth: if you stick a bunch of elevators around the equator, even though they are not moving they are all accelerating upwards - in different directions!  Stitch those frames together and voila, you have your curved space.  Now obviously there's a whole lot more going on, but the above is the key idea. You cannot have a flat inertial frame (aka a big loose cloud of dust) that falls freely past Earth - the different parts of it are pulled in different directions. The frame is bent.", "human_ref_B": "We can actually quote Einstein for this insight, which he wrote about in an essay.    >When I was busy (in 1907) writing a summary of my work on the theory of special relativity, I also had to try to modify the Newtonian theory of gravitation such as to fit its laws into the theory\u2026 At that moment I got the happiest thought of my life in the following form: The gravitational field has a relative existence only in a manner similar to the electric field generated by magneto-electric induction. *Because for an observer in free-fall from the roof of a house there is during the fall* \u2013 at least in his immediate vicinity \u2013 *no gravitational field.* This is to say, if the observer lets go of any bodies, they remain, relative to him, in a state of rest or uniform motion\u2026  * Einstein, \"Fundamental Ideas and Methods of the Theory of Relativity\", 1920    * http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath622/kmath622.htm    Einstein called the equivalence principle the happiest moment of his life. What he is combining is Galileo's principle of acceleration (hammers and feather's fall at the same rate) and the transitory existence of the gravitational field in much the same way magnetism behaves.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4973.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3beut6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How did Einstein make the connection between the Equivalence Principle to curved spacetime? Something that I think is never explained well is how Einstein went from the equivalence principle to curved spacetime? In most layman books, they explain the initial thought experiment, then immediately talk about how Einstein used this to derive that spacetime is curved, but it's usually not explained the intermediate steps that led him to that conclusion.   I can understand the equivalence principle but going straight to General Relativity seems like he magically came up with it, when likely there was more work in between, but this is usually not detailed.   Can anyone explain how one leads to another?", "c_root_id_A": "cslibsj", "c_root_id_B": "cslsw6k", "created_at_utc_A": 1435509739, "created_at_utc_B": 1435530533, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Any detailed textbook in general relativity should explain the thought process. Maybe not exactly in the path followed by Einstein, but the modern version is not that different. Try Hartle.", "human_ref_B": "We can actually quote Einstein for this insight, which he wrote about in an essay.    >When I was busy (in 1907) writing a summary of my work on the theory of special relativity, I also had to try to modify the Newtonian theory of gravitation such as to fit its laws into the theory\u2026 At that moment I got the happiest thought of my life in the following form: The gravitational field has a relative existence only in a manner similar to the electric field generated by magneto-electric induction. *Because for an observer in free-fall from the roof of a house there is during the fall* \u2013 at least in his immediate vicinity \u2013 *no gravitational field.* This is to say, if the observer lets go of any bodies, they remain, relative to him, in a state of rest or uniform motion\u2026  * Einstein, \"Fundamental Ideas and Methods of the Theory of Relativity\", 1920    * http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath622/kmath622.htm    Einstein called the equivalence principle the happiest moment of his life. What he is combining is Galileo's principle of acceleration (hammers and feather's fall at the same rate) and the transitory existence of the gravitational field in much the same way magnetism behaves.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20794.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3beut6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How did Einstein make the connection between the Equivalence Principle to curved spacetime? Something that I think is never explained well is how Einstein went from the equivalence principle to curved spacetime? In most layman books, they explain the initial thought experiment, then immediately talk about how Einstein used this to derive that spacetime is curved, but it's usually not explained the intermediate steps that led him to that conclusion.   I can understand the equivalence principle but going straight to General Relativity seems like he magically came up with it, when likely there was more work in between, but this is usually not detailed.   Can anyone explain how one leads to another?", "c_root_id_A": "cslq8lh", "c_root_id_B": "cslibsj", "created_at_utc_A": 1435525560, "created_at_utc_B": 1435509739, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I was told during my education that this is how Einstein did it, but I can't really be sure if that's literally true:  If standing in an elevator on the surface of Earth is the same as standing in an elevator that is accelerating upwards, then immediately you can see something strange about Earth: if you stick a bunch of elevators around the equator, even though they are not moving they are all accelerating upwards - in different directions!  Stitch those frames together and voila, you have your curved space.  Now obviously there's a whole lot more going on, but the above is the key idea. You cannot have a flat inertial frame (aka a big loose cloud of dust) that falls freely past Earth - the different parts of it are pulled in different directions. The frame is bent.", "human_ref_B": "Any detailed textbook in general relativity should explain the thought process. Maybe not exactly in the path followed by Einstein, but the modern version is not that different. Try Hartle.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15821.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ww2n3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What do sunspots look like from the surface of the sun? Are they hills rising from the surface, valleys, or just flat? I am wondering this because of the picture of the sun spot on the front page, where it looks like sun spots create sort of valleys on the surface of the sun.", "c_root_id_A": "cf60qjn", "c_root_id_B": "cf60oqb", "created_at_utc_A": 1391448662, "created_at_utc_B": 1391448552, "score_A": 119, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "It's important here to think about what exactly the \"surface\" of the sun means. The sun is a giant ball of plasma.  There is no real surface, like you'd think of the surface of the earth, but instead a decreasing density of plasma as you move away from the star, sort of like the Earth's atmosphere.   The location that astronomers would call the \"surface\" is called the photosphere, and is the region where most of the light that was produced at the center of the sun, can freely escape into space, instead of bumping into lots plasma and getting scattered and reabsorbed. In more technical terms, the photosphere is defined where the optical depth = 2/3 (a measure of transparency). This means that at this point more than ~50% of the light is able to escape.   Since the photosphere is where most of the light from the sun can freely escape into space, this is essentially what we see as the \"surface\" from here on Earth.  But, it's not so well defined, and you can see that astronomers had to basically decide generally where it is located by defining the optical depth = 2/3   So when you ask about the \"topology\" of the surface of the sun, you're really asking: \"how does a sunspot affect the local transparency (optical depth) in that region of the sun?\" And that question, I will leave for someone who knows more about sunspots or MHD than I do!", "human_ref_B": "First, we are talking about an atmosphere here, glowing from heat, not any kind of real surface.  So, on earth, it would be more comparable to \"seeing\" a zone of rising air (or pressure) or of sinking air (or pressure). However, it's not quite as easy, as we are talking about a cooler top layer, under which a lot of activity happens, which might turn into a big eruption.  In that regard, it's more comparable to a large storm cloud covering the whole planet, where some parts suddenly move about and cause a big thunderbolt into the sky. Except that the storm cloud is already the top level of the atmosphere, so we don't see electricity going though thin air, we see air (hydrogen) being expelled violently into space.  Depending on the frequency of light viewed, one can see different details of what's actually going on, like for instance an intricate pattern of whirls, not unlike Jupiter's atmosphere.  Now we come to complete speculation (the part before was already simplified layman's view of what's going on): I think what's actually happening is that a blob of unusually hot gas is coming up below or slightly besides the dark spot. This drives away a lot of superheated gas on the surface through \"evaporation\" and other effects, so that those parts actually cool. At the same time, the movement and temperature differences cause electric and magnetic disturbances. Once the blob hits the surface, all hell breaks loose, and we have a big eruption. In that regard, it's more like a lava lake with some lava breaking out here and there.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 110.0, "score_ratio": 5.4090909091, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ww2n3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What do sunspots look like from the surface of the sun? Are they hills rising from the surface, valleys, or just flat? I am wondering this because of the picture of the sun spot on the front page, where it looks like sun spots create sort of valleys on the surface of the sun.", "c_root_id_A": "cf64ox6", "c_root_id_B": "cf613uh", "created_at_utc_A": 1391457016, "created_at_utc_B": 1391449510, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "As is often the case in science there is a problem when we apply everyday words like \"deeper\" to something technical.  It really depends on what you mean by \"deeper\".  Unfortunately, you could ask different, more accurate questions like. \"Is the radius of the Sun smaller/larger at a sunspot\" and still run into problems because, how are we defining radius...  Instead what I would say is instead of it being deeper or higher that we are seeing further into the Sun. The layer of material that you can see is closer to the centre of the Sun, in that sense they are deeper. Sometimes the Wilson effect as it is known can be quite pronounced.  So they are 'Deeper' in one sense but I wouldn't call them a valley.  What is happening is that the presence of the intense magnetic fields in a sunspot has caused the material held there to cool. This cooler material is not only darker but becomes less opaque which allows you to see further inside the Sun.  The physics of sunspots is fascinating and still heavily researched.", "human_ref_B": "Sunspots are normally formed from [upward plumes (PDF Warning)] (http://solarphysics.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrsp-2011-3/download/lrsp-2011-3Color.pdf) - they're more like mountains a few hundred to a few thousand km higher than the already irregular surface (the surface is more like the shape of water at a rapid boil).  Here is a particularly descriptive quote from that article:  >Studying such \u201cvortices\u201d, it \u201coccured\u201d to him (Hale, 1908b) that sunspots result from a solar tornado that sucks plasma into higher layers, which obscures the solar surface. Such a tornado would be visible from the earth as a dark spot.  So maybe like one of [These] (http://www.omega-level.net/2012/03/30/video-solar-tornado-is-5-times-larger-than-earth-scope/) from above.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7506.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ww2n3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What do sunspots look like from the surface of the sun? Are they hills rising from the surface, valleys, or just flat? I am wondering this because of the picture of the sun spot on the front page, where it looks like sun spots create sort of valleys on the surface of the sun.", "c_root_id_A": "cf64h0b", "c_root_id_B": "cf64ox6", "created_at_utc_A": 1391456578, "created_at_utc_B": 1391457016, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "As a corollary question, if sun spots are cool regions, why is low sunspot activity correlated with decreased temperatures on Earth?", "human_ref_B": "As is often the case in science there is a problem when we apply everyday words like \"deeper\" to something technical.  It really depends on what you mean by \"deeper\".  Unfortunately, you could ask different, more accurate questions like. \"Is the radius of the Sun smaller/larger at a sunspot\" and still run into problems because, how are we defining radius...  Instead what I would say is instead of it being deeper or higher that we are seeing further into the Sun. The layer of material that you can see is closer to the centre of the Sun, in that sense they are deeper. Sometimes the Wilson effect as it is known can be quite pronounced.  So they are 'Deeper' in one sense but I wouldn't call them a valley.  What is happening is that the presence of the intense magnetic fields in a sunspot has caused the material held there to cool. This cooler material is not only darker but becomes less opaque which allows you to see further inside the Sun.  The physics of sunspots is fascinating and still heavily researched.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 438.0, "score_ratio": 21.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18273v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Could we detect signs of animal life on an exoplanet? This is really two questions.  First of all, are there indicators in a planet's atmosphere that would reliably point to the presence of animal life (not necessarily intelligent)? Secondly, is it possible to detect the composition of an exoplanet's atmosphere from Earth, in such a way that we could tell if an exoplanet had animal life?", "c_root_id_A": "c8ay0b3", "c_root_id_B": "c8b275d", "created_at_utc_A": 1360243951, "created_at_utc_B": 1360259098, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Not my field of expertise, but ...  I think the first indications would be oxygen in the atmosphere.  Oxygen is very reactive, so it has to be replenished constantly to maintain a high level. On earth, this process is done by plants. And AFAIK, there is no known chemical process which would maintain high O2 concentrations for billions of years except plant-life.  As far as animal-life is concerned - I think we're pretty far from figuring out a working method.", "human_ref_B": "I don't think you've addressed one of your assumptions- what constitutes an \"animal\" on planets other than earth? Is it mobile, feeding on organic material, composed of multiple cells that have internal packets of self-replicating molecules, and occasionally mixes those molecules with other individuals via sexual reproduction? We might not find that combination anywhere else in the universe. We might find ~~intelligent~~ life that is one giant \"cell\", or is autotrophic, or is one giant networked organism, or has its replicating molecules on the outside surface of the organism. Or something else we can't even imagine yet. I think the term \"animal\" is a very specific thing that, for now, should only be used to describe organisms on our planet.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15147.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18273v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Could we detect signs of animal life on an exoplanet? This is really two questions.  First of all, are there indicators in a planet's atmosphere that would reliably point to the presence of animal life (not necessarily intelligent)? Secondly, is it possible to detect the composition of an exoplanet's atmosphere from Earth, in such a way that we could tell if an exoplanet had animal life?", "c_root_id_A": "c8b275d", "c_root_id_B": "c8b1e7t", "created_at_utc_A": 1360259098, "created_at_utc_B": 1360256748, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I don't think you've addressed one of your assumptions- what constitutes an \"animal\" on planets other than earth? Is it mobile, feeding on organic material, composed of multiple cells that have internal packets of self-replicating molecules, and occasionally mixes those molecules with other individuals via sexual reproduction? We might not find that combination anywhere else in the universe. We might find ~~intelligent~~ life that is one giant \"cell\", or is autotrophic, or is one giant networked organism, or has its replicating molecules on the outside surface of the organism. Or something else we can't even imagine yet. I think the term \"animal\" is a very specific thing that, for now, should only be used to describe organisms on our planet.", "human_ref_B": "The best we can do at this time is infer it's likely presence by analyzing the composition of the atmosphere  and determining the ratios of organic gases that are indicative of life. Think methane, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide specifically.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2350.0, "score_ratio": 14.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18273v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Could we detect signs of animal life on an exoplanet? This is really two questions.  First of all, are there indicators in a planet's atmosphere that would reliably point to the presence of animal life (not necessarily intelligent)? Secondly, is it possible to detect the composition of an exoplanet's atmosphere from Earth, in such a way that we could tell if an exoplanet had animal life?", "c_root_id_A": "c8b275d", "c_root_id_B": "c8b183m", "created_at_utc_A": 1360259098, "created_at_utc_B": 1360256227, "score_A": 14, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I don't think you've addressed one of your assumptions- what constitutes an \"animal\" on planets other than earth? Is it mobile, feeding on organic material, composed of multiple cells that have internal packets of self-replicating molecules, and occasionally mixes those molecules with other individuals via sexual reproduction? We might not find that combination anywhere else in the universe. We might find ~~intelligent~~ life that is one giant \"cell\", or is autotrophic, or is one giant networked organism, or has its replicating molecules on the outside surface of the organism. Or something else we can't even imagine yet. I think the term \"animal\" is a very specific thing that, for now, should only be used to describe organisms on our planet.", "human_ref_B": "I assumed because animals don't terraform and build cities that we wouldn't be able to. They'd have to leave a significant carbon footprint I'm guessing. Is that anywhere near accurate?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2871.0, "score_ratio": -14.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "18273v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Could we detect signs of animal life on an exoplanet? This is really two questions.  First of all, are there indicators in a planet's atmosphere that would reliably point to the presence of animal life (not necessarily intelligent)? Secondly, is it possible to detect the composition of an exoplanet's atmosphere from Earth, in such a way that we could tell if an exoplanet had animal life?", "c_root_id_A": "c8b183m", "c_root_id_B": "c8b1e7t", "created_at_utc_A": 1360256227, "created_at_utc_B": 1360256748, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I assumed because animals don't terraform and build cities that we wouldn't be able to. They'd have to leave a significant carbon footprint I'm guessing. Is that anywhere near accurate?", "human_ref_B": "The best we can do at this time is infer it's likely presence by analyzing the composition of the atmosphere  and determining the ratios of organic gases that are indicative of life. Think methane, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide specifically.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 521.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "199ias", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why does the Uncertainty Principle necessitate randomness in the universe and not just a limit to our ability to measure? I'm reading A Brief History of Time, and one of the topics that's really not registering with my brain is this Uncertainty Principle. As I understand it, when we want to measure the state of a subatomic particle (let's just use an electron because that's what my boy, Stevie H. used), we want to figure out it's location and velocity.  To do that, we shine light at it (and need to direct at least one quanta of light). We know that the higher the frequency of the light we shine, the clearer the position of the particle will be for us (because we can only be as precise as one wavelength), but then the higher the frequency of the light, the more energy it stores and the more disturbance is imparted on the particle.  So if I have that (mostly) straight, what I don't understand is the conclusion. Can we not imagine that Laplas' Demon may still have a way of observing the particle without disturbing it? Isn't this more a problem of our own limitations as observers than it is an inherent truth in the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c8lzxzp", "c_root_id_B": "c8m3cf4", "created_at_utc_A": 1361894780, "created_at_utc_B": 1361905238, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "The measurement explanation is a good one for the casual reader because it doesn't require any mathematical treatment, but the fundamentals underlying the UP don't need to invoke ideas of measurement and observation.  The Wikipedia page has a good explanation of the wave interpretation, along with a very good animation. The core of the argument is that waves of different momenta have different wavelengths. A single wave contains essentially no information about the location of the particle, but has well-defined momentum. A superposition of many waves has well-defined position, because the peaks and troughs add to produce one large peak in one place, but the momentum is now less certain because you've added together waves of many different momenta. No matter how you slice it, there's no way to identify both the position and momentum simultaneously - the more accurately one is defined, the fuzzier the other is.", "human_ref_B": "The uncertainty principle does not necessitate randomness. If it did there would be far fewer interpretations of quantum mechanics. The uncertainty principle is mathematical, not an issue of measurement. Measurement introduces its own uncertainty, that's the observer effect, though the uncertainty it introduces can be reduced. Position and momentum are examples of conjugate variables. but you can find conjugate variables in other places, like signal analysis. Consider holograms, there is uncertainty relationship between well defined information on a 2D screen and its representation in 3D. QM is the most accurate theory in history, but with relativity hanging about, we also have fairly good reason to suspect it's not complete. It's possible, that under a modified framework, position and momentum are not conjugates.   That being said, it seems Laplace's demon is also mathematically impossible. Complete knowledge of the state of even an ideally deterministic system, and the rules by which it operates, does not guarantee the ability to unerringly predict its future.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10458.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "199ias", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why does the Uncertainty Principle necessitate randomness in the universe and not just a limit to our ability to measure? I'm reading A Brief History of Time, and one of the topics that's really not registering with my brain is this Uncertainty Principle. As I understand it, when we want to measure the state of a subatomic particle (let's just use an electron because that's what my boy, Stevie H. used), we want to figure out it's location and velocity.  To do that, we shine light at it (and need to direct at least one quanta of light). We know that the higher the frequency of the light we shine, the clearer the position of the particle will be for us (because we can only be as precise as one wavelength), but then the higher the frequency of the light, the more energy it stores and the more disturbance is imparted on the particle.  So if I have that (mostly) straight, what I don't understand is the conclusion. Can we not imagine that Laplas' Demon may still have a way of observing the particle without disturbing it? Isn't this more a problem of our own limitations as observers than it is an inherent truth in the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c8m0c1m", "c_root_id_B": "c8m3cf4", "created_at_utc_A": 1361896031, "created_at_utc_B": 1361905238, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I'm not going to reiterate what has been said; arble and danharaj are correct in what they said. I don't think they addressed your issue of uncertainty -> randomness (I take it you mean vacuum fluctuations etc).  The most intuitive way I can describe it is that if there is an intrinsic error on something, you cannot have its value set at zero.  Take the uncertainty of energy/time for example (behaves the same as position/momentum in your question). If there is inherent uncertainty in the \"zero\" energy of the vacuum, then energy (vacuum fluctuations) will exist - they are *necessary* to ensure this uncertainty.", "human_ref_B": "The uncertainty principle does not necessitate randomness. If it did there would be far fewer interpretations of quantum mechanics. The uncertainty principle is mathematical, not an issue of measurement. Measurement introduces its own uncertainty, that's the observer effect, though the uncertainty it introduces can be reduced. Position and momentum are examples of conjugate variables. but you can find conjugate variables in other places, like signal analysis. Consider holograms, there is uncertainty relationship between well defined information on a 2D screen and its representation in 3D. QM is the most accurate theory in history, but with relativity hanging about, we also have fairly good reason to suspect it's not complete. It's possible, that under a modified framework, position and momentum are not conjugates.   That being said, it seems Laplace's demon is also mathematically impossible. Complete knowledge of the state of even an ideally deterministic system, and the rules by which it operates, does not guarantee the ability to unerringly predict its future.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9207.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "199ias", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why does the Uncertainty Principle necessitate randomness in the universe and not just a limit to our ability to measure? I'm reading A Brief History of Time, and one of the topics that's really not registering with my brain is this Uncertainty Principle. As I understand it, when we want to measure the state of a subatomic particle (let's just use an electron because that's what my boy, Stevie H. used), we want to figure out it's location and velocity.  To do that, we shine light at it (and need to direct at least one quanta of light). We know that the higher the frequency of the light we shine, the clearer the position of the particle will be for us (because we can only be as precise as one wavelength), but then the higher the frequency of the light, the more energy it stores and the more disturbance is imparted on the particle.  So if I have that (mostly) straight, what I don't understand is the conclusion. Can we not imagine that Laplas' Demon may still have a way of observing the particle without disturbing it? Isn't this more a problem of our own limitations as observers than it is an inherent truth in the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c8m214j", "c_root_id_B": "c8m3cf4", "created_at_utc_A": 1361901245, "created_at_utc_B": 1361905238, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Well, people used to think exactly that. They thought that everything has some \"real\" position and velocity; we just can't measure it all the time. But Bell's Theorem proves that such a thing is not consistent with quantum mechanics, and experiments have confirmed quantum mechanics over local hidden variable theories.", "human_ref_B": "The uncertainty principle does not necessitate randomness. If it did there would be far fewer interpretations of quantum mechanics. The uncertainty principle is mathematical, not an issue of measurement. Measurement introduces its own uncertainty, that's the observer effect, though the uncertainty it introduces can be reduced. Position and momentum are examples of conjugate variables. but you can find conjugate variables in other places, like signal analysis. Consider holograms, there is uncertainty relationship between well defined information on a 2D screen and its representation in 3D. QM is the most accurate theory in history, but with relativity hanging about, we also have fairly good reason to suspect it's not complete. It's possible, that under a modified framework, position and momentum are not conjugates.   That being said, it seems Laplace's demon is also mathematically impossible. Complete knowledge of the state of even an ideally deterministic system, and the rules by which it operates, does not guarantee the ability to unerringly predict its future.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3993.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "199ias", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why does the Uncertainty Principle necessitate randomness in the universe and not just a limit to our ability to measure? I'm reading A Brief History of Time, and one of the topics that's really not registering with my brain is this Uncertainty Principle. As I understand it, when we want to measure the state of a subatomic particle (let's just use an electron because that's what my boy, Stevie H. used), we want to figure out it's location and velocity.  To do that, we shine light at it (and need to direct at least one quanta of light). We know that the higher the frequency of the light we shine, the clearer the position of the particle will be for us (because we can only be as precise as one wavelength), but then the higher the frequency of the light, the more energy it stores and the more disturbance is imparted on the particle.  So if I have that (mostly) straight, what I don't understand is the conclusion. Can we not imagine that Laplas' Demon may still have a way of observing the particle without disturbing it? Isn't this more a problem of our own limitations as observers than it is an inherent truth in the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c8nfaoz", "c_root_id_B": "c8mku5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1362083786, "created_at_utc_B": 1361974465, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There have been a lot of great responses, so I'm going to go with something historical rather than technical.  > To do that, we shine light at it (and need to direct at least one quanta of light). We know that the higher the frequency of the light we shine, the clearer the position of the particle will be for us (because we can only be as precise as one wavelength), but then the higher the frequency of the light, the more energy it stores and the more disturbance is imparted on the particle.  If this is how the uncertainty principle is described to you, then your conclusions is **correct**, you *should* assume that is has nothing to do with randomness, and is only about our inability to measure accurately.  However, this is not the statement of the uncertainty principle, it's actually an analogy that Heisenberg came up with, known as Heisenberg's microscope, designed to motivate why the uncertainty principle isn't so weird.  A better statement of the uncertainty principle is this. Say I have a machine that spits out identical particles one at a time at a set rate. Now I measure the position of 500 of these particles (all at the same time after emission), and then I measure the momentum of 500 other of these particles (again at the same time after emission). The uncertainty principle says that if I look at how well I was able to measure the position of the first 500, and how well I was able to measure the momentum of the second 500, then the accuracy in each will be related, and together they are bounded by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.  The key point is this, I **only** did one measure on each particle, and I **only** used each particle once. What this says is that the uncertainty principle isn't an effect of our interactions with a quantum system, but a fundamental feature of the system itself.", "human_ref_B": "How does Heisenberg's uncertainty principle neccessitate randomness?  As for visualising the uncertainty principle, here's a very compact post:  http://www.reddit.com/tb/heuvb.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 109321.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "199ias", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why does the Uncertainty Principle necessitate randomness in the universe and not just a limit to our ability to measure? I'm reading A Brief History of Time, and one of the topics that's really not registering with my brain is this Uncertainty Principle. As I understand it, when we want to measure the state of a subatomic particle (let's just use an electron because that's what my boy, Stevie H. used), we want to figure out it's location and velocity.  To do that, we shine light at it (and need to direct at least one quanta of light). We know that the higher the frequency of the light we shine, the clearer the position of the particle will be for us (because we can only be as precise as one wavelength), but then the higher the frequency of the light, the more energy it stores and the more disturbance is imparted on the particle.  So if I have that (mostly) straight, what I don't understand is the conclusion. Can we not imagine that Laplas' Demon may still have a way of observing the particle without disturbing it? Isn't this more a problem of our own limitations as observers than it is an inherent truth in the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c8m4erq", "c_root_id_B": "c8nfaoz", "created_at_utc_A": 1361908359, "created_at_utc_B": 1362083786, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "simply explained, if we take the wave nature of particles, we can find the wavefunction of each particle with a given description of its conditions. At this stage, the information about the particle is necessarily undetermined, as a wavefunction (or the square of it) can be thought of as just probabilities. However, the act of measurement collapses the wavefunction into only one of the allowed eigenvalues of the physical operator (the measurement you do). Take momentum and position as an example. The eigenvalue of the momentum operator looks like a sine curve, where as the eigenvalue position operator is basically the dirac delta, which is basically a function that is 1 at a certain position x, but 0 everywhere else. essentially, if you were to measure the position, you'd get a 100% probability of the thing you are measuring at position x, but you'd lose all information to do with its momentum as you cannot compose the dirac delta via the momentum curve. This, by the way, has nothing to do with our ability to measure, but rather that once a quantity is measured, it is then IMPOSSIBLE to measure the other associated quantity. (all history is destroyed for the particle upon measurement)", "human_ref_B": "There have been a lot of great responses, so I'm going to go with something historical rather than technical.  > To do that, we shine light at it (and need to direct at least one quanta of light). We know that the higher the frequency of the light we shine, the clearer the position of the particle will be for us (because we can only be as precise as one wavelength), but then the higher the frequency of the light, the more energy it stores and the more disturbance is imparted on the particle.  If this is how the uncertainty principle is described to you, then your conclusions is **correct**, you *should* assume that is has nothing to do with randomness, and is only about our inability to measure accurately.  However, this is not the statement of the uncertainty principle, it's actually an analogy that Heisenberg came up with, known as Heisenberg's microscope, designed to motivate why the uncertainty principle isn't so weird.  A better statement of the uncertainty principle is this. Say I have a machine that spits out identical particles one at a time at a set rate. Now I measure the position of 500 of these particles (all at the same time after emission), and then I measure the momentum of 500 other of these particles (again at the same time after emission). The uncertainty principle says that if I look at how well I was able to measure the position of the first 500, and how well I was able to measure the momentum of the second 500, then the accuracy in each will be related, and together they are bounded by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.  The key point is this, I **only** did one measure on each particle, and I **only** used each particle once. What this says is that the uncertainty principle isn't an effect of our interactions with a quantum system, but a fundamental feature of the system itself.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 175427.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "199ias", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why does the Uncertainty Principle necessitate randomness in the universe and not just a limit to our ability to measure? I'm reading A Brief History of Time, and one of the topics that's really not registering with my brain is this Uncertainty Principle. As I understand it, when we want to measure the state of a subatomic particle (let's just use an electron because that's what my boy, Stevie H. used), we want to figure out it's location and velocity.  To do that, we shine light at it (and need to direct at least one quanta of light). We know that the higher the frequency of the light we shine, the clearer the position of the particle will be for us (because we can only be as precise as one wavelength), but then the higher the frequency of the light, the more energy it stores and the more disturbance is imparted on the particle.  So if I have that (mostly) straight, what I don't understand is the conclusion. Can we not imagine that Laplas' Demon may still have a way of observing the particle without disturbing it? Isn't this more a problem of our own limitations as observers than it is an inherent truth in the universe?", "c_root_id_A": "c8m4erq", "c_root_id_B": "c8mku5j", "created_at_utc_A": 1361908359, "created_at_utc_B": 1361974465, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "simply explained, if we take the wave nature of particles, we can find the wavefunction of each particle with a given description of its conditions. At this stage, the information about the particle is necessarily undetermined, as a wavefunction (or the square of it) can be thought of as just probabilities. However, the act of measurement collapses the wavefunction into only one of the allowed eigenvalues of the physical operator (the measurement you do). Take momentum and position as an example. The eigenvalue of the momentum operator looks like a sine curve, where as the eigenvalue position operator is basically the dirac delta, which is basically a function that is 1 at a certain position x, but 0 everywhere else. essentially, if you were to measure the position, you'd get a 100% probability of the thing you are measuring at position x, but you'd lose all information to do with its momentum as you cannot compose the dirac delta via the momentum curve. This, by the way, has nothing to do with our ability to measure, but rather that once a quantity is measured, it is then IMPOSSIBLE to measure the other associated quantity. (all history is destroyed for the particle upon measurement)", "human_ref_B": "How does Heisenberg's uncertainty principle neccessitate randomness?  As for visualising the uncertainty principle, here's a very compact post:  http://www.reddit.com/tb/heuvb.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 66106.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js1d2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does water have no taste? I hope this isn't a silly question, but why does water have no taste?", "c_root_id_A": "c2enq24", "c_root_id_B": "c2enrub", "created_at_utc_A": 1314129270, "created_at_utc_B": 1314129571, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Physical properties of a compound, such as colour, taste, touch etc. depend on its pH factor. The pH further depends upon the concentration of H+ and OH- ions in that compound. For example, compounds having higher concentration of H+ ions are sour, acids and compounds having higher OH- ion concentrations like bases are bitter. Water has equal concentration of H+ and OH- ions. Thus, it has neither sour nor a bitter taste, and hence is tasteless. Similarly, it is colourless and doesn't have an odour.  * The above is blatantly ripped off from the first google result for \"why does water have no taste\": http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2004-04-03/open-space/28342502_1_pure-water-compounds-colour", "human_ref_B": "Probably because your average drinking water is low(hopefully) on elements that would trigger the five categories of taste: sweetness, bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and umami.    Link", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 301.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js1d2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does water have no taste? I hope this isn't a silly question, but why does water have no taste?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eowwi", "c_root_id_B": "c2eoreo", "created_at_utc_A": 1314137075, "created_at_utc_B": 1314136022, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There are five types of taste receptor cells in your tongue.   1. Salty receptor cells\u2014Respond to small, dissolved ions of salts, like NaCl (table salt).  2. Sweet receptor cells\u2014Respond to sugars, like sucrose.  3. Sour receptor cells\u2014Respond to acidity (concentration of hydrogen ions). This receptor cell probably evolved to detect unripe/rotten fruits, which are acidic, and therefore sour.  4. Bitter receptor cells\u2014Respond to a bunch of different molecules. Many bitter substances are toxic. Thus, evolution has made those toxic substances taste bitter.  5. Savory (umami) receptor cells\u2014Respond to glutamate. Some restaurants put MSG in food to trigger savory receptor cells. (MSG = mono-sodium glutamate).   So, as you can see, no receptor is tuned for H2O. Seeing as the majority of your body is water, I don't think a water-receptor cell would be useful, so that might be why we haven't evolved one.", "human_ref_B": "I'm assuming a similar reason that you can't smell any of the components in typical air, because your sensors would be constantly firing, which would be inefficient. As there is nearly always water in your mouth, and most foods you eat, it would be pointless to be able to identify it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1053.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js1d2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does water have no taste? I hope this isn't a silly question, but why does water have no taste?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eovbp", "c_root_id_B": "c2eowwi", "created_at_utc_A": 1314136768, "created_at_utc_B": 1314137075, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "It might, but it just depends on what you are comparing it to.   We could be use citric acid as a standard, giving water a very different taste. :P", "human_ref_B": "There are five types of taste receptor cells in your tongue.   1. Salty receptor cells\u2014Respond to small, dissolved ions of salts, like NaCl (table salt).  2. Sweet receptor cells\u2014Respond to sugars, like sucrose.  3. Sour receptor cells\u2014Respond to acidity (concentration of hydrogen ions). This receptor cell probably evolved to detect unripe/rotten fruits, which are acidic, and therefore sour.  4. Bitter receptor cells\u2014Respond to a bunch of different molecules. Many bitter substances are toxic. Thus, evolution has made those toxic substances taste bitter.  5. Savory (umami) receptor cells\u2014Respond to glutamate. Some restaurants put MSG in food to trigger savory receptor cells. (MSG = mono-sodium glutamate).   So, as you can see, no receptor is tuned for H2O. Seeing as the majority of your body is water, I don't think a water-receptor cell would be useful, so that might be why we haven't evolved one.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 307.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js1d2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does water have no taste? I hope this isn't a silly question, but why does water have no taste?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eowwi", "c_root_id_B": "c2eo478", "created_at_utc_A": 1314137075, "created_at_utc_B": 1314131758, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There are five types of taste receptor cells in your tongue.   1. Salty receptor cells\u2014Respond to small, dissolved ions of salts, like NaCl (table salt).  2. Sweet receptor cells\u2014Respond to sugars, like sucrose.  3. Sour receptor cells\u2014Respond to acidity (concentration of hydrogen ions). This receptor cell probably evolved to detect unripe/rotten fruits, which are acidic, and therefore sour.  4. Bitter receptor cells\u2014Respond to a bunch of different molecules. Many bitter substances are toxic. Thus, evolution has made those toxic substances taste bitter.  5. Savory (umami) receptor cells\u2014Respond to glutamate. Some restaurants put MSG in food to trigger savory receptor cells. (MSG = mono-sodium glutamate).   So, as you can see, no receptor is tuned for H2O. Seeing as the majority of your body is water, I don't think a water-receptor cell would be useful, so that might be why we haven't evolved one.", "human_ref_B": "Eh, water does have taste, that is why when you go different places, it...has a different taste.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5317.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js1d2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does water have no taste? I hope this isn't a silly question, but why does water have no taste?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eo478", "c_root_id_B": "c2eoreo", "created_at_utc_A": 1314131758, "created_at_utc_B": 1314136022, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Eh, water does have taste, that is why when you go different places, it...has a different taste.", "human_ref_B": "I'm assuming a similar reason that you can't smell any of the components in typical air, because your sensors would be constantly firing, which would be inefficient. As there is nearly always water in your mouth, and most foods you eat, it would be pointless to be able to identify it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4264.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js1d2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does water have no taste? I hope this isn't a silly question, but why does water have no taste?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eq6sr", "c_root_id_B": "c2eovbp", "created_at_utc_A": 1314147075, "created_at_utc_B": 1314136768, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Why would we need to taste water? We already have thirst to make us drink it.", "human_ref_B": "It might, but it just depends on what you are comparing it to.   We could be use citric acid as a standard, giving water a very different taste. :P", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10307.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js1d2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does water have no taste? I hope this isn't a silly question, but why does water have no taste?", "c_root_id_A": "c2eo478", "c_root_id_B": "c2eq6sr", "created_at_utc_A": 1314131758, "created_at_utc_B": 1314147075, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Eh, water does have taste, that is why when you go different places, it...has a different taste.", "human_ref_B": "Why would we need to taste water? We already have thirst to make us drink it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15317.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "js1d2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does water have no taste? I hope this isn't a silly question, but why does water have no taste?", "c_root_id_A": "c2ery6l", "c_root_id_B": "c2er8wj", "created_at_utc_A": 1314161909, "created_at_utc_B": 1314155898, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "From an evolutionary stand point, you develop a train due to it being advantageous to your future reproductive capacity. Developing a capability to taste water would serve no purpose, being that your mouth is full of it, so it would always be activated. So it would serve no benefit to your survival and thus would die out as fast as it mutated.", "human_ref_B": "Water does have a taste. It's just so boring and plain that it's not something to remember.  There is something that has *even less* taste than water: saliva. And, in studies that require a \"control taste\" (such as this one ), artificial saliva is used.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6011.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "omhxp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Quantum Spin: how does it work? **What the heck is it?** - Is it actually a physical property or is it just a description of energy/momentum with a poorly chosen name?  **What's with the half integer values** - I get that they are a ratio of something to do with the Planck constants, but why are they half integers? Is there any known reason why the aren't random decimal figures? Also, and I suppose this ties with the firs question, why can't we have a backwards spin (i.e. left hand vs right hand rotation)?  Thanks for the info, it's something that's always been really opaque to me.", "c_root_id_A": "c3ihjlt", "c_root_id_B": "c3if3ep", "created_at_utc_A": 1326959328, "created_at_utc_B": 1326942893, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "A common misconception, one that is being perpetuated in this thread, is that a particle can only be in two spin states (up and down).  **This is not true.**  A spin 1/2 particle has two *eigenstates* with respect to any direction of measurement.  I.e. if I measure the spin in a given direction, I will measure one of two values (+1/2, -1/2) in appropriate units.  We can label these two states |+> and |-> for the spin up and spin down.  A quantum particle can however be in an infinite number of states consisting of *complex* superpositions of these two states.  That is we can prepare a particle in the state |y> = a |+> + b |->, where a and b are complex numbers, that obey the relation |a|^2 + |b|^2 = 1.  With |a|^2 being the probability to measure the particle in state |+> and |b|^2 being the probability to measure the particle in state |->.  It is precisely this ability of particles to be in a *quantum superposition* of states, that leads to many of the \"weird\" features of quantum mechanics.  Other comments in this thread have dealt with the quantization of spin, so I won't go into that.  **What the heck is it?** -  No it is not just related to energy of momentum.  It actually refers to an intrinsic angular momentum of a particle.  This is not because the particle is physically a spinning ball (though this is the original visualization and the reason for the name).  Particles with a non-zero spin, simply possess an innate angular momentum.  The consequences of this are fascinating and basically all of quantum mechanics is dedicated to understanding this.", "human_ref_B": "Spin can be observed as an additional source of energy in what's called the Hamiltonian of a quantum system and is apparent when you put the atom in a magnetic field.  The Hamiltonian is the mathematical operator that gives the total energy of a system when applied to the wavefunction.    It turns out that when you put an atom in a magnetic field, suppose for simplicity a hydrogen atom, the resulting atomic spectral lines split into pairs of lines, suggesting an energy shift due to the interaction of the electron spin with the magnetic field. This also happens naturally without an applied magnetic field due to the magnetic field generated by the electron's orbital motion, and is known as the fine structure.  Spin angular momentum was classically motivated, and was derived classically from r x p (the classical description of angular momentum), but using the quantum mechanical position and momentum operators, so the name spin stuck around.  As for the right vs. left hand rotation, electrons can have spins of 1/2 or -1/2, also commonly called \"up\" and \"down,\" which I guess is analogous.    edit: to be clear, spin is a fundamental property of particles like twoTheta said in his comment.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16435.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "v3i03", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "If I eat a coffee bean, how much caffeine is absorbed into my system? How does this compare to other caffeinated beverages? I enjoy eating coffee beans, chocolate covered or otherwise and was wondering how many beans it would take me to equal drinking a cup of coffee or can of coke. Anecdotal evidence suggests 3 or more, but I'd love to see if anyone could shed some light on this. Would it matter if I chewed it a lot before swallowing or just swallowed it whole versus eating it 'normally'?", "c_root_id_A": "c510zxy", "c_root_id_B": "c511i5z", "created_at_utc_A": 1339777970, "created_at_utc_B": 1339780011, "score_A": -18, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I'm no scientist, but I'm pretty sure the bean has to be heated in some manner to release the caffeine effectively. I can't help but think of the relations between eating a coffee bean and eating marijuana.", "human_ref_B": "The Mellita coffee company recommends 20 grams of coffee per 12oz cup. That represents roughly a hundred coffee beans. Drip brewing is 97-100% efficient at extracting the caffeine from the grounds (PDF).  So to answer one part of your question, even if your body is able to extract of the caffeine within each bean, you will need to eat many more than three to get as much caffeine as a cup of coffee.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2041.0, "score_ratio": -0.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "v3i03", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "If I eat a coffee bean, how much caffeine is absorbed into my system? How does this compare to other caffeinated beverages? I enjoy eating coffee beans, chocolate covered or otherwise and was wondering how many beans it would take me to equal drinking a cup of coffee or can of coke. Anecdotal evidence suggests 3 or more, but I'd love to see if anyone could shed some light on this. Would it matter if I chewed it a lot before swallowing or just swallowed it whole versus eating it 'normally'?", "c_root_id_A": "c510zxy", "c_root_id_B": "c515eyd", "created_at_utc_A": 1339777970, "created_at_utc_B": 1339795757, "score_A": -18, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I'm no scientist, but I'm pretty sure the bean has to be heated in some manner to release the caffeine effectively. I can't help but think of the relations between eating a coffee bean and eating marijuana.", "human_ref_B": "The roast of the coffee bean also factors in how much caffeine is available in the beans. Light roasted beans such as blonde, green or white beans that are under roasted contain more caffeine then darker roasted beans such as bold or espresso roasts.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17787.0, "score_ratio": -0.0555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6x1cp5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Are there any known physical phenomena that cannot be explained by the Standard Model?", "c_root_id_A": "dmchvq0", "c_root_id_B": "dmcfv0k", "created_at_utc_A": 1504127134, "created_at_utc_B": 1504124990, "score_A": 18, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "### Issues of the Standard Model  This section includes phenomena that have been verified to high certainty and that we're pretty sure the Standard Model can't explain. To the best of my knowledge, this list is exhaustive. It doesn't include aesthetical problems like naturalness since naturalness itself hasn't been experimentally confirmed as a fundamental law of nature.  * Gravity. * Neutrino masses, though it's relatively easy to modify the SM to accommodate them. * The asymmetry between matter and antimatter. The SM seems capable of predicting a tiny asymmetry here, but not enough to explain what we observe.  Note that the inability of the Standard Model to describe dark matter and dark energy is *not* a failure of the model. The evidence for these phenomena come *exclusively* from gravitational observations, which fall beyond the SM's scope. We would be double-dipping with its inability to describe gravitation. In fact, from the \"point of view\" of the SM, we could easily claim it's general relativity that's incorrect, and the SM is correct in assuming dark matter/energy don't exist. There are reasons why most physicists believe general relativity is correct (i.e., dark matter/energy must exist) and the Standard Model is wrong, but they fall beyond the scope of this thread.  ### Mysteries of the Standard Model This section is for things that we aren't 100% sure, but there appears to be some conflict with the Standard Model. To be honest, this list could go on and on and on. Particle physics is really complicated. So I will list only the most important ones.  * Magnetic moment of the muon. The observed value doesn't match the theoretical prediction, but the discrepancy isn't certain enough to be paradigm-shattering. * B meson decay. Another observed value that doesn't match theoretical prediction, and the seriousness of this one has been growing over time.", "human_ref_B": "Besides gravity, you mean?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2144.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "iy4hk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "How did scarlet macaws evolve to have their feathers in rainbow order? Do any other organisms have this coloration? Here's a good picture of one. The colors clearly progress from red to blue like in a rainbow. I was wondering if this was seen anywhere else, and how this could have come about evolutionarily.  Do parrots perceive rainbows and select mates that look like them? Are rainbows just universally pleasing to animals? Am I just seeing patterns between unrelated things because I'm a human?", "c_root_id_A": "c27lgjw", "c_root_id_B": "c27lvg8", "created_at_utc_A": 1311488387, "created_at_utc_B": 1311495186, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Could these birds have some construct in their brains that tells them to like colorful fruits, and could this construct then overlap with mate selection and make colorful mates more attractive? Furthermore, brightly colored birds then arent naturally eliminated because the lack of predators. It doesn't explain the spectrum, but just a thought.", "human_ref_B": "Others have pointed out that this is probably a case of selection bias given the vast number of different bird coloring patterns and the finite number of possible patterns. However to address the more general question of why birds often have flamboyant colors and feathers it is import to recognize that the answer does not end with \"the females choose the flamboyant ones.\" While that's true that just shifts the question to \"why do the females pick the flamboyant ones?\"  We know that the exotic shaped feathers and pigments are costly to the males survival, and nature would not select for females which picked mating criteria that produced offspring with a reduced chance of survival. The answer seems to be that the females who pick flamboyant males are picking parasite free mates because the ability to make flashy bright pigments is often compromised by an infection. The demand of a pretty male ensures that males maintain a visual indicator of health if they want to reproduce.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6799.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ghog0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Does the battery still drain if I hold down the electric motor, stopping it from spinning? I have one of these little frothers.  It's just a little battery-operated electric motor.  If I turn it on, but hold it with my hand to prevent it from spinning, there is no movement and hence zero work done (right?).  But the battery still drains, no?  How exactly does that work?  Where is the energy going?  Heating?  How exactly does it heat up?", "c_root_id_A": "cakaynp", "c_root_id_B": "cakcbcw", "created_at_utc_A": 1371438250, "created_at_utc_B": 1371442161, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "The load you put on the electric motor transfers to the motor itself as electrical resistance. Power usage goes as I^2 R in this type of system (it is likely current driven, not voltage driven). So as you raise the resistance, you are increasing the power usage of the motor. This causes the motor to heat up, proportional to the power it is draining, much like any electrical resistor.  Edit: Put the square on the wrong variable.", "human_ref_B": "You are right that there is zero work done in this situation but that is only because the motor is 0% efficient in this situation.  None of the electrical power is being used to do useful work but is instead being converted mostly to heat.  When you stall a motor like this, it is in fact drawing the maximum amount of current possible (voltage applied divided by the resistance of the motor windings).  Because the motor isn't moving, there are no losses due to friction or air resistance or any magnetic core losses in the motor's iron.  Rather all loses are due to I^2 R losses in the motor's windings.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3911.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ghog0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Does the battery still drain if I hold down the electric motor, stopping it from spinning? I have one of these little frothers.  It's just a little battery-operated electric motor.  If I turn it on, but hold it with my hand to prevent it from spinning, there is no movement and hence zero work done (right?).  But the battery still drains, no?  How exactly does that work?  Where is the energy going?  Heating?  How exactly does it heat up?", "c_root_id_A": "cakazls", "c_root_id_B": "cakcbcw", "created_at_utc_A": 1371438323, "created_at_utc_B": 1371442161, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Short answer: Yes. The motor drains current at a maximum when stalled and leads to a risk of overheating. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stall_torque  Motors are designed assuming they will spin and thus designed for less than max current.", "human_ref_B": "You are right that there is zero work done in this situation but that is only because the motor is 0% efficient in this situation.  None of the electrical power is being used to do useful work but is instead being converted mostly to heat.  When you stall a motor like this, it is in fact drawing the maximum amount of current possible (voltage applied divided by the resistance of the motor windings).  Because the motor isn't moving, there are no losses due to friction or air resistance or any magnetic core losses in the motor's iron.  Rather all loses are due to I^2 R losses in the motor's windings.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3838.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ghog0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Does the battery still drain if I hold down the electric motor, stopping it from spinning? I have one of these little frothers.  It's just a little battery-operated electric motor.  If I turn it on, but hold it with my hand to prevent it from spinning, there is no movement and hence zero work done (right?).  But the battery still drains, no?  How exactly does that work?  Where is the energy going?  Heating?  How exactly does it heat up?", "c_root_id_A": "cakcbcw", "c_root_id_B": "cakbkz7", "created_at_utc_A": 1371442161, "created_at_utc_B": 1371440008, "score_A": 30, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "You are right that there is zero work done in this situation but that is only because the motor is 0% efficient in this situation.  None of the electrical power is being used to do useful work but is instead being converted mostly to heat.  When you stall a motor like this, it is in fact drawing the maximum amount of current possible (voltage applied divided by the resistance of the motor windings).  Because the motor isn't moving, there are no losses due to friction or air resistance or any magnetic core losses in the motor's iron.  Rather all loses are due to I^2 R losses in the motor's windings.", "human_ref_B": "To be clear, the battery drains faster because there is no 'back emf' so it draws more current than when spinning. In fact, the current draw of an electric motor is highest at start up.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2153.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjbzpg", "c_root_id_B": "cbjaebq", "created_at_utc_A": 1375940408, "created_at_utc_B": 1375935042, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "One important distinction - organisms do not evolve.  Populations evolve, but the genome of an organism is the same (except for the occasional new mutation) throughout life.    >Can anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  An organism's form is determined by its development from a single cell.  For multicelled organisms, development is controlled by a intricate network of specialized genes.  The more complex the organism, the more complex the network needed to build it is.  The first complex animal fossils we have found so far - the 'Cambrian explosion' of animal form found in the Burgess Shale  - had a large number of body plans, each as distinct from the other as a dog is from a fly.  However, some of these organisms had body plans which matched existing phylums of animals known today.    The fact that we were able to see the forms of large groups of existing phylums in the ancient fossil record suggests that most or all basic developmental plans had already evolved in or before the Cambrian.  It also suggests that basic developmental plans do not change, even over long periods of time.  The proposed explanation suggests that a lineage of organisms is 'developmentally constrained'.  The fitness cost for changing certain features becomes more expensive than the fitness advantage gained for the new trait.  As more and more complexity is added to the system, it begins to be less and less favorable to change the foundations, when tinkering with the rafters is less expensive and produces the same basic results.", "human_ref_B": "Given the general disdain for polyphyly in grouping organisms, even if a population of centipedes became similar enough to dogs to be able to mate (against all reasonable probabilities), the it would be unlikely that this futuristic population of centipedes would be classified as *Canis* because of the lack of shared history.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5366.0, "score_ratio": 3.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjavtd", "c_root_id_B": "cbjbzpg", "created_at_utc_A": 1375936555, "created_at_utc_B": 1375940408, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 31, "human_ref_A": "Its theoretically possible given that all that needs to happen is that their entire genome needs to change in that direction. The likelihood that the appropriate pressures would ever exist in the appropriate temporal order is extremely low and would have to occur over massive time scales. Even then, it is remarkably more likely that you would end up with functional homology, not genetic homology. Kind of like how the hyena, canines and thylacine share similarities even though they are not closely related and could not breed with one another.", "human_ref_B": "One important distinction - organisms do not evolve.  Populations evolve, but the genome of an organism is the same (except for the occasional new mutation) throughout life.    >Can anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  An organism's form is determined by its development from a single cell.  For multicelled organisms, development is controlled by a intricate network of specialized genes.  The more complex the organism, the more complex the network needed to build it is.  The first complex animal fossils we have found so far - the 'Cambrian explosion' of animal form found in the Burgess Shale  - had a large number of body plans, each as distinct from the other as a dog is from a fly.  However, some of these organisms had body plans which matched existing phylums of animals known today.    The fact that we were able to see the forms of large groups of existing phylums in the ancient fossil record suggests that most or all basic developmental plans had already evolved in or before the Cambrian.  It also suggests that basic developmental plans do not change, even over long periods of time.  The proposed explanation suggests that a lineage of organisms is 'developmentally constrained'.  The fitness cost for changing certain features becomes more expensive than the fitness advantage gained for the new trait.  As more and more complexity is added to the system, it begins to be less and less favorable to change the foundations, when tinkering with the rafters is less expensive and produces the same basic results.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3853.0, "score_ratio": 3.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjbzpg", "c_root_id_B": "cbja8sg", "created_at_utc_A": 1375940408, "created_at_utc_B": 1375934568, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "One important distinction - organisms do not evolve.  Populations evolve, but the genome of an organism is the same (except for the occasional new mutation) throughout life.    >Can anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  An organism's form is determined by its development from a single cell.  For multicelled organisms, development is controlled by a intricate network of specialized genes.  The more complex the organism, the more complex the network needed to build it is.  The first complex animal fossils we have found so far - the 'Cambrian explosion' of animal form found in the Burgess Shale  - had a large number of body plans, each as distinct from the other as a dog is from a fly.  However, some of these organisms had body plans which matched existing phylums of animals known today.    The fact that we were able to see the forms of large groups of existing phylums in the ancient fossil record suggests that most or all basic developmental plans had already evolved in or before the Cambrian.  It also suggests that basic developmental plans do not change, even over long periods of time.  The proposed explanation suggests that a lineage of organisms is 'developmentally constrained'.  The fitness cost for changing certain features becomes more expensive than the fitness advantage gained for the new trait.  As more and more complexity is added to the system, it begins to be less and less favorable to change the foundations, when tinkering with the rafters is less expensive and produces the same basic results.", "human_ref_B": "The probability is so small that you can pretty much say no. Even if you throw out it being strict and make it general (humanity naturally evolving photosynthesis vs actually turning into a tree) the probability is so remote that it probably won't happen.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5840.0, "score_ratio": 31000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjaebq", "c_root_id_B": "cbja8sg", "created_at_utc_A": 1375935042, "created_at_utc_B": 1375934568, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Given the general disdain for polyphyly in grouping organisms, even if a population of centipedes became similar enough to dogs to be able to mate (against all reasonable probabilities), the it would be unlikely that this futuristic population of centipedes would be classified as *Canis* because of the lack of shared history.", "human_ref_B": "The probability is so small that you can pretty much say no. Even if you throw out it being strict and make it general (humanity naturally evolving photosynthesis vs actually turning into a tree) the probability is so remote that it probably won't happen.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 474.0, "score_ratio": 8000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbja8sg", "c_root_id_B": "cbjavtd", "created_at_utc_A": 1375934568, "created_at_utc_B": 1375936555, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "The probability is so small that you can pretty much say no. Even if you throw out it being strict and make it general (humanity naturally evolving photosynthesis vs actually turning into a tree) the probability is so remote that it probably won't happen.", "human_ref_B": "Its theoretically possible given that all that needs to happen is that their entire genome needs to change in that direction. The likelihood that the appropriate pressures would ever exist in the appropriate temporal order is extremely low and would have to occur over massive time scales. Even then, it is remarkably more likely that you would end up with functional homology, not genetic homology. Kind of like how the hyena, canines and thylacine share similarities even though they are not closely related and could not breed with one another.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1987.0, "score_ratio": 8000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjfkl2", "c_root_id_B": "cbja8sg", "created_at_utc_A": 1375961923, "created_at_utc_B": 1375934568, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Insects and mammals are both modern evolutions of their respective groups.  Somehow this is always a stumbling block in understanding evolution.", "human_ref_B": "The probability is so small that you can pretty much say no. Even if you throw out it being strict and make it general (humanity naturally evolving photosynthesis vs actually turning into a tree) the probability is so remote that it probably won't happen.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 27355.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjfkl2", "c_root_id_B": "cbjf8do", "created_at_utc_A": 1375961923, "created_at_utc_B": 1375959523, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "Insects and mammals are both modern evolutions of their respective groups.  Somehow this is always a stumbling block in understanding evolution.", "human_ref_B": "Your centipede to gorilla example is interesting, because something similar has already happened. If you go back far enough, and I do mean rather far, you'll find that we are descended from worms. So, yes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2400.0, "score_ratio": -0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbja8sg", "c_root_id_B": "cbjfq8h", "created_at_utc_A": 1375934568, "created_at_utc_B": 1375962902, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The probability is so small that you can pretty much say no. Even if you throw out it being strict and make it general (humanity naturally evolving photosynthesis vs actually turning into a tree) the probability is so remote that it probably won't happen.", "human_ref_B": "> Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  Yes. This graphic is a fair enough representation of the big picture of evolution.  > But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  No, anything cannot evolve into anything. See the big picture, and note how at the outer edge there are more and more branches, but that once they have split the branches do not \"cross over\" again, that is to say that insects do not become mammals. Evolution works by inheritance of characteristics.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28334.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjfq8h", "c_root_id_B": "cbjf8do", "created_at_utc_A": 1375962902, "created_at_utc_B": 1375959523, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -8, "human_ref_A": "> Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  Yes. This graphic is a fair enough representation of the big picture of evolution.  > But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  No, anything cannot evolve into anything. See the big picture, and note how at the outer edge there are more and more branches, but that once they have split the branches do not \"cross over\" again, that is to say that insects do not become mammals. Evolution works by inheritance of characteristics.", "human_ref_B": "Your centipede to gorilla example is interesting, because something similar has already happened. If you go back far enough, and I do mean rather far, you'll find that we are descended from worms. So, yes.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3379.0, "score_ratio": -0.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjo040", "c_root_id_B": "cbja8sg", "created_at_utc_A": 1375987230, "created_at_utc_B": 1375934568, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Comparing a single cell evolving into every living thing to one organism evolving to become another are in no way similar. The problem arises because at the biochemical level there are many different ways to do the same thing without any real advantage of one over the other.  Let's take a hypothetical example of a gene on the egg of a species that ensures that only the sperm from the same species is able to fertilize the egg. So imagine the egg has the gene for square hole so that only sperm that have the gene for square peg will fit and fertilize the egg.  The thing about this example is there is really no difference between having a square/square, triangle/triangle, or circle/circle as long as the system does it's job of ensuring only the proper sperm fertilize the egg, the specific shape doesn't matter (keep in mind at the biochemical level the shape is vastly more complex than circle or square).  So if we use this example when we look at a single celled organism evolving into everything else it makes sense that we would see organisms with all sorts of different shapes necessary for this process. But the organisms don't need any particular shape the only thing that matters is that the shape they do have is exclusive to their species.   What this means then is that a centipede to evolving into something that could breed with a modern dog is virtually impossible. Even if a centipede were to evolve into an animal that looked and behaved exactly like a dog at the biochemical level it would still be very different.", "human_ref_B": "The probability is so small that you can pretty much say no. Even if you throw out it being strict and make it general (humanity naturally evolving photosynthesis vs actually turning into a tree) the probability is so remote that it probably won't happen.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 52662.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjf8do", "c_root_id_B": "cbjo040", "created_at_utc_A": 1375959523, "created_at_utc_B": 1375987230, "score_A": -8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Your centipede to gorilla example is interesting, because something similar has already happened. If you go back far enough, and I do mean rather far, you'll find that we are descended from worms. So, yes.", "human_ref_B": "Comparing a single cell evolving into every living thing to one organism evolving to become another are in no way similar. The problem arises because at the biochemical level there are many different ways to do the same thing without any real advantage of one over the other.  Let's take a hypothetical example of a gene on the egg of a species that ensures that only the sperm from the same species is able to fertilize the egg. So imagine the egg has the gene for square hole so that only sperm that have the gene for square peg will fit and fertilize the egg.  The thing about this example is there is really no difference between having a square/square, triangle/triangle, or circle/circle as long as the system does it's job of ensuring only the proper sperm fertilize the egg, the specific shape doesn't matter (keep in mind at the biochemical level the shape is vastly more complex than circle or square).  So if we use this example when we look at a single celled organism evolving into everything else it makes sense that we would see organisms with all sorts of different shapes necessary for this process. But the organisms don't need any particular shape the only thing that matters is that the shape they do have is exclusive to their species.   What this means then is that a centipede to evolving into something that could breed with a modern dog is virtually impossible. Even if a centipede were to evolve into an animal that looked and behaved exactly like a dog at the biochemical level it would still be very different.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27707.0, "score_ratio": -0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbja8sg", "c_root_id_B": "cbjpqnz", "created_at_utc_A": 1375934568, "created_at_utc_B": 1375991269, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The probability is so small that you can pretty much say no. Even if you throw out it being strict and make it general (humanity naturally evolving photosynthesis vs actually turning into a tree) the probability is so remote that it probably won't happen.", "human_ref_B": "One reason centipedes can't evolve into dogs is because dogs already exist.  Over enough time, centipedes might evolve into dog-like creatures, but they'd be unrelated to dogs as we know them today, no matter how similar they looked.  The same applies to all the other examples provided.  For a good book on how evolution works, check out The Greatest Show on Earth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 56701.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjf8do", "c_root_id_B": "cbjpqnz", "created_at_utc_A": 1375959523, "created_at_utc_B": 1375991269, "score_A": -8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Your centipede to gorilla example is interesting, because something similar has already happened. If you go back far enough, and I do mean rather far, you'll find that we are descended from worms. So, yes.", "human_ref_B": "One reason centipedes can't evolve into dogs is because dogs already exist.  Over enough time, centipedes might evolve into dog-like creatures, but they'd be unrelated to dogs as we know them today, no matter how similar they looked.  The same applies to all the other examples provided.  For a good book on how evolution works, check out The Greatest Show on Earth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31746.0, "score_ratio": -0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjs6so", "c_root_id_B": "cbja8sg", "created_at_utc_A": 1375997096, "created_at_utc_B": 1375934568, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "It's also important to note that you're talking about our present day definitions of the lifeforms. If what we call centipedes today evolved into a quadrapedal warm blooded pack hunting creature, it would not be a 'dog', it would be something entirely different, because it would have a different evolutionary history.", "human_ref_B": "The probability is so small that you can pretty much say no. Even if you throw out it being strict and make it general (humanity naturally evolving photosynthesis vs actually turning into a tree) the probability is so remote that it probably won't happen.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 62528.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1jxk60", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Given enough time, could, say, insects evolve into mammals? Or are certain evolutionary branches only capable of further evolving into a limited number of forms? Life, supposedly, began with one organism that then evolved into every diverse organism we know today.  But is it the case that anything can evolve into anything? Or are there limits?  Centipede -> Dog?  Gorilla -> Amoeba?  Human -> Tree?  The above all sound ridiculous, but so also sounds the idea of one cell evolving into every living thing.  What say you?", "c_root_id_A": "cbjf8do", "c_root_id_B": "cbjs6so", "created_at_utc_A": 1375959523, "created_at_utc_B": 1375997096, "score_A": -8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Your centipede to gorilla example is interesting, because something similar has already happened. If you go back far enough, and I do mean rather far, you'll find that we are descended from worms. So, yes.", "human_ref_B": "It's also important to note that you're talking about our present day definitions of the lifeforms. If what we call centipedes today evolved into a quadrapedal warm blooded pack hunting creature, it would not be a 'dog', it would be something entirely different, because it would have a different evolutionary history.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37573.0, "score_ratio": -0.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bjjf4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Has suicide been observed in animals?", "c_root_id_A": "c97itzi", "c_root_id_B": "c97m1mc", "created_at_utc_A": 1364970802, "created_at_utc_B": 1364993407, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "There is this penguin, warning sadness overwhelming. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DI3u7g8PPEA&feature=youtube_gdata_player", "human_ref_B": "Example:  A mother bear killed her cubs and then herself to stop a repeated painful procedure.  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2025388/China-Tortured-mother-bear-kills-cub-herself.html", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22605.0, "score_ratio": 2.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bjjf4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Has suicide been observed in animals?", "c_root_id_A": "c97m1mc", "c_root_id_B": "c97lw71", "created_at_utc_A": 1364993407, "created_at_utc_B": 1364992700, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Example:  A mother bear killed her cubs and then herself to stop a repeated painful procedure.  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2025388/China-Tortured-mother-bear-kills-cub-herself.html", "human_ref_B": "Don't have a source as I'm on my phone but I'm pretty sure that sun bears held in captivity in China where their bile is harvested have been known to kill both themselves and their offspring", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 707.0, "score_ratio": 7.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bjjf4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Has suicide been observed in animals?", "c_root_id_A": "c97n5zj", "c_root_id_B": "c97itzi", "created_at_utc_A": 1364997767, "created_at_utc_B": 1364970802, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Yes, I figured you might want a real example. In the documentary \"The Cove\", which is about dolphin killing in Japan (crazy sad movie), one of the people that filmed it was the dolphin trainer of Flipper. He had turn into an anti-captivity activist when one of his dolphins killed themselves. As he explains it, a dolphin's breathing isn't involuntary, so every breath they make is a choice. What happened was, one day the dolphin that he worked with (Flipper from the show) swam up to him and laid in his arms and looked him in the eyes. The dolphin then took one last breath and then refused to take another, killing itself.", "human_ref_B": "There is this penguin, warning sadness overwhelming. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DI3u7g8PPEA&feature=youtube_gdata_player", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26965.0, "score_ratio": 1.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1bjjf4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Has suicide been observed in animals?", "c_root_id_A": "c97n5zj", "c_root_id_B": "c97lw71", "created_at_utc_A": 1364997767, "created_at_utc_B": 1364992700, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes, I figured you might want a real example. In the documentary \"The Cove\", which is about dolphin killing in Japan (crazy sad movie), one of the people that filmed it was the dolphin trainer of Flipper. He had turn into an anti-captivity activist when one of his dolphins killed themselves. As he explains it, a dolphin's breathing isn't involuntary, so every breath they make is a choice. What happened was, one day the dolphin that he worked with (Flipper from the show) swam up to him and laid in his arms and looked him in the eyes. The dolphin then took one last breath and then refused to take another, killing itself.", "human_ref_B": "Don't have a source as I'm on my phone but I'm pretty sure that sun bears held in captivity in China where their bile is harvested have been known to kill both themselves and their offspring", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5067.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4duvr2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do animals get pleasure out of mating and reproducing like humans do? Or do they just do it because of their neurochemostry without any \"emotion\"?", "c_root_id_A": "d1uq32m", "c_root_id_B": "d1uqlx4", "created_at_utc_A": 1460108552, "created_at_utc_B": 1460110534, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 1724, "human_ref_A": "There is a documentary somewhere that talks about the bonobo monkeys. They barter using sex. Like I'll trade you food for sex. They also form cliques. It was a film about animal friendships I believe.   I'm also pretty sure dolphins can enjoy it. I also think they are capable of \"rape\", but there are a lot of animals that don't necessarily are \"willing\" participants. Another documentary that comes to mind was one about cats living in Rome (cat city from animal planet?). Possibly some monkeys may enjoy it (i.e. Specifically a video of a monkey using a bullfrog to masturbate with killing said frog comes to mind).   I personally think that things like maslows hierarchy of needs can come into play with the more intelligent species. I think the need for reproduction with the shorter lived animals (like rabbits and cats) is a much more needed reason to make babies than to have time \"enjoying\" sex, not meaning sex without a form of birth control, but more so a survival of the fittest when having a competition to make sure you don't get weaker sperms as a female and fighting off weaker males as they close in.   *also looking at where the animal is on a food chain and if they have their basic needs met. If not, they probably wouldn't even have time for \"enjoying\" sex in a prey's world. Plus, cat penises are barbed to literally stick into the female at insertion so he can deliver his sperm better.", "human_ref_B": "Its hard to define 'pleasure' because an orgasm is probably pleasurable for a lot of species because it's a physiological process but we can't be sure that they experience them in the same way as humans or approach sex with pleasure or orgasm as the goal. Here's a good summary.   Bonobos, a type of chimp, are believed to use sex/pleasure as a social bonding mechanism and they don't seem to be fussy about gender or type of contact.   There are other aspects like rape in animals which are interesting. Orangutans have been know to \"rape\" but there is a lot of controversy about using this human term for animals.   People sometimes say dolphins have sex for pleasure but really there's only evidence that they have sex outside of the ovulation period so we assume that means it's for pleasure.  It's also a bit of a grey area that females humans don't need to orgasm for reproduction to occur, if we don't maybe animals don't. At university a fellow student did her dissertation on how the clitoral orgasm is the equivalent of a penile orgasm because in utero humans all start out vaguely female and the clitoris sort of becomes a penis. If that's why the human species are blessed with orgasms it's highly plausible that animals are too because mammalian development is quite similar.  Basically it's a fascinating topic. Personally I reckon the animals are at it but only certain species approach sex for pleasure, and generally in those cases it's part of social bonding which makes sense. I think it ties in neatly with tickling being sort of pleasant, the theory being that parent-baby relationships involve tickling to communicate. Really tickling is evolutionarily weird because you're letting another person/creature near your most vulnerable parts (chest, stomach). Laughter is also unusual because we make some scary faces when we're really laughing. In the ape world teeth baring is usually a big no-no but we do it as a bonding exercise.  It's very easy to understand ourselves because we can communicate. I think it's clear that some of our closest relatives like the bonobo use sex for bonding, a bit like we do, but we only understand them and their social structures on our terms and other animals are beyond our comprehension. We can assume a lot of stuff but we can't really know, I've heard foxes at it and it sounds horrifying but maybe that's just what they like to do.  Edit: Quick edit for clarity around necessity of female orgasm in reproduction and how that relates to animals, courtesy of u\\Jedakiah :-)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1982.0, "score_ratio": 143.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4duvr2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do animals get pleasure out of mating and reproducing like humans do? Or do they just do it because of their neurochemostry without any \"emotion\"?", "c_root_id_A": "d1utbu5", "c_root_id_B": "d1uur6p", "created_at_utc_A": 1460118354, "created_at_utc_B": 1460121179, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 93, "human_ref_A": "Others have elaborated on animals and sex, but I should chime in that emotion is widely understood to be a product of neurochemistry, so your question poses a false dichotomy. Humans mate because of our neurochemistry, which creates enjoyment - the two are not mutually exclusive at all.", "human_ref_B": "Many comments have focused on higher-intelligence species which seem to enjoy sex (so far as we can tell), but at an other point of the spectrum, \"traumatic insemination\" is a thing in some bugs and means the male's penis is used to perforate the female's abdomen and inject sperm into the wound (the sperm then somehow migrates to the genital organs), obviously regardless of the female's intent and commonly against their will (the females do usually have functional genital tracts).  There are a number of species with highly coercitive sexual practices0]:  * if a female *Gerris gracilicornis* (water strider) doesn't want to mate, [the male may attract predators to try and intimidate them into it * duck sex is not necessarily about scented candle dinners, some species have coevolved ballistic penises and spiraling multi-chambered maze-like vaginas * in the amazonian frog *Rhinella proboscidea* if male pile-on drowns a female[1], the \"winning\" male will just force the eggs out of the dead female and fertilise that  [0] that's not necessarily all that their sexual practices amount to, note, but these are common and well-documented ones which hardly seem pleasurable at least for the recipient   [1] which seems to be a dramatically common occurrence as the species has way more males than females and they gather at mating spots which are mostly sausage-fests:  > having found several explosive breeding sites in Brazil\u2019s Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve between 2001 and 2005. The first time, he found around 100 males and 20 dead females. The second time: 50 males and 5 dead females.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2825.0, "score_ratio": 1.6315789474, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4duvr2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do animals get pleasure out of mating and reproducing like humans do? Or do they just do it because of their neurochemostry without any \"emotion\"?", "c_root_id_A": "d1uur6p", "c_root_id_B": "d1uq32m", "created_at_utc_A": 1460121179, "created_at_utc_B": 1460108552, "score_A": 93, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Many comments have focused on higher-intelligence species which seem to enjoy sex (so far as we can tell), but at an other point of the spectrum, \"traumatic insemination\" is a thing in some bugs and means the male's penis is used to perforate the female's abdomen and inject sperm into the wound (the sperm then somehow migrates to the genital organs), obviously regardless of the female's intent and commonly against their will (the females do usually have functional genital tracts).  There are a number of species with highly coercitive sexual practices0]:  * if a female *Gerris gracilicornis* (water strider) doesn't want to mate, [the male may attract predators to try and intimidate them into it * duck sex is not necessarily about scented candle dinners, some species have coevolved ballistic penises and spiraling multi-chambered maze-like vaginas * in the amazonian frog *Rhinella proboscidea* if male pile-on drowns a female[1], the \"winning\" male will just force the eggs out of the dead female and fertilise that  [0] that's not necessarily all that their sexual practices amount to, note, but these are common and well-documented ones which hardly seem pleasurable at least for the recipient   [1] which seems to be a dramatically common occurrence as the species has way more males than females and they gather at mating spots which are mostly sausage-fests:  > having found several explosive breeding sites in Brazil\u2019s Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve between 2001 and 2005. The first time, he found around 100 males and 20 dead females. The second time: 50 males and 5 dead females.", "human_ref_B": "There is a documentary somewhere that talks about the bonobo monkeys. They barter using sex. Like I'll trade you food for sex. They also form cliques. It was a film about animal friendships I believe.   I'm also pretty sure dolphins can enjoy it. I also think they are capable of \"rape\", but there are a lot of animals that don't necessarily are \"willing\" participants. Another documentary that comes to mind was one about cats living in Rome (cat city from animal planet?). Possibly some monkeys may enjoy it (i.e. Specifically a video of a monkey using a bullfrog to masturbate with killing said frog comes to mind).   I personally think that things like maslows hierarchy of needs can come into play with the more intelligent species. I think the need for reproduction with the shorter lived animals (like rabbits and cats) is a much more needed reason to make babies than to have time \"enjoying\" sex, not meaning sex without a form of birth control, but more so a survival of the fittest when having a competition to make sure you don't get weaker sperms as a female and fighting off weaker males as they close in.   *also looking at where the animal is on a food chain and if they have their basic needs met. If not, they probably wouldn't even have time for \"enjoying\" sex in a prey's world. Plus, cat penises are barbed to literally stick into the female at insertion so he can deliver his sperm better.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12627.0, "score_ratio": 7.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4duvr2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do animals get pleasure out of mating and reproducing like humans do? Or do they just do it because of their neurochemostry without any \"emotion\"?", "c_root_id_A": "d1uur6p", "c_root_id_B": "d1uscr3", "created_at_utc_A": 1460121179, "created_at_utc_B": 1460115994, "score_A": 93, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Many comments have focused on higher-intelligence species which seem to enjoy sex (so far as we can tell), but at an other point of the spectrum, \"traumatic insemination\" is a thing in some bugs and means the male's penis is used to perforate the female's abdomen and inject sperm into the wound (the sperm then somehow migrates to the genital organs), obviously regardless of the female's intent and commonly against their will (the females do usually have functional genital tracts).  There are a number of species with highly coercitive sexual practices0]:  * if a female *Gerris gracilicornis* (water strider) doesn't want to mate, [the male may attract predators to try and intimidate them into it * duck sex is not necessarily about scented candle dinners, some species have coevolved ballistic penises and spiraling multi-chambered maze-like vaginas * in the amazonian frog *Rhinella proboscidea* if male pile-on drowns a female[1], the \"winning\" male will just force the eggs out of the dead female and fertilise that  [0] that's not necessarily all that their sexual practices amount to, note, but these are common and well-documented ones which hardly seem pleasurable at least for the recipient   [1] which seems to be a dramatically common occurrence as the species has way more males than females and they gather at mating spots which are mostly sausage-fests:  > having found several explosive breeding sites in Brazil\u2019s Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve between 2001 and 2005. The first time, he found around 100 males and 20 dead females. The second time: 50 males and 5 dead females.", "human_ref_B": "We share common evolutionary roots with them. Natural selection has limited instruments with which to guide the behavior of an organism. Emotions, pleasure, pain, fear responses, etc. are common to many species because of this. Mating is so central to reproduction and natural selection that there are many built-in emotional and physical responses to sex. Some animals will be closer to human than others, but I would imagine the feelings associated with pair bonding occur in many different creatures. Some creatures have stronger pair-bonding instincts than humans do, and among humans there seems to be a lot of variation here. Humans are pair-bonding but not monogamous by nature, as evidenced by the surprising amount of random people reproducing in the family tree in unexpected places. Some animals mate for life instinctively, so their feelings of love and attachment must be very strong indeed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5185.0, "score_ratio": 9.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4duvr2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do animals get pleasure out of mating and reproducing like humans do? Or do they just do it because of their neurochemostry without any \"emotion\"?", "c_root_id_A": "d1utbu5", "c_root_id_B": "d1uq32m", "created_at_utc_A": 1460118354, "created_at_utc_B": 1460108552, "score_A": 57, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "Others have elaborated on animals and sex, but I should chime in that emotion is widely understood to be a product of neurochemistry, so your question poses a false dichotomy. Humans mate because of our neurochemistry, which creates enjoyment - the two are not mutually exclusive at all.", "human_ref_B": "There is a documentary somewhere that talks about the bonobo monkeys. They barter using sex. Like I'll trade you food for sex. They also form cliques. It was a film about animal friendships I believe.   I'm also pretty sure dolphins can enjoy it. I also think they are capable of \"rape\", but there are a lot of animals that don't necessarily are \"willing\" participants. Another documentary that comes to mind was one about cats living in Rome (cat city from animal planet?). Possibly some monkeys may enjoy it (i.e. Specifically a video of a monkey using a bullfrog to masturbate with killing said frog comes to mind).   I personally think that things like maslows hierarchy of needs can come into play with the more intelligent species. I think the need for reproduction with the shorter lived animals (like rabbits and cats) is a much more needed reason to make babies than to have time \"enjoying\" sex, not meaning sex without a form of birth control, but more so a survival of the fittest when having a competition to make sure you don't get weaker sperms as a female and fighting off weaker males as they close in.   *also looking at where the animal is on a food chain and if they have their basic needs met. If not, they probably wouldn't even have time for \"enjoying\" sex in a prey's world. Plus, cat penises are barbed to literally stick into the female at insertion so he can deliver his sperm better.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9802.0, "score_ratio": 4.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4duvr2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do animals get pleasure out of mating and reproducing like humans do? Or do they just do it because of their neurochemostry without any \"emotion\"?", "c_root_id_A": "d1uscr3", "c_root_id_B": "d1utbu5", "created_at_utc_A": 1460115994, "created_at_utc_B": 1460118354, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "We share common evolutionary roots with them. Natural selection has limited instruments with which to guide the behavior of an organism. Emotions, pleasure, pain, fear responses, etc. are common to many species because of this. Mating is so central to reproduction and natural selection that there are many built-in emotional and physical responses to sex. Some animals will be closer to human than others, but I would imagine the feelings associated with pair bonding occur in many different creatures. Some creatures have stronger pair-bonding instincts than humans do, and among humans there seems to be a lot of variation here. Humans are pair-bonding but not monogamous by nature, as evidenced by the surprising amount of random people reproducing in the family tree in unexpected places. Some animals mate for life instinctively, so their feelings of love and attachment must be very strong indeed.", "human_ref_B": "Others have elaborated on animals and sex, but I should chime in that emotion is widely understood to be a product of neurochemistry, so your question poses a false dichotomy. Humans mate because of our neurochemistry, which creates enjoyment - the two are not mutually exclusive at all.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2360.0, "score_ratio": 5.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4duvr2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do animals get pleasure out of mating and reproducing like humans do? Or do they just do it because of their neurochemostry without any \"emotion\"?", "c_root_id_A": "d1uq32m", "c_root_id_B": "d1v1fsa", "created_at_utc_A": 1460108552, "created_at_utc_B": 1460130839, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "There is a documentary somewhere that talks about the bonobo monkeys. They barter using sex. Like I'll trade you food for sex. They also form cliques. It was a film about animal friendships I believe.   I'm also pretty sure dolphins can enjoy it. I also think they are capable of \"rape\", but there are a lot of animals that don't necessarily are \"willing\" participants. Another documentary that comes to mind was one about cats living in Rome (cat city from animal planet?). Possibly some monkeys may enjoy it (i.e. Specifically a video of a monkey using a bullfrog to masturbate with killing said frog comes to mind).   I personally think that things like maslows hierarchy of needs can come into play with the more intelligent species. I think the need for reproduction with the shorter lived animals (like rabbits and cats) is a much more needed reason to make babies than to have time \"enjoying\" sex, not meaning sex without a form of birth control, but more so a survival of the fittest when having a competition to make sure you don't get weaker sperms as a female and fighting off weaker males as they close in.   *also looking at where the animal is on a food chain and if they have their basic needs met. If not, they probably wouldn't even have time for \"enjoying\" sex in a prey's world. Plus, cat penises are barbed to literally stick into the female at insertion so he can deliver his sperm better.", "human_ref_B": "Let's simplify the question.  Do animals enjoy sex?  Yes. They do.  The problem isn't IF they do, it's how we quantify it.  How does it compare with our own experience during sex? How does it compare with other species?  As humans, we have historically approached the traits of animals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, etc. from our own, using unfortunate phrases that compare other species to our one benchmark.  However, I have lately entered into several discussions with researchers regarding a pre-biased approach that assumes that if animals don't feel precisely as we do, they are somehow seen as incapable of that feeling to any degree.  That approach and description has led to an overall \"devaluing\" of any emotional clues a species may exhibit.  After all, they're just animals, right?     A reasonable example of this mode of thinking was exhibited in part by the University of Edinburgh and their recently released study \"Do Cats Love Their Owners As Much As Dogs Do?\"  In that study, the responses of each of the two species was observed after being reunited with their owners following a timed absence.  Dogs, predictably, were overjoyed at the return of their owners, whereas cats were far more reserved.  In addition, measurements were taken of the endorphin levels of both species.  Again, dogs came out with higher numbers.  The UofE concluded that there was no doubt, then, that dogs loved their owners more than cats do.  Or was there?    I immediately wrote to the University questioning the validity of their results.  Nowhere in any write-up on the study did I see any sort of \"taking into account\" of fundamental cat vs dog species differences.  Specifically, dogs are pack animals whose nature is nearly identical to that of wolves:  reliant on an Alpha male and female for direction, for food, and the entire pack for protection.  If the Alpha wolf leaves, the entire pack is thrown into a state where another Alpha may rise to power if he does not return.  This means conflict, aggression, and possibly death to those males in line.  However, if the Alpha does return, the pack returns to a more stable and non-aggressive state.  The Alpha is greeted by overjoyed younger wolves who rub bodies, lick faces, and bare necks and bellies in submission.  The relief that the Apha has returned is palpable.  Many of a dog's greeting behaviors are exactly the same behaviors exhibited when the Alpha returns.  Conversely, cats are solitary hunters spending much of their time alone and reuniting with females only during mating.  Small cats, being both a predator and a prey species, are much more fine-tuned for self-reliance than a dog is, based on their social structures.  Cats therefore would predictably be less concerned if the human in their lives left for long periods.  Cats would see this as a normal state, unlike dogs.  Any animal species should be judged first within its own nature, then compared to a second species in a similar niche, say that of 'pets', and then finally, and then finally compared both physically and mentally to humans.  Okay, so how does this all tie in to the original subject?  Well, the question of \"Do Animals Get Pleasure Out of Mating and Reproducing Like Humans Do?\" is limited by adding in the quantifier, \"like humans do\".  Beyond reproduction, humans do, as a species, experience a rush of pleasure in committing the act, but trying to line it up with almost any species except the great apes is going to run into arguable issues.    Humans, unlike most species, don't experience a compulsion to mate during a 'season' or 'heat' as other animals do, so we need that incentive of pleasure to make up for that factor.  That then, leads to the question, do animals experience sexual enjoyment or do they not, since they already have a built-in compulsion to procreate?   There are a lot of varying points of view within the scientific community, but the widely held approach is \"don't anthropomorphize\", which does not mean that they don't experience pleasure at all, it just means not putting human characteristics upon the animals.  However, in the interests of keeping to the mantra of not anthropomorphizing, many researchers approach any animal species as thought they are incapable of any emotion we could possibly resemble or relate to, if they have them at all; preferring instead to claim that everything an animal does is entirely instinctual.  Over the last few years, we are learning that animals are in fact, much more emotionally mysterious than we previously gave them credit for.  For example, the Beluga whale that makes faces at children to see them react.  ( http://www.dailymail.co.uk/video/news/video-1114372/Beluga-whale-plays-peek-boo-kids-aquarium.html ) or the Crested Cockatoo named Snowball that became a sensation when scientists realized the bird was keeping rhythm with the music, something he was not trained to do.  Prior to this discovery on YouTube ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJOZp2ZftCw ), animals were thought to be incapable of keeping time with music.  Since then, sea lions have been shown to have the ability too. So, why does Snowball dance?  The more relevant question would be, do Cockatoos get pleasure out of dancing like humans do?  Whether or not to anthropomorphize may be the kind of question that serves to obscure the results rather than reveal them.  Thus, given all these studies regarding animal emotions, it would be sensible to conclude that each species of animal experiences as much pleasure as they need to, within the context of their species and environment.  Some less if they need to, and some more if they need to, and how they compare to humans is another matter.  Having personally observed horses, cats, dogs, raccoons and monkeys self-pleasuring themselves, I have no doubt in my own mind where I'd put my money.  But if you desire more reading on the subject, might I recommend a book that I've found explores animal sex incentives a bit further?  It is: http://www.amazon.com/Wild-Sex-Beyond-Birds-Bees/dp/031208336X/ref=sr_1_4?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1460126820&sr=1-4&keywords=sex+wild+animals   and possibly a differing edition,  http://www.amazon.com/Wild-Sex-Want-about-Birds/dp/0730103692/ref=sr_1_58?ie=UTF8&qid=1460129955&sr=8-58&keywords=wild+animal+sex  The first book, Wild Sex: Way Beyond the Birds and the Bees, in an entertaining, if not eye-opening guide to some of the practices animals engage in while in the pursuit of sex and/or reproduction.  This is written based on my years working at zoos, stables, caring for wild and domestic animals, rehabbing animals and observations made personally in the wild.  Studies of human  behaviour continues pending approval of appropriate human subjects.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22287.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4duvr2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Do animals get pleasure out of mating and reproducing like humans do? Or do they just do it because of their neurochemostry without any \"emotion\"?", "c_root_id_A": "d1v1fsa", "c_root_id_B": "d1uscr3", "created_at_utc_A": 1460130839, "created_at_utc_B": 1460115994, "score_A": 24, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Let's simplify the question.  Do animals enjoy sex?  Yes. They do.  The problem isn't IF they do, it's how we quantify it.  How does it compare with our own experience during sex? How does it compare with other species?  As humans, we have historically approached the traits of animals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, etc. from our own, using unfortunate phrases that compare other species to our one benchmark.  However, I have lately entered into several discussions with researchers regarding a pre-biased approach that assumes that if animals don't feel precisely as we do, they are somehow seen as incapable of that feeling to any degree.  That approach and description has led to an overall \"devaluing\" of any emotional clues a species may exhibit.  After all, they're just animals, right?     A reasonable example of this mode of thinking was exhibited in part by the University of Edinburgh and their recently released study \"Do Cats Love Their Owners As Much As Dogs Do?\"  In that study, the responses of each of the two species was observed after being reunited with their owners following a timed absence.  Dogs, predictably, were overjoyed at the return of their owners, whereas cats were far more reserved.  In addition, measurements were taken of the endorphin levels of both species.  Again, dogs came out with higher numbers.  The UofE concluded that there was no doubt, then, that dogs loved their owners more than cats do.  Or was there?    I immediately wrote to the University questioning the validity of their results.  Nowhere in any write-up on the study did I see any sort of \"taking into account\" of fundamental cat vs dog species differences.  Specifically, dogs are pack animals whose nature is nearly identical to that of wolves:  reliant on an Alpha male and female for direction, for food, and the entire pack for protection.  If the Alpha wolf leaves, the entire pack is thrown into a state where another Alpha may rise to power if he does not return.  This means conflict, aggression, and possibly death to those males in line.  However, if the Alpha does return, the pack returns to a more stable and non-aggressive state.  The Alpha is greeted by overjoyed younger wolves who rub bodies, lick faces, and bare necks and bellies in submission.  The relief that the Apha has returned is palpable.  Many of a dog's greeting behaviors are exactly the same behaviors exhibited when the Alpha returns.  Conversely, cats are solitary hunters spending much of their time alone and reuniting with females only during mating.  Small cats, being both a predator and a prey species, are much more fine-tuned for self-reliance than a dog is, based on their social structures.  Cats therefore would predictably be less concerned if the human in their lives left for long periods.  Cats would see this as a normal state, unlike dogs.  Any animal species should be judged first within its own nature, then compared to a second species in a similar niche, say that of 'pets', and then finally, and then finally compared both physically and mentally to humans.  Okay, so how does this all tie in to the original subject?  Well, the question of \"Do Animals Get Pleasure Out of Mating and Reproducing Like Humans Do?\" is limited by adding in the quantifier, \"like humans do\".  Beyond reproduction, humans do, as a species, experience a rush of pleasure in committing the act, but trying to line it up with almost any species except the great apes is going to run into arguable issues.    Humans, unlike most species, don't experience a compulsion to mate during a 'season' or 'heat' as other animals do, so we need that incentive of pleasure to make up for that factor.  That then, leads to the question, do animals experience sexual enjoyment or do they not, since they already have a built-in compulsion to procreate?   There are a lot of varying points of view within the scientific community, but the widely held approach is \"don't anthropomorphize\", which does not mean that they don't experience pleasure at all, it just means not putting human characteristics upon the animals.  However, in the interests of keeping to the mantra of not anthropomorphizing, many researchers approach any animal species as thought they are incapable of any emotion we could possibly resemble or relate to, if they have them at all; preferring instead to claim that everything an animal does is entirely instinctual.  Over the last few years, we are learning that animals are in fact, much more emotionally mysterious than we previously gave them credit for.  For example, the Beluga whale that makes faces at children to see them react.  ( http://www.dailymail.co.uk/video/news/video-1114372/Beluga-whale-plays-peek-boo-kids-aquarium.html ) or the Crested Cockatoo named Snowball that became a sensation when scientists realized the bird was keeping rhythm with the music, something he was not trained to do.  Prior to this discovery on YouTube ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJOZp2ZftCw ), animals were thought to be incapable of keeping time with music.  Since then, sea lions have been shown to have the ability too. So, why does Snowball dance?  The more relevant question would be, do Cockatoos get pleasure out of dancing like humans do?  Whether or not to anthropomorphize may be the kind of question that serves to obscure the results rather than reveal them.  Thus, given all these studies regarding animal emotions, it would be sensible to conclude that each species of animal experiences as much pleasure as they need to, within the context of their species and environment.  Some less if they need to, and some more if they need to, and how they compare to humans is another matter.  Having personally observed horses, cats, dogs, raccoons and monkeys self-pleasuring themselves, I have no doubt in my own mind where I'd put my money.  But if you desire more reading on the subject, might I recommend a book that I've found explores animal sex incentives a bit further?  It is: http://www.amazon.com/Wild-Sex-Beyond-Birds-Bees/dp/031208336X/ref=sr_1_4?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1460126820&sr=1-4&keywords=sex+wild+animals   and possibly a differing edition,  http://www.amazon.com/Wild-Sex-Want-about-Birds/dp/0730103692/ref=sr_1_58?ie=UTF8&qid=1460129955&sr=8-58&keywords=wild+animal+sex  The first book, Wild Sex: Way Beyond the Birds and the Bees, in an entertaining, if not eye-opening guide to some of the practices animals engage in while in the pursuit of sex and/or reproduction.  This is written based on my years working at zoos, stables, caring for wild and domestic animals, rehabbing animals and observations made personally in the wild.  Studies of human  behaviour continues pending approval of appropriate human subjects.", "human_ref_B": "We share common evolutionary roots with them. Natural selection has limited instruments with which to guide the behavior of an organism. Emotions, pleasure, pain, fear responses, etc. are common to many species because of this. Mating is so central to reproduction and natural selection that there are many built-in emotional and physical responses to sex. Some animals will be closer to human than others, but I would imagine the feelings associated with pair bonding occur in many different creatures. Some creatures have stronger pair-bonding instincts than humans do, and among humans there seems to be a lot of variation here. Humans are pair-bonding but not monogamous by nature, as evidenced by the surprising amount of random people reproducing in the family tree in unexpected places. Some animals mate for life instinctively, so their feelings of love and attachment must be very strong indeed.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14845.0, "score_ratio": 2.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "c38z1i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "Does the Earth's Atmosphere Affect the Earth's Gravitational Pull in any Way? Let's say I'm an astronaut, and I was magically teleported just outside of Earth's atmosphere. I assume that according to Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation, the Earth's gravity SHOULD act on me immediately as I teleport in outside of the Earth's atmosphere. However, movies always make it seem like as soon as you exit the Earth's atmosphere, gravity decreases. Is this a Hollywood inaccuracy or am I missing some kind of key piece of information about Earth's atmosphere?   Also, just to note, I DO understand that the only reason actual people (not actors) appear \"weightless\" in space is because they are in orbit, and are therefore being pulled toward the Earth but their motion in the direction tangent to the Earth's surface keeps them from falling to Earth. I'm just wondering if anything inside of the Earth's atmosphere affects the force of gravity in any sort of way.", "c_root_id_A": "erqwb92", "c_root_id_B": "erqefrt", "created_at_utc_A": 1561153698, "created_at_utc_B": 1561141444, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If you are in space and suddenly stop accelerating there will be a sudden change from weight to weightlessness. This is the what you are seeing in the Hollywood depiction, the effect of the sudden lack of acceleration, not the change in Earth gravity.", "human_ref_B": "The atmosphere will not change the strength of the pull of gravity on you, but if something is in orbit as you mentioned and it hits the atmosphere, then the atmosphere *will* provide enough resistance to decrease your tangential velocity. It would be technically inaccurate to say you would start falling faster since gravity is still accelerating you towards the earth at the same rate, so lets say the distance between you and the earth's surface will begin to decrease more rapidly.  However, if you are inside a spaceship as you fall you won't suddenly be pulled towards the side of the ship that's facing earth because the ship is falling at the same rate as you. If anything your acceleration relative to the ship will be *forward* because the drag of the atmosphere is causing the ship to \"decelerate\" or accelerate backward, but the atmosphere is not acting on you directly because you are shielded from it by the ship so you continue on at the same velocity while the ship decelerates around you.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12254.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxs1py", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why are some fungal skin infections like tinea versicolor incurable/chronic? What causes the source of the infection to remain so that the condition can flare up again after treatment and remission? Why can\u2019t we nuke the little fungi out of existence? Aren\u2019t some fungal skin infections like tinea pedis (\u201cathletes foot\u201d) completely curable?", "c_root_id_A": "ilu7s8p", "c_root_id_B": "iluhxte", "created_at_utc_A": 1661495870, "created_at_utc_B": 1661504171, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Fungi have been around long before us, and will be around long after haha.  Fungi are eukaryotic organisms just like we are, so things that kill fungi also tend to kill us (e.g. cycloheximide), making a chemical treatment rout somewhat challenging, and spore forming reproduction is exceptionally resilient.", "human_ref_B": "Not a dermatologist but a vet tech and animals can also have chronic or one time fungal diseases that are highly analogous to ours in many cases, so although previous posters are correct that systemic anti fungal treatments can come with some hard core side effects, I don\u2019t actually think that\u2019s the reason for the difference in these diseases.   Athlete\u2019s foot (tinea pedis) is caused by one of a few different dermatophyte fungi. Like ringworm it is not supposed to be living on you and is highly contagious. So once you finally get rid of it, if you don\u2019t reinfect yourself, you\u2019re done.   Tinea versicolor is an overgrowth of a  Malassezia yeast that is a normal part of a healthy human skin biome. It\u2019s not at all contagious, it only causes problems if conditions are right in that individual person to cause an out of balance overgrowth. So if the conditions recur (extreme heat and humidity, excessive sweatiness, immune system dysfunction from a different illness or medication side effect, antibiotics messing with the flora balance) well that organism is already everywhere on your body and everyone else\u2019s body because it\u2019s supposed to be there, it\u2019s not an occasional infection like ringworm. The only way to cure it would be not to nuke the organism, but to stop the reason for the imbalance (move to a cold dry climate, successfully address the root causes of the immune disease, etc).   Does that make sense?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8301.0, "score_ratio": 3.7, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxs1py", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why are some fungal skin infections like tinea versicolor incurable/chronic? What causes the source of the infection to remain so that the condition can flare up again after treatment and remission? Why can\u2019t we nuke the little fungi out of existence? Aren\u2019t some fungal skin infections like tinea pedis (\u201cathletes foot\u201d) completely curable?", "c_root_id_A": "ilu6pe6", "c_root_id_B": "iluhxte", "created_at_utc_A": 1661495070, "created_at_utc_B": 1661504171, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "There is a certain point as with chemo treatments for cancer, where you are pretty much poisoning the host along with the foreign infection/tumor you are trying to get rid of, pretty much just hoping you kill off the problem before the person. Some fungi are just that resilient. It's possible that you could essentially 'nuke' them, but you are risking similar and likely irreversible harm to the subject in question by doing so.  Of course medical advances are constant especially with nanotech starting to become somewhat viable, it's possible we'll be able to get around this problem eventually. It still exists for now though.", "human_ref_B": "Not a dermatologist but a vet tech and animals can also have chronic or one time fungal diseases that are highly analogous to ours in many cases, so although previous posters are correct that systemic anti fungal treatments can come with some hard core side effects, I don\u2019t actually think that\u2019s the reason for the difference in these diseases.   Athlete\u2019s foot (tinea pedis) is caused by one of a few different dermatophyte fungi. Like ringworm it is not supposed to be living on you and is highly contagious. So once you finally get rid of it, if you don\u2019t reinfect yourself, you\u2019re done.   Tinea versicolor is an overgrowth of a  Malassezia yeast that is a normal part of a healthy human skin biome. It\u2019s not at all contagious, it only causes problems if conditions are right in that individual person to cause an out of balance overgrowth. So if the conditions recur (extreme heat and humidity, excessive sweatiness, immune system dysfunction from a different illness or medication side effect, antibiotics messing with the flora balance) well that organism is already everywhere on your body and everyone else\u2019s body because it\u2019s supposed to be there, it\u2019s not an occasional infection like ringworm. The only way to cure it would be not to nuke the organism, but to stop the reason for the imbalance (move to a cold dry climate, successfully address the root causes of the immune disease, etc).   Does that make sense?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9101.0, "score_ratio": 4.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "wxs1py", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Why are some fungal skin infections like tinea versicolor incurable/chronic? What causes the source of the infection to remain so that the condition can flare up again after treatment and remission? Why can\u2019t we nuke the little fungi out of existence? Aren\u2019t some fungal skin infections like tinea pedis (\u201cathletes foot\u201d) completely curable?", "c_root_id_A": "ilu7s8p", "c_root_id_B": "ilu6pe6", "created_at_utc_A": 1661495870, "created_at_utc_B": 1661495070, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Fungi have been around long before us, and will be around long after haha.  Fungi are eukaryotic organisms just like we are, so things that kill fungi also tend to kill us (e.g. cycloheximide), making a chemical treatment rout somewhat challenging, and spore forming reproduction is exceptionally resilient.", "human_ref_B": "There is a certain point as with chemo treatments for cancer, where you are pretty much poisoning the host along with the foreign infection/tumor you are trying to get rid of, pretty much just hoping you kill off the problem before the person. Some fungi are just that resilient. It's possible that you could essentially 'nuke' them, but you are risking similar and likely irreversible harm to the subject in question by doing so.  Of course medical advances are constant especially with nanotech starting to become somewhat viable, it's possible we'll be able to get around this problem eventually. It still exists for now though.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 800.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5o92i6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why does polarization and electric field have conjugate complex exponentials? I was going through a paper where the electric field and polarization have a particular shown here. It appears fairly familiar but one thing I don't quite understand is: why are the complex exponentials of E and P the conjugate of one another? As far as I'm aware, this is not necessary for Maxwell's equations. Is it simply specific to the authors' model?", "c_root_id_A": "dci7vl6", "c_root_id_B": "dchqh4g", "created_at_utc_A": 1484590888, "created_at_utc_B": 1484559326, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I'm not exactly sure what I'm looking at, but quite often when working with EM waves you use complex conjugates because the electric field is necessarily real. So you are never working with a wave that is actually equal to e^(ikx) but rather you work with a superposition of fields where one is e^(ikx) and the other is e(-ikx). The linear combinations possible end up being cos(kx) and sin(kx). We use the exponentials because they are MUCH easier to manipulate algebraically than sinusoids.", "human_ref_B": "I'm not sure from the image, but if you assume the P represents the Polarization density vector and we assume a vacuum the displacement current is zero, so the time derivative of 'E' is proportional to the negative time derivative of 'P'. Hence they will have conjugate complex exponentials in time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31562.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5o92i6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why does polarization and electric field have conjugate complex exponentials? I was going through a paper where the electric field and polarization have a particular shown here. It appears fairly familiar but one thing I don't quite understand is: why are the complex exponentials of E and P the conjugate of one another? As far as I'm aware, this is not necessary for Maxwell's equations. Is it simply specific to the authors' model?", "c_root_id_A": "dcj8asa", "c_root_id_B": "dchqh4g", "created_at_utc_A": 1484641819, "created_at_utc_B": 1484559326, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": ">As far as I'm aware, this is not necessary for Maxwell's equations. Is it simply specific to the authors' model?  This is quite common in electrodynamics. If you're interested in finding out more about this and gaining an intuitive mathematical feeling about this stuff, Jackson's \"Classical Electrodynamics\" is a pretty good start.  In this notation, the operators Po and Eo are amplitudes, what goes next to *i* in the exponent is the phase and epsilon is the unit vector (because you're dealing with vector quantities).  You might want to write the end result of a calculation in the cosine form, ( amplitude] x [cos[phase]] ), but it is easier to perform calculations using the complex form ([amplitude] x exp[i x [phase]]).  [Here's a pretty straightforward and simple presentation on why those two notations are essentially the same thing.", "human_ref_B": "I'm not sure from the image, but if you assume the P represents the Polarization density vector and we assume a vacuum the displacement current is zero, so the time derivative of 'E' is proportional to the negative time derivative of 'P'. Hence they will have conjugate complex exponentials in time.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 82493.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1pj0ed", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "The image that the lens of the eye projects on the retina is upside down and the brain 'corrects' it. Why does it even bother? Its still full color stereoscopic vision regardless, they've proven that the brain can readily readapt to glasses that flip it back, then why isn't it just the default? Why the realignment? Why must the 'base' of our vision be in keeping with the directional pull of gravity?", "c_root_id_A": "cd2wbao", "c_root_id_B": "cd2xenl", "created_at_utc_A": 1383141836, "created_at_utc_B": 1383144847, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "What we \"see\", that is the process of seeing, is an internal representation of the world. We map the light to make a representation we can then use to act in the world. So we adjust to make the internal map fit the reality.", "human_ref_B": "The \"the brain receives the image upside down and has to learn to correct it\" statement seems to be a common misconception. The only thing the brain receives from the retina is a series of electric signals for which \"orientation\" doesn't makes much sense. It's all about intepretation of the signal.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3011.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyoc8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Is there any evolutionary advantage to having a good sense of rhythm?", "c_root_id_A": "c3cz9h3", "c_root_id_B": "c3czckj", "created_at_utc_A": 1325438816, "created_at_utc_B": 1325439549, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 57, "human_ref_A": "Sex is \"smoother\" and more fun...", "human_ref_B": "We're designed to be long distance runners. Having a good rhythm when running may help us to better our technique and run distances more efficiently.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 733.0, "score_ratio": 4.3846153846, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyoc8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Is there any evolutionary advantage to having a good sense of rhythm?", "c_root_id_A": "c3cz9h3", "c_root_id_B": "c3d00d5", "created_at_utc_A": 1325438816, "created_at_utc_B": 1325444530, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 45, "human_ref_A": "Sex is \"smoother\" and more fun...", "human_ref_B": "Musical Rhythm: Many birds and such use calls and songs to attract a mate. It is possible that one of the reasons we developed music is also to attract a mate and therefore good rhythm is important.   Dancing: Many species use mating dances and many humans find a person who can dance well more attractive. Therefore rhythm is important.  Walking & Talking: If your sense of rhythm is so poor that you cannot walk normally or talk normally it is a sign that you have some kind of medical issue and may not have good genes to pass on. Therefore you would be less attractive.   Your sense of rhythm affects many other aspects of life but I am not sure how all of them play into evolutionary advantages.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5714.0, "score_ratio": 3.4615384615, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyoc8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Is there any evolutionary advantage to having a good sense of rhythm?", "c_root_id_A": "c3d07b4", "c_root_id_B": "c3d0b81", "created_at_utc_A": 1325445893, "created_at_utc_B": 1325446624, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "If your mates prefer it.", "human_ref_B": "From a previous post:  > Music is probably an evolved means of communicating internal cognitive consistency (for the purposes of mate selection) via the production of reducible mathematical functions.  It's a bit like a checksum in that it allows a listener to make a very quick approximation of another human's neurological fitness in a computationally asymmetrical manner (easy to like/dislike, hard to produce).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 731.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyoc8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Is there any evolutionary advantage to having a good sense of rhythm?", "c_root_id_A": "c3d1yir", "c_root_id_B": "c3d07b4", "created_at_utc_A": 1325457967, "created_at_utc_B": 1325445893, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "From a study made in Sweden: There seems to be a correlation between intelligence and sense of rhythm. People with high IQ have a better sense of rhythm than people with lower. I seem to remember a hypothesis that sense of rhythm correlates with how synced your brain signals are, and having better sync means an increased ability to sort the order of your thoughts, or something to that nature.  Link to press release about the correlation study: http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=130&a=54768&l=en&newsdep=130  Quote from the press release: \"According to Fredrik Ull\u00e9n, the results suggest that the rhythmic accuracy in brain activity observable when the person just maintains a steady beat is also important to the problem-solving capacity that is measured with intelligence tests.  \"We know that accuracy at millisecond level in neuronal activity is critical to information processing and learning processes,\" he says.\"", "human_ref_B": "If your mates prefer it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12074.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyoc8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Is there any evolutionary advantage to having a good sense of rhythm?", "c_root_id_A": "c3d2vo7", "c_root_id_B": "c3d2an4", "created_at_utc_A": 1325464408, "created_at_utc_B": 1325460324, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A rhythmic sense is also linked to a human's time perception.  Having a good sense of timing is key not just to establishing a rhythm, but also to predicting when events are going to occur.  It can be advantageous to being able to know when to get out of the way or when to swing a hunting tool.", "human_ref_B": "I've heard that if you walk without rhythm you won't attack the worm.   I presume this is a reference to sexual attraction?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4084.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nyoc8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Is there any evolutionary advantage to having a good sense of rhythm?", "c_root_id_A": "c3d2an4", "c_root_id_B": "c3d2vxx", "created_at_utc_A": 1325460324, "created_at_utc_B": 1325464460, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I've heard that if you walk without rhythm you won't attack the worm.   I presume this is a reference to sexual attraction?", "human_ref_B": "MANY cultures pass on knowledge through song (and dance). Even western nursery rhymes are intended to teach. For example in Jack and Jill the last line tells you to soak paper in vinegar and place it on your head -- \"To old Dame Dob, who patched his nob With vinegar and brown paper.\" -- to cure a headache. Better rhythm would give you an advantage here I suspect.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4136.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "135gd4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "In 2008 NASA announced they had detected a breach in the Earth's magnetosphere through THEMIS. Has any more info or knowledge come about through learning this? I'm a 4th year physics/astronomy undergrad interested in solar physics, particularly how the activity on the sun influences our magnetosphere.   In December of 2008 NASA posted an article with the news but to this day I cannot find anything else out.   Has any progress been made in understanding this? Are any theories out there?", "c_root_id_A": "c717tu6", "c_root_id_B": "c7137mu", "created_at_utc_A": 1352901606, "created_at_utc_B": 1352868604, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "didnt they say that earth's magnetic poles are starting to reverse, thus causing huge gaps in the magnetic field?", "human_ref_B": "If you read through some of the poorly collated press releases at the [THEMIS project site][1], you'll find a bunch of other information in relation to things like this. It would seem like the article, although published in 2008 was actually in relation to an event that occurred in June 2007, some of mission media releases after this date might help explain more of the phenomena. The best I can do is list the ones I found to be most interesting.  [Spacequakes Rumble Near Earth][2]  [Spring is Aurora Season][3]  [NASA's THEMIS Satellite Sees a Great Electron Escape][4]  [1]: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/themis/news/index.html [2]: http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2010/27jul_spacequakes/ [3]: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/themis/auroras/aurora_live.html [4]: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/themis/news/electron-escape.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 33002.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2shyxv", "c_root_id_B": "c2shpfd", "created_at_utc_A": 1318963212, "created_at_utc_B": 1318961575, "score_A": 40, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Seeds. Vestigial remnants of how wild bananas  reproduced before humans cultivated them via cloning. All bananas we commonly eat today are clones. And the currently popular variety will probably be extinct within the next couple dozen years. Apparently cloning is not so good for developing immunity to disease. This already happened 50 years ago with a different type of banana that used to be the \"regular kind\" but no one remembers it now. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_disease", "human_ref_B": "I have never heard of or seen 'black blobs' in bananas before. What country do you live? Are the bananas you eat local or imported? Have you tried different brands and did they also have the black blobs?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1637.0, "score_ratio": 4.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2shyxv", "c_root_id_B": "c2shupe", "created_at_utc_A": 1318963212, "created_at_utc_B": 1318962493, "score_A": 40, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Seeds. Vestigial remnants of how wild bananas  reproduced before humans cultivated them via cloning. All bananas we commonly eat today are clones. And the currently popular variety will probably be extinct within the next couple dozen years. Apparently cloning is not so good for developing immunity to disease. This already happened 50 years ago with a different type of banana that used to be the \"regular kind\" but no one remembers it now. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_disease", "human_ref_B": "I am guessing seeds.  From the article on Bananas:  \"In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.\"  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 719.0, "score_ratio": 13.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2shsui", "c_root_id_B": "c2shyxv", "created_at_utc_A": 1318962173, "created_at_utc_B": 1318963212, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 40, "human_ref_A": "Perhaps it is these things?  http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5522.html  Though from the article it doesn't sound like the damage is seen in the centre of the banana.", "human_ref_B": "Seeds. Vestigial remnants of how wild bananas  reproduced before humans cultivated them via cloning. All bananas we commonly eat today are clones. And the currently popular variety will probably be extinct within the next couple dozen years. Apparently cloning is not so good for developing immunity to disease. This already happened 50 years ago with a different type of banana that used to be the \"regular kind\" but no one remembers it now. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_disease", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1039.0, "score_ratio": 40000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2shpfd", "c_root_id_B": "c2sizr2", "created_at_utc_A": 1318961575, "created_at_utc_B": 1318969523, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "I have never heard of or seen 'black blobs' in bananas before. What country do you live? Are the bananas you eat local or imported? Have you tried different brands and did they also have the black blobs?", "human_ref_B": "Does it looks something like this? These are wild-type bananas that are what bananas originally looked like. What we're used to as a normal banana as actually been selectively bread/engineered to produce the smaller black bits we see.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7948.0, "score_ratio": 3.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2shupe", "c_root_id_B": "c2sizr2", "created_at_utc_A": 1318962493, "created_at_utc_B": 1318969523, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "I am guessing seeds.  From the article on Bananas:  \"In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.\"  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana", "human_ref_B": "Does it looks something like this? These are wild-type bananas that are what bananas originally looked like. What we're used to as a normal banana as actually been selectively bread/engineered to produce the smaller black bits we see.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7030.0, "score_ratio": 9.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2si4rv", "c_root_id_B": "c2sizr2", "created_at_utc_A": 1318964196, "created_at_utc_B": 1318969523, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 29, "human_ref_A": "Do you think the 'black blobs' inside a banana are most likely due to local over-ripening/browning of bananas?  Maybe it has to do with transit time, or they way they are being stored near apples or tomatoes?", "human_ref_B": "Does it looks something like this? These are wild-type bananas that are what bananas originally looked like. What we're used to as a normal banana as actually been selectively bread/engineered to produce the smaller black bits we see.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5327.0, "score_ratio": 14.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2sizr2", "c_root_id_B": "c2shsui", "created_at_utc_A": 1318969523, "created_at_utc_B": 1318962173, "score_A": 29, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Does it looks something like this? These are wild-type bananas that are what bananas originally looked like. What we're used to as a normal banana as actually been selectively bread/engineered to produce the smaller black bits we see.", "human_ref_B": "Perhaps it is these things?  http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5522.html  Though from the article it doesn't sound like the damage is seen in the centre of the banana.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7350.0, "score_ratio": 29000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2shupe", "c_root_id_B": "c2shsui", "created_at_utc_A": 1318962493, "created_at_utc_B": 1318962173, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "I am guessing seeds.  From the article on Bananas:  \"In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.\"  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana", "human_ref_B": "Perhaps it is these things?  http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5522.html  Though from the article it doesn't sound like the damage is seen in the centre of the banana.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 320.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2si4rv", "c_root_id_B": "c2shsui", "created_at_utc_A": 1318964196, "created_at_utc_B": 1318962173, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Do you think the 'black blobs' inside a banana are most likely due to local over-ripening/browning of bananas?  Maybe it has to do with transit time, or they way they are being stored near apples or tomatoes?", "human_ref_B": "Perhaps it is these things?  http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5522.html  Though from the article it doesn't sound like the damage is seen in the centre of the banana.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2023.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2shsui", "c_root_id_B": "c2smbwt", "created_at_utc_A": 1318962173, "created_at_utc_B": 1318992952, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Perhaps it is these things?  http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5522.html  Though from the article it doesn't sound like the damage is seen in the centre of the banana.", "human_ref_B": "More protein, right?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30779.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2sj3d8", "c_root_id_B": "c2smbwt", "created_at_utc_A": 1318970141, "created_at_utc_B": 1318992952, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There are a lot of different types of seeds in bananas, not all have the tiny black sand-grain like seeds. Some particularly tasty] bananas I used to eat in south-asia have seeds the size of whole pepper-corns. The bananas themselves were pretty small so eating around the seeds was actually an effort, but worth it. See [random image from this blog for instance, as well as the wiki page's crosssection of wild bananas.  I'm not a biologist so I can't cite which are safe to eat for you, but as someone who grew up eating several different types of banana's, their seeds vary quite a lot. I've never encountered any that seemed like an insect though, nor have I ever seen an insect getting into a healthy looking banana (apples, guavas and lychee on the other hand, seen plenty of worms in them).", "human_ref_B": "More protein, right?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22811.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lgijh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "What are the black blobs inside of bananas and are they safe? *I got this from a friend and would love some help explaining exactly what it is and whether it's safe or not. Are there really bugs in bananas?*  In the past year, practically every banana I cut open has areas in the center, where there is supposed to only be fruit and teeny, tiny black seeds, there are  black blobs of what I figure are probably bugs of some sort (I keep wishing I had a microscope).  Sometimes so much of the middle is totally yucky that I only get to eat a small amount of the banana as I carefully slice all around the middle.   I was at a juice bar a few months ago and asked the lady who owns the shop about it. She hadn't become aware yet. So her employee grabbed a banana and cut it in two ---- and I explained that he would have to cut it lengthwise in order to bring to view the entire middle section. Sure enough there were two places where it was black and yucky looking instead of pure fruit with tiny dots of seeds.  I remember another mom telling me about her child being sick for a long time and finally after a year or so they pinned it to insects inside bananas. In all the years since I've never understood what she was talking about until this last year or so and I find it almost impossible to buy a banana that is pure.", "c_root_id_A": "c2slnfc", "c_root_id_B": "c2smbwt", "created_at_utc_A": 1318988430, "created_at_utc_B": 1318992952, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I feel like this is some sort of an add for contagion.", "human_ref_B": "More protein, right?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4522.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "q2ean", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Why do mammals have capsaicin receptors? I was originally going to ask why peppers evolutionarily selected to produce capsaicin, but the answer was readily available (apparently birds do not have capsaicin receptors and do not digest the seeds as well as mammals).  That led me to ask: then why do we have these receptors?  Does it provide some advantage or is it incidental to our superior sense of taste.  If the latter is true, then why would it be perceived as painful and not as some other less offensive sensation.", "c_root_id_A": "c3u78kx", "c_root_id_B": "c3u62w2", "created_at_utc_A": 1330014792, "created_at_utc_B": 1330007857, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It's kind of a backwards question.  My friend tells me that birds don't because they don't digest the seeds.  Just fly somewhere else and shit them out unharmed.  Free ride for your seeds!  Mammals, however, digest seeds, so when a mammal shits a seed out, it's useless for growing.  The plant has \"engineered\" capsicum to keep mammals from eating it.  So mammals had some exploitable receptors I believe for avoiding poison and the plants took advantage.  Note: No sources, just what I recall him saying.  Don't trust anything here.", "human_ref_B": "TRPV1 receptors are also believed to be involved in endocannabinoid signaling (and there is some good evidence for it). Here are the pubmed results if you search TRPV1 & Cannabinoid, you can see there are a ton of papers.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6935.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "hl4bc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why does metal glow when it gets hot? How does the increase in kinetic energy of the atoms cause light to be emitted and why does the frequency of light increase as temperature increases?", "c_root_id_A": "c1w8wk6", "c_root_id_B": "c1w8vt1", "created_at_utc_A": 1306458401, "created_at_utc_B": 1306458155, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Temperature isn't just the kinetic energy but _all_ energetic degrees of freedom involved. It can emit light because matter is made of atoms, which have positively charged nuclei surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Oscillating electrical charges (from vibrations and other forms of motion in the material) give off electromagnetic radiation.   The frequency increases with temperature because the energy states are Maxwell-Boltzmann distributed, which leads to a Planck distribution of the resulting radiation. In other words, the frequency distribution of the emitted radiation comes from the energy distribution in the material. And higher temperature means an energy distribution with a higher average energy.", "human_ref_B": "Thermal radiation  And it does not only happen to metal.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 246.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxygw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Are there any real biological differences between humans of different races?", "c_root_id_A": "c34qg16", "c_root_id_B": "c34rsgm", "created_at_utc_A": 1322860672, "created_at_utc_B": 1322869369, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is yes, there are a bunch of small ones, but by and large the dispersion within races is large compared to the mean differences between them, so race is a bad determinate of anything on an individual level.", "human_ref_B": "The concept of race as most people understand it is pretty much entirely socially constructed. Most people would think of races as Caucasian (white), African (or \"African-American\", if you're American, although that of course refers only to people of African descent who are residents of the USA), Asian (or perhaps you might split it into \"Chinese\", \"Japanese\", etc.), Arabic, etc.  But these are all categories that we've created. For example, two randomly drawn African individuals are *far* more distantly related than a randomly drawn European is to a randomly drawn Asian. The amount of genetic diversity present in Africa alone dwarfs that of the entire rest of the world (this is because all non-African human populations are believed to have derived from a single migration of just a few thousand individuals out of Africa about 75,000 years ago, and population bottlenecks like this result in a significant reductions in genetic variation). So it doesn't really make any kind of sense to group individuals from populations that are 160,000 years diverged (as some African populations are) into the same \"race\", but group two other individuals from populations that are only ~30,000 years diverged (as the European and Asian populations are) into different \"races\".  The concept just doesn't really have that much of a basis in biology, or at least, no one's really been able to reverse engineer a biologically valid concept of race to go along with the word itself, which certainly didn't have a basis in biology when it was first used. We could, try, if we wanted, to work out some biologically valid concept of race, and people certainly have, as the whole issue has an obnoxiously long wikipedia article), which I will readily admit to not having read all of.  I think most in my field would argue that there's really no need for a scientific concept of race in humans. We can identify different *populations*. And we definitely can identify biological differences between populations. Lactase persistence is a great example. The enzyme lactase is used to break down lactose, the sugar present in milk. People who are lactase persistent continue producing lactase well into adulthood (and are thus able to drink milk as adults), while those who are not lactase persistent do not, and are known colloquially as \"lactose intolerant\". That wikipedia link gives a list of human populations and percentages of individuals who are lactose intolerant. So that's a real biological difference among human populations, but the lines do not fall nicely with the lines between \"races\", as we use the word in everyday speech.  There are tons of other examples, many of which I am not that knowledgable, but just for a quick list:  * BMI  * Height  * Skin Pigmentation  * Sickle cell disease/malaria resistance (the two share the same genetics)  * oxygen transport and usage in high altitude populations  And I'm sure there are *tons* more that I'm just not well read on. How these differences shake out among populations depends largely on the particular evolutionary histories of those populations, and you're not going to see our neat little racial dividing lines that we use in society emerge out of them.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8697.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxygw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Are there any real biological differences between humans of different races?", "c_root_id_A": "c34qcgv", "c_root_id_B": "c34rsgm", "created_at_utc_A": 1322860085, "created_at_utc_B": 1322869369, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "There is no biological basis for race so this question is impossible to answer scientifically. Race is a social construct.   EDIT: Cf Luigi Cavalli-Sforza's fantastic book Genes, Peoples and Languages", "human_ref_B": "The concept of race as most people understand it is pretty much entirely socially constructed. Most people would think of races as Caucasian (white), African (or \"African-American\", if you're American, although that of course refers only to people of African descent who are residents of the USA), Asian (or perhaps you might split it into \"Chinese\", \"Japanese\", etc.), Arabic, etc.  But these are all categories that we've created. For example, two randomly drawn African individuals are *far* more distantly related than a randomly drawn European is to a randomly drawn Asian. The amount of genetic diversity present in Africa alone dwarfs that of the entire rest of the world (this is because all non-African human populations are believed to have derived from a single migration of just a few thousand individuals out of Africa about 75,000 years ago, and population bottlenecks like this result in a significant reductions in genetic variation). So it doesn't really make any kind of sense to group individuals from populations that are 160,000 years diverged (as some African populations are) into the same \"race\", but group two other individuals from populations that are only ~30,000 years diverged (as the European and Asian populations are) into different \"races\".  The concept just doesn't really have that much of a basis in biology, or at least, no one's really been able to reverse engineer a biologically valid concept of race to go along with the word itself, which certainly didn't have a basis in biology when it was first used. We could, try, if we wanted, to work out some biologically valid concept of race, and people certainly have, as the whole issue has an obnoxiously long wikipedia article), which I will readily admit to not having read all of.  I think most in my field would argue that there's really no need for a scientific concept of race in humans. We can identify different *populations*. And we definitely can identify biological differences between populations. Lactase persistence is a great example. The enzyme lactase is used to break down lactose, the sugar present in milk. People who are lactase persistent continue producing lactase well into adulthood (and are thus able to drink milk as adults), while those who are not lactase persistent do not, and are known colloquially as \"lactose intolerant\". That wikipedia link gives a list of human populations and percentages of individuals who are lactose intolerant. So that's a real biological difference among human populations, but the lines do not fall nicely with the lines between \"races\", as we use the word in everyday speech.  There are tons of other examples, many of which I am not that knowledgable, but just for a quick list:  * BMI  * Height  * Skin Pigmentation  * Sickle cell disease/malaria resistance (the two share the same genetics)  * oxygen transport and usage in high altitude populations  And I'm sure there are *tons* more that I'm just not well read on. How these differences shake out among populations depends largely on the particular evolutionary histories of those populations, and you're not going to see our neat little racial dividing lines that we use in society emerge out of them.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9284.0, "score_ratio": -1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxygw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Are there any real biological differences between humans of different races?", "c_root_id_A": "c34qcgv", "c_root_id_B": "c34qg16", "created_at_utc_A": 1322860085, "created_at_utc_B": 1322860672, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "There is no biological basis for race so this question is impossible to answer scientifically. Race is a social construct.   EDIT: Cf Luigi Cavalli-Sforza's fantastic book Genes, Peoples and Languages", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is yes, there are a bunch of small ones, but by and large the dispersion within races is large compared to the mean differences between them, so race is a bad determinate of anything on an individual level.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 587.0, "score_ratio": -1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxygw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Are there any real biological differences between humans of different races?", "c_root_id_A": "c34seny", "c_root_id_B": "c34rwkd", "created_at_utc_A": 1322873912, "created_at_utc_B": 1322870160, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "We actually learned about this in my Holocaust class at school. To answer, there's about as much genetic difference between two people of the same race than there is of two people from different races. We saw an example of this in a video about a classroom of science students doing a mitochondrial DNA test to see how genetically similar they were. Before they took the test, they had to guess whom their closest match would be. They all guessed other students of the same \"race\" that they were. When the test came back, none of them were right. It's a very interesting study and i wish I could remember the name for you!", "human_ref_B": "What jjberg2 said!!   Also, just thinking about how we identify different races is a clue that they are social constructions and not biological realities. For example, \"white\" and \"black\" are based on skin color alone. People who identify as either of those could be of incredibly diverse ancestry. Then take \"hispanic\": that's a linguistic category, and totally unrelated to biology (for goodness' sake).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3752.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxygw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Are there any real biological differences between humans of different races?", "c_root_id_A": "c34qcgv", "c_root_id_B": "c34seny", "created_at_utc_A": 1322860085, "created_at_utc_B": 1322873912, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There is no biological basis for race so this question is impossible to answer scientifically. Race is a social construct.   EDIT: Cf Luigi Cavalli-Sforza's fantastic book Genes, Peoples and Languages", "human_ref_B": "We actually learned about this in my Holocaust class at school. To answer, there's about as much genetic difference between two people of the same race than there is of two people from different races. We saw an example of this in a video about a classroom of science students doing a mitochondrial DNA test to see how genetically similar they were. Before they took the test, they had to guess whom their closest match would be. They all guessed other students of the same \"race\" that they were. When the test came back, none of them were right. It's a very interesting study and i wish I could remember the name for you!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13827.0, "score_ratio": -0.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mxygw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Are there any real biological differences between humans of different races?", "c_root_id_A": "c34rwkd", "c_root_id_B": "c34qcgv", "created_at_utc_A": 1322870160, "created_at_utc_B": 1322860085, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -6, "human_ref_A": "What jjberg2 said!!   Also, just thinking about how we identify different races is a clue that they are social constructions and not biological realities. For example, \"white\" and \"black\" are based on skin color alone. People who identify as either of those could be of incredibly diverse ancestry. Then take \"hispanic\": that's a linguistic category, and totally unrelated to biology (for goodness' sake).", "human_ref_B": "There is no biological basis for race so this question is impossible to answer scientifically. Race is a social construct.   EDIT: Cf Luigi Cavalli-Sforza's fantastic book Genes, Peoples and Languages", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10075.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "21h3iz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If England and the rest of Northern Europe are further north than many parts of the U.S. and Canada, why don't they experience the same type of extreme winters? Being so far north, I would think that they would have a climate similar to Northern Canada's but instead they seem to have one more similar to the American Mid West.", "c_root_id_A": "cgd9420", "c_root_id_B": "cgd2n6n", "created_at_utc_A": 1395930330, "created_at_utc_B": 1395900066, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "There are four posts so far mentionning the Gulf stream flowing north east along the European coast and sourced in the warm waters of the gulf of Mexico. Well and good.  The other half of the equation in that the NE coast of North America, from Greenland to Nova Scotia,  is bordered by the blood freezing current of Labrador which is sourced in the Davis Straight in the high arctic.  So while the Gulf Stream warms Europe, the Labrador Current has exactly the opposite effect in Eastern North America. If you compare the permafrost-laden tundra around Kuujjuaq with the somewhat agriculturally develloped land and well vegetated area around Edinburg (both are coastal cities roughly at the same latitude), it is understandable that the difference seems at first glance a bit baffling.", "human_ref_B": "The Gulf Stream and proximity to the ocean, which stabilizes temperatures and explains why you don't get the 50F/25C overnight swings in the UK like you do in the Midwest (source: lived in both and people talk about the weather constantly changing either way.)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30264.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "21h3iz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "If England and the rest of Northern Europe are further north than many parts of the U.S. and Canada, why don't they experience the same type of extreme winters? Being so far north, I would think that they would have a climate similar to Northern Canada's but instead they seem to have one more similar to the American Mid West.", "c_root_id_A": "cgd2n6n", "c_root_id_B": "cgd9i6f", "created_at_utc_A": 1395900066, "created_at_utc_B": 1395931246, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The Gulf Stream and proximity to the ocean, which stabilizes temperatures and explains why you don't get the 50F/25C overnight swings in the UK like you do in the Midwest (source: lived in both and people talk about the weather constantly changing either way.)", "human_ref_B": "Here is a visual of the currents people have mentioned. Red lines are for warm, blue are for cold: Ocean Map  As you can see, warm waters from the Gulf of Mexico travel up towards England and Northern Europe. At the same time, cold waters from the artic are coming down towards Canada and the Northeastern US. While the Gulf Stream is making Europe warmer, the Labrador Current is making America colder. Because of both currents flowing simultaneously, the temperature difference is even more exaggerated than it would be if only one of these two currents existed.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 31180.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "l3smuh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "How did the sexual process evolve in eukaryotes?  I've been trying to find answers to this question on this sub and online, but I couldn't find much about the theory of how organisms developed haploid cells and a way to transfer them, and what I did find I had a hard time understanding. I've gathered that eukaryotes are the ancestors of organisms that reproduce sexually, so the mutation would have likely started in eukaryotes millions of years ago. What enabled a eukaryotic organism to transfer its genetic material to another eukaryotic organism?  In my layman's understanding, it seems that if an organism has a mutation that is useful for sex (like haploid cells or a sexual mechanism, some way to transfer DNA), but then can't find another organism with a complimentary sex mutation in reasonable proximity before it dies, it won't reproduce that useful mutation and the mutation ends there. How did sex evolve when two organisms that needed complimentary sex mechanisms/DNA-combining systems had to mutate that at the same time and place?  side note: on a lot of the threads where this question is asked, responses point out the advantages organisms would have had once they evolved a sexual process, but I understand that and am asking how it happened specifically, as an accidental mutation  Also, please correct me if I'm wrong with my basic ideas on the subject! I really need some help understanding this", "c_root_id_A": "gkoem1z", "c_root_id_B": "gkopcgh", "created_at_utc_A": 1611551220, "created_at_utc_B": 1611559790, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Easy, self-fertilization. In the beginning there wouldn't be any specialization into different types of sex cells so there would be no incompatibilities requiring a different-sex individual to be around. From there on, all the descendants can slowly start evolving differences between the different sex cells as are advantageous. The end result billions of years later is that many organisms' reproductive cycles are so heavily specialized and micromanaged that certain combinations of sex cells can no longer produce viable offspring together.", "human_ref_B": "Background info #1: Many types of prokaryotic (bacteria and archaea) cells are capable of something called \"transformation\", where prokaryotes either share genetic material with one another, or absorb genetic material from their environment.  Background info #2: At some point in the evolution of the eukaryotes, a prokaryotic cell (almost certainly from the archaea) absorbed a bacteria but didn't kill it...the absorbed bacteria continued to divide and live inside its proto-eukaryotic host. Over time, that bacteria lost most (but not all) of its DNA, and became the mitochondria shared by all eukaryotic cells today.  Background info #3: The protomitochondrion bacteria was likely an alphaproteobacteria. Many alphaproteobacteria alive today are capable of transformation.  Background info #4: Several genes necessary for eukaryote meiosis (where cells with two copies of each chromosome split into sex cells, each with only one copy of each chromosome) are homologous to genes used by prokaryotes for transformation. Further, meiosis and bacterial transformation involve very similar processes.  From the above pieces of information, a plausible route to the evolution of meiosis and sexual reproduction in eukaryotes emerges (summarized below):  1. A proto-eukaryote absorbs a bacteria capable of transformation; this bacteria will eventually become mitochondria 2. Over time, many of the mitochondria-bacteria's genes are incorporated into the host cell's DNA, including gene for recombination. (We suspect that at least 630 genes from the mitochondria-bacteria were absorbed into the host cell's genome.) 3. Equipped with these new genes, a descendant of the proto-eukaryote becomes capable of bacterial transformation itself (as well as retaining its \"normal\" mitosis, where the cell divides into two identical daughter cells.) 4. Eukaryotic transformation further develops into meiosis and sexual reproduction.  Sexual reproduction in eukaryotes seems to have evolved *before* multicellularity did; even many single-celled eukaryotes alive today are capable of meiosis and sexual reproduction, and several more possess most (but not all) of the necessary genes, implying that their recent single-celled ancestors were able to reproduce sexually but later lost that ability. So the original eukaryotic sexual reproduction was just a derived version of the transformation used today by bacteria like *E. coli*...and as eukaryotes eventually evolved into multicellular plants, animals, and fungi, and cells within those multicellular organisms specialized, sexual reproduction was lost by all but a few cells in each organism.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8570.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "f2ot4a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Is the feeling of cold caused by temperature difference or the loss of heat? And how does the body detect it? So i just found out that the \"feels like\" temp in the weather app is how cold the air feels based on wind speed, humidity and some other factors. meaning the faster the wind speed, the faster the air around the body moves away and gets replaced with colder air so the body loses heat faster.  If the loss and gain of heat is the reason we feel cold and hot, then why do we feel hot even when the air temperature is lower than our skin and body temp? How does our body detect the loss of heat? And is this the reason that materials with higher thermal conductivity feel colder or hotter depending on their temperature?", "c_root_id_A": "fhf29g0", "c_root_id_B": "fhfzo0g", "created_at_utc_A": 1581534731, "created_at_utc_B": 1581555140, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Our body temperature comes from us doing things like digesting food, moving, breathing, basically since everything requires energy to work, everything heats up, it\u2019s why bigger bodies that have more cells have higher core body temperatures usually. We\u2019re still not 100% how we detect temperature but we know that it uses the same nerves and signals as pain, the reason we dislike high 90\u2019s temperature despite being internally high 90\u2019s is because our body is used to upping our temperature from a certain ambient temperature so when it\u2019s mid 70\u2019s for a few months our body gets used to upping the heat by about 20 degrees, but when you change that then it has to adjust and it doesn\u2019t like it", "human_ref_B": "The body feels its own temperature, but note that it _doesn't_ feel the air temperature.   So we can feel hot when the air is cooler than skin temperature because the body produces heat. If the air is warm, then we will lose heat slowly to the air and thus get quite hot.  Materials with higher thermal conductivity will feel more extreme in their temperatures simply because they cool down/heat up the receptors in our body faster.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20409.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1th4a3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "What is the current state of electric cars in terms of reducing overall carbon footprint? I remember hearing quite often that because of the shipping and logistical realities of creating the individual parts for electric cars, we are actually creating a bigger carbon footprint than the car will actually save in comparison to a regular fossil fuel car over it's lifetime.  This used to mean that, although we are moving in the right directions, we're still not benefitting anything by using electric cars.  Is this still the case, or have we improved our methods enough to mean electric cars are truly greener from construction, shipping, to end life cycle?", "c_root_id_A": "ce849e3", "c_root_id_B": "ce84977", "created_at_utc_A": 1387760649, "created_at_utc_B": 1387760636, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There's a lot of misinformation floating around about hybrids and electric cars.  The actual facts, though, show that electric cars represent a net improvement in terms of environmental impact, by enabling a 40% reduction in lifetime, dust-to-dust energy usage, as well as a 50% reduction in carbon footprint in California.  Now, reading the lifetime per-mile figures by using the US national mix as in input, per Table 2 of the same source, yield a result of 25% less energy used, and 15% less emissions incurred than a comparable conventional car.  In other words, on average, electric cars in the US are already better for the environment than normal cars, and do even better in places with a high proportion of renewables in the local electrical generation mix.  To address another one of your specific questions, the logistics of shipping electric car components accounts for a negligible proportion of its overall carbon footprint, as the fuel efficiency of cargo shipping is slightly over 1,000 miles per gallon, per ton (ibid).  For scale, this means if you had to ship a completed Nissan Leaf, weighing 1.5 tons, across the Pacific Ocean from Japan to North America (a distance of about 5,500 miles), the carbon footprint of shipping across the ocean for the car alone would be the equivalent of just 8 gallons of freighter fuel, which is effectively negligible in the context of the car's lifecycle emissions.  Since the Leaf's battery pack weighs 660 pounds, or 0.3 tons, any shipping of the battery pack or its raw materials would be (even more) negligible.", "human_ref_B": "Generating the power which drives electric cars is much more efficient then having small power trains on each vehicle. In other words, one big coal powerplant will produce much less CO2 emissions than an equivalent army of combustion engines creating the same amount of energy.  As far as the materials cost(carbon footprint and monetary) for manufacturing the cars, this could fluctuate as the market changes and as the ease of production changes. The more electric cars produced, the easier it will be to acquire materials and manufacture them. From what I've read the most difficult part with building these Tesla's is making the batteries which consist of rare earth metals which are mined all around the world and weigh a ton. Their extraction alone requires large fleets of gas/diesel guzzling vehicles.   At large, electric cars are in their infancy. Not the idea of them, but the infrastructure which must exist in order for this system to run smoothly. I foresee a future in which we have a network of solar/wind/hydro power and hopefully nuclear fusion will be standard. This will be the age when the electric car is king.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1th4a3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "What is the current state of electric cars in terms of reducing overall carbon footprint? I remember hearing quite often that because of the shipping and logistical realities of creating the individual parts for electric cars, we are actually creating a bigger carbon footprint than the car will actually save in comparison to a regular fossil fuel car over it's lifetime.  This used to mean that, although we are moving in the right directions, we're still not benefitting anything by using electric cars.  Is this still the case, or have we improved our methods enough to mean electric cars are truly greener from construction, shipping, to end life cycle?", "c_root_id_A": "ce8danu", "c_root_id_B": "ce84977", "created_at_utc_A": 1387787516, "created_at_utc_B": 1387760636, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Here's an interesting fact about EVs: According to the EPA, the Nissan LEAF, driven in California, will generate 120g CO2 / mile.  To put that in context, realize that an 18 MPG car like the Dodge Charger will generate more CO2 (128g / mile) **just from its UPSTREAM emissions.** There's another 487 g CO2 / mile from burning the gas itself. And 18 MPG is pretty damn close to what the \"average\" car gets.  That means that if we simply *didn't bother to make gasoline in the first place* we'd cancel out almost all the emissions created by producing electricity to power electric vehicles instead. And the ridiculous amount of emissions created by burning the gasoline itself would be almost completely avoided.  As /u/disembodied_voice spoke to, all that stuff about the increased carbon footprint of an electric car is a red herring. Plenty of people *say* electric cars are more resource intensive to make, but I've yet to see a credible source proving that's true. I wouldn't be surprised to learn that EV production is (or could be once scaled up to levels matching ICE cars) *less* resource intensive, as there are so many fewer parts involved.", "human_ref_B": "Generating the power which drives electric cars is much more efficient then having small power trains on each vehicle. In other words, one big coal powerplant will produce much less CO2 emissions than an equivalent army of combustion engines creating the same amount of energy.  As far as the materials cost(carbon footprint and monetary) for manufacturing the cars, this could fluctuate as the market changes and as the ease of production changes. The more electric cars produced, the easier it will be to acquire materials and manufacture them. From what I've read the most difficult part with building these Tesla's is making the batteries which consist of rare earth metals which are mined all around the world and weigh a ton. Their extraction alone requires large fleets of gas/diesel guzzling vehicles.   At large, electric cars are in their infancy. Not the idea of them, but the infrastructure which must exist in order for this system to run smoothly. I foresee a future in which we have a network of solar/wind/hydro power and hopefully nuclear fusion will be standard. This will be the age when the electric car is king.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26880.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h0zqn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.93, "history": "Why are there massive tornadoes in US, but almost none in South America and Asia or Africa?", "c_root_id_A": "c1rufmz", "c_root_id_B": "c1rtl2i", "created_at_utc_A": 1304237298, "created_at_utc_B": 1304221618, "score_A": -8, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "Punishment from God", "human_ref_B": "I once heard this far-out theory about tornado generation in the Midwest being due to the Interstate highway system being mostly North-South-East-West. With all the vehicles constantly moving in the flat country, this actually helps to reinforce counter-clockwise spin in weather systems.  I do not subscribe to this theory, but has anyone else heard that this has any measurable effect on twisters, or even weather in general?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 15680.0, "score_ratio": 0.8888888889, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2j0zfc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How do magnets REALLY work? Their power is unlimited. How are they made? Where does the charge come from? How can they be so powerful? Do they work with the Earth's own magnetic field or are they separate?  So many unanswered question which I hope AskScience can answer.  Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "cl7lmp3", "c_root_id_B": "cl7c2uq", "created_at_utc_A": 1413145369, "created_at_utc_B": 1413125370, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Magnets do not have unlimited energy. This misconception arises because human muscles require constant energy to apply a static force. This is rather like pushing on a wall with water from a hose, it takes constant water flow to keep the force up. A stiff object like a table or a stick can apply a constant force indefinitely without any work or energy. If you lean a broom up against a wall, does it do work and heat up? No it does not.  If you put two magnets together and feel a force either repelling or attracting, the energy comes from your hands to move them around. When you hold them at some constant distance apart, your muscles have to constantly burn energy to keep them there, so it *seems* like the magnets are doing work, but they are not.  In terms of how magnets actually work, it is complicated. There is no simple analogy that works in all cases. If you stick them together and pull them apart, it is rather like stretching a spring, except that the force decreases with distance instead of increasing. The force comes from small magnetic domains inside the material. These domains are aligned by heating the material, applying an external field, and letting the magnet cool with the external field applied. If you heat up a magnet to its Curie temperature without an external field applied, the magnetic domains will randomize and the magnet will just be an ordinary chunk of metal. There are many more feature and detailed explanations the deeper you go, but require some more science background to understand.", "human_ref_B": "Magnet occur naturally because iron-containing ores contain slightly magnetic domains, regions which are attracted to repelled by magnetic fields. When clumped together, they cancel each other out, but will readily attract other magnets. You can heat up these ferrous materials until red-hot, expose them to a strong magnetic field to create a permanent magnet.   Electromagnetism is a fundamental force, like gravity - though gravity is MUCH weaker! But it is not the strongest force - for that you need, well, the strong force. That's the force that binds atom nuclei together. Breaking the strong force bond results in nuclear fission. Try making a magnetic bomb, see how far that gets you.   To say magnets \"make\" their own fields is probably misleading. It's more apt to say they uniquely disturb the local EM field. The reason for the distinction is because a magnet on Earth's surface is still influenced by Earth's field, but only a little. Magnet's power falls off inversely proportional to the distance from it.   Edit: autocorrect", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19999.0, "score_ratio": 4.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2j0zfc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "How do magnets REALLY work? Their power is unlimited. How are they made? Where does the charge come from? How can they be so powerful? Do they work with the Earth's own magnetic field or are they separate?  So many unanswered question which I hope AskScience can answer.  Thanks.", "c_root_id_A": "cl7izkh", "c_root_id_B": "cl7lmp3", "created_at_utc_A": 1413140317, "created_at_utc_B": 1413145369, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "Magnets produce something called a magnetic field. The idea is that any accelerating charge creates a magnetic field, and any charge moving through a magnetic field is deflected as the cross product (perpendicular to both) the charge's velocity and the magnetic field.  All materials are composed of electrons that, for the purpose of this subject, are moving in a circle around atoms. Because there are accelerating charges (moving in a circle means acceleration), a tiny magnetic field is created for each atom. In most materials, the direction of these atoms are random, so the magnetic fields cancel out. In magnets, however, most of these atoms are lined up, so instead of cancelling out, the magnetic fields of the atoms combine, adding up to a noticeably strong field.  When you put a magnet against all materials, the same rotating electrons that cause magnets are deflected because they are moving a magnetic field. The same cancelling out idea applies. In materials like iron, though, the atoms easily \"rotate\" to allow them to align when put under a magnetic field. This causes the deflection of the atoms by the electrons to add up, and the item is pulled. Sometimes, the atoms stay aligned in the iron, and it becomes a new magnet. This is called magnetization.  This may only work for ferromagnetism, I.e., the attraction of iron, but I'm not sure.", "human_ref_B": "Magnets do not have unlimited energy. This misconception arises because human muscles require constant energy to apply a static force. This is rather like pushing on a wall with water from a hose, it takes constant water flow to keep the force up. A stiff object like a table or a stick can apply a constant force indefinitely without any work or energy. If you lean a broom up against a wall, does it do work and heat up? No it does not.  If you put two magnets together and feel a force either repelling or attracting, the energy comes from your hands to move them around. When you hold them at some constant distance apart, your muscles have to constantly burn energy to keep them there, so it *seems* like the magnets are doing work, but they are not.  In terms of how magnets actually work, it is complicated. There is no simple analogy that works in all cases. If you stick them together and pull them apart, it is rather like stretching a spring, except that the force decreases with distance instead of increasing. The force comes from small magnetic domains inside the material. These domains are aligned by heating the material, applying an external field, and letting the magnet cool with the external field applied. If you heat up a magnet to its Curie temperature without an external field applied, the magnetic domains will randomize and the magnet will just be an ordinary chunk of metal. There are many more feature and detailed explanations the deeper you go, but require some more science background to understand.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5052.0, "score_ratio": 11.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11rszx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why, despite being so dense, are diamonds transparent. Whereas coal, a much less dense firm of carbon is completely opaque?  I know it must have something to do with molecular structure but I'd like to know what specifically and why this occurs in other chemicals too e.g ice is less dense than water but less transparent.", "c_root_id_A": "c6p1kk0", "c_root_id_B": "c6p1il1", "created_at_utc_A": 1350688992, "created_at_utc_B": 1350688751, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There are a lot more factors than density going on here. Diamond has a structure with a large amount of localization of electrons, as opposed to something like graphite (carbon as well), where electrons can be more delocalized and are easier to move around. As a result, diamond has a high band gap (the energy needed to be absorbed to promote electrons into the conduction band). This energy is above that of visible light, so it is transmitted.   http://besocratic.colorado.edu/CLUE-Chemistry/chapters/chapter3txt-3.html  Also, coal is not just another form of carbon. It has a lot of impurities; the carbon content of some coals is less than you might think. It's definitely not in any kind of ordered structure like diamond, so light is easily absorbed before it can pass through.", "human_ref_B": "I can't directly speak for the coal/diamond argument but I can say that density is not a factor.   In the ice/water case, however, the reason most ice is opaque is the presence of air bubbles and impurities. Ever see an ice-sculpting competition? That ice is like *glass*, because its filtered (and probably distilled), then frozen over IIRC a couple of days with occasional shaking to remove any and all air bubbles, resulting in nice, clear ice. Check a bag of ice cubes in the supermarket and they're probably almost 100% opaque since they'd be frozen as fast as possible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 241.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11rszx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "Why, despite being so dense, are diamonds transparent. Whereas coal, a much less dense firm of carbon is completely opaque?  I know it must have something to do with molecular structure but I'd like to know what specifically and why this occurs in other chemicals too e.g ice is less dense than water but less transparent.", "c_root_id_A": "c6p1il1", "c_root_id_B": "c6p2vha", "created_at_utc_A": 1350688751, "created_at_utc_B": 1350695238, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I can't directly speak for the coal/diamond argument but I can say that density is not a factor.   In the ice/water case, however, the reason most ice is opaque is the presence of air bubbles and impurities. Ever see an ice-sculpting competition? That ice is like *glass*, because its filtered (and probably distilled), then frozen over IIRC a couple of days with occasional shaking to remove any and all air bubbles, resulting in nice, clear ice. Check a bag of ice cubes in the supermarket and they're probably almost 100% opaque since they'd be frozen as fast as possible.", "human_ref_B": "If you are familiar with wave phenomena, properties like this are just a result of complete destructive interference and constructive interference. Two sin waves put on top of each other at the same location double the magnitude of the effects. Two sin waves put on top of each other but 180 degrees out of phase entirely cancel each other. This tiny little difference between phase creates a complete flip in characteristics.   Because the quantum world is made of waves, this sort of cancellation and construction occurs all the time. In this case, a few different effects combine to cancel visual spectrum light in coal and magnify it in diamond. I know the Feynman lectures volume 1 give a pretty good example of this phenomena. Look it up if you are very curious.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6487.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0rqk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How are the alternating currents generated by different power stations synchronised before being fed into the grid? As I understand it, when alternating currents are combined they must be in phase with each other or there will be significant power losses due to interference. How is this done on the scale of power stations supplying power to the national grid?", "c_root_id_A": "c3lkv6g", "c_root_id_B": "c3llyj2", "created_at_utc_A": 1327781326, "created_at_utc_B": 1327788768, "score_A": 89, "score_B": 542, "human_ref_A": "they use synchroscopes! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchroscope", "human_ref_B": "Nuclear power plant operator here. The power of one generator is very little compared to the grid. The grid will use this overwhelming force to sync up the generator when connected no matter what, just as it does with any synchronous engine ~~e.g. your vacuum cleaner~~. In fact, when you cut steam to a generator's turbine while still connected to the grid the generator will turn into a motor. Problem is turbines are really heavy and already spinning at the time of turning the switch on so what you want is to minimize the \"shock\" of synching (the grid rarely cares, but the tubine is 200 tonnes at 3000 RPM).  You do this by coming as close to the grid frequency at possible. The synchrotact (our name for synchroscope) gives the phase difference between the two points so it spins when not the same frequency. Then, when it spins really slow, you (or the automatic) turn the switch on as close to the top position as possible.    Edit: For off-this-topic questions, there is now an AMA as requested.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7442.0, "score_ratio": 6.0898876404, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0rqk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How are the alternating currents generated by different power stations synchronised before being fed into the grid? As I understand it, when alternating currents are combined they must be in phase with each other or there will be significant power losses due to interference. How is this done on the scale of power stations supplying power to the national grid?", "c_root_id_A": "c3lmvbm", "c_root_id_B": "c3lmdl4", "created_at_utc_A": 1327795278, "created_at_utc_B": 1327791757, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "Electrical Engineer here who designs protective relays.  The relay monitors the voltage on both sides of an open circuit breaker.  One side is the generator side which will be spinning and generating voltage that might not necessarily synchronize with the grid which is on the other side of the breaker. The relay calculates whether or not the generator needs to speed up or slow down in order to bring the two sides into synchronism.  It then sends this signal to the governor of the generator so it may realize the change in speed.  In power systems we want the generator to be at a frequency slightly higher than the frequency of the grid.  This is to ensure that when the breaker closes that the generator will come online as a generator (supplying power) and not a motor (consuming power). So then you might wonder \"but if the frequency of the generator is slightly higher when the breaker closes isn't that bad?\"  Well it is only slightly higher and the inertia of the entire grid will pull it into synchronism immediately.  The other REAL important aspect of the entire ordeal is to ensure that the voltage on both sides of the breaker are at the same angle when the breaker is closed.  The relay will calculate how fast each side is \"slipping\" with respect to each other and also calculate how long it takes for the breaker to close (ie. 3 cycles or 5 cycles of time) and then it will know precisely when to initiate the close signal.  There are really a lot more checks and other things involved but this is the basic concept.", "human_ref_B": "Not too long ago they used a light bulb.  By connecting a light bulb between the generator output and the grid it will flash when they're out of sync.  As you approach the proper speed the flashing will slow and you can throw the breaker.  The easiest way to to lead the line frequency a little and drop the switch right at the light bulb goes out.  The concept is that when the light bulb is out there is no potential between the two, so they're in phase.  Once you're connected you increase load to \"push\" the wave adding power to the grid.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3521.0, "score_ratio": 1.2916666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0rqk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How are the alternating currents generated by different power stations synchronised before being fed into the grid? As I understand it, when alternating currents are combined they must be in phase with each other or there will be significant power losses due to interference. How is this done on the scale of power stations supplying power to the national grid?", "c_root_id_A": "c3lmvbm", "c_root_id_B": "c3lmkkf", "created_at_utc_A": 1327795278, "created_at_utc_B": 1327793140, "score_A": 31, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "Electrical Engineer here who designs protective relays.  The relay monitors the voltage on both sides of an open circuit breaker.  One side is the generator side which will be spinning and generating voltage that might not necessarily synchronize with the grid which is on the other side of the breaker. The relay calculates whether or not the generator needs to speed up or slow down in order to bring the two sides into synchronism.  It then sends this signal to the governor of the generator so it may realize the change in speed.  In power systems we want the generator to be at a frequency slightly higher than the frequency of the grid.  This is to ensure that when the breaker closes that the generator will come online as a generator (supplying power) and not a motor (consuming power). So then you might wonder \"but if the frequency of the generator is slightly higher when the breaker closes isn't that bad?\"  Well it is only slightly higher and the inertia of the entire grid will pull it into synchronism immediately.  The other REAL important aspect of the entire ordeal is to ensure that the voltage on both sides of the breaker are at the same angle when the breaker is closed.  The relay will calculate how fast each side is \"slipping\" with respect to each other and also calculate how long it takes for the breaker to close (ie. 3 cycles or 5 cycles of time) and then it will know precisely when to initiate the close signal.  There are really a lot more checks and other things involved but this is the basic concept.", "human_ref_B": "Electrical transmission operator here.  Another cool thing:  New HVDC system uses a series of IGBT's (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) that can modify characteristics of the sine wave, based on their individual voltage output.  Each IGBT creates it's own portion of the \"step\" wave.  With enough small steps, the tangential sine wave looks smooth and acts like an AC wave.  In an isolated condition, this allows us to transmit power at any frequency.  We actually experimented with having the IGBT's sing for us once.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2138.0, "score_ratio": 1.9375, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0rqk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How are the alternating currents generated by different power stations synchronised before being fed into the grid? As I understand it, when alternating currents are combined they must be in phase with each other or there will be significant power losses due to interference. How is this done on the scale of power stations supplying power to the national grid?", "c_root_id_A": "c3lm0wp", "c_root_id_B": "c3lmvbm", "created_at_utc_A": 1327789232, "created_at_utc_B": 1327795278, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 31, "human_ref_A": "what I'm a bit curious about is the consequences of a generator being loaded onto the grid whilst on the same frequency but 180 degrees out of phase (I've probably formulated it wrong, but I mean that the sine waves miss eachother completely); I've heard stories of rotors for generators in hydroelectric turbines pretty much twist their way out of the generator - completely ruining the stator in the process. Is this really possible, or would it simply be slowed/sped up to hit the grid's sine peaks?", "human_ref_B": "Electrical Engineer here who designs protective relays.  The relay monitors the voltage on both sides of an open circuit breaker.  One side is the generator side which will be spinning and generating voltage that might not necessarily synchronize with the grid which is on the other side of the breaker. The relay calculates whether or not the generator needs to speed up or slow down in order to bring the two sides into synchronism.  It then sends this signal to the governor of the generator so it may realize the change in speed.  In power systems we want the generator to be at a frequency slightly higher than the frequency of the grid.  This is to ensure that when the breaker closes that the generator will come online as a generator (supplying power) and not a motor (consuming power). So then you might wonder \"but if the frequency of the generator is slightly higher when the breaker closes isn't that bad?\"  Well it is only slightly higher and the inertia of the entire grid will pull it into synchronism immediately.  The other REAL important aspect of the entire ordeal is to ensure that the voltage on both sides of the breaker are at the same angle when the breaker is closed.  The relay will calculate how fast each side is \"slipping\" with respect to each other and also calculate how long it takes for the breaker to close (ie. 3 cycles or 5 cycles of time) and then it will know precisely when to initiate the close signal.  There are really a lot more checks and other things involved but this is the basic concept.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6046.0, "score_ratio": 2.5833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0rqk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How are the alternating currents generated by different power stations synchronised before being fed into the grid? As I understand it, when alternating currents are combined they must be in phase with each other or there will be significant power losses due to interference. How is this done on the scale of power stations supplying power to the national grid?", "c_root_id_A": "c3lm0wp", "c_root_id_B": "c3lmdl4", "created_at_utc_A": 1327789232, "created_at_utc_B": 1327791757, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 24, "human_ref_A": "what I'm a bit curious about is the consequences of a generator being loaded onto the grid whilst on the same frequency but 180 degrees out of phase (I've probably formulated it wrong, but I mean that the sine waves miss eachother completely); I've heard stories of rotors for generators in hydroelectric turbines pretty much twist their way out of the generator - completely ruining the stator in the process. Is this really possible, or would it simply be slowed/sped up to hit the grid's sine peaks?", "human_ref_B": "Not too long ago they used a light bulb.  By connecting a light bulb between the generator output and the grid it will flash when they're out of sync.  As you approach the proper speed the flashing will slow and you can throw the breaker.  The easiest way to to lead the line frequency a little and drop the switch right at the light bulb goes out.  The concept is that when the light bulb is out there is no potential between the two, so they're in phase.  Once you're connected you increase load to \"push\" the wave adding power to the grid.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2525.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "p0rqk", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "How are the alternating currents generated by different power stations synchronised before being fed into the grid? As I understand it, when alternating currents are combined they must be in phase with each other or there will be significant power losses due to interference. How is this done on the scale of power stations supplying power to the national grid?", "c_root_id_A": "c3lm0wp", "c_root_id_B": "c3lmkkf", "created_at_utc_A": 1327789232, "created_at_utc_B": 1327793140, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "what I'm a bit curious about is the consequences of a generator being loaded onto the grid whilst on the same frequency but 180 degrees out of phase (I've probably formulated it wrong, but I mean that the sine waves miss eachother completely); I've heard stories of rotors for generators in hydroelectric turbines pretty much twist their way out of the generator - completely ruining the stator in the process. Is this really possible, or would it simply be slowed/sped up to hit the grid's sine peaks?", "human_ref_B": "Electrical transmission operator here.  Another cool thing:  New HVDC system uses a series of IGBT's (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) that can modify characteristics of the sine wave, based on their individual voltage output.  Each IGBT creates it's own portion of the \"step\" wave.  With enough small steps, the tangential sine wave looks smooth and acts like an AC wave.  In an isolated condition, this allows us to transmit power at any frequency.  We actually experimented with having the IGBT's sing for us once.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3908.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "piahx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens during sleep that gives us \"energy\"? Does sleep even provide \"energy\" for the body or does it just help us focus?  **What happens during those 8 hours that appears to give us energy?**", "c_root_id_A": "c3pmjl4", "c_root_id_B": "c3pm9nl", "created_at_utc_A": 1328830006, "created_at_utc_B": 1328828498, "score_A": 443, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "one of the reasons you feel drowsy/tired is he buildup of adenosine which is a by product of neuron activity. when you sleep it is being produced in much smaller quantities which gives enzymes a chance to catchup and degrade the molecule. also slow wave sleep is thought be restorative and help cognitive function while REM sleep is important for brain development and regeneration of tissue. sources: neuroscience major and some of that is directly from the textbook. best I can do atm   edit: another reason you get that rested feeling is because you awake naturally at the end stage of REM sleep. when u get woken out of slow wave sleep generally that is when u feel drowsy or out of it.", "human_ref_B": "http://www.radiolab.org/2007/may/24/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1508.0, "score_ratio": 44.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "piahx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens during sleep that gives us \"energy\"? Does sleep even provide \"energy\" for the body or does it just help us focus?  **What happens during those 8 hours that appears to give us energy?**", "c_root_id_A": "c3pmqw7", "c_root_id_B": "c3poa2z", "created_at_utc_A": 1328831144, "created_at_utc_B": 1328839960, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "I'd like to ask whilst this thread is going....  I was diagnosed by a doctor at a hospital as having non-restorative sleep. What is the difference between what goes on with most people whilst they sleep, to what goes on with me?  I'm not asking for medical advice just think an answer would be interesting. Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "My dad is a board certified sleep disorder, lung disease, and internal medicine doctor. He has both his Ph.d and MD in sleep disorder, and mainly specializes and has three private practices for that. So, this is THE answer:  Sleep does both. Nobody is really sure how sleep gets rid of sleepiness, but we know that during wakefulness there's an accumulation of a neurotransmitter called adenosine. The longer a person is awake there more adenosine is accumulated in the brain. Caffeine works as an antagonizing receptor for adenosine. That is what wakes you up. When you sleep adenosine is metabolized away. It is widely believed that that is the nuerochemical marker for sleep debt. The higher levels of adenosine, the higher the sleep debt.    What is most fascinating and mysterious about sleep is that there is no biological proof that humans need sleep. There are parts of your brain that are more active in sleep than in wakefulness. Actually, dreaming sleep has a higher metabolic process than wakefulness. Sleep is an active neurological process. It's restorative and regenerating to get rid of your sleepiness. Your body just doesn't shut down when you sleep; it's \"working\" to rest. There is nothing passive about it. Isn't that fascinating?!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8816.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "piahx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens during sleep that gives us \"energy\"? Does sleep even provide \"energy\" for the body or does it just help us focus?  **What happens during those 8 hours that appears to give us energy?**", "c_root_id_A": "c3pmpsr", "c_root_id_B": "c3poa2z", "created_at_utc_A": 1328830971, "created_at_utc_B": 1328839960, "score_A": 15, "score_B": 22, "human_ref_A": "Slightly off-topic, but I've read about Zen/Taoist monks who do not sleep at all but instead meditate.   1. Is that possible (judging from the info we have)?  2. If so, what does that tell us about sleep?", "human_ref_B": "My dad is a board certified sleep disorder, lung disease, and internal medicine doctor. He has both his Ph.d and MD in sleep disorder, and mainly specializes and has three private practices for that. So, this is THE answer:  Sleep does both. Nobody is really sure how sleep gets rid of sleepiness, but we know that during wakefulness there's an accumulation of a neurotransmitter called adenosine. The longer a person is awake there more adenosine is accumulated in the brain. Caffeine works as an antagonizing receptor for adenosine. That is what wakes you up. When you sleep adenosine is metabolized away. It is widely believed that that is the nuerochemical marker for sleep debt. The higher levels of adenosine, the higher the sleep debt.    What is most fascinating and mysterious about sleep is that there is no biological proof that humans need sleep. There are parts of your brain that are more active in sleep than in wakefulness. Actually, dreaming sleep has a higher metabolic process than wakefulness. Sleep is an active neurological process. It's restorative and regenerating to get rid of your sleepiness. Your body just doesn't shut down when you sleep; it's \"working\" to rest. There is nothing passive about it. Isn't that fascinating?!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8989.0, "score_ratio": 1.4666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "piahx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens during sleep that gives us \"energy\"? Does sleep even provide \"energy\" for the body or does it just help us focus?  **What happens during those 8 hours that appears to give us energy?**", "c_root_id_A": "c3poa2z", "c_root_id_B": "c3pm9nl", "created_at_utc_A": 1328839960, "created_at_utc_B": 1328828498, "score_A": 22, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "My dad is a board certified sleep disorder, lung disease, and internal medicine doctor. He has both his Ph.d and MD in sleep disorder, and mainly specializes and has three private practices for that. So, this is THE answer:  Sleep does both. Nobody is really sure how sleep gets rid of sleepiness, but we know that during wakefulness there's an accumulation of a neurotransmitter called adenosine. The longer a person is awake there more adenosine is accumulated in the brain. Caffeine works as an antagonizing receptor for adenosine. That is what wakes you up. When you sleep adenosine is metabolized away. It is widely believed that that is the nuerochemical marker for sleep debt. The higher levels of adenosine, the higher the sleep debt.    What is most fascinating and mysterious about sleep is that there is no biological proof that humans need sleep. There are parts of your brain that are more active in sleep than in wakefulness. Actually, dreaming sleep has a higher metabolic process than wakefulness. Sleep is an active neurological process. It's restorative and regenerating to get rid of your sleepiness. Your body just doesn't shut down when you sleep; it's \"working\" to rest. There is nothing passive about it. Isn't that fascinating?!", "human_ref_B": "http://www.radiolab.org/2007/may/24/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11462.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "piahx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens during sleep that gives us \"energy\"? Does sleep even provide \"energy\" for the body or does it just help us focus?  **What happens during those 8 hours that appears to give us energy?**", "c_root_id_A": "c3pmqw7", "c_root_id_B": "c3pm9nl", "created_at_utc_A": 1328831144, "created_at_utc_B": 1328828498, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I'd like to ask whilst this thread is going....  I was diagnosed by a doctor at a hospital as having non-restorative sleep. What is the difference between what goes on with most people whilst they sleep, to what goes on with me?  I'm not asking for medical advice just think an answer would be interesting. Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "http://www.radiolab.org/2007/may/24/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2646.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "piahx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens during sleep that gives us \"energy\"? Does sleep even provide \"energy\" for the body or does it just help us focus?  **What happens during those 8 hours that appears to give us energy?**", "c_root_id_A": "c3pm9nl", "c_root_id_B": "c3pmpsr", "created_at_utc_A": 1328828498, "created_at_utc_B": 1328830971, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "http://www.radiolab.org/2007/may/24/", "human_ref_B": "Slightly off-topic, but I've read about Zen/Taoist monks who do not sleep at all but instead meditate.   1. Is that possible (judging from the info we have)?  2. If so, what does that tell us about sleep?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2473.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "piahx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens during sleep that gives us \"energy\"? Does sleep even provide \"energy\" for the body or does it just help us focus?  **What happens during those 8 hours that appears to give us energy?**", "c_root_id_A": "c3ppfbj", "c_root_id_B": "c3pm9nl", "created_at_utc_A": 1328846336, "created_at_utc_B": 1328828498, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I'm a neuroscience PhD student working on cognitive benefits of sleep for my thesis. I completely disagree that the benefits of a process as complex as sleep can be explained away by changes in adenosine levels. I refuse to believe that we spend 1/3 of our lives disconnected from the environment just to downregulate protein levels.   The current dominant theory in the field is that sleep aids in synaptic consolidation, where the connections (synapses) formed between neurons during wakefulness all get pruned globally. only those that are the strongest remain connected, thus allowing us to learn more (i.e., have focus). The preface to this explanation would require an extensive review of sleep physiology but the gist of the story is as above. Read up on Gulio Tononi's synaptic consolidation hypothesis.", "human_ref_B": "http://www.radiolab.org/2007/may/24/", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17838.0, "score_ratio": 1.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1e1a1o", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "How close would a star need to be to the Earth before the starlight was capable of damaging your eyes? We look directly at stars in the night sky all the time and it's perfectly safe. I'm assuming it's because they are so far away but how close would a star need to be before it started to damage our sight? Or how far away would our Sun need to be before we would be able to safely look at it?", "c_root_id_A": "c9vw4zh", "c_root_id_B": "c9vwgw7", "created_at_utc_A": 1368151797, "created_at_utc_B": 1368152745, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Consulting this graph, one can see that the apparent size of sol drops off drastically past the asteroid belt, probably enough to look at. Jupiter is 778,500,000 km away from the sun.", "human_ref_B": "Depends on how bright the star is. The Sun is too bright to safely look at within a few hundred AU. The most luminous supergiant stars would have the same brightness from several light years out, and the dimmest red dwarfs might be safe to look at a distance of about 1 AU.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 948.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "12wx2r", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Does the heart really 'skip a beat'? \"I was alone in my house, when I heard some movement behind me my heart skipped a beat. When I turned around it was really the cat.\" -  My girl friend was telling me over the phone. I know the feeling but is the heart really 'skipping a beat' ?", "c_root_id_A": "c6yt6ng", "c_root_id_B": "c6ytdwk", "created_at_utc_A": 1352474243, "created_at_utc_B": 1352475085, "score_A": -6, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Unless you are suffering from arrhythmia, no.", "human_ref_B": "The heart can \"skip a beat\". The most \"elegant\" example is probably the second-degree atrioventricular block type 1. Check out this EKG result from wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Type_I_A-V_block_5-to-4_Wenckebach_periods.png   Take a look at the three bottom lines. Without getting into too much detail: looking from left to right you'll see one \"set\" of ups and downs, a straight line (before the number \"25\"), four sets of ups and downs, a straight line, another four sets of ups and downs, another straight line... The straight line is the heart \"skipping a beat\". This is also the exact opposite of things happening in our hearts when we experience the \"skipping a beat\" sensation.   This unpleasant feeling was, most probably, caused by a \"condition\" called supraventricular extrasystole. Take a look at this EKG result, the extrasystole is circled in the top right corner of the image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Premature_SVC.jpg   The supraventricular extrasystole is in fact a premature contraction of the heart muscle - the heart contracts twice in a rapid manner. It's quite common amongst healthy people (normally happens less than 200 times a day). Strong emotions may be one of the reasons it happens.   EDIT: Derped a bit, now should be ok.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 842.0, "score_ratio": -2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15q6rh", "c_root_id_B": "c15qa1y", "created_at_utc_A": 1289866569, "created_at_utc_B": 1289867821, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Honestly, what you say will not stick with them as much as what you show. I'd go out with a neat experiment that is fun and science-y (make things explode, or a volcano erupt, or change colors).  Fun, tied with learning, is always a better influence on young minds than a lecture.", "human_ref_B": "All magic is just really complicated science. If you want to know how to make the world what you want it to be, studying science is the way.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1252.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qf64", "c_root_id_B": "c15q6rh", "created_at_utc_A": 1289869874, "created_at_utc_B": 1289866569, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Science is the process by which we learn, not a collection of facts.", "human_ref_B": "Honestly, what you say will not stick with them as much as what you show. I'd go out with a neat experiment that is fun and science-y (make things explode, or a volcano erupt, or change colors).  Fun, tied with learning, is always a better influence on young minds than a lecture.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3305.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qc81", "c_root_id_B": "c15qf64", "created_at_utc_A": 1289868693, "created_at_utc_B": 1289869874, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "\"Science is when we stop telling make-believe stories and start telling stories that aren't made up.\"  It's a bit over the top -- science isn't a source of truth -- but at your students' age it will impart the essence and drama of science.  Using the above as an introduction, you could explain what evidence is, how evidence is used to shape theories, and how theories are used to describe the world. And be sure to mention that theories are all modifiable and/or falsifiable by new evidence. If you get that point across, you will have done science a big favor -- many people think science is all about being right and being an expert.  You cold say that science means not taking someone's word for something, but finding out for yourself, by observing, by doing experiments.", "human_ref_B": "Science is the process by which we learn, not a collection of facts.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1181.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qf64", "c_root_id_B": "c15qd9h", "created_at_utc_A": 1289869874, "created_at_utc_B": 1289869106, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Science is the process by which we learn, not a collection of facts.", "human_ref_B": "Make a can that will roll back to you when you roll it away on the ground. Explain to them that you can do anything if you apply enough science, and that they should always explore for themselves to find solutions to their problems, and also to broaden their mind.  Then take the top off the can and explain how it works.  EDIT: here is a video detailing how you can make such a can: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BfQ-etVywU", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 768.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qjai", "c_root_id_B": "c15q6rh", "created_at_utc_A": 1289871525, "created_at_utc_B": 1289866569, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Without science, we would never have gone to the moon. Without science, there would be no medicine for when you are sick. Without science there would be no TV, video games, cell phones, internet, or any electronics. Using a scientific approach, we have these things, you will be the ones in charge of this country one day, and many of you will be contributors to new innovations, new technology, and a better world. -You could simplify this some for fourth graders.", "human_ref_B": "Honestly, what you say will not stick with them as much as what you show. I'd go out with a neat experiment that is fun and science-y (make things explode, or a volcano erupt, or change colors).  Fun, tied with learning, is always a better influence on young minds than a lecture.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4956.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qjai", "c_root_id_B": "c15qc81", "created_at_utc_A": 1289871525, "created_at_utc_B": 1289868693, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Without science, we would never have gone to the moon. Without science, there would be no medicine for when you are sick. Without science there would be no TV, video games, cell phones, internet, or any electronics. Using a scientific approach, we have these things, you will be the ones in charge of this country one day, and many of you will be contributors to new innovations, new technology, and a better world. -You could simplify this some for fourth graders.", "human_ref_B": "\"Science is when we stop telling make-believe stories and start telling stories that aren't made up.\"  It's a bit over the top -- science isn't a source of truth -- but at your students' age it will impart the essence and drama of science.  Using the above as an introduction, you could explain what evidence is, how evidence is used to shape theories, and how theories are used to describe the world. And be sure to mention that theories are all modifiable and/or falsifiable by new evidence. If you get that point across, you will have done science a big favor -- many people think science is all about being right and being an expert.  You cold say that science means not taking someone's word for something, but finding out for yourself, by observing, by doing experiments.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2832.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qd9h", "c_root_id_B": "c15qjai", "created_at_utc_A": 1289869106, "created_at_utc_B": 1289871525, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Make a can that will roll back to you when you roll it away on the ground. Explain to them that you can do anything if you apply enough science, and that they should always explore for themselves to find solutions to their problems, and also to broaden their mind.  Then take the top off the can and explain how it works.  EDIT: here is a video detailing how you can make such a can: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BfQ-etVywU", "human_ref_B": "Without science, we would never have gone to the moon. Without science, there would be no medicine for when you are sick. Without science there would be no TV, video games, cell phones, internet, or any electronics. Using a scientific approach, we have these things, you will be the ones in charge of this country one day, and many of you will be contributors to new innovations, new technology, and a better world. -You could simplify this some for fourth graders.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2419.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qivq", "c_root_id_B": "c15qjai", "created_at_utc_A": 1289871354, "created_at_utc_B": 1289871525, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Leave them with a sense of awe and wonder at the universe by understanding it rather than by not understanding it.  It's not that we can't fathom how big the universe is or how small at atom is; it's that we *can* and it's powerful and moving to do so.", "human_ref_B": "Without science, we would never have gone to the moon. Without science, there would be no medicine for when you are sick. Without science there would be no TV, video games, cell phones, internet, or any electronics. Using a scientific approach, we have these things, you will be the ones in charge of this country one day, and many of you will be contributors to new innovations, new technology, and a better world. -You could simplify this some for fourth graders.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 171.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qqq3", "c_root_id_B": "c15q6rh", "created_at_utc_A": 1289874514, "created_at_utc_B": 1289866569, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Question everything.", "human_ref_B": "Honestly, what you say will not stick with them as much as what you show. I'd go out with a neat experiment that is fun and science-y (make things explode, or a volcano erupt, or change colors).  Fun, tied with learning, is always a better influence on young minds than a lecture.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7945.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qqq3", "c_root_id_B": "c15qc81", "created_at_utc_A": 1289874514, "created_at_utc_B": 1289868693, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Question everything.", "human_ref_B": "\"Science is when we stop telling make-believe stories and start telling stories that aren't made up.\"  It's a bit over the top -- science isn't a source of truth -- but at your students' age it will impart the essence and drama of science.  Using the above as an introduction, you could explain what evidence is, how evidence is used to shape theories, and how theories are used to describe the world. And be sure to mention that theories are all modifiable and/or falsifiable by new evidence. If you get that point across, you will have done science a big favor -- many people think science is all about being right and being an expert.  You cold say that science means not taking someone's word for something, but finding out for yourself, by observing, by doing experiments.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5821.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qqq3", "c_root_id_B": "c15qd9h", "created_at_utc_A": 1289874514, "created_at_utc_B": 1289869106, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Question everything.", "human_ref_B": "Make a can that will roll back to you when you roll it away on the ground. Explain to them that you can do anything if you apply enough science, and that they should always explore for themselves to find solutions to their problems, and also to broaden their mind.  Then take the top off the can and explain how it works.  EDIT: here is a video detailing how you can make such a can: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3BfQ-etVywU", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5408.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qqq3", "c_root_id_B": "c15qivq", "created_at_utc_A": 1289874514, "created_at_utc_B": 1289871354, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Question everything.", "human_ref_B": "Leave them with a sense of awe and wonder at the universe by understanding it rather than by not understanding it.  It's not that we can't fathom how big the universe is or how small at atom is; it's that we *can* and it's powerful and moving to do so.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3160.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "e6mrs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "If you were a science teacher, what words of wisdom on the importance of science would you leave with a class of fourth graders? I am studying to be a science teacher through a University program where I get a degree in science, and teaching credentials upon graduation.  Tomorrow is my last lesson with a group of fourth graders I have been teaching periodically through the semester.  I would like to leave them with some inspiring words of wisdom to help encourage science education.  What would you say?", "c_root_id_A": "c15qqq3", "c_root_id_B": "c15qoqo", "created_at_utc_A": 1289874514, "created_at_utc_B": 1289873733, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Question everything.", "human_ref_B": "I would target those who actually have an interest in science already, so skip the _science is_ statements, you don't want to dumb it down. Talk about whatever you are passionate about. For example, I like to learn about all sorts of science and how it all fits into the world, so I would give an overview of where science is now and where it's heading. I would talk about the large hadron collider, the international space station, the problems we will run into because of the misuse of antibiotics, hypothesis of how consciousness works, carbon nanotubes, and so on. If your interest lie mostly in one field, talk about that in depth. It's not hard to keep people listening and interested if you talk about what you love.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 781.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rwg2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why is exponential decay/growth so common? What is so significant about the number e? I keep seeing the number e and the exponence function pop up in my studies and was wondering why that is.", "c_root_id_A": "cws0lwi", "c_root_id_B": "cws3n2d", "created_at_utc_A": 1446921984, "created_at_utc_B": 1446927261, "score_A": 35, "score_B": 134, "human_ref_A": "Regarding the 2nd question: what is so significant about 'e'?  The explanation I usually give to my students goes like this: When it comes to getting the right answer on the test, if e is confusing you, remember: e is JUST a number, it's not meant to be intimidating, any more than the number 3 is intimidating. In fact, it's pretty close to 3.    You know what other # is close to 3? pi. So let's talk about pi: any time you want to talk about circles, pi is gonna show up. It's inherently built into the universe that talking about circles means talking about pi.  Now let's go back to 'e'. the number e (=2.71828...) is linked to the concept of infinity (or more specifically, infinitely small things, not so much infinitely big things), in much the same way that pi is linked to circles. Any time you want to talk about something that is infinitely small (which doesn't happen much in math before grade 10 or so, but happens A LOT in upper lvl math, including applied math like physics & programming) you will eventually begin talking about e. It's just built into the universe as a constant.   Of course there's a lot more to it than that, but to really understand the beauty of the number and how it works, you have to know calculus. If you already do, then it basically boils down to:  e is GREAT! it makes all the math easier not harder, how could anyone doing calculus NOT love e?  (in comparison to doing calculus w/ other numbers like 2^x vs 10^x vs e^x, e^x is by far the \"friendliest\" function in that list)  As for the first question, why is exp growth / decay so common?  another analogy: why is multiplication so \"common\" in our world? because it's really just repeated addition, and multiplication is a lazy way to do repeated addition very fast.  In a similar way, exponents are just repeated multiplication, so anytime you are multiplying by the same # over and over again, you COULD use lots of * signs, but if you're lazy and want to finish early, you could instead use exponents.", "human_ref_B": "Your two questions in the title actually have totally different answers.  1) Exponential growth shows up anywhere that a number evolves in time proportional to its value. For example, if you're looking at the number of flies in a swamp, and every fly hatches, then lays two eggs, then dies, then that's exponential growth because when the next batch hatches there will be twice as many. (This may not be a good model for a real system and that's why exponential growth doesn't apply to everything.)  2) Outside of pure mathematics there's very little special about e. It's still an exponential relationship if you change the base from e to 2, or any other number greater than 1. In the real world exponential relationships look like e^(k*t) where e is e, t is time, and k is some constant. If you want to use something other than e then you change your constant, no fuss, no muss. In that sense e isn't special any more than a meter is special; they're both just standard values we've agreed on to make life more convenient.  There are deeper reasons why e actually is special if you're looking at pure mathematics, but they have nothing to do with why this or that phenomenon evolves exponentially in time. They're just explanations for why e happens to be a very convenient number to use, even though you could always use a different one.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5277.0, "score_ratio": 3.8285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rwg2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why is exponential decay/growth so common? What is so significant about the number e? I keep seeing the number e and the exponence function pop up in my studies and was wondering why that is.", "c_root_id_A": "cws1f8x", "c_root_id_B": "cws3n2d", "created_at_utc_A": 1446923437, "created_at_utc_B": 1446927261, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 134, "human_ref_A": "Exponential decay is so common because if something has a set probability to decay, which is roughly always the same, and there is a lot of those things at the same time (like a lot of atoms) then the overall mass will decay in an exponential way. To look at it this way (very simplified). If you assume that a certain type of atom has a chance of 1/2 to decay in a set amount of time, you can safely assume that roughly 1/2 of a given mass of similar atoms will be decayed in that time. If you wait for the same time again, you will again see 1/2 of that mass be decayed, so you are left with 1/4, ... and so on.  About exponential growth. If you look at something like bacteria, or just cells in a body, in an ideal setting they need roughly the same time to multiply themselves. So they create a copy of their DNA and then split the cell in a certain time. This means you can double the amount of cells in that same time and again we can contstruct a function that describes this nicely.  To the number e. The number e itself is rarely the exact base of your specific functions. However, e has the wonderful property that it's the only function that fulfills (e^x)' = e^x . You can use that fact together with other rules of differentiation to solve a lot of problems. You can describe any possible exponential growth or decay with two numbers a,b like this a*e^(bx).", "human_ref_B": "Your two questions in the title actually have totally different answers.  1) Exponential growth shows up anywhere that a number evolves in time proportional to its value. For example, if you're looking at the number of flies in a swamp, and every fly hatches, then lays two eggs, then dies, then that's exponential growth because when the next batch hatches there will be twice as many. (This may not be a good model for a real system and that's why exponential growth doesn't apply to everything.)  2) Outside of pure mathematics there's very little special about e. It's still an exponential relationship if you change the base from e to 2, or any other number greater than 1. In the real world exponential relationships look like e^(k*t) where e is e, t is time, and k is some constant. If you want to use something other than e then you change your constant, no fuss, no muss. In that sense e isn't special any more than a meter is special; they're both just standard values we've agreed on to make life more convenient.  There are deeper reasons why e actually is special if you're looking at pure mathematics, but they have nothing to do with why this or that phenomenon evolves exponentially in time. They're just explanations for why e happens to be a very convenient number to use, even though you could always use a different one.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3824.0, "score_ratio": 26.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rwg2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why is exponential decay/growth so common? What is so significant about the number e? I keep seeing the number e and the exponence function pop up in my studies and was wondering why that is.", "c_root_id_A": "cws60n5", "c_root_id_B": "cws60jp", "created_at_utc_A": 1446931478, "created_at_utc_B": 1446931474, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "e is just a short hand for the limit of the rate: (1+1/n)^n as n approaches infinity  There's nothing too special, it's just an equation, and we call this limit \"e\" because this is what this value converges to. Another interesting property of this equation is that how quickly it's growing at any point is equal to the value at that point... in other words, the derivative of e is equal to e itself, which makes it a useful mathematical tool.  Some more info here on where e comes from: http://torus.math.uiuc.edu/eggmath/Expon/numbere.html", "human_ref_B": "Exponential growth/decay doesn't necessarily use a factor of e (a lot of times it's more natural to put it in terms of 2 instead), but the significance of e is:   1. The integral/derivative of e^x is e^x 2. It comes up in other places that are \"apparently\" unrelated [for example, the integral of 1/x is ln(x), e^(\u03c0i) = -1 which also makes it pop up elsewhere for complex transcendental functions].", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rwg2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why is exponential decay/growth so common? What is so significant about the number e? I keep seeing the number e and the exponence function pop up in my studies and was wondering why that is.", "c_root_id_A": "cws60n5", "c_root_id_B": "cws1f8x", "created_at_utc_A": 1446931478, "created_at_utc_B": 1446923437, "score_A": 34, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "e is just a short hand for the limit of the rate: (1+1/n)^n as n approaches infinity  There's nothing too special, it's just an equation, and we call this limit \"e\" because this is what this value converges to. Another interesting property of this equation is that how quickly it's growing at any point is equal to the value at that point... in other words, the derivative of e is equal to e itself, which makes it a useful mathematical tool.  Some more info here on where e comes from: http://torus.math.uiuc.edu/eggmath/Expon/numbere.html", "human_ref_B": "Exponential decay is so common because if something has a set probability to decay, which is roughly always the same, and there is a lot of those things at the same time (like a lot of atoms) then the overall mass will decay in an exponential way. To look at it this way (very simplified). If you assume that a certain type of atom has a chance of 1/2 to decay in a set amount of time, you can safely assume that roughly 1/2 of a given mass of similar atoms will be decayed in that time. If you wait for the same time again, you will again see 1/2 of that mass be decayed, so you are left with 1/4, ... and so on.  About exponential growth. If you look at something like bacteria, or just cells in a body, in an ideal setting they need roughly the same time to multiply themselves. So they create a copy of their DNA and then split the cell in a certain time. This means you can double the amount of cells in that same time and again we can contstruct a function that describes this nicely.  To the number e. The number e itself is rarely the exact base of your specific functions. However, e has the wonderful property that it's the only function that fulfills (e^x)' = e^x . You can use that fact together with other rules of differentiation to solve a lot of problems. You can describe any possible exponential growth or decay with two numbers a,b like this a*e^(bx).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8041.0, "score_ratio": 6.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3rwg2v", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Why is exponential decay/growth so common? What is so significant about the number e? I keep seeing the number e and the exponence function pop up in my studies and was wondering why that is.", "c_root_id_A": "cws60jp", "c_root_id_B": "cws1f8x", "created_at_utc_A": 1446931474, "created_at_utc_B": 1446923437, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Exponential growth/decay doesn't necessarily use a factor of e (a lot of times it's more natural to put it in terms of 2 instead), but the significance of e is:   1. The integral/derivative of e^x is e^x 2. It comes up in other places that are \"apparently\" unrelated [for example, the integral of 1/x is ln(x), e^(\u03c0i) = -1 which also makes it pop up elsewhere for complex transcendental functions].", "human_ref_B": "Exponential decay is so common because if something has a set probability to decay, which is roughly always the same, and there is a lot of those things at the same time (like a lot of atoms) then the overall mass will decay in an exponential way. To look at it this way (very simplified). If you assume that a certain type of atom has a chance of 1/2 to decay in a set amount of time, you can safely assume that roughly 1/2 of a given mass of similar atoms will be decayed in that time. If you wait for the same time again, you will again see 1/2 of that mass be decayed, so you are left with 1/4, ... and so on.  About exponential growth. If you look at something like bacteria, or just cells in a body, in an ideal setting they need roughly the same time to multiply themselves. So they create a copy of their DNA and then split the cell in a certain time. This means you can double the amount of cells in that same time and again we can contstruct a function that describes this nicely.  To the number e. The number e itself is rarely the exact base of your specific functions. However, e has the wonderful property that it's the only function that fulfills (e^x)' = e^x . You can use that fact together with other rules of differentiation to solve a lot of problems. You can describe any possible exponential growth or decay with two numbers a,b like this a*e^(bx).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8037.0, "score_ratio": 3.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "42qln8", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Has any other animal other than human beings ever learned to pick up and throw objects with any kind of accuracy?", "c_root_id_A": "czccqu6", "c_root_id_B": "czccgmx", "created_at_utc_A": 1453798620, "created_at_utc_B": 1453797598, "score_A": 23, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Fish can shoot water with accuracy  Birds shoot poop  Chimps, at least in captivity, are known to throw all sorts of things.  Elephants throw stuff   I think the question is a bit flawed. What animal can throw? Primates and Elephants, can't really say I see any other creature being able to throw anything. Dogs would probably be doing it if they could. Birds and aquatic mammals too.", "human_ref_B": "Other primates (apes and chimps) do throw objects, but not with anything near the kind of accuracy that we humans are capable of. So, as far as I am aware, we are the only species capable of accurately throwing objects.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1022.0, "score_ratio": 3.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o2moh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Will flying in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation make you travel farther in less time? It's just something I was wondering. If two airplanes are traveling at the same speed, one in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation, the other with the rotation of the earth, will the first airplane (against the rotation) get to a certain equidistant destination faster?", "c_root_id_A": "c3dzas1", "c_root_id_B": "c3dw0dx", "created_at_utc_A": 1325719331, "created_at_utc_B": 1325701528, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "This is kind of like asking, \"If you jump up does the earth spin underneath you?\"    Since you (and the atmosphere) are moving with the earth the answer is no. Of course air is fluid and circulates around the earth, but this doesn't really pertain to your question.", "human_ref_B": "I have a bone to throw in for you guys.  Your model seems to be making the assumption that the power output (thrust) of the plane is the same both ways. If that is the case then:  a. Wouldn't flying with the wind (with earth's rotation) dictate that you need to have a greater power output / thrust of the plane to overcome the fact that, relative to the wing, you have a smaller free-stream velocity?  b. How does this compare to the fact that if you fly in the other direction you need to increase the power output of the plane to overcome the wind?  Now I assume that the wind is always going to be less than the stall speed of the plane. Therefore b. takes longer. Right?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17803.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o2moh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Will flying in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation make you travel farther in less time? It's just something I was wondering. If two airplanes are traveling at the same speed, one in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation, the other with the rotation of the earth, will the first airplane (against the rotation) get to a certain equidistant destination faster?", "c_root_id_A": "c3dytc6", "c_root_id_B": "c3dzas1", "created_at_utc_A": 1325716668, "created_at_utc_B": 1325719331, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I have no science to answer, but I have noticed that flying back to North America from Japan was approximately two hours faster than flying from North America to Japan, with the same airports. I presume this has a lot to do with the wind, though.", "human_ref_B": "This is kind of like asking, \"If you jump up does the earth spin underneath you?\"    Since you (and the atmosphere) are moving with the earth the answer is no. Of course air is fluid and circulates around the earth, but this doesn't really pertain to your question.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2663.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o2moh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Will flying in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation make you travel farther in less time? It's just something I was wondering. If two airplanes are traveling at the same speed, one in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation, the other with the rotation of the earth, will the first airplane (against the rotation) get to a certain equidistant destination faster?", "c_root_id_A": "c3dutit", "c_root_id_B": "c3dzas1", "created_at_utc_A": 1325694658, "created_at_utc_B": 1325719331, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "No, it will actually take longer because the atmosphere moves with the Earth. Example: London to New York takes an hour longer than New York to London.", "human_ref_B": "This is kind of like asking, \"If you jump up does the earth spin underneath you?\"    Since you (and the atmosphere) are moving with the earth the answer is no. Of course air is fluid and circulates around the earth, but this doesn't really pertain to your question.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24673.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o2moh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Will flying in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation make you travel farther in less time? It's just something I was wondering. If two airplanes are traveling at the same speed, one in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation, the other with the rotation of the earth, will the first airplane (against the rotation) get to a certain equidistant destination faster?", "c_root_id_A": "c3dzdi0", "c_root_id_B": "c3dw0dx", "created_at_utc_A": 1325719756, "created_at_utc_B": 1325701528, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You must also consider the latitude from where you take off and where you land. Imagine if you fly from the northern rotational axis directly south. As you get closer to the equator the rotational speed effectively increases below you, causing you to drift west. (I don't know how significant this effect is when compared to jet streams).", "human_ref_B": "I have a bone to throw in for you guys.  Your model seems to be making the assumption that the power output (thrust) of the plane is the same both ways. If that is the case then:  a. Wouldn't flying with the wind (with earth's rotation) dictate that you need to have a greater power output / thrust of the plane to overcome the fact that, relative to the wing, you have a smaller free-stream velocity?  b. How does this compare to the fact that if you fly in the other direction you need to increase the power output of the plane to overcome the wind?  Now I assume that the wind is always going to be less than the stall speed of the plane. Therefore b. takes longer. Right?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 18228.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o2moh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Will flying in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation make you travel farther in less time? It's just something I was wondering. If two airplanes are traveling at the same speed, one in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation, the other with the rotation of the earth, will the first airplane (against the rotation) get to a certain equidistant destination faster?", "c_root_id_A": "c3dytc6", "c_root_id_B": "c3dzdi0", "created_at_utc_A": 1325716668, "created_at_utc_B": 1325719756, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I have no science to answer, but I have noticed that flying back to North America from Japan was approximately two hours faster than flying from North America to Japan, with the same airports. I presume this has a lot to do with the wind, though.", "human_ref_B": "You must also consider the latitude from where you take off and where you land. Imagine if you fly from the northern rotational axis directly south. As you get closer to the equator the rotational speed effectively increases below you, causing you to drift west. (I don't know how significant this effect is when compared to jet streams).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3088.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o2moh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Will flying in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation make you travel farther in less time? It's just something I was wondering. If two airplanes are traveling at the same speed, one in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation, the other with the rotation of the earth, will the first airplane (against the rotation) get to a certain equidistant destination faster?", "c_root_id_A": "c3dutit", "c_root_id_B": "c3dzdi0", "created_at_utc_A": 1325694658, "created_at_utc_B": 1325719756, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "No, it will actually take longer because the atmosphere moves with the Earth. Example: London to New York takes an hour longer than New York to London.", "human_ref_B": "You must also consider the latitude from where you take off and where you land. Imagine if you fly from the northern rotational axis directly south. As you get closer to the equator the rotational speed effectively increases below you, causing you to drift west. (I don't know how significant this effect is when compared to jet streams).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 25098.0, "score_ratio": -2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o2moh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Will flying in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation make you travel farther in less time? It's just something I was wondering. If two airplanes are traveling at the same speed, one in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation, the other with the rotation of the earth, will the first airplane (against the rotation) get to a certain equidistant destination faster?", "c_root_id_A": "c3dw0dx", "c_root_id_B": "c3dutit", "created_at_utc_A": 1325701528, "created_at_utc_B": 1325694658, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I have a bone to throw in for you guys.  Your model seems to be making the assumption that the power output (thrust) of the plane is the same both ways. If that is the case then:  a. Wouldn't flying with the wind (with earth's rotation) dictate that you need to have a greater power output / thrust of the plane to overcome the fact that, relative to the wing, you have a smaller free-stream velocity?  b. How does this compare to the fact that if you fly in the other direction you need to increase the power output of the plane to overcome the wind?  Now I assume that the wind is always going to be less than the stall speed of the plane. Therefore b. takes longer. Right?", "human_ref_B": "No, it will actually take longer because the atmosphere moves with the Earth. Example: London to New York takes an hour longer than New York to London.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6870.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "o2moh", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Will flying in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation make you travel farther in less time? It's just something I was wondering. If two airplanes are traveling at the same speed, one in the opposite direction of the earth's rotation, the other with the rotation of the earth, will the first airplane (against the rotation) get to a certain equidistant destination faster?", "c_root_id_A": "c3dutit", "c_root_id_B": "c3dytc6", "created_at_utc_A": 1325694658, "created_at_utc_B": 1325716668, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "No, it will actually take longer because the atmosphere moves with the Earth. Example: London to New York takes an hour longer than New York to London.", "human_ref_B": "I have no science to answer, but I have noticed that flying back to North America from Japan was approximately two hours faster than flying from North America to Japan, with the same airports. I presume this has a lot to do with the wind, though.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22010.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ip0al", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "What is the topological difference between a rotation of two pi and four pi in 3D? My professor in Quantum Mechanics claimed that a four pi rotation in three dimensions always corresponds to no rotation, whereas for fermions a rotation of two pi results in a change in sign for the spin. The first fact was explained as an intrinsic property of three dimensional space, as a result of topology.   I study physics on fourth year, so my knowledge of topology is rather limited. Can someone please explain for me: what is the topological difference between a rotation of two pi and four pi in 3D?", "c_root_id_A": "cl4a0fo", "c_root_id_B": "cl4bni8", "created_at_utc_A": 1412813053, "created_at_utc_B": 1412816494, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "First, some QM: recall that your state is not uniquely defined. In particular, for any state |\u03a8>, the state e^(i\u03b8)|\u03a8> with \u03b8 real is the same state, and all physical quantities computed from it are identical. This has a big consequence when we consider symmetries of a quantum theory. Under a symmetry transformation, we do not require that |\u03a8> -> |\u03a8>, because actually |\u03a8> -> e^(i\u03b8)|\u03a8> is a perfectly valid symmetry transformation. You can *usually* redefine your symmetry transformation so that this phase doesn't appear, but it turns out that if your symmetry is described by a Lie group which is not simply connected, it is impossible to get rid of the phase. I'll leave it to a mathematician to explain this correctly, but I understand this as starting from the identity transformation, and then considering loops connected to the identity and getting rid of all phases - but this can't extend to non-contractible loops.  Wikipedia has a pretty nice explanation for why 2\u03c0 rotations are non-contractible but 4\u03c0 rotations are#Topology). Shortly, the topology of rotations is a ball with antipodal points identified, so that a line straight through the ball is a non-contractible loop corresponding to a 2\u03c0 rotation, but repeating it again you can take the two paths to the surface and contract them, so you can get rid of the phase for 4\u03c0. The consequence is that there can exist quantum states which pick up a phase under 2\u03c0 but not under 4\u03c0 (clearly this implies that the phase squares to 1, so it's e^(i\u03c0)).", "human_ref_B": "Inushi's and mofo69extreme's explanations are very good and the lectures Inushi linked to are great.   Just to clarify: the rotation angle we're talking about really is an angle in the usual 3D space.  When a fermion is rotated in our 3D space, its state vector also 'rotates' in Hilbert space. (This 'rotation' is really a unitary transformation, but it's the nearest thing to a rotation in a Hilbert space.)  If we rotate by 2pi about any axis in our 3D space, the state vector (in the Hilbert space) comes out pointing in the opposite direction to where it began.   This is the same as an overall phase shift of pi for the state vector. It's a general rule in quantum theory that overall phase shifts in Hilbert space don't contribute to any changes in observable quantities.  A further 2pi rotation in 3D space (about any axis - it doesn't have to be the same one) will bring the electron back to its initial state.  The link to topology comes from the fact that the group of rotations in 3D Euclidean space is very closely connected to the group of unitary transformations in a 2D complex Hilbert space. (The electron spin state occupies a 2D Hilbert space because it has two states: up and down. This is true for any spin-half system.)  It isn't the topology of the Hilbert space that is involved here, but the topologies of the two Lie groups known as SO(3) and SU(2).  So we now have two vector spaces and two topological spaces... one of which, SO(3), is the same as the 2D surface of a sphere; and the other is a little less straightforward to picture.  The two groups are intimately related: we say that SU(2) is a double cover of SO(3) with a kernel of +/-1. This means that there are two unitary transformations in 2D Hilbert space for every rotation in 3D space, and they differ by an overall sign. For small rotations, the mathematical structure of the groups is identical; but for larger variations it's possible to trace out a non-contractable loop in SU(2), whereas in SO(3) the topology is that of the surface of a sphere, so all loops are contractable.  To summarise: a 2pi rotation in 3D space is equivalent to a reflection through the origin in 2D Hilbert space. The topology of the group of 3D rotations is that of the 2D surface of a sphere, whereas the topology of the group of 2D unitary transformations is the sphere's ever-so-slightly spicier double cover.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3441.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1imhel", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "We can create exotic matter like Bose\u2013Einstein condensates, can we create tiny amounts of the super dense material inside a Neutron star? Have we been able to create the super dense material that's inside a neutron star? If not, are people working on it? What would be required to create miniscule amounts of it? It seems like it would interesting stuff to study.", "c_root_id_A": "cb5y3ke", "c_root_id_B": "cb5vxko", "created_at_utc_A": 1374242592, "created_at_utc_B": 1374232744, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "We haven't been able to make neutron degenerate matter, and it may be impossible to reasonably do on earth. Fortunately, the earth is full of tiny little neutron stars we like to call \"the lead nucleus.\" (This paper comes to mind, though I can't seem to find the full text.) Basically, since the lead nucleus has so many extra neutrons, some theorists thought, \"well they probably clump at the surface, and this would at least give us a glimpse of what the crust of a neutron star might look like.\"", "human_ref_B": "You're referring to neutron-degenerate matter, and it would be impossible given any current technology to create even the tiniest bit, unless of course you count free neutrons. Even if it were possible to create, it would be so unstable outside the core of a neutron star that it would last only an infinitesimal fraction of a second.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9848.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1imhel", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "We can create exotic matter like Bose\u2013Einstein condensates, can we create tiny amounts of the super dense material inside a Neutron star? Have we been able to create the super dense material that's inside a neutron star? If not, are people working on it? What would be required to create miniscule amounts of it? It seems like it would interesting stuff to study.", "c_root_id_A": "cb5y3ke", "c_root_id_B": "cb5w79p", "created_at_utc_A": 1374242592, "created_at_utc_B": 1374234435, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "We haven't been able to make neutron degenerate matter, and it may be impossible to reasonably do on earth. Fortunately, the earth is full of tiny little neutron stars we like to call \"the lead nucleus.\" (This paper comes to mind, though I can't seem to find the full text.) Basically, since the lead nucleus has so many extra neutrons, some theorists thought, \"well they probably clump at the surface, and this would at least give us a glimpse of what the crust of a neutron star might look like.\"", "human_ref_B": "It requires extreme gravitational fields to create stuff like that, which we do not have at our disposal. If Bose-Einstein condensates are on the low-energy extreme of matter we can study, at the high end are quark-gluon plasmas, created by smashing large nuclei together and near light speed in particle colliders like the LHC. For a brief period of time there is so much energy in such a small space that the protons and neutrons essentially melt. There may be quark-gluon plasma inside neutron stars.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8157.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1imhel", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "We can create exotic matter like Bose\u2013Einstein condensates, can we create tiny amounts of the super dense material inside a Neutron star? Have we been able to create the super dense material that's inside a neutron star? If not, are people working on it? What would be required to create miniscule amounts of it? It seems like it would interesting stuff to study.", "c_root_id_A": "cb5w79p", "c_root_id_B": "cb5zc5f", "created_at_utc_A": 1374234435, "created_at_utc_B": 1374246382, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "It requires extreme gravitational fields to create stuff like that, which we do not have at our disposal. If Bose-Einstein condensates are on the low-energy extreme of matter we can study, at the high end are quark-gluon plasmas, created by smashing large nuclei together and near light speed in particle colliders like the LHC. For a brief period of time there is so much energy in such a small space that the protons and neutrons essentially melt. There may be quark-gluon plasma inside neutron stars.", "human_ref_B": "Neutron stars are made of a material called neutron-degenerate matter, or neutronium in popular culture.    Thanks to the way quantum and statistical physics work (which involves some fairly large integrals, PM/post and I'll go into them in more detail), neutronium doesn't exist-- and doesn't *want* to exist-- outside of very extreme conditions, conditions which can only be found in truly immense pressures and temperatures.    The conditions needed far exceed the kind of conditions you would find even at the core of the Sun-- or any other normal star.  They are so far beyond our ability to work with that we can't even begin to engineer machines or materials which could replicate those conditions.  Even if we could, the energy requirements would be enormous.  Enormous in the sense of dedicated nuclear plants (plural) enormous.  The sun is hard enough.  Neutron stars are several leaps beyond that, unfortunately.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11947.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fa6mch", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "What happens during a seizure and what do people feel?", "c_root_id_A": "fixigfb", "c_root_id_B": "fixtnkp", "created_at_utc_A": 1582820960, "created_at_utc_B": 1582826513, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've had seizures from low blood sugar and as a side effect of a medication. Depending on how low the sugar is, it could be a full grand mal seizure. Those are ones I dont remember the beginning or middle of. I know it's happened based on how people look at me when I come to.  Others are full awareness but no control. It's literally felt like my brain was short-circuiting from the top-back part and I had almost no control of which muscles (ALL) spasmed.  It's part of the reason I find it so difficult to keep tight control of my diabetes.", "human_ref_B": "You can think epileptic seizures as some broken feedback loop in the brain. Basically something happens in the wrong pattern the brain ends up amplifying itself in a loop causing uncontrollable overflow of activity. Normally this lasts from few seconds to minutes. If it lasts longer there is a serious risk of lasting damage or death.   Normal brain activity limited during a seizure so people experiencing them might not even be conscious or remember it afterwards. However there are seizures that only disrupt brain functionality partially. With those it depends on where the seizure happens. The patient might for example lose control of some motor functions, have very tense muscles, tremors, jerking movements etc, have abnormal eye activity, or lose ability to speak or to understand speech. Feel cold, hot or even abnormal emotions.   Really epileptic seizure can disrupt pretty much anything in the brain and symptoms can thus be very diverse. The stereotypical tonic-clonic seizure that causes uncontrollable jerking on the floor is not the only variety.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5553.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fa6mch", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "What happens during a seizure and what do people feel?", "c_root_id_A": "fixju3b", "c_root_id_B": "fixtnkp", "created_at_utc_A": 1582821655, "created_at_utc_B": 1582826513, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I have experienced one seizure. I have no memory of what happened during the seizure, but leading up to it it started feeling light headed, my vision started narrowing, and I was unable to move my jaw. After that I have no memory of the seizure.   When I came to, I could hear people talking around me, then my vision returned and I could see the paramedics. I don't recall how long I was out for. Given that the paramedics had already arrived, I would think it was about 10 minutes.", "human_ref_B": "You can think epileptic seizures as some broken feedback loop in the brain. Basically something happens in the wrong pattern the brain ends up amplifying itself in a loop causing uncontrollable overflow of activity. Normally this lasts from few seconds to minutes. If it lasts longer there is a serious risk of lasting damage or death.   Normal brain activity limited during a seizure so people experiencing them might not even be conscious or remember it afterwards. However there are seizures that only disrupt brain functionality partially. With those it depends on where the seizure happens. The patient might for example lose control of some motor functions, have very tense muscles, tremors, jerking movements etc, have abnormal eye activity, or lose ability to speak or to understand speech. Feel cold, hot or even abnormal emotions.   Really epileptic seizure can disrupt pretty much anything in the brain and symptoms can thus be very diverse. The stereotypical tonic-clonic seizure that causes uncontrollable jerking on the floor is not the only variety.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4858.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fa6mch", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "What happens during a seizure and what do people feel?", "c_root_id_A": "fiyj5g1", "c_root_id_B": "fiyfh58", "created_at_utc_A": 1582840418, "created_at_utc_B": 1582838390, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Currently epilepsy free (knock on wood), my first seizure was photosensitive (up until then I had no problems with flashing lights until after my first seizure) I was in the car and the sun flashing through the trees triggered a seizure (I was always sensitive to the sun I just didn\u2019t know it), I remember feeling weird then I felt myself shaking then lost consciousness, when I woke up on the floor of the car I had a state trooper standing over me asking if I was ok. On some level I knew I had a seizure, but I wasn\u2019t sure until I asked what happened in the ambulance, after that I blacked out a few times during the tests (ct, mri), I was discharged with a referral to a neurologist and after 2 years on medication I was tapered off and cleared.", "human_ref_B": "just before a seizure, sometimes i can tell its coming because of an odd sensation that i cant quite put my finger on... some days i feel that same sensation all day and nothing happens, other times, i am suddenly realizing that i am flat on my back and trying to figure out what happened and how long i was out.   during the seizure, i couldn't tell you... but in the moments just as i am coming back... i have no concept of time passed, from my perspective i was just somewhere else, doing something i cant quite remember, like waking up. in seconds i lived another way, in another time, as another version of me. it can be difficult to come to terms with the fact it was not real, no matter how real it felt...  it can sort of shake your concept of reality ...i sometimes wonder who i would be, if suddenly i were to realize this is just another fugue reality my mind has created....", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2028.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4idi4i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "In the Schr\u00f6dinger equation solutions for a square well, why do we assume the electron is not travelling? If you send a wave along a slinky, it can still have a 0 amplitude at the edges, yet the pulse itself travels back and forth between the source wall and the opposite wall.  Why can't this occur for electrons in the square well?  Why do we assume that the wave is a standing wave, instead of a travelling wave?", "c_root_id_A": "d2xizrw", "c_root_id_B": "d2x8k14", "created_at_utc_A": 1462724102, "created_at_utc_B": 1462694644, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Actually we do. Take the general unnormalized wavefunction of Nsin(kx) and decompose it into the complex exponentials you get exp(+ikx) and exp(-ikx). The negative and positive signs are assigned to k which is the momentum of the particle. So the wavefunction contains eigenstates for positive and negative momentum, which when normalized have 1/sqrt(2) coefficients. Under the Born interpretation this implies a particle traveling 50% of the time forward in the box and 50% time backwards.", "human_ref_B": "The pulse travelling back and forth between the edges is not an ~~eigenstate~~*energy eigenstate,* it's a ~~mixed state~~ *superposition of energy eigenstates*. So you can consider it as a sum of standing waves that forms the pulse moving back and forth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 29458.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qmgxk", "c_root_id_B": "c6qn0x8", "created_at_utc_A": 1351015840, "created_at_utc_B": 1351017759, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 26, "human_ref_A": "Saltwater comes to mind, though I suspect you were looking for a solid.", "human_ref_B": "graphene. Presently, we generally use Indium Tin Oxide in most applications.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1919.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qn0x8", "c_root_id_B": "c6qmdze", "created_at_utc_A": 1351017759, "created_at_utc_B": 1351015542, "score_A": 26, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "graphene. Presently, we generally use Indium Tin Oxide in most applications.", "human_ref_B": "We do have transparent aluminum [link].", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2217.0, "score_ratio": 8.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qmgxk", "c_root_id_B": "c6qmdze", "created_at_utc_A": 1351015840, "created_at_utc_B": 1351015542, "score_A": 16, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Saltwater comes to mind, though I suspect you were looking for a solid.", "human_ref_B": "We do have transparent aluminum [link].", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 298.0, "score_ratio": 5.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qn5m2", "c_root_id_B": "c6qnsgy", "created_at_utc_A": 1351018205, "created_at_utc_B": 1351020343, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Tesla said our atmosphere, as it becomes less dense at higher elevations, is one of the best conductors of electricity.", "human_ref_B": "*Transparent electrodes* are often used in optical applications.  You can control the optical properties of some materials (mostly crystals) by putting a voltage across the crystal.  Occasionally, the application calls for the electrodes to be on the optical faces of the crystal.  [Paper entitled 'Transparent conducting oxide semiconductors for transparent electrodes')[http://iopscience.iop.org/0268-1242/20/4/004/]", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2138.0, "score_ratio": -0.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qrtze", "c_root_id_B": "c6qpk7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1351034424, "created_at_utc_B": 1351026152, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Gold in a very thin coating, ITO (indium tin oxide), Silver Nanowires, CNT (Carbon Nano tubes), FTO (fluorine tin oxide), zinc oxide", "human_ref_B": "There are some materials that can do both, but that comes with the proviso that they typically aren't as transparent as solely transparent materials or conductive as purely conductive materials.  Materials like TCOs (transparent conductive oxides) fall into this category.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8272.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qrtze", "c_root_id_B": "c6qn5m2", "created_at_utc_A": 1351034424, "created_at_utc_B": 1351018205, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "Gold in a very thin coating, ITO (indium tin oxide), Silver Nanowires, CNT (Carbon Nano tubes), FTO (fluorine tin oxide), zinc oxide", "human_ref_B": "Tesla said our atmosphere, as it becomes less dense at higher elevations, is one of the best conductors of electricity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16219.0, "score_ratio": -0.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qn5m2", "c_root_id_B": "c6qpk7k", "created_at_utc_A": 1351018205, "created_at_utc_B": 1351026152, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Tesla said our atmosphere, as it becomes less dense at higher elevations, is one of the best conductors of electricity.", "human_ref_B": "There are some materials that can do both, but that comes with the proviso that they typically aren't as transparent as solely transparent materials or conductive as purely conductive materials.  Materials like TCOs (transparent conductive oxides) fall into this category.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7947.0, "score_ratio": -0.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qn5m2", "c_root_id_B": "c6qtr6u", "created_at_utc_A": 1351018205, "created_at_utc_B": 1351042013, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Tesla said our atmosphere, as it becomes less dense at higher elevations, is one of the best conductors of electricity.", "human_ref_B": "How about a conductive liquid, using clear tubes as the wires? Any suggestions?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 23808.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qn5m2", "c_root_id_B": "c6qtu10", "created_at_utc_A": 1351018205, "created_at_utc_B": 1351042317, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Tesla said our atmosphere, as it becomes less dense at higher elevations, is one of the best conductors of electricity.", "human_ref_B": "I think what you're looking for is Nanocellulose... Its also cheap, non-toxic and durable.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 24112.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qn5m2", "c_root_id_B": "c6qvi5v", "created_at_utc_A": 1351018205, "created_at_utc_B": 1351048646, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Tesla said our atmosphere, as it becomes less dense at higher elevations, is one of the best conductors of electricity.", "human_ref_B": "SiC", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30441.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qymdn", "c_root_id_B": "c6qn5m2", "created_at_utc_A": 1351064987, "created_at_utc_B": 1351018205, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "I agree with graphene, I worked in a physics lab studying graphene for a year and it's a pretty ridiculous substance, it can act as a conductor, or insulator if it is multiple layers thick (we typically think of graphene as a single layer but we just call the ones that are just a few layers thick bilayers, trilayers, etc, but the bilayers are especially useful as a semiconductor, meaning that a gate voltage can be applied to chance whether it conducts or insulates). Also graphene is extraordinarilly flexible and is transparent.  TLDR: Graphene is badass", "human_ref_B": "Tesla said our atmosphere, as it becomes less dense at higher elevations, is one of the best conductors of electricity.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 46782.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "11yh4g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "Is there any type of transparent material that is also a good conductor of electricity? I know we don't have transparent aluminum yet, but is there any type of transparent material that can conduct electricity?", "c_root_id_A": "c6qn5m2", "c_root_id_B": "c6qzt9y", "created_at_utc_A": 1351018205, "created_at_utc_B": 1351077365, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Tesla said our atmosphere, as it becomes less dense at higher elevations, is one of the best conductors of electricity.", "human_ref_B": "water", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 59160.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "832nr6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.69, "history": "Are animals right or left handed like humans? At least at a \u201cless level\u201d? Plus, does the left brain\u2019s hemisphere controls the right part of the body, and viceversa?", "c_root_id_A": "dvfdd5a", "c_root_id_B": "dvfaikj", "created_at_utc_A": 1520596232, "created_at_utc_B": 1520589939, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Yes, a lot of animals show left/right paw preference, and the preference for one side over another varies between species in terms of which side and how strong the preference is. For example cats show a paw preference, and its about 50/50 whether they prefer left or right Source. Other animals like horses, dogs, kangaroos and parrots Source", "human_ref_B": "Most animals don't really have a need to only use on extremity like humans do. Since we use tools and operate things, we sometimes use one hand. I have seen cats prefering one paw over the other when scratching or slapping things.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6293.0, "score_ratio": 5000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mqily", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "How can particles be their own antiparticles, such as photons? I understand how an electron and positron may annihilate each other to give off photons and how the photons may give rise to other particles (virtual or not).   I also understand as a wave a photon can interfere with itself.   But how the hell is the photon it's own antiparticle...confused.", "c_root_id_A": "c332ag5", "c_root_id_B": "c331ko4", "created_at_utc_A": 1322375221, "created_at_utc_B": 1322369179, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "To explain this, I have to explain a little bit about what it means for a particle to be the antiparticle for some other particle.  Unfortunately, I don't know how to do this without getting a little mathy.  When we talk about particles, what we're really dealing with are wave functions.  *Wave functions* are solutions to an equation called the *Dirac equation*.  Solutions to this equation naturally come in pairs in a way that's **very** analogous to the way solutions to a quadratic equation always come in pairs.  Do you remember how complex solutions to quadratic equations always come in conjugate pairs?  Sure you do!  In a very similar way, these solutions are conjugate to each other.  In terms of observables, this means that almost all of the physical properties of the particle, such as charge (if it's nonzero), color charge (if it's nonzero), and so on, are reversed for a particle and its antiparticle (mass, however, stays the same).  I suppose you also remember that when you multiply a complex number by its conjugate, the imaginary part cancels out, right?  Well, in an analogous way, when we take a particular product of a wave function and its conjugate, they cancel out in a certain sense as well.  In physics terms, that product describes an interaction between the particles, and the \"cancelling out\" explains why particle/antiparticle pairs annihilate.  So what about photons?  Well there are certain solutions to the Dirac equation where the wave function and its conjugate look exactly the same.  This is sort of like how a real number is its own complex conjugate.  Basically, if you reverse all of the particle's properties (charge, chirality, etc.) you get back to where you started.  That's what we mean when we say a photon is its own antiparticle.  By the way, photons aren't the only particles which are their own antiparticles.  For example, the \u03c0^0 meson is a bound state of a quark and an antiquark of the same type, so it's its own antiparticle.  Also, it's been speculated (we aren't sure yet) that neutrinos are a certain type of particle called a *majorana fermion*.  If so, then they would be their own antiparticles.", "human_ref_B": "An antiparticle is a particle with the same properties but opposite charge from the original particle. A photon is not composite and it does not have charge, so it is it's own antiparticle. That is, the negative of zero charge is zero charge.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6042.0, "score_ratio": 20.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15ngsz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do smooth pegs/cylinders move more easily when twisted? I'm referring to smooth cylinders such as pegs, not anything that has a groove or track to it. I noticed when I was inserting and removing some pieces of plastic figures that attached pieces via pegs that I could very easily insert and remove when I twisted to pull or push them out/in rather than trying straight out.  This had me remember other times with other objects that seem to follow the same pattern. Basically any smooth cylinder I can remember having to pull or push into a circular hole that is the right size for that cylinder was easier to do so when twisted.  Why?", "c_root_id_A": "c7o1ktn", "c_root_id_B": "c7o1l2w", "created_at_utc_A": 1356832661, "created_at_utc_B": 1356832689, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Because you're able to apply force in multiple directions at once: the outward pulling force and the rotational twisting force.", "human_ref_B": "The coefficient of static friction is usually greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction.  This means that there is less force resisting your movement if the object is already moving.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 28.0, "score_ratio": -4.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15ngsz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do smooth pegs/cylinders move more easily when twisted? I'm referring to smooth cylinders such as pegs, not anything that has a groove or track to it. I noticed when I was inserting and removing some pieces of plastic figures that attached pieces via pegs that I could very easily insert and remove when I twisted to pull or push them out/in rather than trying straight out.  This had me remember other times with other objects that seem to follow the same pattern. Basically any smooth cylinder I can remember having to pull or push into a circular hole that is the right size for that cylinder was easier to do so when twisted.  Why?", "c_root_id_A": "c7o51oi", "c_root_id_B": "c7o5kts", "created_at_utc_A": 1356847081, "created_at_utc_B": 1356849464, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Torque. http://ask.cars.com/2007/04/what_is_torque.html", "human_ref_B": "Simple.  It's easier to twist a peg than it is to simply pull/push it to overcome the static friction (correct Ayotte).  But this doesn't have anything to do with torque vs. linear force... it has to do with grip.  It's not easy to simply pinch a pin and pull it out of a similiarly sized hole.  However, when you grip it and twist it, your skin will act as a sort of clamp... the harder you twist, the stronger the clamp, thus making it easier to get a good grip.  By the way, the fact that it seems \"easier\" is purely subjective.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2383.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15ngsz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do smooth pegs/cylinders move more easily when twisted? I'm referring to smooth cylinders such as pegs, not anything that has a groove or track to it. I noticed when I was inserting and removing some pieces of plastic figures that attached pieces via pegs that I could very easily insert and remove when I twisted to pull or push them out/in rather than trying straight out.  This had me remember other times with other objects that seem to follow the same pattern. Basically any smooth cylinder I can remember having to pull or push into a circular hole that is the right size for that cylinder was easier to do so when twisted.  Why?", "c_root_id_A": "c7o1ktn", "c_root_id_B": "c7o5kts", "created_at_utc_A": 1356832661, "created_at_utc_B": 1356849464, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Because you're able to apply force in multiple directions at once: the outward pulling force and the rotational twisting force.", "human_ref_B": "Simple.  It's easier to twist a peg than it is to simply pull/push it to overcome the static friction (correct Ayotte).  But this doesn't have anything to do with torque vs. linear force... it has to do with grip.  It's not easy to simply pinch a pin and pull it out of a similiarly sized hole.  However, when you grip it and twist it, your skin will act as a sort of clamp... the harder you twist, the stronger the clamp, thus making it easier to get a good grip.  By the way, the fact that it seems \"easier\" is purely subjective.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16803.0, "score_ratio": -0.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15ngsz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do smooth pegs/cylinders move more easily when twisted? I'm referring to smooth cylinders such as pegs, not anything that has a groove or track to it. I noticed when I was inserting and removing some pieces of plastic figures that attached pieces via pegs that I could very easily insert and remove when I twisted to pull or push them out/in rather than trying straight out.  This had me remember other times with other objects that seem to follow the same pattern. Basically any smooth cylinder I can remember having to pull or push into a circular hole that is the right size for that cylinder was easier to do so when twisted.  Why?", "c_root_id_A": "c7obq2p", "c_root_id_B": "c7o51oi", "created_at_utc_A": 1356891282, "created_at_utc_B": 1356847081, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "For pegs that are made of a soft material like most plastics, a linear push will make it bulge above the point of most friction thus enlarging the friction even more. A twist will tend to minimize the diameter of the peg.", "human_ref_B": "Torque. http://ask.cars.com/2007/04/what_is_torque.html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 44201.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15ngsz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do smooth pegs/cylinders move more easily when twisted? I'm referring to smooth cylinders such as pegs, not anything that has a groove or track to it. I noticed when I was inserting and removing some pieces of plastic figures that attached pieces via pegs that I could very easily insert and remove when I twisted to pull or push them out/in rather than trying straight out.  This had me remember other times with other objects that seem to follow the same pattern. Basically any smooth cylinder I can remember having to pull or push into a circular hole that is the right size for that cylinder was easier to do so when twisted.  Why?", "c_root_id_A": "c7o1ktn", "c_root_id_B": "c7obq2p", "created_at_utc_A": 1356832661, "created_at_utc_B": 1356891282, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Because you're able to apply force in multiple directions at once: the outward pulling force and the rotational twisting force.", "human_ref_B": "For pegs that are made of a soft material like most plastics, a linear push will make it bulge above the point of most friction thus enlarging the friction even more. A twist will tend to minimize the diameter of the peg.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 58621.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15ngsz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do smooth pegs/cylinders move more easily when twisted? I'm referring to smooth cylinders such as pegs, not anything that has a groove or track to it. I noticed when I was inserting and removing some pieces of plastic figures that attached pieces via pegs that I could very easily insert and remove when I twisted to pull or push them out/in rather than trying straight out.  This had me remember other times with other objects that seem to follow the same pattern. Basically any smooth cylinder I can remember having to pull or push into a circular hole that is the right size for that cylinder was easier to do so when twisted.  Why?", "c_root_id_A": "c7o51oi", "c_root_id_B": "c7o1ktn", "created_at_utc_A": 1356847081, "created_at_utc_B": 1356832661, "score_A": -2, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "Torque. http://ask.cars.com/2007/04/what_is_torque.html", "human_ref_B": "Because you're able to apply force in multiple directions at once: the outward pulling force and the rotational twisting force.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14420.0, "score_ratio": 0.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5bgcix", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Do we know how or why five-sided symmetrical organisms evolved? The majority of multi-cellular life here on earth is bilaterally symmetric. However a notable exception is the large class of sea-living invertebrates known as echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins, etc), which typically exhibit radial five-sided symmetry.  However reading Wikipedia it states that \"[t]he larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry but this is lost during metamorphosis when their bodies are reorganised and develop the characteristic radial symmetry of the echinoderm, typically pentamerism\".  My understanding of evolutionary biology is low but the above suggests to me that an ancient bilaterally-symmetrical ancestor of modern echinoderms found some benefit to this body layoutt -- but it strikes me as an extremely odd mutation. Is there any knowledge or evidence about how, why, or when this might have occurred?", "c_root_id_A": "d9oqqdu", "c_root_id_B": "d9oq24x", "created_at_utc_A": 1478471657, "created_at_utc_B": 1478470763, "score_A": 79, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "You're right that the pentaradial symmetry in echinoderms is a derived trait evolved from a bilaterally symmetric ancestor. Radial symmetry is thought to be the ancestral state for all animals as still seen in early diverging groups like cnidarians and ctenophores. Bilateral symmety seems to develop shortly after their divergence and the much later common ancestor of the vertebrates and echinoderms certainly had bilateral symmetry. Radial symmetry then developed later on in the echinoderm lineage.  Radial symmetry probably became advantageous to them as stem echinoderms (i.e. the evolving lineage that would later give rise to all of the echinoderms living today) shifted from a planktonic lifestyle to a sessile one where adults are attached to rocks, reefs, or the ocean bottom. The advantage of radial symmetry for marine filter feeders is that they can equally well catch food that comes from any direction, which is what it does in tidal marine and reef environments. There's actually multiple convergent shifts back to radial symmetry seen in several animal groups, including tunicates and different sessile marine worms like the feather duster worms. Like echinoderms, these groups also retain a bilateral planktonic stage, probably because bilateral symmetry is advantageous when moving through the water.  Why do echinoderms specifically have *five-sided* radial symmetry, though? It's most likely just an accident of evolution. There was a selective advantage to radial symmetry, but pentaradial was good enough and the mutations that happened to occur and rise to high frequency led to that rather than full radial symmetry. We don't know the whole story, but body plan in echinoderms is unsurprisingly dependent on the same key regulatory Hox genes that also determine major features of body plan in most other animals. Here's a paper that lays out a few of the large scale mutations in the Hox regions that may have facilitated evolution of pentaradial symmetry in echinoderms.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, echinoderms are descended from bilateral ancestors, and have very bizarre larval development.  The whole organism develops from a lump on the left side of the larvae, and it's not at all clear if echinoderm front-back is the same as other animal's front-back  The change definitely has something to do with a transition from a mobile, swimming ancestor to a sedentary, ground dwelling habit. Many early varieties seem to have been stuck in place completely.  As for what series of mutations caused this, your guess is as good as mine. Early echinoderms are something of a mystery, and the fossils are pretty weird and unclear.  Many had no symmetry at all.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 894.0, "score_ratio": 8.7777777778, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fgbay6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "If stars create other stars when they die, why will the universe still eventually come to an end? I am a bit confused when people talk about how the universe will eventually end, especially on the topic of the heat death of the universe. If stars are constantly being created from the remains of other stars, why do people believe in the heat death of the universe? Are stars not 100% efficient or something?", "c_root_id_A": "fk48njo", "c_root_id_B": "fk4fyq7", "created_at_utc_A": 1583855561, "created_at_utc_B": 1583859682, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Really big star explodes and spews nebulas, it's core becomes a remnant, say black hole.  Big stars, you get nebulas and a neutron star.  Stars like ours use up the fuel they can use based on their mass and expand out due to their own stored energy, then shrink as they dim into a dwarf.  So, it's not just star makes star makes star indefinitely.  Now, the universe is ever expanding on the edges and between every point.  So, you have more places where things can go as time goes on.  Stars are concentrations of mass, if they're big enough to supernova, matter goes every which way into larger spaces.  Recap:  big space getting ever bigger, viable star material being cast in all directions while majority mass is constrained to unusable form.  Here's the kicker.  A field of homogeneous energy flees from itself.  Every single bit will push away from every other bit.  So, even if we had nebula forever, rather than just creating stars only, it'll all repulse.  Space big, getting bigger.  Mass constantly coalescing and spewing out, less and less useable mass for stars.  Photonic fields repel themselves.  Now, we're still talking time frames of billions of years for stars like ours.  All of human consciousness is much less than a million.  Human history is on the order of ten thousand years.  Capacity to leave Earth is on the order of six decades.  Plenty of time to build civilizations in space before our Sun starts failing.  Plenty of time to understand the underlying patterns that govern our universe.    If you're having a crisis over lack of continuity, neither of us will be here in a hundred years, much less a thousand, million, or billion years.  Earth has billions of years left as a viable cradle for life, heat death of the universe isn't credibly a threat to us and neither is lack of stars.", "human_ref_B": "As for the heat death of the universe, we currently live in a relatively low entropy time, as we are relatively close to the start of the universe.   Now the laws of thermodynamics state that entropy exists and it essentially only increases. Chemical reactions are partially driven by a gradiant in entropy, and entropy is non infinite assuming a finite universe with finite energy. There will therefore be a time when the amount of entropy in the universe is maximal everywhere; it cannot increase any further, and so there will be no chemical reactions, and therefore the universe will be a soup of particles all moving around in a very cold state as all of the energy in the universe will be randomly and macroscopically uniformly spread out", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4121.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mlbrx", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "What causes the abrupt waxing and waning of wakefulness when one is severely sleep-deprived? It's 5:15am here.  I haven't had much sleep.  But there are moments when I feel fully awake and alert.  These give away into moments of extreme lethargy and fatigue.  Just wondering if anyone could give me an answer when I wake up - good night!", "c_root_id_A": "c31xj8j", "c_root_id_B": "c31ydgo", "created_at_utc_A": 1321989141, "created_at_utc_B": 1321993981, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I'm by no means an expert on this, but i have learned a bit of it in class and will just share seeing as no one else has answered this.  Our sleepiness is caused by a hormone called melatonin secreted in out pineal gland; and it is this hormone which largely determines our circadian rhythm which is our daily sleep wake cycle. This cycle can be affected by external factors known as zeitgebers. Some zeitgebers are food and nutrition, physical activity which leads to secretion of various hormones like endorphines, serotonin and the conversion of glucose from food stores. Other zeitgebers also include sunlight and temperature all of which affect our circadian rhythm/melatonin levels. Thus, the increase and decrease in sleepiness throughout the day.  I hope someone comes and corrects me if i'm wrong in any way.", "human_ref_B": "Without explaining the cause, large numbers of sleep-schedule hobbysits are experimenting with this effect personally, where we take the onset of \"lethargy\" as a cue to lay down for a ~10min catnap.  Successful experimenters report that it eliminates the need for 8hrs nightly sleep, and can be maintained for weeks.  Professional sleep researchers look down on this online community, and are having none of it!    :)  See: Polyphasic Sleep  Speculation: humankind, or at least a subset, is capable of switching to a \"fast-cycling\" sleep-wake period.  Historically this effect was described by Edison, Tesla, and Picasso as a method for triggering extreme creativity and problem-solving ability.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4840.0, "score_ratio": -1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1rtqm6", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Is it possible to burn out your adrenal glands? In a sense that once you ingest a certain amount of caffeine (for example), there is no  way for the adrenal glands to bounce back?", "c_root_id_A": "cdquj2p", "c_root_id_B": "cdqudzb", "created_at_utc_A": 1385890975, "created_at_utc_B": 1385890050, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 23, "human_ref_A": "If you mean can overstimulating your adrenal glands in some way cause them to fail then no, not really. Very severe biological stress, such as when you are critically ill has been suggested to cause a form a partial adrenal gland failure called \"Critical Illness Related Corticosteroid Insufficiency (CIRCI)\". However, the evidence for the existence of this syndrome is pretty poor, and a number of people (including me) don't believe it exists.", "human_ref_B": "Caffeine shouldn't cause any problems with your adrenal glands itself. It acts directly on the nervous system by inhibiting the action of adenosine. This accounts for its stimulant effect and also the majority of its side effects (headache, tremor, palpitations). These effects are not mediated by adrenaline (epinephrine).  Use of exogenous steroids in the treatment of disease can suppress the adrenal glands which will result in severe symptoms of adrenal insufficiency if you come of them too quickly. This is why you need to take a gradually reducing course of steroid tablets if you have been on them for a long time.  A number of disease states can also cause adrenal insufficiency. These include tumours, autoimmune diseases (Addison's disease), TB and a variety of other less common conditions.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 925.0, "score_ratio": 2.2608695652, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "22enjs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why is hydrofluoric acid considered a weak acid if it is as dangerous as it is? Why wouldn't a strong acid like HCl that ionizes more easily be more hazardous? Wouldn't liberated H+ be responsible for any corrosiveness in an acid? So many questions...", "c_root_id_A": "cgm3ad5", "c_root_id_B": "cgm2psk", "created_at_utc_A": 1396855283, "created_at_utc_B": 1396852609, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "how \"strong\" or \"weak\" an acid is , is based on how well the H dissociates from the conjugate base. In the case of HF the conjugate base is F-.   HF is a weaker acid than HCl because it does not dissociate as well. The reason that HF is such a strong acid is because the Flouride ion, F- is HIGHLY reactive. So in this case the reactivity comes from the Flourine rather than the acid which is H+", "human_ref_B": "HF is corrosive due to the reactivity of the fluoride ion.  The fluoride ion reacts so strongly with cations that it is the only halogen ion that does not completely dissociate from the hydrogen ion when the respective acid is in aqueous solution.  All of the other halogen acids (HCl, HBr, HI) are strong acids.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2674.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vuz51", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Can humans live on a purely carnivorous diet?  Can humans live on a purely carnivorous diet? If not, then why? Are there supplements that could be taken to facilitate good health on a meat only diet?", "c_root_id_A": "c57usix", "c_root_id_B": "c57vp3v", "created_at_utc_A": 1341099252, "created_at_utc_B": 1341113049, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 20, "human_ref_A": "People in the far North do.  While exploring the North pole explorers survived on carnivorous diets thanks to the fact that they couldn't cook their meat very well.  Most animals can create their own vitamin C, and their flesh, provided it isn't cooked thoroughly, will contain enough to prevent scurvy.", "human_ref_B": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_diet  The most pressing dangers of an all-meat diet are vitamin C deficiency, lipid deficiency and vitamin A poisoning. Basically, a purely carnivorous diet is how Inuit peoples traditionally survived the winter, but it requires the consumption of organ meats, raw meat and fermented fish to obtain all the necessary vitamins. It's also necessary to eat fattened/blubbery animals for lipids and to avoid stressing the liver/kidneys: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbit_starvation The end of winter is dangerous since animals are very lean. And finally, eating the livers of some animals is dangerous due to their high vitamin A content.  However, even the Inuit did not eat this way all the time-- in the spring and summer, they would gather arctic fruits, vegetables, etc. (even eating partially-digested grasses from the stomachs of herbivorous animals).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 13797.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "410n5a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is the crude oil extracted from North America the same chemical makeup as oil from the Middle East?", "c_root_id_A": "cyypjce", "c_root_id_B": "cyyq7n8", "created_at_utc_A": 1452823837, "created_at_utc_B": 1452824900, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 30, "human_ref_A": "Nope. Depending on where you get your crude it may contain varying hydrocarbon chain length compositions and other components. For example the tar sands in Canada, produces a crude that is thicker due to the heavier composition and higher sulfur content.", "human_ref_B": "No. There is heavy versus light and sour versus sweet.   Sour means it has more sulfur, which makes emissions controls more difficult. Sweet means less sulfur. American (continental US) crude oil is generally sweet and Middle Eastern crude is generally sour.   Heavy vs light is determined by the gravity of the oil (think of it as the weight of the oil relative to water). American (like the frequently mentioned \"West Texas Intermediate\") and Middle Eastern oil is generally in the middle, so they are pretty similar there.  \"Brent\" (another term you have probably heard) crude from the UK tends to be heavier and Venezuelan crude tends to be lighter. When oil is refined, different products can be created from it (like gasoline, diesel, or tar), and the gravity contributes to what the crude can be easily refined into.   http://www.petroleum.co.uk/sweet-vs-sour  http://canaryusa.com/crude-oil-refinery-primer/", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1063.0, "score_ratio": 30.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "410n5a", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is the crude oil extracted from North America the same chemical makeup as oil from the Middle East?", "c_root_id_A": "cyypjce", "c_root_id_B": "cyyqjma", "created_at_utc_A": 1452823837, "created_at_utc_B": 1452825415, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Nope. Depending on where you get your crude it may contain varying hydrocarbon chain length compositions and other components. For example the tar sands in Canada, produces a crude that is thicker due to the heavier composition and higher sulfur content.", "human_ref_B": "No, it isn't.  Depending on the place of origin, crude oil can have varying proportions of light/heavy chains and amount of undesirables such as sulfur content.  Because of the different degree of processing needed to turn them into usable products, they actually have different names and prices when they are sold on the international market.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1578.0, "score_ratio": 6.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xj20o", "c_root_id_B": "c4xlok7", "created_at_utc_A": 1339091838, "created_at_utc_B": 1339102221, "score_A": 12, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "This  **PDF warning**  Heck, that's a wildly abbreviated version!  Seriously, the fact we've figured all that out, and put it all together?  That a lot of disease and drug treatment is a breakdown of one spot in there?  That everything in the body is in some way interconnected?  The metabolic pathways chart **blows my mind.**", "human_ref_B": "I'm amazed at how much overlap there is in the sciences. How many things are \"interdisciplinary\" or related really drives it home that science is the study of the world, a world that is deeply interconnected.  Just using my own field as an example, acoustics shows up all over the place. Phonons in the crystal structure of a solid? Acoustics. You can use the modal characteristics of the crystal to find the heat capacity of a material. And those properties scale up. You can build a scale model of a crystal structure using resonators and elastic bands to study atomic structures at a macroscopic scale (don't believe me? It's been done.](ftp://orthodox-hub.ru/ftp2/books/_%D4%E8%E7%E8%EA%E0_%CC%E0%F2%E5%EC%E0%F2%E8%EA%E0/RevModPhys/RevModPhys%201984-2008/root/data/RevModPhys%201984-2008/pdf/RMP/v073/RMP_v073_p0401.pdf))  How do we [measure the gas constant? Sound speed in argon. And that is used to give us our definition of Kelvin. In other words, our fundamental measurement of temperature comes from acoustics.  At very large scales, ultra-low frequency sound waves can travel through the near vacuum of space. You can see them coming from Super Massive Black Holes.  It goes both ways. Where does Sonoluminescence come from? Chemistry. A small air bubble resonates, and forces out everything except the noble gas, Argon. When that argon is heavily compressed at the bottom of the cycle, it emits light. That's an acoustic phenomena that needs chemistry to be explained.  And given that there is so much overlap in the sciences, it's amazing that experts in different fields can work together to solve the mysteries of a universe that needs more than a single specialization to be unravelled.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10383.0, "score_ratio": 1.0833333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xlok7", "c_root_id_B": "c4xjtcn", "created_at_utc_A": 1339102221, "created_at_utc_B": 1339094835, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I'm amazed at how much overlap there is in the sciences. How many things are \"interdisciplinary\" or related really drives it home that science is the study of the world, a world that is deeply interconnected.  Just using my own field as an example, acoustics shows up all over the place. Phonons in the crystal structure of a solid? Acoustics. You can use the modal characteristics of the crystal to find the heat capacity of a material. And those properties scale up. You can build a scale model of a crystal structure using resonators and elastic bands to study atomic structures at a macroscopic scale (don't believe me? It's been done.](ftp://orthodox-hub.ru/ftp2/books/_%D4%E8%E7%E8%EA%E0_%CC%E0%F2%E5%EC%E0%F2%E8%EA%E0/RevModPhys/RevModPhys%201984-2008/root/data/RevModPhys%201984-2008/pdf/RMP/v073/RMP_v073_p0401.pdf))  How do we [measure the gas constant? Sound speed in argon. And that is used to give us our definition of Kelvin. In other words, our fundamental measurement of temperature comes from acoustics.  At very large scales, ultra-low frequency sound waves can travel through the near vacuum of space. You can see them coming from Super Massive Black Holes.  It goes both ways. Where does Sonoluminescence come from? Chemistry. A small air bubble resonates, and forces out everything except the noble gas, Argon. When that argon is heavily compressed at the bottom of the cycle, it emits light. That's an acoustic phenomena that needs chemistry to be explained.  And given that there is so much overlap in the sciences, it's amazing that experts in different fields can work together to solve the mysteries of a universe that needs more than a single specialization to be unravelled.", "human_ref_B": "Overall - I am amazed and awed by how everything about the shape/makeup/structure/behavior of Earth has a reason and explanation - and that these explanations are often something anyone with a moderate education can surmise (or at least make educated guesses about). The types of sand grains you find on a beach can give you hints to processes happening hundreds of kilometers away. A rock you find in the mountains can tell you a lot about the past millions of years of the mountain's history, even without fancy lab equipment (or any equipment at all, often). Every fold and hill and mountain and stream has a reason for why it is there, and often these structures record much about the past in many different ways. Once you start seeing them, it's impossible to ever go back (nor would you want to!)  More specifically, some facts that have shocked me are:  **1)** When ice sheets melt on top of continents, the entire continent rises up in elevation. This same process happens when the tops of mountains are eroded over time. So in order to erode a 5 kilometer mountain to ground level, you actually have to erode 30-50 kilometers of mountain (since as you erode off the top, pressures that were once balanced become unbalanced and you will get uplift of the mountain range through earthquakes). This is also why you find sedimentary basins where you have 15 kilometers of sediments stacked on top of each other!  **2)** The gravitational pull of ice sheets is actually quite significant. If the Antarctica ice sheet were to melt, local sea levels would *drop*, despite a ~65 meter increase in average sea level around the world. This is because the Antarctica ice sheet pulls a lot of water toward it right now through gravity. Combine this with my previous point about how land masses lift up after having ice above them melt, and Antarctica might be lifted 100-200 meters above it's current sea level (those are the current estimates, anyway). Awesome!  **3)** We have evidence for life at least 3.8 billion years ago. The Earth is 4.57 billion years old or so, and much of its early history involved massive bombardments from many asteroids. So relatively quickly after stable liquid water as on Earth, life sprang up. I think it is really amazing to think about how readily life takes advantage of environments when they are suitable, even when it comes to abiogenesis (it at least seems that way).  **4)** Huge amounts of water are cycled through subduction zones. Oceanic crust actually incorporates water into the rocks, morphing the rocks into new forms (Olivine to Serpentine, for example). When oceanic crust subducts, it warms as it sinks into the asthenosphere, which results in this water being released, which produces magma, which produces volcanic arcs when it erupts. The cool part is the sheer volume of water cycled this way. The entire volume of the world's oceans has cycled in this manner (metasomatism) many times throughout the history of Earth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7386.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xlok7", "c_root_id_B": "c4xjv31", "created_at_utc_A": 1339102221, "created_at_utc_B": 1339095032, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I'm amazed at how much overlap there is in the sciences. How many things are \"interdisciplinary\" or related really drives it home that science is the study of the world, a world that is deeply interconnected.  Just using my own field as an example, acoustics shows up all over the place. Phonons in the crystal structure of a solid? Acoustics. You can use the modal characteristics of the crystal to find the heat capacity of a material. And those properties scale up. You can build a scale model of a crystal structure using resonators and elastic bands to study atomic structures at a macroscopic scale (don't believe me? It's been done.](ftp://orthodox-hub.ru/ftp2/books/_%D4%E8%E7%E8%EA%E0_%CC%E0%F2%E5%EC%E0%F2%E8%EA%E0/RevModPhys/RevModPhys%201984-2008/root/data/RevModPhys%201984-2008/pdf/RMP/v073/RMP_v073_p0401.pdf))  How do we [measure the gas constant? Sound speed in argon. And that is used to give us our definition of Kelvin. In other words, our fundamental measurement of temperature comes from acoustics.  At very large scales, ultra-low frequency sound waves can travel through the near vacuum of space. You can see them coming from Super Massive Black Holes.  It goes both ways. Where does Sonoluminescence come from? Chemistry. A small air bubble resonates, and forces out everything except the noble gas, Argon. When that argon is heavily compressed at the bottom of the cycle, it emits light. That's an acoustic phenomena that needs chemistry to be explained.  And given that there is so much overlap in the sciences, it's amazing that experts in different fields can work together to solve the mysteries of a universe that needs more than a single specialization to be unravelled.", "human_ref_B": "Biomolecular interaction networks, especially proteins (though I have nothing against RNA :P). It amazes me that proteins (which everyone is basically taught to think of as a single chemical in food) are essentially nano-devices that underpin the functioning of biology. In particular, signaling pathways involving GPCRs and functional selectivity. Just a little set of molecules (well, big for molecules, little for us) can not only pick out its ligands, but actually *distinguish* between different ligands, and activate different signaling pathways accordingly. That is facking awesome.  Also, I'll take a serving of \"the scale of everything.\" I recall exploring a structural model of LeuT based on some x-ray diffraction, and noting the location of leucine, and looking off into the distance in the picture, seeing two spheres. Those spheres were sodium ions, and it wasn't much of a distance- a handful of nm. Yet as I study the molecule, it becomes like its own world, operating by its own rules, with its own fantastic potential for discovery. Then I realize that in a human alone, there are at least hundreds of thousands of these protein \"worlds,\" and am ecstatic at the thought that I'll never run short of things to discover.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7189.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xlok7", "c_root_id_B": "c4xkty6", "created_at_utc_A": 1339102221, "created_at_utc_B": 1339098877, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "I'm amazed at how much overlap there is in the sciences. How many things are \"interdisciplinary\" or related really drives it home that science is the study of the world, a world that is deeply interconnected.  Just using my own field as an example, acoustics shows up all over the place. Phonons in the crystal structure of a solid? Acoustics. You can use the modal characteristics of the crystal to find the heat capacity of a material. And those properties scale up. You can build a scale model of a crystal structure using resonators and elastic bands to study atomic structures at a macroscopic scale (don't believe me? It's been done.](ftp://orthodox-hub.ru/ftp2/books/_%D4%E8%E7%E8%EA%E0_%CC%E0%F2%E5%EC%E0%F2%E8%EA%E0/RevModPhys/RevModPhys%201984-2008/root/data/RevModPhys%201984-2008/pdf/RMP/v073/RMP_v073_p0401.pdf))  How do we [measure the gas constant? Sound speed in argon. And that is used to give us our definition of Kelvin. In other words, our fundamental measurement of temperature comes from acoustics.  At very large scales, ultra-low frequency sound waves can travel through the near vacuum of space. You can see them coming from Super Massive Black Holes.  It goes both ways. Where does Sonoluminescence come from? Chemistry. A small air bubble resonates, and forces out everything except the noble gas, Argon. When that argon is heavily compressed at the bottom of the cycle, it emits light. That's an acoustic phenomena that needs chemistry to be explained.  And given that there is so much overlap in the sciences, it's amazing that experts in different fields can work together to solve the mysteries of a universe that needs more than a single specialization to be unravelled.", "human_ref_B": "This is a small one compared to the others, but how well the pieces of physics overlap. If you look at a photon - when you view it as a particle, you get that it should impart momentum when it hits an electron. When you calculate it as a classical wave, the magnetic field imparts the same momentum.  When you calculate the redshift from a gravitational field on a wave, it gives you the same answer as consider a particle climbing from a potential well. Even though GR and quantum aren't compatible.  Things work out and its incredible.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3344.0, "score_ratio": 1.625, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xlc4g", "c_root_id_B": "c4xlok7", "created_at_utc_A": 1339100869, "created_at_utc_B": 1339102221, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "The fact that nature seems to obey Quantum Field Theory, and the simple fact that we are able to \"decouple\" short scales from long distance experiments.  Suppose that you do an experiment in which an apple collides with a table. You do not need to know the fundamental theory of nature in order to create an effective law that only depends on a finite set of parameters. In other words, despite the fact that a collision of an apple is actually a huge complicated phenomena in terms of atoms, and nucleons, and quarks and electrons... it is very simple in terms of this effective degree of freedom that we call apple. You can parametrize all your ignorance about the fundamental structure of the apple just by measuring its mass, volume, elasticity and some other quantities...  There is no reason in first place that nature should behave this way, but the fact is that it does. And this alone is the reason why we are able to do physics.", "human_ref_B": "I'm amazed at how much overlap there is in the sciences. How many things are \"interdisciplinary\" or related really drives it home that science is the study of the world, a world that is deeply interconnected.  Just using my own field as an example, acoustics shows up all over the place. Phonons in the crystal structure of a solid? Acoustics. You can use the modal characteristics of the crystal to find the heat capacity of a material. And those properties scale up. You can build a scale model of a crystal structure using resonators and elastic bands to study atomic structures at a macroscopic scale (don't believe me? It's been done.](ftp://orthodox-hub.ru/ftp2/books/_%D4%E8%E7%E8%EA%E0_%CC%E0%F2%E5%EC%E0%F2%E8%EA%E0/RevModPhys/RevModPhys%201984-2008/root/data/RevModPhys%201984-2008/pdf/RMP/v073/RMP_v073_p0401.pdf))  How do we [measure the gas constant? Sound speed in argon. And that is used to give us our definition of Kelvin. In other words, our fundamental measurement of temperature comes from acoustics.  At very large scales, ultra-low frequency sound waves can travel through the near vacuum of space. You can see them coming from Super Massive Black Holes.  It goes both ways. Where does Sonoluminescence come from? Chemistry. A small air bubble resonates, and forces out everything except the noble gas, Argon. When that argon is heavily compressed at the bottom of the cycle, it emits light. That's an acoustic phenomena that needs chemistry to be explained.  And given that there is so much overlap in the sciences, it's amazing that experts in different fields can work together to solve the mysteries of a universe that needs more than a single specialization to be unravelled.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1352.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xjv31", "c_root_id_B": "c4xkty6", "created_at_utc_A": 1339095032, "created_at_utc_B": 1339098877, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Biomolecular interaction networks, especially proteins (though I have nothing against RNA :P). It amazes me that proteins (which everyone is basically taught to think of as a single chemical in food) are essentially nano-devices that underpin the functioning of biology. In particular, signaling pathways involving GPCRs and functional selectivity. Just a little set of molecules (well, big for molecules, little for us) can not only pick out its ligands, but actually *distinguish* between different ligands, and activate different signaling pathways accordingly. That is facking awesome.  Also, I'll take a serving of \"the scale of everything.\" I recall exploring a structural model of LeuT based on some x-ray diffraction, and noting the location of leucine, and looking off into the distance in the picture, seeing two spheres. Those spheres were sodium ions, and it wasn't much of a distance- a handful of nm. Yet as I study the molecule, it becomes like its own world, operating by its own rules, with its own fantastic potential for discovery. Then I realize that in a human alone, there are at least hundreds of thousands of these protein \"worlds,\" and am ecstatic at the thought that I'll never run short of things to discover.", "human_ref_B": "This is a small one compared to the others, but how well the pieces of physics overlap. If you look at a photon - when you view it as a particle, you get that it should impart momentum when it hits an electron. When you calculate it as a classical wave, the magnetic field imparts the same momentum.  When you calculate the redshift from a gravitational field on a wave, it gives you the same answer as consider a particle climbing from a potential well. Even though GR and quantum aren't compatible.  Things work out and its incredible.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3845.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xjv31", "c_root_id_B": "c4xmcq2", "created_at_utc_A": 1339095032, "created_at_utc_B": 1339105010, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Biomolecular interaction networks, especially proteins (though I have nothing against RNA :P). It amazes me that proteins (which everyone is basically taught to think of as a single chemical in food) are essentially nano-devices that underpin the functioning of biology. In particular, signaling pathways involving GPCRs and functional selectivity. Just a little set of molecules (well, big for molecules, little for us) can not only pick out its ligands, but actually *distinguish* between different ligands, and activate different signaling pathways accordingly. That is facking awesome.  Also, I'll take a serving of \"the scale of everything.\" I recall exploring a structural model of LeuT based on some x-ray diffraction, and noting the location of leucine, and looking off into the distance in the picture, seeing two spheres. Those spheres were sodium ions, and it wasn't much of a distance- a handful of nm. Yet as I study the molecule, it becomes like its own world, operating by its own rules, with its own fantastic potential for discovery. Then I realize that in a human alone, there are at least hundreds of thousands of these protein \"worlds,\" and am ecstatic at the thought that I'll never run short of things to discover.", "human_ref_B": "Moore's Law and similar laws. Every time we think we're going to hit a limit, we make a new discovery that let's us keep advancing at the same speed.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9978.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xmcq2", "c_root_id_B": "c4xlc4g", "created_at_utc_A": 1339105010, "created_at_utc_B": 1339100869, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Moore's Law and similar laws. Every time we think we're going to hit a limit, we make a new discovery that let's us keep advancing at the same speed.", "human_ref_B": "The fact that nature seems to obey Quantum Field Theory, and the simple fact that we are able to \"decouple\" short scales from long distance experiments.  Suppose that you do an experiment in which an apple collides with a table. You do not need to know the fundamental theory of nature in order to create an effective law that only depends on a finite set of parameters. In other words, despite the fact that a collision of an apple is actually a huge complicated phenomena in terms of atoms, and nucleons, and quarks and electrons... it is very simple in terms of this effective degree of freedom that we call apple. You can parametrize all your ignorance about the fundamental structure of the apple just by measuring its mass, volume, elasticity and some other quantities...  There is no reason in first place that nature should behave this way, but the fact is that it does. And this alone is the reason why we are able to do physics.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4141.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xmcq2", "c_root_id_B": "c4xm9ks", "created_at_utc_A": 1339105010, "created_at_utc_B": 1339104638, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Moore's Law and similar laws. Every time we think we're going to hit a limit, we make a new discovery that let's us keep advancing at the same speed.", "human_ref_B": "Every time I see a picture of  a  neuron compared to a model of the universe;  Every time I see the  golden spiral in a nautilus;   Every time I see fractals in nature;  The list goes on an on...   The macrocosm and the microcosm of the universe are so amazing in their fundamental beauty. Once you start looking, you realize that *all* of the sciences and mathematics operate in harmony with each other.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 372.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xmf72", "c_root_id_B": "c4xojg0", "created_at_utc_A": 1339105296, "created_at_utc_B": 1339114955, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "It amazes me how much life and precise orchestrated activity is ongoing in a single living cell. If you think of yourself as a newly-made protein on your way out to perform your job in the cell, for you, the available space inside the cell would seem infinite. There are billions of other proteins making the same voyage around the cell and the cytosol would seem like a busy metropolis. What amazes me about this perspective is the vastness located within such a tiny space like a simple skin cell, that is simply performing maintenance level activity.", "human_ref_B": "I still haven't gotten over how awesome the comparative method is.   When I was a little kid, I wanted to be an astrophysicist because it was so cool that we could know so much about things *so far away*. I feel the same kind of awe now when I think about how much we know about something like Proto-Indo-European, a language that has been gone for thousands of years, had no written record, and whose homeland is still somewhat debatable. The distance may be literally much smaller, but it feels just as unbridgeable sometimes. Yet, here we are, building a small (and somewhat shaky) bridge anyway.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9659.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xojg0", "c_root_id_B": "c4xn4fa", "created_at_utc_A": 1339114955, "created_at_utc_B": 1339108276, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I still haven't gotten over how awesome the comparative method is.   When I was a little kid, I wanted to be an astrophysicist because it was so cool that we could know so much about things *so far away*. I feel the same kind of awe now when I think about how much we know about something like Proto-Indo-European, a language that has been gone for thousands of years, had no written record, and whose homeland is still somewhat debatable. The distance may be literally much smaller, but it feels just as unbridgeable sometimes. Yet, here we are, building a small (and somewhat shaky) bridge anyway.", "human_ref_B": "That almost every phenomenon we see or touch in our daily lives can be described by something as simply elegant as quantum electrodynamics. The situations may be complicated, but the rules aren't. Reflection, refraction, polarization, the illusion of touch, colors, *all* of chemistry even! And all with electrons and photons.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6679.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xm9ks", "c_root_id_B": "c4xojg0", "created_at_utc_A": 1339104638, "created_at_utc_B": 1339114955, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Every time I see a picture of  a  neuron compared to a model of the universe;  Every time I see the  golden spiral in a nautilus;   Every time I see fractals in nature;  The list goes on an on...   The macrocosm and the microcosm of the universe are so amazing in their fundamental beauty. Once you start looking, you realize that *all* of the sciences and mathematics operate in harmony with each other.", "human_ref_B": "I still haven't gotten over how awesome the comparative method is.   When I was a little kid, I wanted to be an astrophysicist because it was so cool that we could know so much about things *so far away*. I feel the same kind of awe now when I think about how much we know about something like Proto-Indo-European, a language that has been gone for thousands of years, had no written record, and whose homeland is still somewhat debatable. The distance may be literally much smaller, but it feels just as unbridgeable sometimes. Yet, here we are, building a small (and somewhat shaky) bridge anyway.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10317.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xmf72", "c_root_id_B": "c4xm9ks", "created_at_utc_A": 1339105296, "created_at_utc_B": 1339104638, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It amazes me how much life and precise orchestrated activity is ongoing in a single living cell. If you think of yourself as a newly-made protein on your way out to perform your job in the cell, for you, the available space inside the cell would seem infinite. There are billions of other proteins making the same voyage around the cell and the cytosol would seem like a busy metropolis. What amazes me about this perspective is the vastness located within such a tiny space like a simple skin cell, that is simply performing maintenance level activity.", "human_ref_B": "Every time I see a picture of  a  neuron compared to a model of the universe;  Every time I see the  golden spiral in a nautilus;   Every time I see fractals in nature;  The list goes on an on...   The macrocosm and the microcosm of the universe are so amazing in their fundamental beauty. Once you start looking, you realize that *all* of the sciences and mathematics operate in harmony with each other.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 658.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xn4fa", "c_root_id_B": "c4xr48i", "created_at_utc_A": 1339108276, "created_at_utc_B": 1339127250, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "That almost every phenomenon we see or touch in our daily lives can be described by something as simply elegant as quantum electrodynamics. The situations may be complicated, but the rules aren't. Reflection, refraction, polarization, the illusion of touch, colors, *all* of chemistry even! And all with electrons and photons.", "human_ref_B": "Not a scientist, but I'm amazed that a disease that would kill you 80 years ago is now curable with a pill.  Humans lived for millions of years at the mercy of disease.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18974.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xm9ks", "c_root_id_B": "c4xr48i", "created_at_utc_A": 1339104638, "created_at_utc_B": 1339127250, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Every time I see a picture of  a  neuron compared to a model of the universe;  Every time I see the  golden spiral in a nautilus;   Every time I see fractals in nature;  The list goes on an on...   The macrocosm and the microcosm of the universe are so amazing in their fundamental beauty. Once you start looking, you realize that *all* of the sciences and mathematics operate in harmony with each other.", "human_ref_B": "Not a scientist, but I'm amazed that a disease that would kill you 80 years ago is now curable with a pill.  Humans lived for millions of years at the mercy of disease.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22612.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xr48i", "c_root_id_B": "c4xp2ag", "created_at_utc_A": 1339127250, "created_at_utc_B": 1339117543, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Not a scientist, but I'm amazed that a disease that would kill you 80 years ago is now curable with a pill.  Humans lived for millions of years at the mercy of disease.", "human_ref_B": "Our understanding of water displacement. In a span of about 200 years we went from, \"ships can only be made out of things that float\", to, \"this is the USS Enterprise. It weighs 96,000 tons\".", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9707.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xu11i", "c_root_id_B": "c4xm9ks", "created_at_utc_A": 1339146949, "created_at_utc_B": 1339104638, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The way it all ties together in an enormous majestic whole, and the way that by observing and measuring it we can get a real understanding of how things work.  I get a bit wound up when people dismiss the whole thing as some kind of creation miracle, because frankly the science of planetary formation, development and the evolution of life is a far more beautiful and detailed.   But most of all, I love that I can go and pick up a bit of rock and learn so much about what has happened int he past, and that rock provides a direct physical link. It's like holding one of da'Vinci's pencils.", "human_ref_B": "Every time I see a picture of  a  neuron compared to a model of the universe;  Every time I see the  golden spiral in a nautilus;   Every time I see fractals in nature;  The list goes on an on...   The macrocosm and the microcosm of the universe are so amazing in their fundamental beauty. Once you start looking, you realize that *all* of the sciences and mathematics operate in harmony with each other.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 42311.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xm9ks", "c_root_id_B": "c4xn4fa", "created_at_utc_A": 1339104638, "created_at_utc_B": 1339108276, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Every time I see a picture of  a  neuron compared to a model of the universe;  Every time I see the  golden spiral in a nautilus;   Every time I see fractals in nature;  The list goes on an on...   The macrocosm and the microcosm of the universe are so amazing in their fundamental beauty. Once you start looking, you realize that *all* of the sciences and mathematics operate in harmony with each other.", "human_ref_B": "That almost every phenomenon we see or touch in our daily lives can be described by something as simply elegant as quantum electrodynamics. The situations may be complicated, but the rules aren't. Reflection, refraction, polarization, the illusion of touch, colors, *all* of chemistry even! And all with electrons and photons.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3638.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "uq26m", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "[Weekly Discussion Thread] Scientists, what causes you to marvel in wonder at science and the world? This is the fourth installment of the weekly discussion thread and will be similar to last weeks thread: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/udzr6/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_what_is_the/  The topic for this week is what scientific achievements, facts, or knowledge causes you to go \"Wow I can't believe we know that\" or marvel at the world. Essentially what causes you to go \"Wow science is cool\".  The rules for this week are similar to the weeks before so please follow the rules in the guidelines in the side bar.  If you are a scientist and want to become a panelist please see the panelist thread: http://redd.it/ulpkj", "c_root_id_A": "c4xp2ag", "c_root_id_B": "c4xm9ks", "created_at_utc_A": 1339117543, "created_at_utc_B": 1339104638, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Our understanding of water displacement. In a span of about 200 years we went from, \"ships can only be made out of things that float\", to, \"this is the USS Enterprise. It weighs 96,000 tons\".", "human_ref_B": "Every time I see a picture of  a  neuron compared to a model of the universe;  Every time I see the  golden spiral in a nautilus;   Every time I see fractals in nature;  The list goes on an on...   The macrocosm and the microcosm of the universe are so amazing in their fundamental beauty. Once you start looking, you realize that *all* of the sciences and mathematics operate in harmony with each other.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12905.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ncbgj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why is the trip back from a destination usually  perceived as significantly shorter than the trip there? I've been wondering about this for years, and have tried looking for the answer in psychology journals to no avail. I suspect I may simply not have the correct key search terms, but any help would be much appreciated.  My long-standing hypothesis is that the perception of time is influenced by the heightened anticipation/excitement of the trip towards the destination, but the way home is already known, as well as the likelihood of the said observer feeling tired and ready to go home, and thus the person's attention drops... is that any where close to being correct?", "c_root_id_A": "c380luc", "c_root_id_B": "c381b3r", "created_at_utc_A": 1323883678, "created_at_utc_B": 1323887813, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Complete opposite for me.  Ride there takes minutes... ride back takes years.  This is especially true for Las Vegas.", "human_ref_B": "This is not my area of expertise, but I read a lot of popsci books about neuroscience. Take everything here with a brick of salt, and I will pose my speculation as a question so that someone with more knowledge can correct or confirm.  David Eagleman has done a bit of research on the perception of time (specifically with time perception under conditions of extreme anxiety when time seems to slow down). He's shown that we aren't actually experiencing time slowed down, but rather that we remember more of what we experienced during that time, so when we recall the event, it seems like it took a longer time.  Is it possible that on the trip TO the destination, everything is new, so those memories have more salience and are recalled in greater detail than on the trip back when you've seen it all before? Based on Eagleman's studies, it seems like this might make your recall of that trip seem longer.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4135.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ncbgj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why is the trip back from a destination usually  perceived as significantly shorter than the trip there? I've been wondering about this for years, and have tried looking for the answer in psychology journals to no avail. I suspect I may simply not have the correct key search terms, but any help would be much appreciated.  My long-standing hypothesis is that the perception of time is influenced by the heightened anticipation/excitement of the trip towards the destination, but the way home is already known, as well as the likelihood of the said observer feeling tired and ready to go home, and thus the person's attention drops... is that any where close to being correct?", "c_root_id_A": "c381b3r", "c_root_id_B": "c381333", "created_at_utc_A": 1323887813, "created_at_utc_B": 1323886514, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "This is not my area of expertise, but I read a lot of popsci books about neuroscience. Take everything here with a brick of salt, and I will pose my speculation as a question so that someone with more knowledge can correct or confirm.  David Eagleman has done a bit of research on the perception of time (specifically with time perception under conditions of extreme anxiety when time seems to slow down). He's shown that we aren't actually experiencing time slowed down, but rather that we remember more of what we experienced during that time, so when we recall the event, it seems like it took a longer time.  Is it possible that on the trip TO the destination, everything is new, so those memories have more salience and are recalled in greater detail than on the trip back when you've seen it all before? Based on Eagleman's studies, it seems like this might make your recall of that trip seem longer.", "human_ref_B": "Time itself is objective, so there are always 60 seconds in a minute etc. However your own perception of time may differ from someone else's, which means that for each different individual it becomes subjective and there would be many different factors associated with it. I'm not exactly sure why your title contradicts your comment but yes, generally speaking excitement/ elation and what not can make time seem as though it's going faster than it really is, and the opposite is also true, the more bored and unexcited you are the slower time is perceived in your own mind. This is the only thing I could find with a quick google search (sorry not that great at finding things).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1299.0, "score_ratio": -3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ncbgj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why is the trip back from a destination usually  perceived as significantly shorter than the trip there? I've been wondering about this for years, and have tried looking for the answer in psychology journals to no avail. I suspect I may simply not have the correct key search terms, but any help would be much appreciated.  My long-standing hypothesis is that the perception of time is influenced by the heightened anticipation/excitement of the trip towards the destination, but the way home is already known, as well as the likelihood of the said observer feeling tired and ready to go home, and thus the person's attention drops... is that any where close to being correct?", "c_root_id_A": "c381b3r", "c_root_id_B": "c3807uz", "created_at_utc_A": 1323887813, "created_at_utc_B": 1323881413, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "This is not my area of expertise, but I read a lot of popsci books about neuroscience. Take everything here with a brick of salt, and I will pose my speculation as a question so that someone with more knowledge can correct or confirm.  David Eagleman has done a bit of research on the perception of time (specifically with time perception under conditions of extreme anxiety when time seems to slow down). He's shown that we aren't actually experiencing time slowed down, but rather that we remember more of what we experienced during that time, so when we recall the event, it seems like it took a longer time.  Is it possible that on the trip TO the destination, everything is new, so those memories have more salience and are recalled in greater detail than on the trip back when you've seen it all before? Based on Eagleman's studies, it seems like this might make your recall of that trip seem longer.", "human_ref_B": "I thought it was because you're usually asleep for most of the ride back", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6400.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ncbgj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why is the trip back from a destination usually  perceived as significantly shorter than the trip there? I've been wondering about this for years, and have tried looking for the answer in psychology journals to no avail. I suspect I may simply not have the correct key search terms, but any help would be much appreciated.  My long-standing hypothesis is that the perception of time is influenced by the heightened anticipation/excitement of the trip towards the destination, but the way home is already known, as well as the likelihood of the said observer feeling tired and ready to go home, and thus the person's attention drops... is that any where close to being correct?", "c_root_id_A": "c3807uz", "c_root_id_B": "c380luc", "created_at_utc_A": 1323881413, "created_at_utc_B": 1323883678, "score_A": -3, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I thought it was because you're usually asleep for most of the ride back", "human_ref_B": "Complete opposite for me.  Ride there takes minutes... ride back takes years.  This is especially true for Las Vegas.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2265.0, "score_ratio": 0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ncbgj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why is the trip back from a destination usually  perceived as significantly shorter than the trip there? I've been wondering about this for years, and have tried looking for the answer in psychology journals to no avail. I suspect I may simply not have the correct key search terms, but any help would be much appreciated.  My long-standing hypothesis is that the perception of time is influenced by the heightened anticipation/excitement of the trip towards the destination, but the way home is already known, as well as the likelihood of the said observer feeling tired and ready to go home, and thus the person's attention drops... is that any where close to being correct?", "c_root_id_A": "c3807uz", "c_root_id_B": "c381333", "created_at_utc_A": 1323881413, "created_at_utc_B": 1323886514, "score_A": -3, "score_B": -1, "human_ref_A": "I thought it was because you're usually asleep for most of the ride back", "human_ref_B": "Time itself is objective, so there are always 60 seconds in a minute etc. However your own perception of time may differ from someone else's, which means that for each different individual it becomes subjective and there would be many different factors associated with it. I'm not exactly sure why your title contradicts your comment but yes, generally speaking excitement/ elation and what not can make time seem as though it's going faster than it really is, and the opposite is also true, the more bored and unexcited you are the slower time is perceived in your own mind. This is the only thing I could find with a quick google search (sorry not that great at finding things).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5101.0, "score_ratio": 0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xe32d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "When we went to the moon, did we leave any life behind (unintentionally)? For example, is there any way small life forms were attached to us as we traveled to the moon and were left behind? Also, more importantly, is there any way this life could survive?", "c_root_id_A": "c5lrc8g", "c_root_id_B": "c5lo7ai", "created_at_utc_A": 1343686862, "created_at_utc_B": 1343675058, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It has been discovered that bacteria can live in more extreme conditions than we have ever imagined such as bacteria that has been studied in Mono Lake, CA.  The theory of panspermia explains how life may possibly be transferred from planet to planet by organisms within rocks being flung from their home planet by meteorite impacts.  http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/astrobiology_toxic_chemical.html  http://www.panspermia-theory.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=87:stephen-hawking-why-we-should-go-into-space&catid=24:videos&Itemid=97", "human_ref_B": "I've often thought this, I am sure some of the components attracted bacterium while they were being assembled, and said organisms entrapped in the component.  Whether dormant or dead, their structure has still been transported...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11804.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xe32d", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "When we went to the moon, did we leave any life behind (unintentionally)? For example, is there any way small life forms were attached to us as we traveled to the moon and were left behind? Also, more importantly, is there any way this life could survive?", "c_root_id_A": "c5lo7ai", "c_root_id_B": "c5lrjda", "created_at_utc_A": 1343675058, "created_at_utc_B": 1343687645, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've often thought this, I am sure some of the components attracted bacterium while they were being assembled, and said organisms entrapped in the component.  Whether dormant or dead, their structure has still been transported...", "human_ref_B": "My astro-biology professor told us that the landing/take off boosters increased the moons atmospheric density many times (cant remember exactly how he phrased it), but it didn't take long to dissipate. Still though, no chance this would be enough for life.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12587.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvmre2", "c_root_id_B": "cmvqeoh", "created_at_utc_A": 1418663433, "created_at_utc_B": 1418670025, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 37, "human_ref_A": "Yes.", "human_ref_B": "I gave you a yes answer to your yes or no question, but people kept giving you the wrong answer so I'll have to explain in more detail.  Essentially, you are correct that the acceleration of the Earth matters. You can neglect it when the objects are much smaller than the mass of the Earth, which they are. Just using the freefall time equation, which isn't totally applicable in this situation because I'm ignoring the Earth's surface, the difference in time is less than a picosecond. If you make the object thousands of kilograms, then you might start seeing differences on the nanosecond level.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6592.0, "score_ratio": 2.6428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvqeoh", "c_root_id_B": "cmvq939", "created_at_utc_A": 1418670025, "created_at_utc_B": 1418669760, "score_A": 37, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "I gave you a yes answer to your yes or no question, but people kept giving you the wrong answer so I'll have to explain in more detail.  Essentially, you are correct that the acceleration of the Earth matters. You can neglect it when the objects are much smaller than the mass of the Earth, which they are. Just using the freefall time equation, which isn't totally applicable in this situation because I'm ignoring the Earth's surface, the difference in time is less than a picosecond. If you make the object thousands of kilograms, then you might start seeing differences on the nanosecond level.", "human_ref_B": "What you are considering here is surface area and density...  In a vacuum both would fall at the same speed. However on earth with a thick atmosphere, an object with low density and high surface area will fall slower because it has to move more air relative to its weight, then a heavier object.  The extreme example of this is a sheet of paper: massive surface area and low weight, it floats down, scrunch it into a tight ball and it will basically have a negligible slow-down from air vs a bowling ball.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 265.0, "score_ratio": -4.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvth53", "c_root_id_B": "cmw25hz", "created_at_utc_A": 1418675370, "created_at_utc_B": 1418690720, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I believe OP is asking if there is a difference in acceleration due to the increased mutual attraction caused by 2 different masses, i.e. a bowling ball has more mass than the styrofoam, therefore it is \"more\" attracted to Earth. The question is whether this \"more\" attraction relates to a difference in acceleration.  TL:DR - The answer is no. The difference would be felt on how far gravity would affect the different objects, but not on how it would affect them.  The long answer: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-3/Newton-s-Law-of-Universal-Gravitation", "human_ref_B": "The concept of Reduced Mass is highly relevant to this question.  Reduced mass is a concept that arises in a 2-body problem when you consider a frame in which one of the objects (in this case the Earth) is stationary. You still calculate the gravitational force in the usual way, F = GM1M2/r^2, but in this case to determine the acceleration you would use the reduced mass in the F=ma equation.  If we assume one of the masses (let's say M2) is much smaller than the other, then the reduced mass can be expanded in a Taylor series: M2(1 - M2/M1 + ...), i.e. the reduced mass will always be *smaller* than the mass of the lighter body by a tiny amount. If we want to solve for the acceleration of the lighter body, we can do so quite easily:  a = g(1+M2/M1), where g=GM/r^2 is the usual surface gravity of Earth.  So as long as M2 is much smaller than M1, then the acceleration is effectively the same regardless of M2.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15350.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmw25hz", "c_root_id_B": "cmvu06t", "created_at_utc_A": 1418690720, "created_at_utc_B": 1418676254, "score_A": 2, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "The concept of Reduced Mass is highly relevant to this question.  Reduced mass is a concept that arises in a 2-body problem when you consider a frame in which one of the objects (in this case the Earth) is stationary. You still calculate the gravitational force in the usual way, F = GM1M2/r^2, but in this case to determine the acceleration you would use the reduced mass in the F=ma equation.  If we assume one of the masses (let's say M2) is much smaller than the other, then the reduced mass can be expanded in a Taylor series: M2(1 - M2/M1 + ...), i.e. the reduced mass will always be *smaller* than the mass of the lighter body by a tiny amount. If we want to solve for the acceleration of the lighter body, we can do so quite easily:  a = g(1+M2/M1), where g=GM/r^2 is the usual surface gravity of Earth.  So as long as M2 is much smaller than M1, then the acceleration is effectively the same regardless of M2.", "human_ref_B": "Acceleration due to gravity is constant in the same field (ignoring air resistance) because the equations used to calculate the acceleration contain elements that cancel out.  The 2nd Law of Motion states that **F**orce is equal to the **m**ass times **a**cceleration. [F=ma]  The Law of Universal Gravitation states that **F**orce is equal to the the **G**raviational Constant times the quotient of the product of the **M**asses being considered and the square of their separation. [F=G(Mm/r^2 )] Where M is the mass of the Large body and m the mass of the smaller body.  Because force appears in both equations, we can equate them. There is also no need for G to be outside the brackets: ma=GMm/r^2  Dividing throughout by m: a=GM/r^2", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14466.0, "score_ratio": -0.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvq939", "c_root_id_B": "cmw25hz", "created_at_utc_A": 1418669760, "created_at_utc_B": 1418690720, "score_A": -9, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "What you are considering here is surface area and density...  In a vacuum both would fall at the same speed. However on earth with a thick atmosphere, an object with low density and high surface area will fall slower because it has to move more air relative to its weight, then a heavier object.  The extreme example of this is a sheet of paper: massive surface area and low weight, it floats down, scrunch it into a tight ball and it will basically have a negligible slow-down from air vs a bowling ball.", "human_ref_B": "The concept of Reduced Mass is highly relevant to this question.  Reduced mass is a concept that arises in a 2-body problem when you consider a frame in which one of the objects (in this case the Earth) is stationary. You still calculate the gravitational force in the usual way, F = GM1M2/r^2, but in this case to determine the acceleration you would use the reduced mass in the F=ma equation.  If we assume one of the masses (let's say M2) is much smaller than the other, then the reduced mass can be expanded in a Taylor series: M2(1 - M2/M1 + ...), i.e. the reduced mass will always be *smaller* than the mass of the lighter body by a tiny amount. If we want to solve for the acceleration of the lighter body, we can do so quite easily:  a = g(1+M2/M1), where g=GM/r^2 is the usual surface gravity of Earth.  So as long as M2 is much smaller than M1, then the acceleration is effectively the same regardless of M2.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20960.0, "score_ratio": -0.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmx9yu7", "c_root_id_B": "cmwrztg", "created_at_utc_A": 1418788730, "created_at_utc_B": 1418755967, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "This question seems to get asked quite frequently. The question is not well posed, in that \"fall faster\" is a poor description - are we asking about velocity?  The answer is no.  Are we talking about time to collision? The answer is yes.  I assume the question should really be  \"higher acceleration?\", and the answer is no.    And I think this has to be one of the best examples in all of physics on how one can ignore extremely tiny differences. Yes, the earth accelerates towards the styrofoam ball.  But one can and should apply a nice simple classical newton's second law to the equation and assume the earth remains stationary and use that as the reference frame.  In the previous thread of this question from a few weeks ago, the motion of the earth was calculated.  It is extremely small - one would enter an entire new realm of physics, and of questioning the atomic makeup and what a collision even means on the atomic scale.  i'd also mention that one should probably use the reference frame of the center of mass of the earth/styrofoam ball system, rather than use the accelerating reference frame of the earth, in such a question. In that frame the ball does not move faster, the acceleration of the two balls remains the same,  however the heavier ball will move the earth more (but again so vanishingly small that it doesn't make sense to talk about).", "human_ref_B": "Adding to previous answers regarding that the objects don't fall faster but the Earth rises (slightly) to meet the objects. So if both objects were dropped at the same time they would still fall and hit at the same time as they would both benefit equally from the uplift from the Earth.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32763.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvth53", "c_root_id_B": "cmx9yu7", "created_at_utc_A": 1418675370, "created_at_utc_B": 1418788730, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I believe OP is asking if there is a difference in acceleration due to the increased mutual attraction caused by 2 different masses, i.e. a bowling ball has more mass than the styrofoam, therefore it is \"more\" attracted to Earth. The question is whether this \"more\" attraction relates to a difference in acceleration.  TL:DR - The answer is no. The difference would be felt on how far gravity would affect the different objects, but not on how it would affect them.  The long answer: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-3/Newton-s-Law-of-Universal-Gravitation", "human_ref_B": "This question seems to get asked quite frequently. The question is not well posed, in that \"fall faster\" is a poor description - are we asking about velocity?  The answer is no.  Are we talking about time to collision? The answer is yes.  I assume the question should really be  \"higher acceleration?\", and the answer is no.    And I think this has to be one of the best examples in all of physics on how one can ignore extremely tiny differences. Yes, the earth accelerates towards the styrofoam ball.  But one can and should apply a nice simple classical newton's second law to the equation and assume the earth remains stationary and use that as the reference frame.  In the previous thread of this question from a few weeks ago, the motion of the earth was calculated.  It is extremely small - one would enter an entire new realm of physics, and of questioning the atomic makeup and what a collision even means on the atomic scale.  i'd also mention that one should probably use the reference frame of the center of mass of the earth/styrofoam ball system, rather than use the accelerating reference frame of the earth, in such a question. In that frame the ball does not move faster, the acceleration of the two balls remains the same,  however the heavier ball will move the earth more (but again so vanishingly small that it doesn't make sense to talk about).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 113360.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvu06t", "c_root_id_B": "cmx9yu7", "created_at_utc_A": 1418676254, "created_at_utc_B": 1418788730, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Acceleration due to gravity is constant in the same field (ignoring air resistance) because the equations used to calculate the acceleration contain elements that cancel out.  The 2nd Law of Motion states that **F**orce is equal to the **m**ass times **a**cceleration. [F=ma]  The Law of Universal Gravitation states that **F**orce is equal to the the **G**raviational Constant times the quotient of the product of the **M**asses being considered and the square of their separation. [F=G(Mm/r^2 )] Where M is the mass of the Large body and m the mass of the smaller body.  Because force appears in both equations, we can equate them. There is also no need for G to be outside the brackets: ma=GMm/r^2  Dividing throughout by m: a=GM/r^2", "human_ref_B": "This question seems to get asked quite frequently. The question is not well posed, in that \"fall faster\" is a poor description - are we asking about velocity?  The answer is no.  Are we talking about time to collision? The answer is yes.  I assume the question should really be  \"higher acceleration?\", and the answer is no.    And I think this has to be one of the best examples in all of physics on how one can ignore extremely tiny differences. Yes, the earth accelerates towards the styrofoam ball.  But one can and should apply a nice simple classical newton's second law to the equation and assume the earth remains stationary and use that as the reference frame.  In the previous thread of this question from a few weeks ago, the motion of the earth was calculated.  It is extremely small - one would enter an entire new realm of physics, and of questioning the atomic makeup and what a collision even means on the atomic scale.  i'd also mention that one should probably use the reference frame of the center of mass of the earth/styrofoam ball system, rather than use the accelerating reference frame of the earth, in such a question. In that frame the ball does not move faster, the acceleration of the two balls remains the same,  however the heavier ball will move the earth more (but again so vanishingly small that it doesn't make sense to talk about).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 112476.0, "score_ratio": -0.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvq939", "c_root_id_B": "cmx9yu7", "created_at_utc_A": 1418669760, "created_at_utc_B": 1418788730, "score_A": -9, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What you are considering here is surface area and density...  In a vacuum both would fall at the same speed. However on earth with a thick atmosphere, an object with low density and high surface area will fall slower because it has to move more air relative to its weight, then a heavier object.  The extreme example of this is a sheet of paper: massive surface area and low weight, it floats down, scrunch it into a tight ball and it will basically have a negligible slow-down from air vs a bowling ball.", "human_ref_B": "This question seems to get asked quite frequently. The question is not well posed, in that \"fall faster\" is a poor description - are we asking about velocity?  The answer is no.  Are we talking about time to collision? The answer is yes.  I assume the question should really be  \"higher acceleration?\", and the answer is no.    And I think this has to be one of the best examples in all of physics on how one can ignore extremely tiny differences. Yes, the earth accelerates towards the styrofoam ball.  But one can and should apply a nice simple classical newton's second law to the equation and assume the earth remains stationary and use that as the reference frame.  In the previous thread of this question from a few weeks ago, the motion of the earth was calculated.  It is extremely small - one would enter an entire new realm of physics, and of questioning the atomic makeup and what a collision even means on the atomic scale.  i'd also mention that one should probably use the reference frame of the center of mass of the earth/styrofoam ball system, rather than use the accelerating reference frame of the earth, in such a question. In that frame the ball does not move faster, the acceleration of the two balls remains the same,  however the heavier ball will move the earth more (but again so vanishingly small that it doesn't make sense to talk about).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 118970.0, "score_ratio": -0.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmwrztg", "c_root_id_B": "cmvth53", "created_at_utc_A": 1418755967, "created_at_utc_B": 1418675370, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Adding to previous answers regarding that the objects don't fall faster but the Earth rises (slightly) to meet the objects. So if both objects were dropped at the same time they would still fall and hit at the same time as they would both benefit equally from the uplift from the Earth.", "human_ref_B": "I believe OP is asking if there is a difference in acceleration due to the increased mutual attraction caused by 2 different masses, i.e. a bowling ball has more mass than the styrofoam, therefore it is \"more\" attracted to Earth. The question is whether this \"more\" attraction relates to a difference in acceleration.  TL:DR - The answer is no. The difference would be felt on how far gravity would affect the different objects, but not on how it would affect them.  The long answer: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-3/Newton-s-Law-of-Universal-Gravitation", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 80597.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvu06t", "c_root_id_B": "cmwrztg", "created_at_utc_A": 1418676254, "created_at_utc_B": 1418755967, "score_A": -5, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Acceleration due to gravity is constant in the same field (ignoring air resistance) because the equations used to calculate the acceleration contain elements that cancel out.  The 2nd Law of Motion states that **F**orce is equal to the **m**ass times **a**cceleration. [F=ma]  The Law of Universal Gravitation states that **F**orce is equal to the the **G**raviational Constant times the quotient of the product of the **M**asses being considered and the square of their separation. [F=G(Mm/r^2 )] Where M is the mass of the Large body and m the mass of the smaller body.  Because force appears in both equations, we can equate them. There is also no need for G to be outside the brackets: ma=GMm/r^2  Dividing throughout by m: a=GM/r^2", "human_ref_B": "Adding to previous answers regarding that the objects don't fall faster but the Earth rises (slightly) to meet the objects. So if both objects were dropped at the same time they would still fall and hit at the same time as they would both benefit equally from the uplift from the Earth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 79713.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvq939", "c_root_id_B": "cmwrztg", "created_at_utc_A": 1418669760, "created_at_utc_B": 1418755967, "score_A": -9, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "What you are considering here is surface area and density...  In a vacuum both would fall at the same speed. However on earth with a thick atmosphere, an object with low density and high surface area will fall slower because it has to move more air relative to its weight, then a heavier object.  The extreme example of this is a sheet of paper: massive surface area and low weight, it floats down, scrunch it into a tight ball and it will basically have a negligible slow-down from air vs a bowling ball.", "human_ref_B": "Adding to previous answers regarding that the objects don't fall faster but the Earth rises (slightly) to meet the objects. So if both objects were dropped at the same time they would still fall and hit at the same time as they would both benefit equally from the uplift from the Earth.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 86207.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvth53", "c_root_id_B": "cmvq939", "created_at_utc_A": 1418675370, "created_at_utc_B": 1418669760, "score_A": -2, "score_B": -9, "human_ref_A": "I believe OP is asking if there is a difference in acceleration due to the increased mutual attraction caused by 2 different masses, i.e. a bowling ball has more mass than the styrofoam, therefore it is \"more\" attracted to Earth. The question is whether this \"more\" attraction relates to a difference in acceleration.  TL:DR - The answer is no. The difference would be felt on how far gravity would affect the different objects, but not on how it would affect them.  The long answer: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-3/Newton-s-Law-of-Universal-Gravitation", "human_ref_B": "What you are considering here is surface area and density...  In a vacuum both would fall at the same speed. However on earth with a thick atmosphere, an object with low density and high surface area will fall slower because it has to move more air relative to its weight, then a heavier object.  The extreme example of this is a sheet of paper: massive surface area and low weight, it floats down, scrunch it into a tight ball and it will basically have a negligible slow-down from air vs a bowling ball.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5610.0, "score_ratio": 0.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2pddl9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "question regarding acceleration due to gravity? Technically speaking, wouldn't an object of greater mass such as a bowling ball fall to earth faster than a lesser mass such as a similarly sized and shaped Styrofoam ball because of their own gravitational pull acting on the earth. Even though it would be an immeasurably small difference?", "c_root_id_A": "cmvq939", "c_root_id_B": "cmvu06t", "created_at_utc_A": 1418669760, "created_at_utc_B": 1418676254, "score_A": -9, "score_B": -5, "human_ref_A": "What you are considering here is surface area and density...  In a vacuum both would fall at the same speed. However on earth with a thick atmosphere, an object with low density and high surface area will fall slower because it has to move more air relative to its weight, then a heavier object.  The extreme example of this is a sheet of paper: massive surface area and low weight, it floats down, scrunch it into a tight ball and it will basically have a negligible slow-down from air vs a bowling ball.", "human_ref_B": "Acceleration due to gravity is constant in the same field (ignoring air resistance) because the equations used to calculate the acceleration contain elements that cancel out.  The 2nd Law of Motion states that **F**orce is equal to the **m**ass times **a**cceleration. [F=ma]  The Law of Universal Gravitation states that **F**orce is equal to the the **G**raviational Constant times the quotient of the product of the **M**asses being considered and the square of their separation. [F=G(Mm/r^2 )] Where M is the mass of the Large body and m the mass of the smaller body.  Because force appears in both equations, we can equate them. There is also no need for G to be outside the brackets: ma=GMm/r^2  Dividing throughout by m: a=GM/r^2", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6494.0, "score_ratio": 0.5555555556, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g3zvo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What are you favorite home physics experiments for kids? I guess a bit of Archimedes in the bath might work for younger kids.  I remember looking at sunspots with binoculars and tracing paper.  Anyone got some other fun experiments?", "c_root_id_A": "c1kr275", "c_root_id_B": "c1kqtok", "created_at_utc_A": 1300149170, "created_at_utc_B": 1300146191, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "There is a fun one for pressure/temperature. Take a soda can & put a bit of water in the bottom. Boil the water by heating the can on the stove. Using tongs, submerge the top part of the can, upside down in a bowl of ice water. The can will collapse. There are some other fun ones, too, but my kids are ready for stories now. Will come back & edit later.  EDIT----  sorry, got a bit distracted there for a while. Here ya go:  Diving raisins: Dissolve baking soda in water Add a few raisins Add a bit of vinegar/lemon juice to speed things up watch the raisins dance teaches chemistry, buoyancy, and displacement  Laws of motion: 1st law : Penny in the glass trick. put an index card on top of a glass and a penny on top of the card. Jerk the card away to make the penny fall into the glass; tends to stay at rest.   2nd Law : Hang a bucket on a rope. Have the kid swing the bucket, then stop it swinging. Now fill the bucket with water, repeat. Ask if it was harder or easier when full? Use this to give an intuitive sense of F=ma  3rd law: Take a can, poke 4 holes in the side near the bottom of the can, all on the same side. Suspend the can by a string. Pour water into the can; the water will fill the can and flow out the back as reaction mass, using gravity as the force.  Make rain: Boil a saucepan of water.  Using tongs, suspend a pyrex measuring cup (any heat resistant transparent cup) over the pan, upside down Put some ice cubes on top of the cup Watch it rain.   Make a periscope Get a plastic wrap box (the long square boxes) Cut a window in the top front, another in the bottom back Cut a slit behind each window at a 45 degree angle Slip a mirror in the slot  Periscope!", "human_ref_B": "I built a small battery powered motor with my dad from a kit when I was a kid. I am 31 now and still remember it. It helped me understand electricity from a young age.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2979.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g3zvo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What are you favorite home physics experiments for kids? I guess a bit of Archimedes in the bath might work for younger kids.  I remember looking at sunspots with binoculars and tracing paper.  Anyone got some other fun experiments?", "c_root_id_A": "c1kqxln", "c_root_id_B": "c1kr275", "created_at_utc_A": 1300147500, "created_at_utc_B": 1300149170, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There's no ice cream like liquid nitrogen ice cream. Seriously.", "human_ref_B": "There is a fun one for pressure/temperature. Take a soda can & put a bit of water in the bottom. Boil the water by heating the can on the stove. Using tongs, submerge the top part of the can, upside down in a bowl of ice water. The can will collapse. There are some other fun ones, too, but my kids are ready for stories now. Will come back & edit later.  EDIT----  sorry, got a bit distracted there for a while. Here ya go:  Diving raisins: Dissolve baking soda in water Add a few raisins Add a bit of vinegar/lemon juice to speed things up watch the raisins dance teaches chemistry, buoyancy, and displacement  Laws of motion: 1st law : Penny in the glass trick. put an index card on top of a glass and a penny on top of the card. Jerk the card away to make the penny fall into the glass; tends to stay at rest.   2nd Law : Hang a bucket on a rope. Have the kid swing the bucket, then stop it swinging. Now fill the bucket with water, repeat. Ask if it was harder or easier when full? Use this to give an intuitive sense of F=ma  3rd law: Take a can, poke 4 holes in the side near the bottom of the can, all on the same side. Suspend the can by a string. Pour water into the can; the water will fill the can and flow out the back as reaction mass, using gravity as the force.  Make rain: Boil a saucepan of water.  Using tongs, suspend a pyrex measuring cup (any heat resistant transparent cup) over the pan, upside down Put some ice cubes on top of the cup Watch it rain.   Make a periscope Get a plastic wrap box (the long square boxes) Cut a window in the top front, another in the bottom back Cut a slit behind each window at a 45 degree angle Slip a mirror in the slot  Periscope!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1670.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g3zvo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What are you favorite home physics experiments for kids? I guess a bit of Archimedes in the bath might work for younger kids.  I remember looking at sunspots with binoculars and tracing paper.  Anyone got some other fun experiments?", "c_root_id_A": "c1kr275", "c_root_id_B": "c1kqsub", "created_at_utc_A": 1300149170, "created_at_utc_B": 1300145903, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "There is a fun one for pressure/temperature. Take a soda can & put a bit of water in the bottom. Boil the water by heating the can on the stove. Using tongs, submerge the top part of the can, upside down in a bowl of ice water. The can will collapse. There are some other fun ones, too, but my kids are ready for stories now. Will come back & edit later.  EDIT----  sorry, got a bit distracted there for a while. Here ya go:  Diving raisins: Dissolve baking soda in water Add a few raisins Add a bit of vinegar/lemon juice to speed things up watch the raisins dance teaches chemistry, buoyancy, and displacement  Laws of motion: 1st law : Penny in the glass trick. put an index card on top of a glass and a penny on top of the card. Jerk the card away to make the penny fall into the glass; tends to stay at rest.   2nd Law : Hang a bucket on a rope. Have the kid swing the bucket, then stop it swinging. Now fill the bucket with water, repeat. Ask if it was harder or easier when full? Use this to give an intuitive sense of F=ma  3rd law: Take a can, poke 4 holes in the side near the bottom of the can, all on the same side. Suspend the can by a string. Pour water into the can; the water will fill the can and flow out the back as reaction mass, using gravity as the force.  Make rain: Boil a saucepan of water.  Using tongs, suspend a pyrex measuring cup (any heat resistant transparent cup) over the pan, upside down Put some ice cubes on top of the cup Watch it rain.   Make a periscope Get a plastic wrap box (the long square boxes) Cut a window in the top front, another in the bottom back Cut a slit behind each window at a 45 degree angle Slip a mirror in the slot  Periscope!", "human_ref_B": "I don't remember them exactly, but the beginning of Neil deGrasse Tyson's \"death by black hole\" has *amazing* astronomy observations you can do with your kids. They can essentially walk through thousands of years of astronomy with little more than some sticks and string and stuff. Maybe a small telescope if you really want (to see stuff like the moons of jupiter). I don't plan on having kids myself, but if I did, you'd better believe I'd be doing these with them.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3267.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g3zvo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What are you favorite home physics experiments for kids? I guess a bit of Archimedes in the bath might work for younger kids.  I remember looking at sunspots with binoculars and tracing paper.  Anyone got some other fun experiments?", "c_root_id_A": "c1kqsub", "c_root_id_B": "c1kqtok", "created_at_utc_A": 1300145903, "created_at_utc_B": 1300146191, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I don't remember them exactly, but the beginning of Neil deGrasse Tyson's \"death by black hole\" has *amazing* astronomy observations you can do with your kids. They can essentially walk through thousands of years of astronomy with little more than some sticks and string and stuff. Maybe a small telescope if you really want (to see stuff like the moons of jupiter). I don't plan on having kids myself, but if I did, you'd better believe I'd be doing these with them.", "human_ref_B": "I built a small battery powered motor with my dad from a kit when I was a kid. I am 31 now and still remember it. It helped me understand electricity from a young age.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 288.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "g3zvo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "What are you favorite home physics experiments for kids? I guess a bit of Archimedes in the bath might work for younger kids.  I remember looking at sunspots with binoculars and tracing paper.  Anyone got some other fun experiments?", "c_root_id_A": "c1kqsub", "c_root_id_B": "c1kqxln", "created_at_utc_A": 1300145903, "created_at_utc_B": 1300147500, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I don't remember them exactly, but the beginning of Neil deGrasse Tyson's \"death by black hole\" has *amazing* astronomy observations you can do with your kids. They can essentially walk through thousands of years of astronomy with little more than some sticks and string and stuff. Maybe a small telescope if you really want (to see stuff like the moons of jupiter). I don't plan on having kids myself, but if I did, you'd better believe I'd be doing these with them.", "human_ref_B": "There's no ice cream like liquid nitrogen ice cream. Seriously.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1597.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "v8wmw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "What are some potentially life-changing technologies that are currently being researched and should be viable in the next 20 years? What I'm looking for are research projects that have the potential to change the way humans live -- for the better. Full-sized cities that use only renewable energies, transatlantic or transpacific high-speed trains, and new world-wide networks that offer significant benefits towards advancing the human race (i.e., not Facebook) are all really cool ideas to me, but is progress being made towards anything of this caliber?", "c_root_id_A": "c52ceq3", "c_root_id_B": "c52e3jk", "created_at_utc_A": 1340060069, "created_at_utc_B": 1340067766, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "If Artificial Intelligence ever takes off in that it successfully starts programming and building itself -- and exponentially greater speed -- it might have very well life-changing effects... see Technological Singularity. (Whether that's for the better or not is a different question, and I guess we may *try* to have a say in this.)", "human_ref_B": "Non-invasive brain stimulators(like TMS and tDCS machines) have been improving in price and safety steadily over the last decade or so, and will probably start to enter the consumer market as \"cosmetic neuroscience\" devices(devices which are used on healthy people in order to enhance or modify some aspect of brain function). These technologies(in particular tDCS) have already been shown to be able to help healthy people do better with number skills, solve virtually impossible puzzles, and learn new languages faster.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 7697.0, "score_ratio": 4.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ao1ly", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Is speed of light an irrational value? If not, how precise are our measurements with what % errors?", "c_root_id_A": "cix5i1r", "c_root_id_B": "cix8f42", "created_at_utc_A": 1405355510, "created_at_utc_B": 1405360908, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 46, "human_ref_A": "Any \"constant\" which uses *units* is going to essentially arbitrary in numeric quantity or at least self referential. A *ratio* on the other hand,  being at once perfectly self referential and otherwise non referential (not referring to anything other than itself) can yield a non arbitrary numeric value (*e* for example).", "human_ref_B": "\"Rational\" and \"irrational\" are properties of _numbers_. Quantities with units aren't numbers, so they're neither rational nor irrational. A quantity with units is the product of a number and something else (the unit) that isn't a number.  Being rational or irrational has nothing to do with the precision of our measurements, by the way. You can have uncertainty in a measurement whether the numeric part of the quantity is rational or irrational. (And that necessarily has to be the case, because a quantity can have a rational numeric part in one unit system but an irrational numeric part in another.)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5398.0, "score_ratio": 2.7058823529, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ao1ly", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Is speed of light an irrational value? If not, how precise are our measurements with what % errors?", "c_root_id_A": "cix8f42", "c_root_id_B": "cix8ejb", "created_at_utc_A": 1405360908, "created_at_utc_B": 1405360877, "score_A": 46, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "\"Rational\" and \"irrational\" are properties of _numbers_. Quantities with units aren't numbers, so they're neither rational nor irrational. A quantity with units is the product of a number and something else (the unit) that isn't a number.  Being rational or irrational has nothing to do with the precision of our measurements, by the way. You can have uncertainty in a measurement whether the numeric part of the quantity is rational or irrational. (And that necessarily has to be the case, because a quantity can have a rational numeric part in one unit system but an irrational numeric part in another.)", "human_ref_B": "As other commenters have noted, the speed of light depends on which units you choose. In fact, sometimes scientists just call the speed of light 1 and use that to define their units. However, there are some other constants which don't depend on units. For example, the fine structure constant, which is about 1/137.036 or the ratio of the mass of the proton to the mass of the electron, which is about 1836. See http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitless for a list of a few more. As far as I know, it is unknown whether these numbers are irrational. In fact, Richard Feynman notes in his book QED that it is a great mystery where the fine structure constant comes from - we can measure it very accurately, but so far no one knows how it might be mathematically defined.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 31.0, "score_ratio": 11.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dkusv2", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "What do blind people dream? What do people blind from birth see in there dreams? Do they see anything?", "c_root_id_A": "f4pbb1u", "c_root_id_B": "f4plewz", "created_at_utc_A": 1571722494, "created_at_utc_B": 1571736937, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Blind people can't see but they have other senses working perfectly like they can touch, they can hear and they can smell. So their brain tries, in its subconscious state, to visualize things in dream but they are very blurry and unclear. They can feel that they are touching something in their dream like they are riding a bike or driving a sedan etc.", "human_ref_B": "I also want to point out that not all sighted people dream in images.  Many people like myself with aphantasia dream in sounds, emotions, and for lack of a better explanation, verbal plot lines?  I know and can explain what is happening in my dreams, I feel the emotions, but there is no associated image.  I imagine some blind people may experience something similar.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14443.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3tfqjt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it actually impossible for matter to occupy the same space, or is it just difficult due to repulsive effects of electromagnetism or some other force?", "c_root_id_A": "cx68twp", "c_root_id_B": "cx6bg8t", "created_at_utc_A": 1447972783, "created_at_utc_B": 1447977112, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I think I read somewhere that this occurs in neutron stars? Is that true?", "human_ref_B": "The other answers are not wrong, but there are some circumstances in which you can sort of have particles on top of each other, which is whenever they are bosons. Bosons are the opposite of fermions: they are particles with integer spin, and they have no exclusion principle. They have no trouble being in the same state. The most common example of bosons are photons, which are the quantum version of electromagnetic fields. This is just saying that there is no problem with having many fields and waves on top of each other. Whether this counts as \"matter\" is up to you.  More interesting things happen when you have atoms that, due to having an even number of fermions, behave as bosons. Then you have things like Bose-Einstein condensates, superfluids and superconductors. These are states of matter that (so far) only exists at temperature very close to absolute zero. The atoms (or the Cooper pairs in a superconductor) can occupy the same state, which leads to some pretty weird properties. The most important of these is, of course, the lack of friction, which in a superconductor means no resistance. This is why making a room temperature superconductor is a big research topic today; it would allow for the creation of the magnetic fields needed in things like NMRs and particle accelerators with very little loss of energy.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4329.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3tfqjt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Is it actually impossible for matter to occupy the same space, or is it just difficult due to repulsive effects of electromagnetism or some other force?", "c_root_id_A": "cx68twp", "c_root_id_B": "cx6mhl0", "created_at_utc_A": 1447972783, "created_at_utc_B": 1447998017, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I think I read somewhere that this occurs in neutron stars? Is that true?", "human_ref_B": "There's a few points to make.  First, /u/crnaruka's comment is excellent.  Second, different things happen depending on how hard you push.  To start, let's say you have a low-energy electron impacting an atom. Electrostatic repulsion pushes back, deflecting or redirecting the incident electron.  Let's say it's not an electron. Let's say it's something a bit heavier, like a stray proton. If it doesn't have enough energy, it'll bounce off due to electromagnetic repulsion. If it beats this, it'll knock the electron off, and try and impact the nucleus. Here, it has to deal with a whole new level of pain, the strong force. The strong force, in a word, is strong. It makes gravity - the very thing that tethers you to this earth - look like a puff of wind versus a freight train. If it does manage to impact hard enough, two different things can happen.  If it hits a small atom, it will fuse. This is how stars generate their energy, because the cores are extremely hot, and full of light elements (hydrogen, though fusion occurs in later life stages for helium, carbon, oxygen, magnesium, and silicon). If it hits a heavy element, it can break apart the atom into smaller components (this is how nuclear reactors work!). These elements usually are very unstable, due to effectively being haphazardly being put together. As time goes on, they will shed excess subatomic particles, transforming into stable elements (this is how carbon dating works, as well as all the other forms of radioisotope dating).  These things only occur in fairly diffuse matter (relative term - when I say dense, I mean *dense*). In dense matter, the incident electrons and protons have nowhere to go, and so the only thing left to do is try and fit in another electron's spot.  /u/cnaruka explains perfetly what happens when you try and stick electrons together.  If your force is powerful enough (see neutron stars), rather than managing to have two electrons in the same state, the electrons are forced into the nucleus, turning protons and electrons into neutrons, and releasing pants-shittingly huge amounts of energy (and a decent bit of neutrinos). This matter is extremely dense - over 1.4 times the mass of the sun only a few kilometers across. The surface gravity on these stars is so large that if you dropped an apple from a meter off the surface, it would impact with several orders of magnitude more energy than all the nuclear testing ever done in human history.  The same thing that happens to electrons also happens to neutrons. However, this state become so mind-blowingly dense and tiny that it becomes a black hole - and by definition, we don't know what happens next.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 25234.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1016ut", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Are Male and Female organs different in any way? I'm talking more about heart, lungs, liver, spleen etc..", "c_root_id_A": "c69pzyh", "c_root_id_B": "c69pe9d", "created_at_utc_A": 1347936393, "created_at_utc_B": 1347934217, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Consider this: the skin is an organ. As you know, it is usually possible to distinguish between female and male skin.  I won't venture into the viscera, but could give another example: the pubis can usually be easily identified as belonging to a male or female. This is done by looking at the angle of the pubic arch; an obtuse angle indicates a female pubis. This, of course, gives women a clear advantage for childbirth; as such, it may not be relevant to viscera. Wish I could answer you for those, but I have no related training.", "human_ref_B": "I think maybe a practical and simple approach to answering this question would be \"Can a person receive an organ transplant from the opposite gender that will successfully function (to the same practical degree that would be expected from someone of the same gender)?\"  Any med-heads able to answer that one for us?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2176.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h8g72", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Hey r/AskScience, I'm looking for a dark fluid that reflects light for a DIY project of mine, what would you recommend?", "c_root_id_A": "c1teayi", "c_root_id_B": "c1teo0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1305066983, "created_at_utc_B": 1305070717, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Used motor oil from a diesel. Pitch black.", "human_ref_B": "How about water with a lot of black dye in it? Simple, safe, and non-toxic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3734.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h8g72", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Hey r/AskScience, I'm looking for a dark fluid that reflects light for a DIY project of mine, what would you recommend?", "c_root_id_A": "c1tekp1", "c_root_id_B": "c1teo0s", "created_at_utc_A": 1305069742, "created_at_utc_B": 1305070717, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Mercury?", "human_ref_B": "How about water with a lot of black dye in it? Simple, safe, and non-toxic.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 975.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h8g72", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Hey r/AskScience, I'm looking for a dark fluid that reflects light for a DIY project of mine, what would you recommend?", "c_root_id_A": "c1teo0s", "c_root_id_B": "c1te4nh", "created_at_utc_A": 1305070717, "created_at_utc_B": 1305065203, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "How about water with a lot of black dye in it? Simple, safe, and non-toxic.", "human_ref_B": "how much light should it reflect, and is there a specific spectrum you'd like it to reflect?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5514.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h8g72", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Hey r/AskScience, I'm looking for a dark fluid that reflects light for a DIY project of mine, what would you recommend?", "c_root_id_A": "c1te4nh", "c_root_id_B": "c1teayi", "created_at_utc_A": 1305065203, "created_at_utc_B": 1305066983, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "how much light should it reflect, and is there a specific spectrum you'd like it to reflect?", "human_ref_B": "Used motor oil from a diesel. Pitch black.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1780.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h8g72", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.88, "history": "Hey r/AskScience, I'm looking for a dark fluid that reflects light for a DIY project of mine, what would you recommend?", "c_root_id_A": "c1tekp1", "c_root_id_B": "c1te4nh", "created_at_utc_A": 1305069742, "created_at_utc_B": 1305065203, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Mercury?", "human_ref_B": "how much light should it reflect, and is there a specific spectrum you'd like it to reflect?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4539.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "r2lkz", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "Do lobsters feel pain when they are boiled alive?  This question recently came up when my mom and sister were eating lobster for dinner. I know that they are prepared by boiling them alive - do they feel pain?", "c_root_id_A": "c42g8f9", "c_root_id_B": "c42i5re", "created_at_utc_A": 1332122757, "created_at_utc_B": 1332134286, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "It's debated you should read Consder the Lobster by David Foster Wallace.", "human_ref_B": "If you want to read about the history and culture behind lobster eating, check out David Foster Wallace's \"Consider the Lobster.\"", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11529.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2q7906", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.61, "history": "Why is the flight duration different when going to a destination and returning from the destination? I wasn't quite sure how to describe this.  I looked at booking a flight from SEA (Seattle Tacoma, USA) to ICN (Seoul, South Korea). It's a nonstop flight.  SEA -> ICN is 11hr 20min   ICN -> SEA is 10hr 24min  Why is the return flight one hour shorter?", "c_root_id_A": "cn3jfas", "c_root_id_B": "cn3jvtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1419364723, "created_at_utc_B": 1419365579, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I would assume someone has answered this, it says 6 comments, but I don't see any so I'll answer.  Simply put, wind.  More specifically, things like the gulf stream.  The wind may change a lot down close to the surface, but the currents above most parts of the world are somewhat constant.  There are other more minor things, like flight paths that come into play, but head and tail winds are the primary reason.", "human_ref_B": "As explained in Tex-Rob's comment this is due to the jet stream. Air that rises in the Florida/Cuba area travels high in the atmosphere and falls at a boundary along a static polar cell that sits on the pole above 60 degrees North. As the tropical air retains some of its original equatorial rotation its fast when it reaches the north. East bound planes are guided into these tailwinds along the boundary polar cell boundary.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 856.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "h7mzg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Newtons cradle question I understand conservation of momentum, but what I don't understand is why when you drop two balls at one end of a newtons cradle, it causes two the other end to fly up. Why not just send one up with larger energy? Is it something to do with the fact the balls are touching at equilibrium?", "c_root_id_A": "c1t7d80", "c_root_id_B": "c1t7d5z", "created_at_utc_A": 1304978342, "created_at_utc_B": 1304978326, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Its because its not just momentum thats conserved, but also energy.  You have 2 balls going in at some speed.  To conserve momentum, you could have one ball going away at twice the speed, but since energy goes as the square of velocity, you would end up with twice as much energy as you started with.  The only solution to conserve both momentum and energy is to have 2 balls exit at the same speed.", "human_ref_B": "You have to conserve energy and momentum.  If you work it out, the only solution is what you observe - 2 balls in, 2 balls out.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ezla7q", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Do deaf people experience subvocalization in a similar manner as those who aren't deaf?", "c_root_id_A": "fgqufig", "c_root_id_B": "fgpzuls", "created_at_utc_A": 1581031722, "created_at_utc_B": 1581015182, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Assuming your queation means they can read a word and hear it in their imagination as they read it, I assume that is an example of what you are talking about.  The short answer is it depends on how they went deaf. For example, somone born blind will not dream with vision, as they have no referance point, but if you go blind, you can dream with vision. The same applies to the deaf. Describing sound to a deaf person is like describing blue to the blind man. Deaf people can learn to speak, but not verry well, because they have no idea if they are saying the word right, they have to rely on a hearing person to do that. But the answer to your question is no, if they were reeding they would not hear the words in their head assuming they have been deaf since birth.  Source; learned basic sign language from a person who went deaf at 9 months and has no memory of hearing.", "human_ref_B": "Their form of that would be instead of imagining the sounds, imagining the lip movements they may have learned from talking if they ever did and visualizing the words, or translation from visual word to what a certain word in sign language may look or feel like to perform.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16540.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10kfxd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Can I gain more than a pound if I eat a pound of fat? I was having this debate at work today.  I think that you cannot gain more weight than the weight of the item you are eating, others disagree.  Reddit, what is the answer?   For example: could I gain more than the weight of a snicker bar by eating a snicker bar?", "c_root_id_A": "c6e8jvw", "c_root_id_B": "c6ebhw1", "created_at_utc_A": 1348763338, "created_at_utc_B": 1348774054, "score_A": -7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I think it's possible if you gain muscle mass. For example, if you lifted weights, ate two pounds of high-protein food, and then one pound of fat, you could get the calories you need to build 1 1/2 pounds of muscle, whereas without eating the fat you would've gained nothing.", "human_ref_B": "Correct me if I am wrong, but  1Lb of fat converts very little into body fat. (lipids or fat in blood would be higher till you burn it off)  1Lb of sugar however, would give you almost a 1lb jump of body fat.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10716.0, "score_ratio": -0.1428571429, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10kfxd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Can I gain more than a pound if I eat a pound of fat? I was having this debate at work today.  I think that you cannot gain more weight than the weight of the item you are eating, others disagree.  Reddit, what is the answer?   For example: could I gain more than the weight of a snicker bar by eating a snicker bar?", "c_root_id_A": "c6ehkp9", "c_root_id_B": "c6e8jvw", "created_at_utc_A": 1348797903, "created_at_utc_B": 1348763338, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "There is always a loss of energy quality. You can't eat a pound of fat or anything else and gain a full pound of body weight from it. Some of the energy will always be lost. It's a rule of physics. In combustion you always lose some energy quality. The body's version of combustion is oxidative phosphorylation, and it's much more efficient than ordinary burning, but there is no such thing as a 1/1 energy input/output ratio. It's usually not even close. In the body 75% of all your energy is always lost to heat.", "human_ref_B": "I think it's possible if you gain muscle mass. For example, if you lifted weights, ate two pounds of high-protein food, and then one pound of fat, you could get the calories you need to build 1 1/2 pounds of muscle, whereas without eating the fat you would've gained nothing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 34565.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10kfxd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Can I gain more than a pound if I eat a pound of fat? I was having this debate at work today.  I think that you cannot gain more weight than the weight of the item you are eating, others disagree.  Reddit, what is the answer?   For example: could I gain more than the weight of a snicker bar by eating a snicker bar?", "c_root_id_A": "c6eijma", "c_root_id_B": "c6e8jvw", "created_at_utc_A": 1348801759, "created_at_utc_B": 1348763338, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -7, "human_ref_A": "food sci/nutrition here - rule of thumb is that caloric density also has a lot to do with weight gain.  so fat is considered as having 9kcal/gram.  1 pound of fat has ~453 grams so about 4077 kcalories.  A pound of bodyweight is a difference of about 3500 kcalories.  I imagine if you ate a pound of lard it is in fact much less healthy than eating a pound of salad or carrots.", "human_ref_B": "I think it's possible if you gain muscle mass. For example, if you lifted weights, ate two pounds of high-protein food, and then one pound of fat, you could get the calories you need to build 1 1/2 pounds of muscle, whereas without eating the fat you would've gained nothing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 38421.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vor4qm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What are electrolytes? I know what they DO, but I don't know what they ARE. Are they minerals? Vitamins? Tiny alien symbiotes? Some sort of fancy salt?", "c_root_id_A": "iefp9is", "c_root_id_B": "iefpu1n", "created_at_utc_A": 1656671808, "created_at_utc_B": 1656672227, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "High school student answering the question simply: Electrolytes are solutions containing water and ionic substances that have dissolved in it. They\u2019re referred to as electrolytes because they are able to conduct electricity in this state.   If anyone could correct or add on to me, it would be much appreciated.", "human_ref_B": "Salts.  And not even that fancy.  Largely sodium and potassium salts, as those are main ones that make us tick.  Gatorade, for example, has sodium citrate and potassium phosphate, altho I bet chlorides are also popular choices.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 419.0, "score_ratio": 2.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ipbvp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why don't apes have facial hair but we do? What is the we came to have facial hair but our cousins don't? especially the region above the upper lips.", "c_root_id_A": "c25ol8n", "c_root_id_B": "c25ovm8", "created_at_utc_A": 1310679970, "created_at_utc_B": 1310682444, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "now that this idea has been introduced onto the web scientists are going to be breeding monkeys with handlebar mustaches. like genetically modified- teacup puppies and teacup pigs. now mustache monkeys, for the regal and sophisticated monkey owner", "human_ref_B": "We ARE apes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2474.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5zq6ni", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "When there is an eclipse, why does the earth not become cold for that period?", "c_root_id_A": "df0dm6m", "c_root_id_B": "df09bo7", "created_at_utc_A": 1489680413, "created_at_utc_B": 1489675644, "score_A": 113, "score_B": 93, "human_ref_A": "One reason (the small area of an eclipse) has been mentioned, but there is another important reason. The earth contains a lot of heat and is fairly well insulated. Even if the sun were to suddenly disappear it would take a while (unsure how long) for the earth to cool appreciably. It wouldn't be instant.", "human_ref_B": "Think of how long it takes for parts of the earth to cool during the night. A solar eclipse is a relatively short event. The sun doesn't warm the air directly, it warms the earth which in turn warms the air. It takes a long time for the ground to lose that heat.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4769.0, "score_ratio": 1.2150537634, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5zq6ni", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "When there is an eclipse, why does the earth not become cold for that period?", "c_root_id_A": "df0ett5", "c_root_id_B": "df0eifx", "created_at_utc_A": 1489681701, "created_at_utc_B": 1489681369, "score_A": 53, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Dedicated solar eclipse chaser here (booked my hotels for August's eclipse a year ago). I've been to total solar eclipses in Mexico, Romania, and Africa.  It does. As more of the Sun gets covered, the temperature drops noticeably, and animals, fish, and insects start behaving like it's sunset. But the Earth has a lot of thermal inertia, and just like when the Sun sets, the temperature doesn't immediately drop to freezing.  And bear in mind that the path of totality in a solar eclipse is not THAT wide, so it's not like the entire hemisphere is being plunged into darkness.  While the partial phases may last a couple of hours, full totality is never longer than around 6-7 minutes, and the time when a significant amount of the Sun is covered is not that long either.", "human_ref_B": "1) The area that gets dark from the eclipse is relatively small (less than 1% of the Earth).  2) The time any given area stays dark is relatively short (less than 10 minutes).  3) The Earth holds in a LOT of heat that takes a long time to cool down (think how long it takes to cool down after sunset).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 332.0, "score_ratio": 3.7857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1ld9nm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Does vegetable oil freeze? If so, at what temperature? If not, what about it prevents it from doing so? For those who want to be specific I'll say canola oil, but really any sort would do if you happen to know the numbers.", "c_root_id_A": "cbya258", "c_root_id_B": "cby80wu", "created_at_utc_A": 1377849455, "created_at_utc_B": 1377839505, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Coconut oil is frozen at room temperature. Olive oil starts solidifying if you put it in the fridge.  On thing that makes the question a bit difficult is that vegetable oil tends to be a mix of different chemical species, each with it's own melting point. That means that, at a given temperature, part of the oil can be solid, while the rest is liquid, and the ratio between the two changes with temperature, so vegetable oils tend to not have a well-defined melting point.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, it will freeze at some point. Just look at the properties in the table:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_fuel  Wiki says vegetable oil solidifies below -10 C. But obviously, it depends on the type and blend.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9950.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "lflulb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "Why does an induction motor burn up when the rotor is jammed or stuck? Hi , when the rotor of a motor is stuck for whatever reason , maybe too much demand asked, why does the motor burn up and fail shortly after?   I read somewhere that the motor essentially turns into a transformer where the secondary coil is short circuited , which causes heat build up. Is this true , and can somebody please explain it to me better ? Thanks", "c_root_id_A": "gmqoh3n", "c_root_id_B": "gmqtfnh", "created_at_utc_A": 1612904034, "created_at_utc_B": 1612906141, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If i remember correctly the rotor inducts a current in the armature windings that acts as a kind of resistance and limits the current flow. Without this too much current will flow through the armature causing it to burn out.", "human_ref_B": "How well do you understand how a transformer works? The primary coil of the transformer is just a loop of wire wound around an iron core.  If you apply AC, it is now a magnet that reverses its poles at the frequency of the mains. The secondary is also a loop of wire that induces current from the reversing magnetic field.  In an induction motor, the magnetic field is rotating, so the energy produced induces the rotor to turn. While turning the the rotor itself produces a back EMF (essentially a generator). The back EMF nullifies the forward EMF (minus the motor load and friction). An unloaded induction motor draws very little current. If you lock the rotor, there is no longer the \"canceling\" back EMF and the windings are not designed for the current they are seeing under those conditions (you have converted mechanical energy into heat energy).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2107.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15sbtb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why do people like spicy food? I heard on a podcast a few years ago it is because the burning sensations release endorphins in the brain. Is there any truth to this?  Surely hot peppers have evolved that way to fend off animals. Why have humans developed a taste for them?", "c_root_id_A": "c7phu4r", "c_root_id_B": "c7pg0el", "created_at_utc_A": 1357093846, "created_at_utc_B": 1357087349, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Use of hot peppers may have increased fitness of a culture due to their (the peppers') antimicrobial properties. Source  Also, capsaicin causes an endorphin response which is pleasurable, when in a controlled amount.", "human_ref_B": "Note I'm a layman, but I'm also a spice lover and have done a little reading on it.   Eating spicy foods can release sweat, which is important for temperature regulation in hot climates. That could at least explain why peppers are so prevalent in dishes in those climates. Another reason is that spice is very good at covering up the taste of poor quality meat, making it a good ingredient for the impoverished.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6497.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15sbtb", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why do people like spicy food? I heard on a podcast a few years ago it is because the burning sensations release endorphins in the brain. Is there any truth to this?  Surely hot peppers have evolved that way to fend off animals. Why have humans developed a taste for them?", "c_root_id_A": "c7phu4r", "c_root_id_B": "c7pg4d4", "created_at_utc_A": 1357093846, "created_at_utc_B": 1357087750, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Use of hot peppers may have increased fitness of a culture due to their (the peppers') antimicrobial properties. Source  Also, capsaicin causes an endorphin response which is pleasurable, when in a controlled amount.", "human_ref_B": "Interestingly, peppers developed spiciness in order to ensure that birds ate them, not mammals. It turns out that birds are better at spreading pepper seeds around than mammals, and birds aren't bothered by capsaicin at all. Mammals stay away from peppers because the spiciness bothers them.  As for why we eat them, some theories suggest that since spicy food promotes sweating, it was a way for people in hot climates to regulate their temperature (and you see most countries that have a lot of spicy food tend to be in hot climates).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6096.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "j432w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Magnetism - How does it work on an atomic level? I'm studying magnetism in physics right now, and I'm curios as to what creates the force know as magnetism.  Let's skip the basic stuff and delve into what makes an electron have a \"negative\" charge and what makes protons \"positive\".", "c_root_id_A": "c28ywil", "c_root_id_B": "c28z3qg", "created_at_utc_A": 1312032713, "created_at_utc_B": 1312036254, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "There are properties of fundamental particles that just the way they are. There is no explanation. Electrons have a -1 charge, while protons are made of two up quarks and one down quark, the former has a charge of +2/3, the latter -1/3.", "human_ref_B": "A moving electric charge creates a magnetic field because the information that the charge has moved has to travel at the speed of light.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3541.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "zqtfr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "To what extent does the planet Jupiter actually \"shield\" the earth from meteor impacts? I've been reading reddit today, and found out that a large object collided with Jupiter, and was captured on video by an amateur astronomer. Not long after, I came across this io9.com article claiming that Jupiter may very well have \"saved\" the Earth from a catastrophic impact. If my physics and astronomy lessons still mean anything, shouldn't Jupiter still be incredibly small compared to the vast size of the Solar System, regardless of it's gravitational pull? Also if my memory serves correctly, there are innumerable asteroids floating around the solar system, both inside and outside the asteroid belt, both near and far from Jupiter. I wanna know whether or not Jupiter has any measurable effect on capturing rogue objects hurtling through the solar system which would otherwise impact Earth, or whether or not this is indeed measurable.", "c_root_id_A": "c66xc6r", "c_root_id_B": "c66zek4", "created_at_utc_A": 1347418317, "created_at_utc_B": 1347427403, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "There had been a longstanding notion that Jupiter played a role over the history of the Solar System to clear away things that would have hit the earth.  But apparently that picture has recently been studied via simulations, and the conclusion of that study is that there was no net plus or minus.  You can read about this set of ideas and the recent study at http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2012/03/is-jupiter-earths-guardian-or-ultimate-destroyer.html", "human_ref_B": "For gravitational interaction, a good measure of how close things get is the Hill Sphere. Jupiter's Hill Radius is about 50 million kilometers (5x10^7 km). Generally, if something gets within about 3 Hill Radii that's considered a close encounter and the object will get a good kick.  Now, about hitting Earth: Since these things are typically going pretty fast when they're in the inner solar system, gravitational focusing isn't very effective. Thus, to hit Earth an object will have to come within about one Earth radius (6400km). If you wanted to be generous you could consider everything that comes within one lunar distance (the distance from Earth to the Moon, 3.8x10^5 km).  So, let's compare the numbers:  If you take 3 Hill Radii in either direction from Jupiter and divide that by the circumference of its orbit (its semi-major axis is 5.2 AU) that's 0.065 = 6.5%.  If you take Earth's diameter and divide that by the circumference if its orbit (semi-major axis of 1 AU) that's 1.3x10^-5 = 0.000013 = 0.0013%. Doing the same thing with one lunar distance gives you 0.00080 = 0.08%.  So if something crosses both Jupiter's and Earth's orbits and (for simplicity) assuming that all the orbits are on the same plane (ok for asteroids, ok-ish assumption for short period comets, bad assumption for long period comets) then, very roughly, the object is 6.5/0.0013 = 4800 (or generously 6.5/0.08 = 80) times more likely to encounter Jupiter than hit Earth. (If you wanted to allow non-coplanar orbits it would be more appropriate to do comparison of Jupiter's Hill Radius and Earth's radius to the surface area of the spheres defined by their orbits, in which case encountering Jupiter is even more favored vs hitting Earth.)  That begs the question, how many encounters with Jupiter does it take to fling something out?  The solar system escape velocity at Jupiter's distance is about 18.5 km/s. Jupiter's orbital velocity is about 13 km/s. If the object's orbit's semi-major axis is 12 AU (intermediate between Saturn and Uranus) it's going about 16 km/s at Jupiter's distance from the Sun (from the vis-viva equation).  Now a gravity assist: Basically, you take the relative velocity between the object and Jupiter (in this example 3 to 19 km/s depending on geometry), spin it in some direction, and vector add that to Jupiter's velocity (relative to the Sun). So, if the geometry of the encounter is such that at the end the object's velocity relative to Jupiter is in the same direction as Jupiter's velocity relative to the Sun then it's pretty easy to get to escape velocity and that object will leave the solar system.  For giant planets in general the story is more muddled. Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune tend to throw things inwards, towards the inner solar system, rather than outwards, and these planets could thus be considered detrimental. There are several papers by Horner and Jones that begin to address this, but further study is needed (I'm uncomfortable with some of their assumptions for initial conditions and the way in which they quantify impact flux).  Edit: Refined link for Horner and Jones papers.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9086.0, "score_ratio": 2.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3wupo5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Why is drinking ground water bad for humans but not animals?", "c_root_id_A": "cxzz1ci", "c_root_id_B": "cy0343m", "created_at_utc_A": 1450202599, "created_at_utc_B": 1450208259, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Animals don't live in super hygienic environments and thereby acquire a lot of microflora (bacteria that live inside them) that outcompete potentially harmful bacteria found in groundwater.", "human_ref_B": "It seems like you're asking about surface water - lakes, rivers, and such - rather than ground water.   Basically, drinking surface water is as bad for humans as it is for other animals.  (Though there's a range of biological adaptations and sensitivity.)  Humans have been drinking surface water for most of our existence as a species.  It's become riskier recently because we (and our livestock) are much more crowded, and because there's way more industrial pollution than there used to be.  When animals drink bad water, they get sick or die just like people do.  The thing is, we don't really care that much about most animals so we don't really notice.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5660.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3wupo5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Why is drinking ground water bad for humans but not animals?", "c_root_id_A": "cy0343m", "c_root_id_B": "cxzy5kk", "created_at_utc_A": 1450208259, "created_at_utc_B": 1450201353, "score_A": 4, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "It seems like you're asking about surface water - lakes, rivers, and such - rather than ground water.   Basically, drinking surface water is as bad for humans as it is for other animals.  (Though there's a range of biological adaptations and sensitivity.)  Humans have been drinking surface water for most of our existence as a species.  It's become riskier recently because we (and our livestock) are much more crowded, and because there's way more industrial pollution than there used to be.  When animals drink bad water, they get sick or die just like people do.  The thing is, we don't really care that much about most animals so we don't really notice.", "human_ref_B": "What gave you the impression that drinking ground water is bad for anyone? Usually it's city water that's been treated with all sorts of chemicals that has a bad taste, and probably isn't the best for one's health. I think, for the most part, that ground water (i.e., water from a well), is probably the best water one can drink, as it generally contains more minerals than filtered or processed water does. Can someone provide more info on this?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6906.0, "score_ratio": -1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3wupo5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Why is drinking ground water bad for humans but not animals?", "c_root_id_A": "cxzz1ci", "c_root_id_B": "cxzy5kk", "created_at_utc_A": 1450202599, "created_at_utc_B": 1450201353, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Animals don't live in super hygienic environments and thereby acquire a lot of microflora (bacteria that live inside them) that outcompete potentially harmful bacteria found in groundwater.", "human_ref_B": "What gave you the impression that drinking ground water is bad for anyone? Usually it's city water that's been treated with all sorts of chemicals that has a bad taste, and probably isn't the best for one's health. I think, for the most part, that ground water (i.e., water from a well), is probably the best water one can drink, as it generally contains more minerals than filtered or processed water does. Can someone provide more info on this?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1246.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3wupo5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Why is drinking ground water bad for humans but not animals?", "c_root_id_A": "cxzy5kk", "c_root_id_B": "cy0a0h2", "created_at_utc_A": 1450201353, "created_at_utc_B": 1450217749, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "What gave you the impression that drinking ground water is bad for anyone? Usually it's city water that's been treated with all sorts of chemicals that has a bad taste, and probably isn't the best for one's health. I think, for the most part, that ground water (i.e., water from a well), is probably the best water one can drink, as it generally contains more minerals than filtered or processed water does. Can someone provide more info on this?", "human_ref_B": "Who said it's not dangerous for animals?  The main reason we don't \"just drink\" from lakes, rivers, etc. is because we live in extremely crowded environment (i.e. cities) and we release a lot of our waste in the same rivers.  It's bad idea to drink from the same river as you piss in. It's far worse idea to drink from a river where 1 million people piss in.  EDIT: Also, when you put animals in equation (as in 19th century cities), it becomes worse because animal pathogens (various bacteria, etc.) have increased chance to spread to humans. The chance is very small (e.g. 1 in a million) but when you have a ton of animals and a to of humans, it becomes almost certain that pathogen will jump species.  Now, normally pathogen is not interested in killing it's host as host is a rather nice place to live in (\"I don't shit where I eat\" rule) but they are evolved to live in cows or pigs, not in humans and thus they do kill humans. This is how outbreaks used to start.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16396.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y3o5b0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Do Dogs Have Episodic Memory? I hear conflicting opinions on this. Some say dogs have *associative memory*, but not *episodic memory*. If this is the case, how do dogs dream? If a dog is dreaming, for example, about chasing a squirrel, wouldn't it have to remember seeing the squirrel first? (I am assuming that remembering images relies on this *episodic memory*, but please correct me if I'm wrong).", "c_root_id_A": "isc284j", "c_root_id_B": "isbrtry", "created_at_utc_A": 1665779538, "created_at_utc_B": 1665775382, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Go watch 'Bunny' the dog on YouTube. Has learned around 300 words, through the use of paw-activated buttons. Bunny absolutely has episodic memory, as well as long memory of the past, additionally, Bunny plans for the future and makes requests for things and events yet to come.  Bunny can relate the content of dreams and concerns, and remembers events in order.  Bunny is not the only dog that can use paw-buttons to communicate; there is now an entire industry for this, and some cats have learned as well. The buttons and holders are sold commercially now, and more and more amateur scientists are exploring how much a dog can learn, and how deeply they think about their lives.  The benefit - beyond establishing that dogs have minds like ours - is that the dog becomes vastly less frustrated and neurotic when it can say clearly what it wants, what it fears, or what is bothering it.  The downside is that the dog now can, and does, make requests and even demands, and expects respect as a member of the family. Language access means it can complain if things go badly, or insult if it is angry.", "human_ref_B": "It's hard to fully confirm without a talking dog and perhaps also clearer definitions of what counts as episodic memory. But at least \"episodic-like\" memory has been confirmed in dogs.  https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31142-3", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4156.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y3o5b0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Do Dogs Have Episodic Memory? I hear conflicting opinions on this. Some say dogs have *associative memory*, but not *episodic memory*. If this is the case, how do dogs dream? If a dog is dreaming, for example, about chasing a squirrel, wouldn't it have to remember seeing the squirrel first? (I am assuming that remembering images relies on this *episodic memory*, but please correct me if I'm wrong).", "c_root_id_A": "isaz1tf", "c_root_id_B": "isc284j", "created_at_utc_A": 1665763806, "created_at_utc_B": 1665779538, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "I dunno about the classification of dog memory and dream memory.   Dreams are the brain's maintenance cycle. They aren't passive like a movie and they don't need to make ANY sense. A squirrel can just appear or something that reminds them of a squirrel.   Squirrel, therefore chase. Chase therefore ball. Ball therefore swim. Wet therefore shake\u2026", "human_ref_B": "Go watch 'Bunny' the dog on YouTube. Has learned around 300 words, through the use of paw-activated buttons. Bunny absolutely has episodic memory, as well as long memory of the past, additionally, Bunny plans for the future and makes requests for things and events yet to come.  Bunny can relate the content of dreams and concerns, and remembers events in order.  Bunny is not the only dog that can use paw-buttons to communicate; there is now an entire industry for this, and some cats have learned as well. The buttons and holders are sold commercially now, and more and more amateur scientists are exploring how much a dog can learn, and how deeply they think about their lives.  The benefit - beyond establishing that dogs have minds like ours - is that the dog becomes vastly less frustrated and neurotic when it can say clearly what it wants, what it fears, or what is bothering it.  The downside is that the dog now can, and does, make requests and even demands, and expects respect as a member of the family. Language access means it can complain if things go badly, or insult if it is angry.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15732.0, "score_ratio": 1.6153846154, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y3o5b0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Do Dogs Have Episodic Memory? I hear conflicting opinions on this. Some say dogs have *associative memory*, but not *episodic memory*. If this is the case, how do dogs dream? If a dog is dreaming, for example, about chasing a squirrel, wouldn't it have to remember seeing the squirrel first? (I am assuming that remembering images relies on this *episodic memory*, but please correct me if I'm wrong).", "c_root_id_A": "isc284j", "c_root_id_B": "isb9rbg", "created_at_utc_A": 1665779538, "created_at_utc_B": 1665768155, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Go watch 'Bunny' the dog on YouTube. Has learned around 300 words, through the use of paw-activated buttons. Bunny absolutely has episodic memory, as well as long memory of the past, additionally, Bunny plans for the future and makes requests for things and events yet to come.  Bunny can relate the content of dreams and concerns, and remembers events in order.  Bunny is not the only dog that can use paw-buttons to communicate; there is now an entire industry for this, and some cats have learned as well. The buttons and holders are sold commercially now, and more and more amateur scientists are exploring how much a dog can learn, and how deeply they think about their lives.  The benefit - beyond establishing that dogs have minds like ours - is that the dog becomes vastly less frustrated and neurotic when it can say clearly what it wants, what it fears, or what is bothering it.  The downside is that the dog now can, and does, make requests and even demands, and expects respect as a member of the family. Language access means it can complain if things go badly, or insult if it is angry.", "human_ref_B": "Dreams aren't memories. Dreams and hallucinations are when your brain fires random neurons, and then it tries to interpret those random firings as sensible sensory inputs by filling in the gaps. The dream continues as the brain solidifies its interpretation and begins to self-propagate the meme.  A dog dreaming about chasing squirrel is something along the lines of random firings->that must a squirrel->I chase squirrels->squirrels run away when I chase->I continue chasing. It doesn't really require a memory of a squirrel any more than chasing a squirrel in real life requires a memory of previous squirrel. The dog just very instinctively chases small critters and knows that they usually run away.  If anything dreams are more driven by associative memory. Every input has an expected output, and you just keep chaining those together. Like spamming the suggested word on your phone's autocomplete.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11383.0, "score_ratio": 5.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y3o5b0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Do Dogs Have Episodic Memory? I hear conflicting opinions on this. Some say dogs have *associative memory*, but not *episodic memory*. If this is the case, how do dogs dream? If a dog is dreaming, for example, about chasing a squirrel, wouldn't it have to remember seeing the squirrel first? (I am assuming that remembering images relies on this *episodic memory*, but please correct me if I'm wrong).", "c_root_id_A": "isaz1tf", "c_root_id_B": "isbrtry", "created_at_utc_A": 1665763806, "created_at_utc_B": 1665775382, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "I dunno about the classification of dog memory and dream memory.   Dreams are the brain's maintenance cycle. They aren't passive like a movie and they don't need to make ANY sense. A squirrel can just appear or something that reminds them of a squirrel.   Squirrel, therefore chase. Chase therefore ball. Ball therefore swim. Wet therefore shake\u2026", "human_ref_B": "It's hard to fully confirm without a talking dog and perhaps also clearer definitions of what counts as episodic memory. But at least \"episodic-like\" memory has been confirmed in dogs.  https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31142-3", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11576.0, "score_ratio": 1.0769230769, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "y3o5b0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Do Dogs Have Episodic Memory? I hear conflicting opinions on this. Some say dogs have *associative memory*, but not *episodic memory*. If this is the case, how do dogs dream? If a dog is dreaming, for example, about chasing a squirrel, wouldn't it have to remember seeing the squirrel first? (I am assuming that remembering images relies on this *episodic memory*, but please correct me if I'm wrong).", "c_root_id_A": "isbrtry", "c_root_id_B": "isb9rbg", "created_at_utc_A": 1665775382, "created_at_utc_B": 1665768155, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "It's hard to fully confirm without a talking dog and perhaps also clearer definitions of what counts as episodic memory. But at least \"episodic-like\" memory has been confirmed in dogs.  https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(16)31142-3", "human_ref_B": "Dreams aren't memories. Dreams and hallucinations are when your brain fires random neurons, and then it tries to interpret those random firings as sensible sensory inputs by filling in the gaps. The dream continues as the brain solidifies its interpretation and begins to self-propagate the meme.  A dog dreaming about chasing squirrel is something along the lines of random firings->that must a squirrel->I chase squirrels->squirrels run away when I chase->I continue chasing. It doesn't really require a memory of a squirrel any more than chasing a squirrel in real life requires a memory of previous squirrel. The dog just very instinctively chases small critters and knows that they usually run away.  If anything dreams are more driven by associative memory. Every input has an expected output, and you just keep chaining those together. Like spamming the suggested word on your phone's autocomplete.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7227.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3ivwu1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Why does hair stop growing? Like why does our arm hair stop at a certain length, same with any kind of bodily hair, even the hair on our head stops eventually", "c_root_id_A": "cukdvph", "c_root_id_B": "cukc7j0", "created_at_utc_A": 1440904075, "created_at_utc_B": 1440900706, "score_A": 16, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Our hair follicles go through growth and dormancy cycles. Basically an anagen phase for growth, a catagen phase to stop growth, a telogen phase for resting (where the hair generally remains intact until growth starts again).  All of the hair on our bodies basically grows at the same rate (0.5 inches per month), but the length of the anagen phase for follicles differs depending on where on the body they are. Head hair follicles tend to have a growth phase lasting something like 6 to 8 years (with staggered transitions between the catagen and telogen phases so all your head hair isn't shed at once). The anagen phase for arm and leg hair is quite a bit shorter at a few weeks.  Since the growth phase is so much shorter, the hairs are usually very short and get cycled through more often. This means the hair will grow, then the follicle will sit there at rest, then the hair will be shed and it'll start another growth phase. There's usually a bunch of follicles with staggered growth phases so you're basically always growing some hair and always have some resting at full length on much of your body.  So arm hair 'stops' at that length because the follicles on our arms and legs have an anagen phase that only allows for about half an inch of growth. Since your head hair can have 8+ years between growth cycles, it can reach lengths of over 4 feet before the follicle sheds the hair and a new growth phase starts.   As a random aside: These phases are also why you need to have repeated laser hair removal treatments to truly stop hair growth, since most systems can only get the hair in one phase. You need to keep coming back so you can get follicles that weren't in the right phase before.", "human_ref_B": "It's actually never really stops growing. It just appears like it does because some hair starts falling out once it gets so long. Like eyebrow or eyelash or arm hair will just grow and grow until it falls out and most of the time it falls out at a length that is normal to you, sometimes they will hold on a little longer and you will have one wild and crazy long arm hair.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3369.0, "score_ratio": -8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1pr4lc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "A couple of questions regarding visual and auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia #1. When a person is having a visual hallucination due to schizophrenia or another psychiatric condition:  a) Does the optic nerve 'fire' during the hallucination?  b) Is the visual cortex activated during the hallucination? For example, would a PET scan show uptake in the visual cortex?  c) If the patient closes their eyes, will there still be activity registered in the visual cortex/optic nerve?  #2. Regarding auditory hallucinations:  a) Would a patient who plugs their ear during an auditory hallucination still have activity in their auditory cortex?  b) Will they still be able to hear the auditory hallucination despite plugging their ears?  c) If they can still hear the sound despite plugging their ear, should this not be enough to convince them that the sound is a hallucination?", "c_root_id_A": "cd57ofx", "c_root_id_B": "cd6gkfo", "created_at_utc_A": 1383416612, "created_at_utc_B": 1383573332, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "visual hallucinations aren't *always* a feature of schizophrenia (as opposed to auditory, verbal hallucinations). visual hallucinations are usually consequent to damage to the eyes or brain (or disruption from ingestion of some psychoactive substance), rather than psychiatric conditions.  hallucinations in migraine (the 'visual aura'), for example, are caused by a cascade of activity in primary visual cortex ('cortical spreading depression'). but migraine is a neurological condition, not a psychiatric condition. whether or not the eyes are open doesn't directly affect the progress of the migraine aura, but can modulate it (making the phosphenes more or less visible). i can testify to this from personal experience/experimentation!  on the other hand, people with Charles Bonnet syndrome (or the sort-of similar peduncular hallucinosis) experience hallucinations due to blindness, usually from retinal lesions, but also sometimes due to lesion of more central parts of the visual system (thalamus, visual cortex). the neural basis of these hallucinations, which tend to be very complex (elves running around in your kitchen, a man in black standing in the corner) are not well understood at all, but certainly there must be neural activity in *some* visual areas.  studies of these latter syndromes usually consist of case studies, and every one is different. some patients can relieve the hallucinations by closing their eyes; some go into a sort of trance and get 'stuck' when the hallucinations occur; and some experience different sorts of hallucinations depending on whether it's light or dark, eyes open or closed.  also, in CB syndrome (and often in peduncular hallucinosis) patients are perfectly aware that they are hallucinating. they are often reluctant to reveal their experiences to others because they're afraid people will think they're crazy (i.e. that they have a psychiatric disorder).  i don't know anything about auditory hallucinations, but except for the fact that they are a prominent feature of schizophrenia, i would guess that they follow a similar sort of schema as the visual ones...", "human_ref_B": "Regarding both auditory and visual hallucinations: it's well documented that the respective primary sensory cortices are active when patients are hallucinating.  In auditory hallucinations, they probably also activate other speech areas, like Broca's area and Wernicke's area (see for example).  Realize that most patients perceive auditory hallucinations, if they do percieve hallucinations (something like 80%).  As other state, visual hallucinations are more rare.  Lastly, as others state, visualization (or imagining), without sensory input also activates primary sensory cortex (e.g. I ask you to close your eyes and imagine being on a beach - you will active your visual cortex purely from visualizing the beach scene).  *A quick note: the optic nerve comes from the eyes and goes to the thalamus, that then projects to visual cortex - you don't typically 'activate' the optic nerve via top-down thought (e.g. your thinking influencing your brain activity, compared to bottom-up: which is sensory stimulation influencing your brain activity), but you can increase activity in primary sensory cortex and the thalamus with top-down thought.*  In terms of can you plug your ears and close your eyes, no - you cannot, they do not seem to \"make it go away.\"  I think one insight I've had working with schizophrenic patients is that many of the voices (auditory hallucinations) are really extensions of their conscious thought process - manifested as a \"voice.\"  So, in other words, if you or I saw an attractive person, we'd think to ourselves: \"man, that person is attractive, it'd be nice to have sex with them,\" but a schizophrenic patient who hears voices would \"hear:\" \"that person is attractive, you should go have sex with them.\"  When the drugs or treatments reduce the auditory hallucinations, most patients report that the voices are \"less commanding.\"  So in a sense, the hallucinations tend to be extensions of thought, not really spontaneous activity.   Most patients know that it is not appropriate to have hallucinations, and don't like to tell their caregivers that they are experiencing them, so they tend to hide these facts.  Even if you catch a patient speaking to a voice, they often will deny hearing voices - which makes it difficult to study.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 156720.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dkm34g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do we humans call our hairs...hair? But call animals's hair fur? What's the difference?", "c_root_id_A": "f4jfjzv", "c_root_id_B": "f4jl0tc", "created_at_utc_A": 1571618648, "created_at_utc_B": 1571621482, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "There is no technical difference, its just one word used for humans and a different word for other mammals.  Sometimes dogs will be refered to as having either hair or fur, depending on its length. A dog with \"fur\" has short hair and sheds, a dog with \"hair\" has long hair which does not shed but must be groomed and brushed for the dog's health.  We have both types of hair on our bodies, but we still call it hair, not fur, so the difference is purely semantic.", "human_ref_B": "There is no definitive difference, it's mostly semantics.  Basically, usually humans are described as having hair, animals have fur.  A less human centric difference between them is that fur usually grows of a year or less before stopping and falling out.  Like most dogs, cats, and other animals who shed every year.    Hair grows for many years before stopping, so isn't shed every year.  Human head hair usually grows for 5-7 years.  This is like Human head and beard hair, sheep wool, poodle hair etc.  This isn't perfect because human body hair grows for up to around 3 months.  That means humans have hair on our head, but fur on our bodies.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2834.0, "score_ratio": 6.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dkm34g", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.87, "history": "Why do we humans call our hairs...hair? But call animals's hair fur? What's the difference?", "c_root_id_A": "f4k875t", "c_root_id_B": "f4jfjzv", "created_at_utc_A": 1571639541, "created_at_utc_B": 1571618648, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "This is edging into more of a difference based on semantics than science.  That said, in scientific literature \"hair\" is used to refer to the actual keratin filaments.  So all those animals with fur, we would say their fur is made of hairs.    In common-use terms, fur is just meant to refer to a dense full-body coating of hair.  The word \"fur\" originally meant the lining of a garment, which was often done with animal fur link and was later expanded to mean the fur while it was still on the animal.  \"Hair\" on the other hand has a slightly murky etymology maybe coming from \"bristle\" but has probably meant hair for a long time  link", "human_ref_B": "There is no technical difference, its just one word used for humans and a different word for other mammals.  Sometimes dogs will be refered to as having either hair or fur, depending on its length. A dog with \"fur\" has short hair and sheds, a dog with \"hair\" has long hair which does not shed but must be groomed and brushed for the dog's health.  We have both types of hair on our bodies, but we still call it hair, not fur, so the difference is purely semantic.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 20893.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ur1bq9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Could a sniffer dog tell if two people were related? Even if they grew up in different environments or didn\u2019t even know they were related?", "c_root_id_A": "i8xb01d", "c_root_id_B": "i8x9hz5", "created_at_utc_A": 1652777608, "created_at_utc_B": 1652776222, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Who knows? A dog can probably know by scent if people are living together and he probably can sniff out if people are close. Like in a relationship.  I have read somewhere that close relatives like siblings have pheromones that smell alike and that this should be repulsive for them. It should prevent siblings from becoming attracted to each other even if they don't know that they are siblings. If that is true than a dog could tell by scent if people are related even if these people don't live together. But who knows what a dog knows? They dont tell.", "human_ref_B": "Relevant xkcd  Obviously you mean \"closely related\", but even that is a bit of a nebulous concept. Are half siblings more closely related than children of identical twin sets of parents? Where does the child of direct siblings fall on this relationship graph (suspending morality for a moment in the name of science).  Does each individual put of a specific scent? Yes. Is there a factor to that scent that is shared with close relatives? Probably. Is that specific factor detected by dogs? I doubt it.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1386.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15rztv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Are kissing and hugging innate human practices, or are they learned/cultural? Do we know if, for example, native Americans hugged and kissed before contact with the Europeans? Or another native group? Do all cultures currently hug and kiss?", "c_root_id_A": "c7pa48m", "c_root_id_B": "c7paedw", "created_at_utc_A": 1357065440, "created_at_utc_B": 1357066579, "score_A": 65, "score_B": 531, "human_ref_A": "Indian cultures did not know what kissing was, much to the surprise of English settlers.  Hugging, on the other hand, may be more instinctual, as many mammalian species huddle for warmth, but I have no major authority in the subject.", "human_ref_B": "Jane Goodall, in her book \"In the Shadow of Man\", describes a lot of hugging/kissing behavior in chimpanzees. The actual act of hugging and kissing seems to differ from what humans do (but still very similar). I would assume this was the ancestral trait, and as different human cultures arose, the display of affection took different forms and diversified.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1139.0, "score_ratio": 8.1692307692, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15rztv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Are kissing and hugging innate human practices, or are they learned/cultural? Do we know if, for example, native Americans hugged and kissed before contact with the Europeans? Or another native group? Do all cultures currently hug and kiss?", "c_root_id_A": "c7paedw", "c_root_id_B": "c7pa855", "created_at_utc_A": 1357066579, "created_at_utc_B": 1357065879, "score_A": 531, "score_B": 50, "human_ref_A": "Jane Goodall, in her book \"In the Shadow of Man\", describes a lot of hugging/kissing behavior in chimpanzees. The actual act of hugging and kissing seems to differ from what humans do (but still very similar). I would assume this was the ancestral trait, and as different human cultures arose, the display of affection took different forms and diversified.", "human_ref_B": "Physical signs of affection like hugging and kissing (although in different forms) come up in a lot of animal species, so the nature of the affection might be cultural, but the actual need for displaying physical affection is inherent.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 700.0, "score_ratio": 10.62, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15rztv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Are kissing and hugging innate human practices, or are they learned/cultural? Do we know if, for example, native Americans hugged and kissed before contact with the Europeans? Or another native group? Do all cultures currently hug and kiss?", "c_root_id_A": "c7pb61m", "c_root_id_B": "c7pa48m", "created_at_utc_A": 1357069574, "created_at_utc_B": 1357065440, "score_A": 401, "score_B": 65, "human_ref_A": "Pre-emptive strike: while some well-developed societies, notably several from Asia and the Arabian peninsula, later developed taboos against public kissing and other displays of affection, there is virtually no evidence that kissing was *ever* anything but universal among all known early and developing cultures.  There's a lot of specious \"kissing was unknown to the xxx islanders or yyy sub-Saharans or zzz northern peoples until Europeans introduced it\" stuff here and there. The ultimate source for virtually *all* of it are two terrible quasi-scientists, both of whose works have since been thoroughly and irredeemably debunked.  One was Ernest Crawley, a deeply racist and rather icky 19th Century English eugenicist who arbitrarily divided cultures into \"savage\" and \"advanced\", mostly depending on how closely they mirrored the closely-ordered, nearly impenetrable, upper class British Victorian society he moved within. Today, both his raw field work and his publications are held up to students of sociology and anthropology as near-perfect examples of scientific method gone off the rails: he drew profound, sweeping conclusions from slim, even anecdotal evidence; over-relied on poor quality and incomplete data to generate complex and wobbly theses; and blithely discarded even highly credible data that did not fit certain foregone conclusions. But what else can one expect from a \"scientist\" who chose as book titles such pejoratives as *Studies of Savages and Sex*, and *Dress, Drink, and Drums: Further Studies of Savages and Sex* ? Even his contemporaries gave him a wide academic and social berth. His writings have since been largely ignored, save by other eugenicists seeking citations for their own crackpot theories about racial and/or cultural superiority. Crawley later abandoned sociology to concentrate on the  scientific study of tennis, a subject upon which he was more qualified to expound - his brother was a championship player. Yet somehow, his thesis that \"primitive cultures don't kiss\" has been perpetuated.  The second historical source of \"primitive cultures don't kiss\" is Crawley's Italian contemporary, Luigi Ferrarese. He was actually a physician, not an anthropologist, was schooled at a marginal Italian provincial university, and had no formal training in scientific methodology, history, sociology *or* cultural anthropology. He was an enthusiastic, popular and early proponent of phrenology, which basically dictates that the shape of one's skull is an accurate predictor of whether one tends toward criminality. Ferrarese also argued that phenotype reliably predicted behaviour, that \"swarthy\", \"ugly\" or \"coarse-looking\" people, along with the congenitially disabled and the grossly maimed, were naturally prone to violence, drunkenness, and other antisocial behaviour, and therefore needed close supervision, if not actual preventative incarceration.  He and his writings became popular because they came at the exact time that the then-infant nation of Italy was scrambling to catch up with its much older European siblings by creating its own empire; his work provided a \"scientific\" base to justify the ongoing grotesque exploitation and genocide of Ethiopian, Somali and other East African peoples by both the Italian military and the nation's rapacious industrialists, who could no longer profit in their age-old game of playing off petty Italian states against each other. For all Ferrarese's claims of profound knowledge of exotic cultures, he was actually a society dandy addicted to big-city life, who never set foot outside of Italy; consequently, he had zero opportunity to directly observe any of the \"primitive\" cultures he considered himself an expert on. His supposed \"authority\" on the cultural or biological genesis of kissing (or any social behaviour not openly practised within 19th Century Bolognese high society) is highly specious.", "human_ref_B": "Indian cultures did not know what kissing was, much to the surprise of English settlers.  Hugging, on the other hand, may be more instinctual, as many mammalian species huddle for warmth, but I have no major authority in the subject.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4134.0, "score_ratio": 6.1692307692, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15rztv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Are kissing and hugging innate human practices, or are they learned/cultural? Do we know if, for example, native Americans hugged and kissed before contact with the Europeans? Or another native group? Do all cultures currently hug and kiss?", "c_root_id_A": "c7pa855", "c_root_id_B": "c7pb61m", "created_at_utc_A": 1357065879, "created_at_utc_B": 1357069574, "score_A": 50, "score_B": 401, "human_ref_A": "Physical signs of affection like hugging and kissing (although in different forms) come up in a lot of animal species, so the nature of the affection might be cultural, but the actual need for displaying physical affection is inherent.", "human_ref_B": "Pre-emptive strike: while some well-developed societies, notably several from Asia and the Arabian peninsula, later developed taboos against public kissing and other displays of affection, there is virtually no evidence that kissing was *ever* anything but universal among all known early and developing cultures.  There's a lot of specious \"kissing was unknown to the xxx islanders or yyy sub-Saharans or zzz northern peoples until Europeans introduced it\" stuff here and there. The ultimate source for virtually *all* of it are two terrible quasi-scientists, both of whose works have since been thoroughly and irredeemably debunked.  One was Ernest Crawley, a deeply racist and rather icky 19th Century English eugenicist who arbitrarily divided cultures into \"savage\" and \"advanced\", mostly depending on how closely they mirrored the closely-ordered, nearly impenetrable, upper class British Victorian society he moved within. Today, both his raw field work and his publications are held up to students of sociology and anthropology as near-perfect examples of scientific method gone off the rails: he drew profound, sweeping conclusions from slim, even anecdotal evidence; over-relied on poor quality and incomplete data to generate complex and wobbly theses; and blithely discarded even highly credible data that did not fit certain foregone conclusions. But what else can one expect from a \"scientist\" who chose as book titles such pejoratives as *Studies of Savages and Sex*, and *Dress, Drink, and Drums: Further Studies of Savages and Sex* ? Even his contemporaries gave him a wide academic and social berth. His writings have since been largely ignored, save by other eugenicists seeking citations for their own crackpot theories about racial and/or cultural superiority. Crawley later abandoned sociology to concentrate on the  scientific study of tennis, a subject upon which he was more qualified to expound - his brother was a championship player. Yet somehow, his thesis that \"primitive cultures don't kiss\" has been perpetuated.  The second historical source of \"primitive cultures don't kiss\" is Crawley's Italian contemporary, Luigi Ferrarese. He was actually a physician, not an anthropologist, was schooled at a marginal Italian provincial university, and had no formal training in scientific methodology, history, sociology *or* cultural anthropology. He was an enthusiastic, popular and early proponent of phrenology, which basically dictates that the shape of one's skull is an accurate predictor of whether one tends toward criminality. Ferrarese also argued that phenotype reliably predicted behaviour, that \"swarthy\", \"ugly\" or \"coarse-looking\" people, along with the congenitially disabled and the grossly maimed, were naturally prone to violence, drunkenness, and other antisocial behaviour, and therefore needed close supervision, if not actual preventative incarceration.  He and his writings became popular because they came at the exact time that the then-infant nation of Italy was scrambling to catch up with its much older European siblings by creating its own empire; his work provided a \"scientific\" base to justify the ongoing grotesque exploitation and genocide of Ethiopian, Somali and other East African peoples by both the Italian military and the nation's rapacious industrialists, who could no longer profit in their age-old game of playing off petty Italian states against each other. For all Ferrarese's claims of profound knowledge of exotic cultures, he was actually a society dandy addicted to big-city life, who never set foot outside of Italy; consequently, he had zero opportunity to directly observe any of the \"primitive\" cultures he considered himself an expert on. His supposed \"authority\" on the cultural or biological genesis of kissing (or any social behaviour not openly practised within 19th Century Bolognese high society) is highly specious.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3695.0, "score_ratio": 8.02, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "15rztv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "Are kissing and hugging innate human practices, or are they learned/cultural? Do we know if, for example, native Americans hugged and kissed before contact with the Europeans? Or another native group? Do all cultures currently hug and kiss?", "c_root_id_A": "c7pa855", "c_root_id_B": "c7pb66r", "created_at_utc_A": 1357065879, "created_at_utc_B": 1357069590, "score_A": 50, "score_B": 58, "human_ref_A": "Physical signs of affection like hugging and kissing (although in different forms) come up in a lot of animal species, so the nature of the affection might be cultural, but the actual need for displaying physical affection is inherent.", "human_ref_B": ">**Anthropologists have not reached a conclusion as to whether kissing is learned or a behavior from instinct**. It may be related to grooming behavior also seen between other animals, or arising as a result of mothers premasticating food for their children.[39] Non-human primates also exhibit kissing behavior.[40] Dogs, cats, birds and other animals display licking, nuzzling, and grooming behavior among themselves, but also towards humans or other species. This is sometimes interpreted by observers as a type of kissing.   >**Kissing in humans is postulated to have evolved from the direct mouth-to-mouth regurgitation of food** (kiss feeding) from parent to offspring or male to female (courtship feeding) and has been observed in numerous mammals.[41] The similarity in the methods between kiss-feeding and deep human kisses (e.g. French kiss) are quite pronounced, in the former, the tongue is used to push food from the mouth of the mother to the child with the child receiving both the mother's food and tongue in sucking movements, and the latter is the same but forgoes the premasticated food. In fact, through observations across various species and cultures, it can be confirmed that the act of kissing and premastication has most likely evolved from the similar relationship-based feeding behaviours.[41][42]  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiss#Biology_and_evolution", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3711.0, "score_ratio": 1.16, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9iw8xp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "How do things like squash and pumpkins grow with a hollow cavity inside? What makes up the gas in there and how did it get inside?", "c_root_id_A": "e6n7uv1", "c_root_id_B": "e6n8idv", "created_at_utc_A": 1537922972, "created_at_utc_B": 1537923634, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Similar question answered by /u/Danby from a few years ago: https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/12x558/what_is_the_gas_inside_a_pepper_and_other", "human_ref_B": "a little off topic but still really interesting is how this happens in animals. during development of the intestinal tract and a bunch of other \"tubes\" in the body, cells invade the part of the tube that will eventually be hollow, fill that space up (this is called canalization), then when the supporting structure is mature enough the support the hollow tube, those cells die (called recanalization). failure of recanalization in human leads to atresia (no hollow place in the middle of an organ)   sorry for the off topic info, most likely not applicable to squash", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 662.0, "score_ratio": 14.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9iw8xp", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "How do things like squash and pumpkins grow with a hollow cavity inside? What makes up the gas in there and how did it get inside?", "c_root_id_A": "e6n7uv1", "c_root_id_B": "e6nt22b", "created_at_utc_A": 1537922972, "created_at_utc_B": 1537952129, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Similar question answered by /u/Danby from a few years ago: https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/12x558/what_is_the_gas_inside_a_pepper_and_other", "human_ref_B": "Have you ever considered how animals breathe while inside an egg? How could there be enough oxygen inside that shell to support a baby bird for many weeks? The answer is that the egg shell and the pumpkin skin is not a solid barrier to the outside world. Air can permeate in and out quite easily so there's a constant exchange of gasses between the outside world and the inside of a shell or pumpkin.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 29157.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dl218", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "Why is lead used to shield against gamma rays? Why \r not something with higher density \u2013\u00a0and less toxicity?", "c_root_id_A": "c10zlz0", "c_root_id_B": "c10zbn1", "created_at_utc_A": 1285868129, "created_at_utc_B": 1285863879, "score_A": 56, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "Higher density is not necessarily better - what you're looking for is something with a short radiation length (a measure of how far high energy photons travel before interacting).  The quantity that's usually of interest is the radiation length normalized to the density -               X=L*rho  Because if two substances have the same L, you usually want to choose the less dense one in order to save weight.  So for example even though Gold has a shorter radiation length and is more dense, Lead allows you to have better (in terms of stopping power) shielding at the same weight.  Going by this measure, among (mostly) stable elements only Bismuth and Uranium are better than Lead.  But lead is also cheap and easily available as well as strong and easy to work with.  An abridged table of relevant properties is here: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2010/reviews/rpp2010-rev-atomic-nuclear-prop.pdf  More detailed properties on many materials is here: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2010/AtomicNuclearProperties/  EDIT TO ADD: note that this isn't a be-all end-all, radiation length only strictly applies as a figure of merit above about 1.1 MeV, below that the photon won't shower and you need to look up a different quantity. For example, NIST keeps a tabulation of attenuation coefficient mu/rho vs photon energy.  mu/rho is related to how fast the energy of a monoenergetic beam of photons looses energy in the material according to          I = I_0 exp(-mu*t)  with t the thickness travelled.  http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/XrayMassCoef/tab3.html  EDIT EDIT: even flipping through the NIST table lead beats everything but bismuth and uranium in terms of shielding/mass - the reason is that once you divide out density, most of these quantities depend on the atomic number Z, and you don't generally get higher Z than lead and still not be radioactive.", "human_ref_B": "It's cheap, and that's all there is to it. In medical imaging hardware itself we use Lead-Antimony alloys, tungsten or even gold for their stopping power. Wouldn't want to have to pay for a golden apron (and in an apron it wouldn't make a difference if it's gold or lead, the higher density of gold would mean you need less volume of gold than lead, but it would still weigh the same to get the same stopping power).", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4250.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ucnmv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Would it be possible to create a solar wind turbine. With a large enough surface area and maybe anchoring it on the moon would it be able to create enough power to be worth it? Or even work?", "c_root_id_A": "c4uc48l", "c_root_id_B": "c4u98fh", "created_at_utc_A": 1338428693, "created_at_utc_B": 1338415521, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "When I read your question, I thought you were talking about a wind turbine with a solar panel attached to it.  Which could be done in theory.", "human_ref_B": "While not strictly an answer to your original questions, I found this article very interesting.   Essentially it suggests long term energy solutions will have to be solely renewable terrestrial technology, thus eliminating the solar wind turbine.   Lots of assumptions made though, and looks far into the long term. Makes a nice read if you have time though, see what you think!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13172.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ucnmv", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "Would it be possible to create a solar wind turbine. With a large enough surface area and maybe anchoring it on the moon would it be able to create enough power to be worth it? Or even work?", "c_root_id_A": "c4ugsod", "c_root_id_B": "c4u98fh", "created_at_utc_A": 1338457156, "created_at_utc_B": 1338415521, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Yes, it is possible due to the somewhat recent invention of the lightfoil. However, you would need a HUGE, pristine optics set-up and a tremendous amount of time to see any useful amount of power generated. For now (and I'd imagine for posterity), the photovoltaic cell is a much better option.", "human_ref_B": "While not strictly an answer to your original questions, I found this article very interesting.   Essentially it suggests long term energy solutions will have to be solely renewable terrestrial technology, thus eliminating the solar wind turbine.   Lots of assumptions made though, and looks far into the long term. Makes a nice read if you have time though, see what you think!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 41635.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6fdeql", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "Has the string theory been validated by any experimental evidence like from the LHC? Are there better contenders for the theory of everything?  I know just the basics of what the string theory is, that is using vibrating strings and extra dimensions to explain all the different forces and particles. I come from a medical background, so please excuse any gross misunderstandings of the concept.", "c_root_id_A": "dihhaqo", "c_root_id_B": "dihjq9l", "created_at_utc_A": 1496671944, "created_at_utc_B": 1496674990, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 16, "human_ref_A": "No, the LHC isn't energetic enough to tell us anything about quantum gravity. There are aspects of it called string phenomenology where you can essentially calculate \"if an aspect of string theory had property A, we would expect effects B in the LHC,\" and so far the non-observation of B can be used to constrain A.", "human_ref_B": "Some required aspects of string theory have been constrained by the LHC.    1.  String theory requires more than the 4 dimensions of space time.  The size of the proposed dimensions has been constrained as if they were larger we would have seen things that disagreed with the standard model.  2.  Super String Theory requires super symmetry.  Low energy or \"Natural\" Super-symmetry was not found.  String theory is compatible with any energy of super symmetry below the plank scale however.  So lots of proposed models of string theory were shown to be incorrect, but not the general model of the universe.   This has caused some worry in physics as it now appears that string theory will not have any interaction with experiment for the foreseeable future.  That may change with gravitation wave astronomy, but so far there is zero experimental disagreement with General Relativity.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3046.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "k5d5h", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "How clean is \"clean coal,\" as opposed to regular fossil fuels?", "c_root_id_A": "c2hnat7", "c_root_id_B": "c2hn5ao", "created_at_utc_A": 1315241659, "created_at_utc_B": 1315240268, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Clean coal is only \"clean\" when compared to coal. It's still coal.", "human_ref_B": "Does the definition of \"clean\" take into account resource extraction such as mining and drilling?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1391.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gtgpll", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why can you sometimes see the moon during the daytime? Forgive me if this is a dumb question or has been asked before!", "c_root_id_A": "fsccwzw", "c_root_id_B": "fsbsiog", "created_at_utc_A": 1590867756, "created_at_utc_B": 1590860634, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Moon's orbit around Earth has nothing to do with Earth's day and night cycle.  Day-night cycle happens on a 24 hour basis. Moon's orbit happens on a \\~30 day basis. Half of that time the Moon is visible on the sunny side (during the day), and other half it's visible during the night.  See the animation at 0:54  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLCw\\_M3VtaA&t", "human_ref_B": "I always wondered why this was! Thank you!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7122.0, "score_ratio": 10.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "fljz239", "c_root_id_B": "fljovn6", "created_at_utc_A": 1585230303, "created_at_utc_B": 1585221628, "score_A": 72, "score_B": 50, "human_ref_A": "Hi I used your app from Hong Kong!  In using your app I know that some species the exact locations are hidden because they are threatened.    Some species here are not labelled as threatened but are sought after by people to eat or use in other ways.  Trapping (for example fresh water turtles) or cutting (for example incence trees) do damage our biodiversity and ecosystems.  How do you asses which species am should be shown exactly on a map and which should not be?  More broadly- How do you balance the value of creating interest and education in biodiversity and allowing data on its location available to all?", "human_ref_B": "Not really a question but i love your iNaturalist app im a recent graduate with my bachelors in wildlife biology and conservation. This app is a great tool for any naturalist/wildlife nerd and reccomend anyone who loves nature in any capacity to give it a try. Keep up the good work and thanks for the app.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8675.0, "score_ratio": 1.44, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "fljqmuw", "c_root_id_B": "fljz239", "created_at_utc_A": 1585223448, "created_at_utc_B": 1585230303, "score_A": 21, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "Would you also consider adding a geological/ rock formation identification section to the app?", "human_ref_B": "Hi I used your app from Hong Kong!  In using your app I know that some species the exact locations are hidden because they are threatened.    Some species here are not labelled as threatened but are sought after by people to eat or use in other ways.  Trapping (for example fresh water turtles) or cutting (for example incence trees) do damage our biodiversity and ecosystems.  How do you asses which species am should be shown exactly on a map and which should not be?  More broadly- How do you balance the value of creating interest and education in biodiversity and allowing data on its location available to all?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6855.0, "score_ratio": 3.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "fljz239", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585230303, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 72, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Hi I used your app from Hong Kong!  In using your app I know that some species the exact locations are hidden because they are threatened.    Some species here are not labelled as threatened but are sought after by people to eat or use in other ways.  Trapping (for example fresh water turtles) or cutting (for example incence trees) do damage our biodiversity and ecosystems.  How do you asses which species am should be shown exactly on a map and which should not be?  More broadly- How do you balance the value of creating interest and education in biodiversity and allowing data on its location available to all?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3646.0, "score_ratio": 14.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "fljz239", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585230303, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 72, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hi I used your app from Hong Kong!  In using your app I know that some species the exact locations are hidden because they are threatened.    Some species here are not labelled as threatened but are sought after by people to eat or use in other ways.  Trapping (for example fresh water turtles) or cutting (for example incence trees) do damage our biodiversity and ecosystems.  How do you asses which species am should be shown exactly on a map and which should not be?  More broadly- How do you balance the value of creating interest and education in biodiversity and allowing data on its location available to all?", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4685.0, "score_ratio": 24.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "fljqmuw", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585223448, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 21, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "Would you also consider adding a geological/ rock formation identification section to the app?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11550.0, "score_ratio": 1.1904761905, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "flk2jc8", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585232559, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "I love using iNaturalist. I use it multiple times everyday. I was wondering what the most common/surprising species that has still yet to be observed using iNaturalist is?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2439.0, "score_ratio": 1.4705882353, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "flk0wfm", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585231518, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "During a time like this, what research or observations are being done to monitor the impacts of social distancing and it\u2019s impacts on the environment and nature?  For example the canals in Venice was starting to clear up, what other areas of aspect of nature or climate change are we watching or monitor ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3480.0, "score_ratio": 3.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "flk5wt2", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234577, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "I love iNaturalist!  What are some uses of the data collected on iNaturalist that you've seen over the years?  What has been the most interesting or most impactful?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 421.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8341.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "flk30rq", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585232857, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "I use your product here in London, absolutely love it and have learned so much, dont have a question just wanted to let you know!! Xx", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2141.0, "score_ratio": 4.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "flk60f1", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234636, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "I've been an eBirder for 2 years, and love introduction of iNaturalist to my daily walks ... enjoying bees and flies. It is really helping me on ID, and the community is quite willing to help and give tips to identifying. Right now getting help of bee flies and Epalpus flies--white spot on its hairy bottom!.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 362.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9380.0, "score_ratio": 8.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk6moh", "c_root_id_B": "flk58du", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234998, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234181, "score_A": 25, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Does repeated information help at all?  If I keep posting every time I get a picture of a deer is that actually helpful or is one a year all that really is needed?", "human_ref_B": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 817.0, "score_ratio": 8.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk2jc8", "c_root_id_B": "flk0wfm", "created_at_utc_A": 1585232559, "created_at_utc_B": 1585231518, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I love using iNaturalist. I use it multiple times everyday. I was wondering what the most common/surprising species that has still yet to be observed using iNaturalist is?", "human_ref_B": "During a time like this, what research or observations are being done to monitor the impacts of social distancing and it\u2019s impacts on the environment and nature?  For example the canals in Venice was starting to clear up, what other areas of aspect of nature or climate change are we watching or monitor ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1041.0, "score_ratio": 2.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk2jc8", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585232559, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I love using iNaturalist. I use it multiple times everyday. I was wondering what the most common/surprising species that has still yet to be observed using iNaturalist is?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5902.0, "score_ratio": 3.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "fljsyid", "c_root_id_B": "flk2jc8", "created_at_utc_A": 1585225618, "created_at_utc_B": 1585232559, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "human_ref_B": "I love using iNaturalist. I use it multiple times everyday. I was wondering what the most common/surprising species that has still yet to be observed using iNaturalist is?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6941.0, "score_ratio": 5.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "flkahtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237210, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1724.0, "score_ratio": 1.1818181818, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "flka0qy", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585236943, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1991.0, "score_ratio": 1.4444444444, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkc693", "c_root_id_B": "flkdm2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238139, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238934, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "human_ref_B": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 795.0, "score_ratio": 1.3, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "flk0wfm", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585231518, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "During a time like this, what research or observations are being done to monitor the impacts of social distancing and it\u2019s impacts on the environment and nature?  For example the canals in Venice was starting to clear up, what other areas of aspect of nature or climate change are we watching or monitor ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7416.0, "score_ratio": 1.8571428571, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "flk5wt2", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234577, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "I love iNaturalist!  What are some uses of the data collected on iNaturalist that you've seen over the years?  What has been the most interesting or most impactful?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4357.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12277.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk30rq", "c_root_id_B": "flkdm2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1585232857, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238934, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "I use your product here in London, absolutely love it and have learned so much, dont have a question just wanted to let you know!! Xx", "human_ref_B": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6077.0, "score_ratio": 2.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "flkc7fk", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238156, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "How do you prevent duplicate records from similar wildlife-tracking apps, like HerpNet, or even Seek? If I record an observation on iNaturalist and record the same observation on a different app/website, am I screwing up data?   Thanks.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 778.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk60f1", "c_root_id_B": "flkdm2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234636, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238934, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "I've been an eBirder for 2 years, and love introduction of iNaturalist to my daily walks ... enjoying bees and flies. It is really helping me on ID, and the community is quite willing to help and give tips to identifying. Right now getting help of bee flies and Epalpus flies--white spot on its hairy bottom!.", "human_ref_B": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4298.0, "score_ratio": 2.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkd49k", "c_root_id_B": "flkdm2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238660, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238934, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Don't have a question but wanted to say I absolutely love the app. Thank you so much!", "human_ref_B": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 274.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13316.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk58du", "c_root_id_B": "flkdm2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234181, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238934, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "human_ref_B": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4753.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "flkab9w", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237108, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "What are some different ways you can use iNaturalist and Seek with different age groups? How do you use these platforms for younger elementary school-aged children versus middle or high school?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1826.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkdm2m", "c_root_id_B": "flkcptd", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238934, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238437, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!   Have any new species been discovered as a result of people communicating through iNaturalist?  If so, what species?  Thank you", "human_ref_B": "I love your app! I use it as part of the Forest School program I teach and it has taught me so much!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 497.0, "score_ratio": 4.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flka0qy", "c_root_id_B": "flkahtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1585236943, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237210, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "human_ref_B": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 267.0, "score_ratio": 1.2222222222, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkahtz", "c_root_id_B": "flk0wfm", "created_at_utc_A": 1585237210, "created_at_utc_B": 1585231518, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "human_ref_B": "During a time like this, what research or observations are being done to monitor the impacts of social distancing and it\u2019s impacts on the environment and nature?  For example the canals in Venice was starting to clear up, what other areas of aspect of nature or climate change are we watching or monitor ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5692.0, "score_ratio": 1.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk5wt2", "c_root_id_B": "flkahtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234577, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237210, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!  What are some uses of the data collected on iNaturalist that you've seen over the years?  What has been the most interesting or most impactful?", "human_ref_B": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2633.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkahtz", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585237210, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 10553.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk30rq", "c_root_id_B": "flkahtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1585232857, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237210, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I use your product here in London, absolutely love it and have learned so much, dont have a question just wanted to let you know!! Xx", "human_ref_B": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4353.0, "score_ratio": 1.8333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk60f1", "c_root_id_B": "flkahtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234636, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237210, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "I've been an eBirder for 2 years, and love introduction of iNaturalist to my daily walks ... enjoying bees and flies. It is really helping me on ID, and the community is quite willing to help and give tips to identifying. Right now getting help of bee flies and Epalpus flies--white spot on its hairy bottom!.", "human_ref_B": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2574.0, "score_ratio": 2.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "fljsyid", "c_root_id_B": "flkahtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1585225618, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237210, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "human_ref_B": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11592.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk58du", "c_root_id_B": "flkahtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234181, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237210, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "human_ref_B": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3029.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkab9w", "c_root_id_B": "flkahtz", "created_at_utc_A": 1585237108, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237210, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "What are some different ways you can use iNaturalist and Seek with different age groups? How do you use these platforms for younger elementary school-aged children versus middle or high school?", "human_ref_B": "I honestly love the Seek app so much! Is there any possibility of adding a feature where you can manually enter a plant you have identified? I find there are times where the app cannot identify a plant or animal track but I know what it is, and I\u2019d like to be able to add it to my observations and submit pictures of it to better the identification software.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 102.0, "score_ratio": 3.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkc693", "c_root_id_B": "flka0qy", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238139, "created_at_utc_B": 1585236943, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "human_ref_B": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1196.0, "score_ratio": 1.1111111111, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flka0qy", "c_root_id_B": "flk0wfm", "created_at_utc_A": 1585236943, "created_at_utc_B": 1585231518, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "human_ref_B": "During a time like this, what research or observations are being done to monitor the impacts of social distancing and it\u2019s impacts on the environment and nature?  For example the canals in Venice was starting to clear up, what other areas of aspect of nature or climate change are we watching or monitor ?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5425.0, "score_ratio": 1.2857142857, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flka0qy", "c_root_id_B": "flk5wt2", "created_at_utc_A": 1585236943, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234577, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "human_ref_B": "I love iNaturalist!  What are some uses of the data collected on iNaturalist that you've seen over the years?  What has been the most interesting or most impactful?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2366.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flju725", "c_root_id_B": "flka0qy", "created_at_utc_A": 1585226657, "created_at_utc_B": 1585236943, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "human_ref_B": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10286.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flka0qy", "c_root_id_B": "flk30rq", "created_at_utc_A": 1585236943, "created_at_utc_B": 1585232857, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "human_ref_B": "I use your product here in London, absolutely love it and have learned so much, dont have a question just wanted to let you know!! Xx", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4086.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk60f1", "c_root_id_B": "flka0qy", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234636, "created_at_utc_B": 1585236943, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "I've been an eBirder for 2 years, and love introduction of iNaturalist to my daily walks ... enjoying bees and flies. It is really helping me on ID, and the community is quite willing to help and give tips to identifying. Right now getting help of bee flies and Epalpus flies--white spot on its hairy bottom!.", "human_ref_B": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2307.0, "score_ratio": 1.8, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flka0qy", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585236943, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11325.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk58du", "c_root_id_B": "flka0qy", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234181, "created_at_utc_B": 1585236943, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 9, "human_ref_A": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "human_ref_B": "I love the City Nature Challenge, and I\u2019ve used the app to learn many species as I go on hikes, nature walks, and even for work. I wish the app had more advanced query features (like can be used in the address bar) since most of what I do is within the app. Do you plan on adding more robust features to the app?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2762.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk0wfm", "c_root_id_B": "flkc693", "created_at_utc_A": 1585231518, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238139, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "During a time like this, what research or observations are being done to monitor the impacts of social distancing and it\u2019s impacts on the environment and nature?  For example the canals in Venice was starting to clear up, what other areas of aspect of nature or climate change are we watching or monitor ?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6621.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk5wt2", "c_root_id_B": "flkc693", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234577, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238139, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!  What are some uses of the data collected on iNaturalist that you've seen over the years?  What has been the most interesting or most impactful?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3562.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkc693", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238139, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11482.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk30rq", "c_root_id_B": "flkc693", "created_at_utc_A": 1585232857, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238139, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I use your product here in London, absolutely love it and have learned so much, dont have a question just wanted to let you know!! Xx", "human_ref_B": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5282.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk60f1", "c_root_id_B": "flkc693", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234636, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238139, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "I've been an eBirder for 2 years, and love introduction of iNaturalist to my daily walks ... enjoying bees and flies. It is really helping me on ID, and the community is quite willing to help and give tips to identifying. Right now getting help of bee flies and Epalpus flies--white spot on its hairy bottom!.", "human_ref_B": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3503.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "fljsyid", "c_root_id_B": "flkc693", "created_at_utc_A": 1585225618, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238139, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12521.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk58du", "c_root_id_B": "flkc693", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234181, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238139, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "human_ref_B": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3958.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkab9w", "c_root_id_B": "flkc693", "created_at_utc_A": 1585237108, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238139, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "What are some different ways you can use iNaturalist and Seek with different age groups? How do you use these platforms for younger elementary school-aged children versus middle or high school?", "human_ref_B": "Hi there! Thank you for all the work you guys put into making enjoying nature more accessible to everyone! I enjoy spending time on iNaturalist, specifically ID'ing species I'm familiar with. I've however found that the voting and suggestion system can sometimes be a bit.. hard to work with (or at times, against). How do you feel about the system as it works right now? How would you guys feel about using a system in which recognised experts in specific species groups moderate observations and approve them? (Not unlike other nature apps). Again, thanks for the work guys!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1031.0, "score_ratio": 3.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk0wfm", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585231518, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "During a time like this, what research or observations are being done to monitor the impacts of social distancing and it\u2019s impacts on the environment and nature?  For example the canals in Venice was starting to clear up, what other areas of aspect of nature or climate change are we watching or monitor ?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4861.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk0wfm", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585231518, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "During a time like this, what research or observations are being done to monitor the impacts of social distancing and it\u2019s impacts on the environment and nature?  For example the canals in Venice was starting to clear up, what other areas of aspect of nature or climate change are we watching or monitor ?", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5900.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk5wt2", "c_root_id_B": "flkfhw0", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234577, "created_at_utc_B": 1585239940, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!  What are some uses of the data collected on iNaturalist that you've seen over the years?  What has been the most interesting or most impactful?", "human_ref_B": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5363.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk5wt2", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234577, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!  What are some uses of the data collected on iNaturalist that you've seen over the years?  What has been the most interesting or most impactful?", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8959.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk5wt2", "c_root_id_B": "flk58du", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234577, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234181, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I love iNaturalist!  What are some uses of the data collected on iNaturalist that you've seen over the years?  What has been the most interesting or most impactful?", "human_ref_B": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 396.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flju725", "c_root_id_B": "flk30rq", "created_at_utc_A": 1585226657, "created_at_utc_B": 1585232857, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "human_ref_B": "I use your product here in London, absolutely love it and have learned so much, dont have a question just wanted to let you know!! Xx", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6200.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkfhw0", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585239940, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13283.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "fljsyid", "c_root_id_B": "flju725", "created_at_utc_A": 1585225618, "created_at_utc_B": 1585226657, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm part of a volunteer organisation in my college that makes nature related projects for other students and people around the city. What would you think a great and fun project to do after all of this is over?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1039.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk30rq", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585232857, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I use your product here in London, absolutely love it and have learned so much, dont have a question just wanted to let you know!! Xx", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7239.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkfhw0", "c_root_id_B": "flkc7fk", "created_at_utc_A": 1585239940, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238156, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "human_ref_B": "How do you prevent duplicate records from similar wildlife-tracking apps, like HerpNet, or even Seek? If I record an observation on iNaturalist and record the same observation on a different app/website, am I screwing up data?   Thanks.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1784.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkc7fk", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238156, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How do you prevent duplicate records from similar wildlife-tracking apps, like HerpNet, or even Seek? If I record an observation on iNaturalist and record the same observation on a different app/website, am I screwing up data?   Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12538.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk58du", "c_root_id_B": "flkc7fk", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234181, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238156, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "human_ref_B": "How do you prevent duplicate records from similar wildlife-tracking apps, like HerpNet, or even Seek? If I record an observation on iNaturalist and record the same observation on a different app/website, am I screwing up data?   Thanks.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3975.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkc7fk", "c_root_id_B": "flkab9w", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238156, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237108, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "How do you prevent duplicate records from similar wildlife-tracking apps, like HerpNet, or even Seek? If I record an observation on iNaturalist and record the same observation on a different app/website, am I screwing up data?   Thanks.", "human_ref_B": "What are some different ways you can use iNaturalist and Seek with different age groups? How do you use these platforms for younger elementary school-aged children versus middle or high school?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1048.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk60f1", "c_root_id_B": "flkfhw0", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234636, "created_at_utc_B": 1585239940, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "I've been an eBirder for 2 years, and love introduction of iNaturalist to my daily walks ... enjoying bees and flies. It is really helping me on ID, and the community is quite willing to help and give tips to identifying. Right now getting help of bee flies and Epalpus flies--white spot on its hairy bottom!.", "human_ref_B": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5304.0, "score_ratio": 1.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkfhw0", "c_root_id_B": "flkd49k", "created_at_utc_A": 1585239940, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238660, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "human_ref_B": "Don't have a question but wanted to say I absolutely love the app. Thank you so much!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1280.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkfhw0", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585239940, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14322.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkfhw0", "c_root_id_B": "flk58du", "created_at_utc_A": 1585239940, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234181, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "human_ref_B": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5759.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkab9w", "c_root_id_B": "flkfhw0", "created_at_utc_A": 1585237108, "created_at_utc_B": 1585239940, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "What are some different ways you can use iNaturalist and Seek with different age groups? How do you use these platforms for younger elementary school-aged children versus middle or high school?", "human_ref_B": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2832.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkfhw0", "c_root_id_B": "flkcptd", "created_at_utc_A": 1585239940, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238437, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Can you elaborate on some.of the future projects from iNaturalist, what functions are you guys planning to implement soon and things like that?   I believe iNaturalist is one of the best tools for nature studies ever created, I use it a lot and love it, thank you all for this awesome app!", "human_ref_B": "I love your app! I use it as part of the Forest School program I teach and it has taught me so much!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1503.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk60f1", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234636, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've been an eBirder for 2 years, and love introduction of iNaturalist to my daily walks ... enjoying bees and flies. It is really helping me on ID, and the community is quite willing to help and give tips to identifying. Right now getting help of bee flies and Epalpus flies--white spot on its hairy bottom!.", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9018.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk60f1", "c_root_id_B": "flk58du", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234636, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234181, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I've been an eBirder for 2 years, and love introduction of iNaturalist to my daily walks ... enjoying bees and flies. It is really helping me on ID, and the community is quite willing to help and give tips to identifying. Right now getting help of bee flies and Epalpus flies--white spot on its hairy bottom!.", "human_ref_B": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 455.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkd49k", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238660, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Don't have a question but wanted to say I absolutely love the app. Thank you so much!", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 13042.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flk58du", "c_root_id_B": "flkd49k", "created_at_utc_A": 1585234181, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238660, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "human_ref_B": "Don't have a question but wanted to say I absolutely love the app. Thank you so much!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4479.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkd49k", "c_root_id_B": "flkab9w", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238660, "created_at_utc_B": 1585237108, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Don't have a question but wanted to say I absolutely love the app. Thank you so much!", "human_ref_B": "What are some different ways you can use iNaturalist and Seek with different age groups? How do you use these platforms for younger elementary school-aged children versus middle or high school?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1552.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkcptd", "c_root_id_B": "flkd49k", "created_at_utc_A": 1585238437, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238660, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "I love your app! I use it as part of the Forest School program I teach and it has taught me so much!", "human_ref_B": "Don't have a question but wanted to say I absolutely love the app. Thank you so much!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 223.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkjdfb", "c_root_id_B": "fljsyid", "created_at_utc_A": 1585242021, "created_at_utc_B": 1585225618, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I'm a grad student (and avid iNat user) currently studying human population density as it pertains to the spatial distribution of data collected by citizen scientists, and how all of that has changed over time. I've mostly been working with bird atlas data, but I can imagine apps like iNat offering massive datasets for biologists to work with as well.   My question is: Since citizen science is usually an inherently passive endeavor on the part of the volunteers, how do you think researchers using iNat data could account for the spatial bias of sampling effort concentrated around cities and major population centers? What kind of efforts are there to encourage/\"recruit\" volunteers from more rural areas, or to get people exploring places further from their homes and workplaces?  And I do have to ask - with the COVID 19 outbreaks, have you guys seen a reduced or increased amount of user submissions to iNat? I'm curious whether people being bored and trapped at home leads to more submissions, or if them not being able to go out and see encounter wildlife has reduced user activity.", "human_ref_B": "During this whole epidemic, carbon emissions have been cut down drastically. Haven\u2019t been able to find the answer to this question, so here it goes.   How much would the Ozone have healed? How is it quantified? Due to the lower pollution at the moment over the last couple weeks, did we give humanity another generation? Two Generations?   Or has it not been going on long enough to get a measurement?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16403.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkjdfb", "c_root_id_B": "flk58du", "created_at_utc_A": 1585242021, "created_at_utc_B": 1585234181, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I'm a grad student (and avid iNat user) currently studying human population density as it pertains to the spatial distribution of data collected by citizen scientists, and how all of that has changed over time. I've mostly been working with bird atlas data, but I can imagine apps like iNat offering massive datasets for biologists to work with as well.   My question is: Since citizen science is usually an inherently passive endeavor on the part of the volunteers, how do you think researchers using iNat data could account for the spatial bias of sampling effort concentrated around cities and major population centers? What kind of efforts are there to encourage/\"recruit\" volunteers from more rural areas, or to get people exploring places further from their homes and workplaces?  And I do have to ask - with the COVID 19 outbreaks, have you guys seen a reduced or increased amount of user submissions to iNat? I'm curious whether people being bored and trapped at home leads to more submissions, or if them not being able to go out and see encounter wildlife has reduced user activity.", "human_ref_B": "Comment: I love the app and have been using it a lot in Colombia. Thanks guys!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7840.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkab9w", "c_root_id_B": "flkjdfb", "created_at_utc_A": 1585237108, "created_at_utc_B": 1585242021, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "What are some different ways you can use iNaturalist and Seek with different age groups? How do you use these platforms for younger elementary school-aged children versus middle or high school?", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm a grad student (and avid iNat user) currently studying human population density as it pertains to the spatial distribution of data collected by citizen scientists, and how all of that has changed over time. I've mostly been working with bird atlas data, but I can imagine apps like iNat offering massive datasets for biologists to work with as well.   My question is: Since citizen science is usually an inherently passive endeavor on the part of the volunteers, how do you think researchers using iNat data could account for the spatial bias of sampling effort concentrated around cities and major population centers? What kind of efforts are there to encourage/\"recruit\" volunteers from more rural areas, or to get people exploring places further from their homes and workplaces?  And I do have to ask - with the COVID 19 outbreaks, have you guys seen a reduced or increased amount of user submissions to iNat? I'm curious whether people being bored and trapped at home leads to more submissions, or if them not being able to go out and see encounter wildlife has reduced user activity.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4913.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkjdfb", "c_root_id_B": "flkcptd", "created_at_utc_A": 1585242021, "created_at_utc_B": 1585238437, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I'm a grad student (and avid iNat user) currently studying human population density as it pertains to the spatial distribution of data collected by citizen scientists, and how all of that has changed over time. I've mostly been working with bird atlas data, but I can imagine apps like iNat offering massive datasets for biologists to work with as well.   My question is: Since citizen science is usually an inherently passive endeavor on the part of the volunteers, how do you think researchers using iNat data could account for the spatial bias of sampling effort concentrated around cities and major population centers? What kind of efforts are there to encourage/\"recruit\" volunteers from more rural areas, or to get people exploring places further from their homes and workplaces?  And I do have to ask - with the COVID 19 outbreaks, have you guys seen a reduced or increased amount of user submissions to iNat? I'm curious whether people being bored and trapped at home leads to more submissions, or if them not being able to go out and see encounter wildlife has reduced user activity.", "human_ref_B": "I love your app! I use it as part of the Forest School program I teach and it has taught me so much!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3584.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkh79c", "c_root_id_B": "flkjdfb", "created_at_utc_A": 1585240863, "created_at_utc_B": 1585242021, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I love iNat and contribute every day to the platform! My question is in regards to annotations. Why are there so few annotations that can be added to an observation so limited when uploading and identifying? An obvious one would be if it was \"evidence\" or the actual organism as often people are uploading scat, feathers, or tracks. We currently have the \"alive/dead\" which seems like a bit of a sideline from other valuable information. Others may include population/# of individuals or even colour morphology for some species (ex. Breeding plumage of birds). Thanks!", "human_ref_B": "Hi, I'm a grad student (and avid iNat user) currently studying human population density as it pertains to the spatial distribution of data collected by citizen scientists, and how all of that has changed over time. I've mostly been working with bird atlas data, but I can imagine apps like iNat offering massive datasets for biologists to work with as well.   My question is: Since citizen science is usually an inherently passive endeavor on the part of the volunteers, how do you think researchers using iNat data could account for the spatial bias of sampling effort concentrated around cities and major population centers? What kind of efforts are there to encourage/\"recruit\" volunteers from more rural areas, or to get people exploring places further from their homes and workplaces?  And I do have to ask - with the COVID 19 outbreaks, have you guys seen a reduced or increased amount of user submissions to iNat? I'm curious whether people being bored and trapped at home leads to more submissions, or if them not being able to go out and see encounter wildlife has reduced user activity.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1158.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "fp9lds", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "AskScience AMA Series: We are iNaturalist, educators who use our online social network to help students learn about nature. Ask Us Anything! iNaturalist is an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature. It's also a crowdsourced species identification system and an organism occurrence recording tool. You can use it to record your own observations, get help with identifications, collaborate with others to collect this kind of information for a common purpose, or access the observational data collected by iNaturalist users.  With so many students sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic, many educators and parents have turned to iNaturalist and Seek by iNaturalist, so not only will iNaturalist co-founder and co-director Ken-ichi Ueda answer questions here, we've also recruited a few educators who have used iNaturalist with their students. They are:  + Mary Ford, National Geographic Society's Director of Professional Learning + Colleen Hitchcock, Associate Professor, Biology, Brandeis University + Anne Lewis, Special Projects Director South Dakota Discovery Center + Kelly L O'Donnell, Director of Science Forward, Macaulay Honors College, CUNY  We'll be on at 1 pm (ET, 17 UT), AUA!  Username: inaturalistorg", "c_root_id_A": "flkjdfb", "c_root_id_B": "flkj48d", "created_at_utc_A": 1585242021, "created_at_utc_B": 1585241886, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Hi, I'm a grad student (and avid iNat user) currently studying human population density as it pertains to the spatial distribution of data collected by citizen scientists, and how all of that has changed over time. I've mostly been working with bird atlas data, but I can imagine apps like iNat offering massive datasets for biologists to work with as well.   My question is: Since citizen science is usually an inherently passive endeavor on the part of the volunteers, how do you think researchers using iNat data could account for the spatial bias of sampling effort concentrated around cities and major population centers? What kind of efforts are there to encourage/\"recruit\" volunteers from more rural areas, or to get people exploring places further from their homes and workplaces?  And I do have to ask - with the COVID 19 outbreaks, have you guys seen a reduced or increased amount of user submissions to iNat? I'm curious whether people being bored and trapped at home leads to more submissions, or if them not being able to go out and see encounter wildlife has reduced user activity.", "human_ref_B": "Hi there, thanks for doing this! Do you have any suggestions for using iNaturalist or Seek to teach about biodiversity, taxonomy, or evolution?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 135.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1d3chd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "If I spin a marble on a smooth surface, it appears to slide along the plane. Is it rolling, is it actually sliding? I have a marble and I set it spinning horizontally to the desk.  The desk is slightly out of level.  The marble will move towards the lower part of the desk while continuing to spin.    If the marble wasn't spinning it would roll along this plane, but when it is spinning, it appears not roll, it looks like it is sliding.  What is actually happening?", "c_root_id_A": "c9mgz3n", "c_root_id_B": "c9mh8ay", "created_at_utc_A": 1366909466, "created_at_utc_B": 1366910121, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "It should be \"sliding\" because the angular momentum generated by spinning the marble will create torque that resists the molecule turning outside of the direction of its spin.", "human_ref_B": "Yeah, it can slide/skid. See how a bowling ball moves for an example of both sliding and rolling.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 655.0, "score_ratio": 1.4, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10xixt", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Exactly what do Turing Machines and UTM's offer to the field of computer science? What was the major significance of Turing's paper? Howdy, I wound up teaching an information and technology course at a secondary school in Africa, despite my background being in geography and philosophy. Now, we've had some set backs and our school doesn't have electricity to use our computers. To compensate, I've been teaching the history of computing hardware, mathematics, and technology in general. Today I finished up with the pre-electricity section... Monday I begin with computing technology in the early 20th century, and next week I'd like to focus on Turing if possible, because I find him very interesting.   The problem is, I don't understand a lot of the things I'm reading about him right now. For example, I have a rough understanding of what a Turing Machine is, and what a Universal Turing Machine is. I have a rough understanding of what he's getting at with it, but I'm not sure. So I guess my question is, what was so great about the Turing Machine theory? What was new about it? What previous theories/considerations/beliefs did Turing prove or disprove?  Would be very grateful of layman terms, as while I do understand some of it, my background isn't computer science.  Thanks!", "c_root_id_A": "c6hhfdt", "c_root_id_B": "c6hhbld", "created_at_utc_A": 1349351683, "created_at_utc_B": 1349350727, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Turing machine is a mathematical model of a computer. Essentially it makes it possible to apply formal mathematics to computers. So all the P=NP things and such are in the end pure mathematics.   Turing machine isn't something that is meant to be actually physically built. The purpose of doing that would either be purely educational so you understand better what it is, or to satisfy your inner geekiness.  There is something called the Church-Turing thesis which states that if any function is computable then it's computable with a Turing machine, as well as a few other similar formalisms which are in this respect equivalent to a Turing machine. The whole hypothesis is a bit vague and cannot really be even formally proven but is generally accepted.  As you probably know, a very important part of a Turing machine is the transition function. It tells you what the machine does when it encounters a specific symbol on the tape when the machine is in a specific state. The whole computer program you're running on the machine is encoded in this function. So with a particular Turing machine, you can only run a single program, the program that is in the transition function.  But a universal Turing machine is a machine that has as its program, in the transition function, a way to run any other Turing machine. As always with Turing machines, you put your input to the program on the tape. In this case you put on the tape an encoded version of the Turing machine you really want to run and the input for that. The universal Turing machine reads the encoded machine on the tape and emulates that. So the program in the transition function is really an emulator for a Turing machine which it reads from the tape.", "human_ref_B": "(Computer Scientist here)  For me they provide a better formal link between mathematics and computing. The Halting problem is essentially asking *can this question be answered computationally?*", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 956.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e7zn4ec", "c_root_id_B": "e7z57tg", "created_at_utc_A": 1539856070, "created_at_utc_B": 1539829930, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "It is not very hard to burn the waste yourself instead of carrying it into a volcano. And when it's done in a controlled fashion you can actually generate electricity from it, or make useful gas from it. You also prevent toxic gases from escaping.  Using strong chemicals would be a waste because making strong chemicals requires a lot of energy.", "human_ref_B": "Because burning mountains of plastic would dump so much carbon into the atmosphere that we may as well just jump into the volcanoes ourselves to save ourselves the trouble of collecting all of the trash that needs to be disposed of.  Dissolving the trash still releases toxic gases into the atmosphere, even with a fume hood over it. If not, there are still products made from the reactions, and now we have to get rid of that. All it does is waste time and money into converting trash into... still trash.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 26140.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e7z57tg", "c_root_id_B": "e7zpbvh", "created_at_utc_A": 1539829930, "created_at_utc_B": 1539860379, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 13, "human_ref_A": "Because burning mountains of plastic would dump so much carbon into the atmosphere that we may as well just jump into the volcanoes ourselves to save ourselves the trouble of collecting all of the trash that needs to be disposed of.  Dissolving the trash still releases toxic gases into the atmosphere, even with a fume hood over it. If not, there are still products made from the reactions, and now we have to get rid of that. All it does is waste time and money into converting trash into... still trash.", "human_ref_B": "All other considerations aside, there aren't very many active volcanoes, and they're not conveniently located. Even if this approach worked, it would be fabulously expensive to haul the world's trash thousands of miles to dump it into the handful of available volcanoes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 30449.0, "score_ratio": 3.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e80h0za", "c_root_id_B": "e7zvhmg", "created_at_utc_A": 1539886189, "created_at_utc_B": 1539868394, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "There exists a technology called the plasma arc furnace. They get exceedingly hot, like hotter than the surface of the sun, up to 13,000C near the arc.   A few of them exist around the world, and some of them are used to obliterate garbage, including dangerous compounds like dioxins and furans, and things like light nuclear waste (mops, contaminated clothing from power facilities).  The \"gas\" exhaust is water and typically CO or CO2, the solid waste left over is usually glass with some metals stuck in it.  Much better than a Volcano. Expensive to run though.", "human_ref_B": "Lava doesn't have any particular special properties, it's 2000 degrees F which is hot, but not any sort of super special hot that you can only get from lava. And we do burn trash already, without flying it in a plane to a remote one of a kind volcano and slowly hoping for it to erupt so we can throw it in some other country's lava hole so that it can start on hot but not extremely hot fire.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 17795.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e80h0za", "c_root_id_B": "e7z57tg", "created_at_utc_A": 1539886189, "created_at_utc_B": 1539829930, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "There exists a technology called the plasma arc furnace. They get exceedingly hot, like hotter than the surface of the sun, up to 13,000C near the arc.   A few of them exist around the world, and some of them are used to obliterate garbage, including dangerous compounds like dioxins and furans, and things like light nuclear waste (mops, contaminated clothing from power facilities).  The \"gas\" exhaust is water and typically CO or CO2, the solid waste left over is usually glass with some metals stuck in it.  Much better than a Volcano. Expensive to run though.", "human_ref_B": "Because burning mountains of plastic would dump so much carbon into the atmosphere that we may as well just jump into the volcanoes ourselves to save ourselves the trouble of collecting all of the trash that needs to be disposed of.  Dissolving the trash still releases toxic gases into the atmosphere, even with a fume hood over it. If not, there are still products made from the reactions, and now we have to get rid of that. All it does is waste time and money into converting trash into... still trash.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 56259.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e806byy", "c_root_id_B": "e80h0za", "created_at_utc_A": 1539877771, "created_at_utc_B": 1539886189, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "1. There aren't that many active volcanoes around. 2. Most active volcanoes don't have a convenient, cartoon-like pool of lava that you can chuck stuff into.   3. Even if they did, it would be pretty hazardous and labor-intensive to get the trash to the mouth of the volcano (so why not burn it somewhere more convenient instead?). 4. In the end, there are two possible outcomes. Some trash will burn, some won't. Whatever doesn't burn is now waste trapped inside a volcano, which isn't better than waste in a landfill (in fact it's worse because you can't easily get it back out, and the volcano will fill up pretty quickly). Whatever does burn, you could have burned somewhere else to generate electricity (and indeed this is what happens in a lot of places, including my own country, the Netherlands) and contain any possible hazardous fumes.", "human_ref_B": "There exists a technology called the plasma arc furnace. They get exceedingly hot, like hotter than the surface of the sun, up to 13,000C near the arc.   A few of them exist around the world, and some of them are used to obliterate garbage, including dangerous compounds like dioxins and furans, and things like light nuclear waste (mops, contaminated clothing from power facilities).  The \"gas\" exhaust is water and typically CO or CO2, the solid waste left over is usually glass with some metals stuck in it.  Much better than a Volcano. Expensive to run though.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8418.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e80373c", "c_root_id_B": "e80h0za", "created_at_utc_A": 1539875289, "created_at_utc_B": 1539886189, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Even if this were a good idea, at any given moment, there are maybe three or four places on Earth that have active liquid lava lakes you could dump stuff into.  All of them are in remote areas that are impossible to drive a truck to.", "human_ref_B": "There exists a technology called the plasma arc furnace. They get exceedingly hot, like hotter than the surface of the sun, up to 13,000C near the arc.   A few of them exist around the world, and some of them are used to obliterate garbage, including dangerous compounds like dioxins and furans, and things like light nuclear waste (mops, contaminated clothing from power facilities).  The \"gas\" exhaust is water and typically CO or CO2, the solid waste left over is usually glass with some metals stuck in it.  Much better than a Volcano. Expensive to run though.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10900.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e7ztufo", "c_root_id_B": "e7z57tg", "created_at_utc_A": 1539866600, "created_at_utc_B": 1539829930, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Around here we already do something that\u2019s a much *much* better idea (even disregarding the fact that nearest active volcanoes are thousands of kilometers away in a different country...) We sort the waste to combustible and noncombustible and burn the former locally in high-temperature incinerators and from the heat generate electricity and hot water to be distributed. The exhaust gases are filtered, of course, and the unburned slag can be reused as construction material such as road base layers.", "human_ref_B": "Because burning mountains of plastic would dump so much carbon into the atmosphere that we may as well just jump into the volcanoes ourselves to save ourselves the trouble of collecting all of the trash that needs to be disposed of.  Dissolving the trash still releases toxic gases into the atmosphere, even with a fume hood over it. If not, there are still products made from the reactions, and now we have to get rid of that. All it does is waste time and money into converting trash into... still trash.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 36670.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e7z57tg", "c_root_id_B": "e7zvhmg", "created_at_utc_A": 1539829930, "created_at_utc_B": 1539868394, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Because burning mountains of plastic would dump so much carbon into the atmosphere that we may as well just jump into the volcanoes ourselves to save ourselves the trouble of collecting all of the trash that needs to be disposed of.  Dissolving the trash still releases toxic gases into the atmosphere, even with a fume hood over it. If not, there are still products made from the reactions, and now we have to get rid of that. All it does is waste time and money into converting trash into... still trash.", "human_ref_B": "Lava doesn't have any particular special properties, it's 2000 degrees F which is hot, but not any sort of super special hot that you can only get from lava. And we do burn trash already, without flying it in a plane to a remote one of a kind volcano and slowly hoping for it to erupt so we can throw it in some other country's lava hole so that it can start on hot but not extremely hot fire.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 38464.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9p40yy", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.67, "history": "Why don't we throw trash in volcanoes instead of using landfills? What would this do to the environment? I guess the trash would break down in the lava but still be there in a different form?   Or better yet, use some sort of strong chemical to rid of the trash? This could be done inside of protective covering that filters the smoke/whatever it may be from polluting the air.", "c_root_id_A": "e806byy", "c_root_id_B": "e80373c", "created_at_utc_A": 1539877771, "created_at_utc_B": 1539875289, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "1. There aren't that many active volcanoes around. 2. Most active volcanoes don't have a convenient, cartoon-like pool of lava that you can chuck stuff into.   3. Even if they did, it would be pretty hazardous and labor-intensive to get the trash to the mouth of the volcano (so why not burn it somewhere more convenient instead?). 4. In the end, there are two possible outcomes. Some trash will burn, some won't. Whatever doesn't burn is now waste trapped inside a volcano, which isn't better than waste in a landfill (in fact it's worse because you can't easily get it back out, and the volcano will fill up pretty quickly). Whatever does burn, you could have burned somewhere else to generate electricity (and indeed this is what happens in a lot of places, including my own country, the Netherlands) and contain any possible hazardous fumes.", "human_ref_B": "Even if this were a good idea, at any given moment, there are maybe three or four places on Earth that have active liquid lava lakes you could dump stuff into.  All of them are in remote areas that are impossible to drive a truck to.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2482.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n8ftd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens to light when it enters a black hole? If I were to bombard a black hole with a huge number of photons, would the black hole behave any differently afterwards? Would I be able to measure any differences in terms of mass/event horizon?", "c_root_id_A": "c372mpo", "c_root_id_B": "c374q59", "created_at_utc_A": 1323610438, "created_at_utc_B": 1323631081, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The black hole becomes slightly heavier. Other than that, nothing happens.", "human_ref_B": "The black hole will get heavier, but no significant changes.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 20643.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "n8ftd", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.92, "history": "What happens to light when it enters a black hole? If I were to bombard a black hole with a huge number of photons, would the black hole behave any differently afterwards? Would I be able to measure any differences in terms of mass/event horizon?", "c_root_id_A": "c372mpo", "c_root_id_B": "c377ld4", "created_at_utc_A": 1323610438, "created_at_utc_B": 1323649897, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The black hole becomes slightly heavier. Other than that, nothing happens.", "human_ref_B": "Well as its time and position components become more certain as it approaches singularity its energy and momentum become increasingly uncertain, this partially accounts for some discrepancies between the predicated energies of the relativistic jets.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 39459.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "v21cg", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.9, "history": "What exactly is happening when I mishear someone, then understand what they said a second later? I'm sure it's happened to everyone: you misunderstand something someone said, then a moment later your brain reinterprets things and gives you the actual content of what they said.  The corrected thing they said actually seems to echo in your mind, as if you heard it.  Is there any name for this weird phenomenon or how it works within the brain?", "c_root_id_A": "c50mqx6", "c_root_id_B": "c50nm58", "created_at_utc_A": 1339702281, "created_at_utc_B": 1339705389, "score_A": -10, "score_B": 72, "human_ref_A": "I always have this happening, even when I can hear them (my wife for instance) perfectly clearly, it just comes in my ear as meaningless babble, even though it's loud enough.  I hope you get a great answer.  EDIT:I wasn't making a joke, this is actually a problem I'm having.  Background noise makes it significantly more difficult, even at low volume.    I should have realized it sounded like a bad joke when I wrote it though, I'm sorry for that.", "human_ref_B": "What you're talking about is likely a function of bottom-up \\(data driven\\) and top-down (conceptually driven) processing in your auditory system. Put another way, bottom-up processing involves crunching the raw auditory signals; in this case, the phonemes that make up what the other person is saying. At the same time, your top-down processes involve interpreting signals based on the context of what's going on, who the person is, what they're likely to say, etc.--this is what helps you interpret the auditory info.  So when you hear somebody and initially misunderstand, it may be because you initially misheard the bottom-up signals, but then your top-down processing kicked in to provide context and allow you to comprehend what's being said.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3108.0, "score_ratio": -7.2, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13ip40", "c_root_id_B": "c13j7vs", "created_at_utc_A": 1288128698, "created_at_utc_B": 1288137712, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "IAmNotAScientist  Sure, but you lose out on time of execution. On the simplest level, what you're talking about can be simplified to an emulator, and there are plenty of these already. However all of them come with a hefty performance penalties, so usually you'll be emulating much weaker hardware on more powerful one, or run the emulation in slow mode.  As for an accurate simulation of physics, the first and obvious requirement is a full understanding of rules governing the universe - otherwise all the machine will produce will be an approximation. Even then, there exists an upper limit to the processing power of a machine that can theoretically be built - one paper concerning this is  http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9908043 , discussing the maximum processing power of a 1kg 1liter laptop, another one that I cannot find right now was calculating the total processing power of the universe.  If these papers are correct, then any simulated universe will have to have total processing power smaller or equal to ours (otherwise the machine could simulate itself, but with a larger processing power, and use that simulation to calculate, therefore having infinite processing power (after enough iterations), so there is no limit to processing power of the universe, qed). That means it would either 'run slower' (of course, only in relation to our time), or be smaller.", "human_ref_B": "Any computer can model itself if it has enough memory..  Its just a question of how quickly it can do it.  Basically, all computers can be modeled as turing machines, and all turing machines can be made to run other turing machines if given their instructions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9014.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j7vs", "c_root_id_B": "c13iqjx", "created_at_utc_A": 1288137712, "created_at_utc_B": 1288129310, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Any computer can model itself if it has enough memory..  Its just a question of how quickly it can do it.  Basically, all computers can be modeled as turing machines, and all turing machines can be made to run other turing machines if given their instructions.", "human_ref_B": "Yes. We call them \"computers\". Just like a person will always perfectly model their own behavior just by existing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 8402.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j7vs", "c_root_id_B": "c13iv94", "created_at_utc_A": 1288137712, "created_at_utc_B": 1288131412, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Any computer can model itself if it has enough memory..  Its just a question of how quickly it can do it.  Basically, all computers can be modeled as turing machines, and all turing machines can be made to run other turing machines if given their instructions.", "human_ref_B": "Can Jesus microwave a burrito so hot even he himself could not eat it?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6300.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j7vs", "c_root_id_B": "c13ixr5", "created_at_utc_A": 1288137712, "created_at_utc_B": 1288132546, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Any computer can model itself if it has enough memory..  Its just a question of how quickly it can do it.  Basically, all computers can be modeled as turing machines, and all turing machines can be made to run other turing machines if given their instructions.", "human_ref_B": "Even if you could, wouldn't you end up in an infinite loop? The computer would have to simulate itself simulating itself, simulating itself, ...", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5166.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j0zb", "c_root_id_B": "c13j7vs", "created_at_utc_A": 1288134365, "created_at_utc_B": 1288137712, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "No. Each inny-computer atom that the computer is simulating requires at least one atom from the outy-computer.", "human_ref_B": "Any computer can model itself if it has enough memory..  Its just a question of how quickly it can do it.  Basically, all computers can be modeled as turing machines, and all turing machines can be made to run other turing machines if given their instructions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3347.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j7vs", "c_root_id_B": "c13j0kg", "created_at_utc_A": 1288137712, "created_at_utc_B": 1288134149, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Any computer can model itself if it has enough memory..  Its just a question of how quickly it can do it.  Basically, all computers can be modeled as turing machines, and all turing machines can be made to run other turing machines if given their instructions.", "human_ref_B": "At least if the memory doesn't have to be simulated or only a small part of it, it seems pretty sure that a computer could simulate itself(with some degree of accuracy) if the physical laws in questions are sufficiently local. The program only needs to do some kind of finite element analysis of the local physical states(of silicon, for instance), and can then do so over the whole cpu repeatedly making the simulation go forward.  If one has to simulate the entire memory, the issue arises that each simulated physical bit is going to take more than one bits. (Edit: compression can fix it? Whole problem wide open again, maybe it can.)  More interesting to me is what the answer for a QM computer is.(Also if it doesn't need to simulate the memory) (I have no idea)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3563.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j7vs", "c_root_id_B": "c13intu", "created_at_utc_A": 1288137712, "created_at_utc_B": 1288128120, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Any computer can model itself if it has enough memory..  Its just a question of how quickly it can do it.  Basically, all computers can be modeled as turing machines, and all turing machines can be made to run other turing machines if given their instructions.", "human_ref_B": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 9592.0, "score_ratio": 7000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13ip40", "c_root_id_B": "c13intu", "created_at_utc_A": 1288128698, "created_at_utc_B": 1288128120, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "IAmNotAScientist  Sure, but you lose out on time of execution. On the simplest level, what you're talking about can be simplified to an emulator, and there are plenty of these already. However all of them come with a hefty performance penalties, so usually you'll be emulating much weaker hardware on more powerful one, or run the emulation in slow mode.  As for an accurate simulation of physics, the first and obvious requirement is a full understanding of rules governing the universe - otherwise all the machine will produce will be an approximation. Even then, there exists an upper limit to the processing power of a machine that can theoretically be built - one paper concerning this is  http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9908043 , discussing the maximum processing power of a 1kg 1liter laptop, another one that I cannot find right now was calculating the total processing power of the universe.  If these papers are correct, then any simulated universe will have to have total processing power smaller or equal to ours (otherwise the machine could simulate itself, but with a larger processing power, and use that simulation to calculate, therefore having infinite processing power (after enough iterations), so there is no limit to processing power of the universe, qed). That means it would either 'run slower' (of course, only in relation to our time), or be smaller.", "human_ref_B": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 578.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13mi9m", "c_root_id_B": "c13iqjx", "created_at_utc_A": 1288207471, "created_at_utc_B": 1288129310, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "You could certainly emulate your computer in software.  Of course, it wouldn't run at anything like realtime.  People make simulated computers all the time, even in Minecraft.", "human_ref_B": "Yes. We call them \"computers\". Just like a person will always perfectly model their own behavior just by existing.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 78161.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13iqjx", "c_root_id_B": "c13intu", "created_at_utc_A": 1288129310, "created_at_utc_B": 1288128120, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Yes. We call them \"computers\". Just like a person will always perfectly model their own behavior just by existing.", "human_ref_B": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1190.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13mi9m", "c_root_id_B": "c13iv94", "created_at_utc_A": 1288207471, "created_at_utc_B": 1288131412, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "You could certainly emulate your computer in software.  Of course, it wouldn't run at anything like realtime.  People make simulated computers all the time, even in Minecraft.", "human_ref_B": "Can Jesus microwave a burrito so hot even he himself could not eat it?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 76059.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13ixr5", "c_root_id_B": "c13mi9m", "created_at_utc_A": 1288132546, "created_at_utc_B": 1288207471, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Even if you could, wouldn't you end up in an infinite loop? The computer would have to simulate itself simulating itself, simulating itself, ...", "human_ref_B": "You could certainly emulate your computer in software.  Of course, it wouldn't run at anything like realtime.  People make simulated computers all the time, even in Minecraft.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 74925.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j0zb", "c_root_id_B": "c13mi9m", "created_at_utc_A": 1288134365, "created_at_utc_B": 1288207471, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "No. Each inny-computer atom that the computer is simulating requires at least one atom from the outy-computer.", "human_ref_B": "You could certainly emulate your computer in software.  Of course, it wouldn't run at anything like realtime.  People make simulated computers all the time, even in Minecraft.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 73106.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j0kg", "c_root_id_B": "c13mi9m", "created_at_utc_A": 1288134149, "created_at_utc_B": 1288207471, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "At least if the memory doesn't have to be simulated or only a small part of it, it seems pretty sure that a computer could simulate itself(with some degree of accuracy) if the physical laws in questions are sufficiently local. The program only needs to do some kind of finite element analysis of the local physical states(of silicon, for instance), and can then do so over the whole cpu repeatedly making the simulation go forward.  If one has to simulate the entire memory, the issue arises that each simulated physical bit is going to take more than one bits. (Edit: compression can fix it? Whole problem wide open again, maybe it can.)  More interesting to me is what the answer for a QM computer is.(Also if it doesn't need to simulate the memory) (I have no idea)", "human_ref_B": "You could certainly emulate your computer in software.  Of course, it wouldn't run at anything like realtime.  People make simulated computers all the time, even in Minecraft.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 73322.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13mi9m", "c_root_id_B": "c13krwo", "created_at_utc_A": 1288207471, "created_at_utc_B": 1288174962, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "You could certainly emulate your computer in software.  Of course, it wouldn't run at anything like realtime.  People make simulated computers all the time, even in Minecraft.", "human_ref_B": "People run simulations of computers running programs all the time.  These *emulations* are not based on physical simulation, but on models of the computer hardware.  An emulator can take the emulation program and run it, no problem. This could be done ad infinitum.  At some point, your actual computer will run out of memory and the emulation will run awfully slowly, but hey, plug in some more memory and you can keep going!", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32509.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13intu", "c_root_id_B": "c13mi9m", "created_at_utc_A": 1288128120, "created_at_utc_B": 1288207471, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "human_ref_B": "You could certainly emulate your computer in software.  Of course, it wouldn't run at anything like realtime.  People make simulated computers all the time, even in Minecraft.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 79351.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13intu", "c_root_id_B": "c13iv94", "created_at_utc_A": 1288128120, "created_at_utc_B": 1288131412, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "human_ref_B": "Can Jesus microwave a burrito so hot even he himself could not eat it?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3292.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13intu", "c_root_id_B": "c13ixr5", "created_at_utc_A": 1288128120, "created_at_utc_B": 1288132546, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "human_ref_B": "Even if you could, wouldn't you end up in an infinite loop? The computer would have to simulate itself simulating itself, simulating itself, ...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4426.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j0kg", "c_root_id_B": "c13j0zb", "created_at_utc_A": 1288134149, "created_at_utc_B": 1288134365, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "At least if the memory doesn't have to be simulated or only a small part of it, it seems pretty sure that a computer could simulate itself(with some degree of accuracy) if the physical laws in questions are sufficiently local. The program only needs to do some kind of finite element analysis of the local physical states(of silicon, for instance), and can then do so over the whole cpu repeatedly making the simulation go forward.  If one has to simulate the entire memory, the issue arises that each simulated physical bit is going to take more than one bits. (Edit: compression can fix it? Whole problem wide open again, maybe it can.)  More interesting to me is what the answer for a QM computer is.(Also if it doesn't need to simulate the memory) (I have no idea)", "human_ref_B": "No. Each inny-computer atom that the computer is simulating requires at least one atom from the outy-computer.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 216.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13intu", "c_root_id_B": "c13j0zb", "created_at_utc_A": 1288128120, "created_at_utc_B": 1288134365, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "human_ref_B": "No. Each inny-computer atom that the computer is simulating requires at least one atom from the outy-computer.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6245.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13j0kg", "c_root_id_B": "c13intu", "created_at_utc_A": 1288134149, "created_at_utc_B": 1288128120, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "At least if the memory doesn't have to be simulated or only a small part of it, it seems pretty sure that a computer could simulate itself(with some degree of accuracy) if the physical laws in questions are sufficiently local. The program only needs to do some kind of finite element analysis of the local physical states(of silicon, for instance), and can then do so over the whole cpu repeatedly making the simulation go forward.  If one has to simulate the entire memory, the issue arises that each simulated physical bit is going to take more than one bits. (Edit: compression can fix it? Whole problem wide open again, maybe it can.)  More interesting to me is what the answer for a QM computer is.(Also if it doesn't need to simulate the memory) (I have no idea)", "human_ref_B": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6029.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "dwtki", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Could there be a computer powerful enough to run a simulation of itself? If we had a computer that could accurately model physical reality, would you be able to build a simulated version of a computer that could run programs, do calculations etc? Would it work? And if you could do that, it then follows that you could build a simulated version of the computer actually running the simulation... Does this idea even make sense?", "c_root_id_A": "c13krwo", "c_root_id_B": "c13intu", "created_at_utc_A": 1288174962, "created_at_utc_B": 1288128120, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "People run simulations of computers running programs all the time.  These *emulations* are not based on physical simulation, but on models of the computer hardware.  An emulator can take the emulation program and run it, no problem. This could be done ad infinitum.  At some point, your actual computer will run out of memory and the emulation will run awfully slowly, but hey, plug in some more memory and you can keep going!", "human_ref_B": "The first part of what you describe is already possible.  There are a couple of games out there, Dwarf Fortress and Minecraft, that are simple reality simulators.  You start with raw resources, refine them in various ways to get more advanced goods, and assemble them together in various ways.   In both games, people have found ways to build basic logic circuits, then use those circuits to build very simple computers...simple like an adding machine.  There is no reason in principle you couldn't build increasingly complex computers in this way, until you simulated the computer you were running on.    In practice, it would be exceedingly difficult.  This sort of simulation is very inefficient...it probably takes over a million real logic circuits to run a physical simulations of a single virtual one.  Even if you pulled it off, the simulation would run millions of times more slowly than the original.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 46842.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "mbxl0", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "If the moon orbits the earth, and the earth orbits the sun, what does the sun orbit? I know the best guess is a \"black hole\".  But there are many black holes, and if we were close enough to one that it affects the sun... wouldn't it suck in all the light? Would this depend on its size? Forgive me I know how ignorant this must sound but cosmology and the universe is a very recent obsession for me.  Also, if you'd like to take a swing at singularity or the \"edge of our universe\", please. Please. I feel so small. Also, wormholes.  What the astronomical fuck.", "c_root_id_A": "c2zp0di", "c_root_id_B": "c2zozfl", "created_at_utc_A": 1321290272, "created_at_utc_B": 1321290080, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Fundamentally, the Sun orbits the centre of the galaxy. Our galaxy - the Milky Way - is made up of hundreds of billions of stars, and these (plus interstellar gas and dark matter) provide enough mass and gravity to keep our Sun in a nice fairly-circular orbit.  There *is* a supermassive black hole in the centre of the galaxy, but it's a fraction of a percent of the mass of the whole galaxy, so its gravity isn't really important until you get close to it. One more note on black holes - you can indeed have a nice stable orbit around a black hole. You have to get *really* close to a black hole for there to be any danger. In fact, a black hole has gravity as strong as any other object of the same mass. So if we replaced the Sun with a black hole with exactly the same mass, we'd still orbit around it quite happily.  Have a look here: http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/fv8om/what_is_the_center_of_the_universe_did_the/ for your question about the \"edge of the universe\"", "human_ref_B": "The center of the Milky Way galaxy. There is a really big black hole there, but that's not specifically what the sun orbits.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 192.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l8g5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why are our circadian rhythms longer than 24 hours? I've read that most people's circadian rhythms are slightly longer than 24 hours and has to regularly be \"reset\" by exposure to outdoor light. Why wouldn't our biologically rhythms be synced more closely to the 24 hour day? Is there any reason for this?", "c_root_id_A": "clsu06e", "c_root_id_B": "clsj0a7", "created_at_utc_A": 1415124668, "created_at_utc_B": 1415093845, "score_A": 33, "score_B": 32, "human_ref_A": "The short answer is we don't know exactly why that trait evolved, but it does have an effect on the alignment of circadian and sleep/wake cycles relative to the natural light/dark cycle.  **The average human circadian period is about 24.15 hours, but differs slightly between individuals**  First, as others have noted, the persistent idea that our intrinsic circadian period (i.e., the period we express in the absence of any time cues) is 25 hours is incorrect. This was shown to be incorrect about 20 years ago, yet maddeningly still appears in places like undergraduate psychology textbooks.   This number was obtained from experiments in which individuals lived in isolation from environmental time cues *but* were able to decide when to switch on/off the lights in their own living environment. This resulted in a feedback whereby light caused delays of the rhythm, effectively extending the period.  When all time cues *and* stimuli that affect the circadian clock are carefully removed, most humans express circadian rhythms within a small range around 24.15 hours. There are small individual differences in the circadian period. On average, females have slightly shorter periods, and on average the longer your circadian period the more your tendency towards going to bed later. While healthy individuals all tend to fall within a range of ~23.5 hours to ~24.7 hours, some studies have suggested that individuals with Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder can have longer periods (around 25 hours).  **So long as your period is sufficiently close to your day-length, you can synchronize**  Humans aren't unique in having a non-24-hour intrinsic circadian period. Some species have 24.5 hour periods on average, others have 23.5 hour periods on average. The important thing, from a functional perspective, is that the period is close enough to the day-length (24.0 hours in the case of Earth) to allow the circadian rhythm to be entrained (synchronized).  The circadian clock responds to certain environmental time cues, such as temperature and light. In humans, light is by far the most important factor in changing the timing of the clock. Our brain's master circadian clock is a group of cells in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which lies just above the optic chiasm and receives inputs directly from the retina.  Depending on when in the circadian cycle you are exposed to light, the circadian clock responds differently. Light exposure early in the circadian day (i.e., in the hours around the time you would naturally awaken) **advances** the clock, or sets it forward. Light exposure in the late evening approaching bedtime and in the hours after bedtime **delays** the clock, or sets it backwards. This is partly why artificial light exposure at nighttime tends to cause people to have later circadian rhythms and more difficulty getting to bed early or waking up early (in addition, light exposure suppresses the nighttime release of the sleep-promoting hormone melatonin).  There is a maximum amount by which a block of daytime light can shift your circadian rhythm each day, which is around about 2 hours of advance or 3 hours of delay. This means an individual with an intrinsic circadian period of 24 hours could theoretically entrain to day lengths from about 22-27 hours, but in practice it would be extremely difficult and would require very carefully designed light exposure patterns towards either end of that range, due to the amount of resetting required.  As an example, this experiment attempted to entrain humans to a day length 1 hour longer than their intrinsic circadian period. Ordinary room light (100 lux) was sufficient to entrain the participants, but most failed to entrain using dimmer light (20 lux). Candlelight (1.5 lux) is sufficient to entrain most individuals to a 24.0 hour day, but not to a 23.5 hour day or a 24.6 hour (**Mars**) day.  **The circadian period determines how the circadian rhythm is aligned with the natural light/dark cycle**  The take-home message from the above is that if your circadian period is anywhere close to 24 hours (let's say about 23-25 hours), you're not going to have any difficulty entraining to the natural 24-hour light/dark cycle given a bright light source like the Sun. You might therefore say that close enough is good enough and there's no functional difference between a 23.8-hour period and a 24.2-hour period.  *However*, the difference is in where light exposure must occur in the cycle to achieve entrainment. An individual with a circadian period shorter than 24 hours needs more light exposure in their circadian evening than their circadian morning to achieve net phase delay each day. As a result, their circadian cycle will be aligned *earlier* relative to the natural light/dark cycle, so that more of the light exposure occurs relatively later in their circadian cycle.  Similarly, an individual with a period longer than 24 hours needs more light exposure in their circadian morning than their circadian evening to achieve net phase advance each day. As a result, their circadian cycle will be aligned *later* relative to the natural light/dark cycle, so that more of the light exposure occurs relatively earlier in their circadian cycle.  Your natural circadian period therefore has an important functional role in determining when you would naturally wake up and go to sleep relative to the natural light/dark cycle. Although, let's be clear that it's certainly not the only factor. For example, there is a tendency for humans (and many other mammalian species) to go to sleep later in adolescence. This may not be due to a significant lengthening of the circadian period, which seems to be quite stable across the lifespan, but rather to a change in the rate at which sleepiness builds up across the day.  If we look at different species, which each have different intrinsic circadian periods, they all occupy slightly different *temporal niches*. By this, I mean they are active during specific parts of the day, depending on a variety of ecological and biological factors, including how food availability varies throughout the day, how their predation risk varies throughout the day, and their own sensitivity to ambient temperature. One of the ways in which this timing difference is achieved is via differences in the circadian period.  We can therefore speculate that our period of ~24.15 hours was selected due to it being in some way well-suited to our ancestral environment. People have also sometimes speculated that the natural variation in circadian period between individuals within a population ensures that different individuals are going to bed and waking up at slightly different times, allowing them to keep watch for the others, but again we're limited to speculation when it comes to determining *why* traits like this evolved.", "human_ref_B": "The old \"25 hour circadian rhythm\" finding has been shown repeatedly by Charles Cseizler and others] to not hold up to further testing. In Fact, Here's a study which shows that we have circadian rhthms incredibly close to 24 hours and, if anything, women may have circadian rhythms just under 24 hours.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 30823.0, "score_ratio": 1.03125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2l8g5k", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Why are our circadian rhythms longer than 24 hours? I've read that most people's circadian rhythms are slightly longer than 24 hours and has to regularly be \"reset\" by exposure to outdoor light. Why wouldn't our biologically rhythms be synced more closely to the 24 hour day? Is there any reason for this?", "c_root_id_A": "clsnhc4", "c_root_id_B": "clsu06e", "created_at_utc_A": 1415112275, "created_at_utc_B": 1415124668, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 33, "human_ref_A": "Not the best explanation because I am currently super busy working in the lab, but Sleep scientist here. Although circiadian timing is not my thing, ill give it a basic go:  Not everyone has this. Some people are arrhythmic, closer to 24hr or passed 24hr. It has to do with the way the biological clock can be reset via the light hitting the eye and synapsing onto the SCN (suprachiasmic nucleus). this will reset our clock  Mutated mice that are arhythmic really just free run, but they become quite ill  - organs fail etc.  You can also train or reset the clock with eating as well - this has been shown in mice (in absense of light)  It all comes down to the genes regulating cells as well. Clock genes (per, cry, clock, bmal) can regulate the expression of particular proteins leading to the cells/body \"sensing\" time.  Here is an example  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XzcdZ-MAyus  healthy people have pretty close to 24 hours - hence all the information above working well.  The blind however are often arrhythmic. Since it is not reset they often free run and slowly move \"around the clock\" when they sleep.", "human_ref_B": "The short answer is we don't know exactly why that trait evolved, but it does have an effect on the alignment of circadian and sleep/wake cycles relative to the natural light/dark cycle.  **The average human circadian period is about 24.15 hours, but differs slightly between individuals**  First, as others have noted, the persistent idea that our intrinsic circadian period (i.e., the period we express in the absence of any time cues) is 25 hours is incorrect. This was shown to be incorrect about 20 years ago, yet maddeningly still appears in places like undergraduate psychology textbooks.   This number was obtained from experiments in which individuals lived in isolation from environmental time cues *but* were able to decide when to switch on/off the lights in their own living environment. This resulted in a feedback whereby light caused delays of the rhythm, effectively extending the period.  When all time cues *and* stimuli that affect the circadian clock are carefully removed, most humans express circadian rhythms within a small range around 24.15 hours. There are small individual differences in the circadian period. On average, females have slightly shorter periods, and on average the longer your circadian period the more your tendency towards going to bed later. While healthy individuals all tend to fall within a range of ~23.5 hours to ~24.7 hours, some studies have suggested that individuals with Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder can have longer periods (around 25 hours).  **So long as your period is sufficiently close to your day-length, you can synchronize**  Humans aren't unique in having a non-24-hour intrinsic circadian period. Some species have 24.5 hour periods on average, others have 23.5 hour periods on average. The important thing, from a functional perspective, is that the period is close enough to the day-length (24.0 hours in the case of Earth) to allow the circadian rhythm to be entrained (synchronized).  The circadian clock responds to certain environmental time cues, such as temperature and light. In humans, light is by far the most important factor in changing the timing of the clock. Our brain's master circadian clock is a group of cells in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which lies just above the optic chiasm and receives inputs directly from the retina.  Depending on when in the circadian cycle you are exposed to light, the circadian clock responds differently. Light exposure early in the circadian day (i.e., in the hours around the time you would naturally awaken) **advances** the clock, or sets it forward. Light exposure in the late evening approaching bedtime and in the hours after bedtime **delays** the clock, or sets it backwards. This is partly why artificial light exposure at nighttime tends to cause people to have later circadian rhythms and more difficulty getting to bed early or waking up early (in addition, light exposure suppresses the nighttime release of the sleep-promoting hormone melatonin).  There is a maximum amount by which a block of daytime light can shift your circadian rhythm each day, which is around about 2 hours of advance or 3 hours of delay. This means an individual with an intrinsic circadian period of 24 hours could theoretically entrain to day lengths from about 22-27 hours, but in practice it would be extremely difficult and would require very carefully designed light exposure patterns towards either end of that range, due to the amount of resetting required.  As an example, this experiment attempted to entrain humans to a day length 1 hour longer than their intrinsic circadian period. Ordinary room light (100 lux) was sufficient to entrain the participants, but most failed to entrain using dimmer light (20 lux). Candlelight (1.5 lux) is sufficient to entrain most individuals to a 24.0 hour day, but not to a 23.5 hour day or a 24.6 hour (**Mars**) day.  **The circadian period determines how the circadian rhythm is aligned with the natural light/dark cycle**  The take-home message from the above is that if your circadian period is anywhere close to 24 hours (let's say about 23-25 hours), you're not going to have any difficulty entraining to the natural 24-hour light/dark cycle given a bright light source like the Sun. You might therefore say that close enough is good enough and there's no functional difference between a 23.8-hour period and a 24.2-hour period.  *However*, the difference is in where light exposure must occur in the cycle to achieve entrainment. An individual with a circadian period shorter than 24 hours needs more light exposure in their circadian evening than their circadian morning to achieve net phase delay each day. As a result, their circadian cycle will be aligned *earlier* relative to the natural light/dark cycle, so that more of the light exposure occurs relatively later in their circadian cycle.  Similarly, an individual with a period longer than 24 hours needs more light exposure in their circadian morning than their circadian evening to achieve net phase advance each day. As a result, their circadian cycle will be aligned *later* relative to the natural light/dark cycle, so that more of the light exposure occurs relatively earlier in their circadian cycle.  Your natural circadian period therefore has an important functional role in determining when you would naturally wake up and go to sleep relative to the natural light/dark cycle. Although, let's be clear that it's certainly not the only factor. For example, there is a tendency for humans (and many other mammalian species) to go to sleep later in adolescence. This may not be due to a significant lengthening of the circadian period, which seems to be quite stable across the lifespan, but rather to a change in the rate at which sleepiness builds up across the day.  If we look at different species, which each have different intrinsic circadian periods, they all occupy slightly different *temporal niches*. By this, I mean they are active during specific parts of the day, depending on a variety of ecological and biological factors, including how food availability varies throughout the day, how their predation risk varies throughout the day, and their own sensitivity to ambient temperature. One of the ways in which this timing difference is achieved is via differences in the circadian period.  We can therefore speculate that our period of ~24.15 hours was selected due to it being in some way well-suited to our ancestral environment. People have also sometimes speculated that the natural variation in circadian period between individuals within a population ensures that different individuals are going to bed and waking up at slightly different times, allowing them to keep watch for the others, but again we're limited to speculation when it comes to determining *why* traits like this evolved.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12393.0, "score_ratio": 6.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "d78nv5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.83, "history": "How do non-rechargeable batteries get charged the first time?", "c_root_id_A": "f0ychqz", "c_root_id_B": "f0ye4jt", "created_at_utc_A": 1569066545, "created_at_utc_B": 1569067930, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 25, "human_ref_A": "Alkaline Batteries have a cathode (zinc) and anode (manganese) on either end of the battery. The space between these two nodes is filled with an electrolyte that allows for the movement of electrons. A chemical reaction is also occurring in the battery that is generating electrons. The creation of the electrons results in a positive and negative end of the batter, these electrons want to move towards the positive/less negative side of the battery but can\u2019t due to the way the battery is built. However when you connect the battery to a circuit the electrons now have a path to reach the positive end of the battery and this results in electron flow and how things are powered. When the chemical reaction that is generating the charge stops  the battery is dead. So they are charged the first time when they are filled with the unreacted chemicals.", "human_ref_B": "They are not charged , instead the electrolytes and electrodes are placed in a arrangement such that the resulting electrochemical reaction creates a potential difference between electrodes.   It's no different than putting together charcoal , potassium nitrates etc. To make gunpowder.  Non-rechargeble batteries produce their \"charge\" by converting the energy in chemical bonds of its constituents into electrical energy. Those substances may get their chemical energy from whatever process was used to manufacture those chemicals.   They are not specifically charged by applying any charging current, it's just how it's made like the lemon juice and zinc electrode battery you made in science fair at school  The only difference from rechargeable battery is that rechargeable batteries can reverse that chemical reaction if applied voltage is greater than their produced voltage.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1385.0, "score_ratio": 3.5714285714, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "42cw92", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Everyone hates mosquitoes, but would there be any negative side effects if we got rid of them all? I'm pretty sure most of us heard that scientists are looking into the extinction of mosquitoes by breeding the male mosquitoes to be sterile. I was just wondering would there be any negative effects of this happening or if it's all just one big positive?", "c_root_id_A": "czb4nr9", "c_root_id_B": "cz9dzdg", "created_at_utc_A": 1453722945, "created_at_utc_B": 1453588794, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It was done in Russia, around 60-70, IIRC. They spray some chemicals over lakes, where newly born mosquito live. This chemicals created thin layer over water surface that didn't allow larvae to breath. This resulted in reducing population of mosquitoes by 90% in next year.   But in two years - fish population declined also by 90%. This is because newborn fish feeds on mosquito larvae. And on next year mammals population (that eat fish) also declined. Bears and other big carnivore animals suffered the most.    So you can't get rid of all mosquitoes - they are part of huge food chain.", "human_ref_B": "> I'm pretty sure most of us heard that scientists are looking into the extinction of mosquitoes by breeding the male mosquitoes  There was an article published about that in 1955!  >  I was just wondering would there be any negative effects of this happening or if it's all just one big positive?  There are non-target effects of chemical control and of biological control. Whatever mechanism we use to target the mozzie may affect other species, probably similar species, and the effect can be minor or major and not always predictable. This is in addition to the secondary ecological effects of the loss of mozzies as Kegnaught explains in their comment.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 134151.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "za5sr", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Why can bugs and spiders move so much faster than humans, proportionally speaking?  I was watching a spider on an outdoor table and noticed that it moves so fast, I can barely see it move.  Why can't humans go the same speed but proportional to our size? How much energy does a spider go through in order to be able to move that fast?", "c_root_id_A": "c62vomf", "c_root_id_B": "c633t0u", "created_at_utc_A": 1346695024, "created_at_utc_B": 1346728136, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Follow up: If a human was scaled down to say, 1 cm tall, how high would he or she be able to jump?  How much weight would he or she be able to lift?", "human_ref_B": "A spider's movement also aids its \"respiration\".  Essentially, the act of moving causes air to pass trough trachea (which are air passages through out its body that open up in its exoskeleton).  Spiders also use book lungs and larger trachea for manual respiration, but its the \"passive\" respiration that allows them to move so fast with out tiring.  FURTHERMORE, spiders walk using hydrostatic pressure.  Someone described it like this; imagine having eight penises for legs, and you can control how much fluid is in each one.  Spiders don't use muscles to extend their legs, they only use muscles to flex them.  SO, the more pressure forced on the legs, the faster they can be extended.  The spider increases the pressure by increasing its heart rate.  The faster its heart beats, the more pressure is forced into the legs, the faster they can extend.  So, how can its keep its heart rate up long enough to move so quickly for meaningful distances?  THEY BREATHE JUST BY MOVING, REMEMBER?!!!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 33112.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1qt5q9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "An acidic mouth is bad for your teeth. What if we let our mouths become more basic?", "c_root_id_A": "cdgaiat", "c_root_id_B": "cdgcnzx", "created_at_utc_A": 1384683278, "created_at_utc_B": 1384698411, "score_A": 11, "score_B": 108, "human_ref_A": "I know from popular culture a well known folk tooth protector is baking soda, based on this reasoning.  http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091027132424.htm  But alkaline substances can damage your teeth too.  I'd definitely appreciate a scientific perspective on the effects of more mildly alkaline substances.", "human_ref_B": "Too acidic - demineralization of the enamel which results in cavities  Too alkaline - mineralization of the bacterial plaque's matrix resulting accumulation of tartar which irritates the gingiva.   The pH of your mouth has to be just about right, not too acidic, not too alkaline, but somewhere around 7. That's not always possible given our diets and not brushing or flossing after a more acidic meal or using chewing gum.   Brushing your teeth with baking soda is terrible for the enamel (I have seen people do this), it could be used as a mouthwash (the ratio is 1/2 teaspoon dissolved in 200ml of lukewarm water) to buffer the acidity.   The direction we should be heading towards is not making our mouths more alkaline but rather reducing the acidity so the pH doesn't drop below 5.5 which is the critical pH of enamel demineralization.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15133.0, "score_ratio": 9.8181818182, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "8krqtm", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "[Biology] Why do Mosquitos like some humans better than others?", "c_root_id_A": "dzbg2x2", "c_root_id_B": "dzbhtuy", "created_at_utc_A": 1526877018, "created_at_utc_B": 1526879797, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "As to why do Mosquito like some humans better there is youtube video explaning it might be genes https://youtu.be/38gVZgE39K8  As to how mosquitos detect it's prey it'is for a CO2 that we and other animals are breathing out. How exactly, that i don't know. If you are interested there are videos that show how to make traps from baking soda and bootles.", "human_ref_B": "There have been studies done that showed mosquitos prefer 0 blood. A 2004 quantified the landing pattern of the Aedes albopictus and noted the percent landing pattern on O blood was 83.3% compared to A group 46.5%. It seems there is a preferential attraction to blood group O secretors(H antigen) over A secretors(A antigen)", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2779.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4biao9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Can we still see depth when covering one eye?", "c_root_id_A": "d19exvr", "c_root_id_B": "d19gxr9", "created_at_utc_A": 1458670109, "created_at_utc_B": 1458672726, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Yes, you can use what are called monocular cues:  >Monocular cues include size: distant objects subtend smaller visual angles than near objects, grain, size, and motion parallax.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception#Monocular_cues", "human_ref_B": "Depends on what you mean by \"see depth\" in your question.  It's not a good description or definition of what I think you are asking.  There is binocular vision, stereoscopic vision, and monocular vision (there may be more, but these are the ones applicable to your question).  Also, a better way of wording your question may be to ask can we still PERCEIVE depth using only one eye...ie - \"Can a person using only one eye still have Depth Perception?\"  The answer to that is yes in most cases...but not always in some cases.  What your eye(s) \"see\" is processed by your brain, and the result is a \"perception\" created by your brain based on a number of factors, including your previous experiences in determining \"depth\" using other clues, like the geometry of objects and their vanishing points, etc.  The following link (it's a PDF file...sorry about that) explains it all better than I can.  It's rather long, but well worth the read if you want an extended answer. There is an excellent section in it about \"monocular vision\" that explains how someone using only one eye can still perceive \"depth\" (begins on page 25 of the article).  http://www.cybersight.org/data/1/rec_docs/86_Ch%202%20-%20Binocular%20Vision%20and%20Space%20Perception,%20p.%207-37.pdf  I have strabismus with amblyopia (\"lazy eye\"), so I have no binocular or stereoscopic (\"stereopsis\") vision.  My right eye became dominant at an early age and my brain ignores my left eye's \"focal point\" inputs.  I can't use 3D glasses or similar to experience 3D TV or movies.  But I certainly can determine (\"see\" and perceive) \"depth\" in my everyday life, to include having a pilot's license for over 40 years now.  My brain learned by necessity when I was young to use other clues to make rational decisions about the \"depth\" of things in my visual field using only monocular vision clues from my right eye only.  It's not fool-proof though, and even people with binocular and stereoscopic vision can be \"tricked\" into \"seeing\" things other than what they really are (do an Internet search for \"optical illusions\").", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2617.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4biao9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Can we still see depth when covering one eye?", "c_root_id_A": "d19h0fw", "c_root_id_B": "d19sx3i", "created_at_utc_A": 1458672825, "created_at_utc_B": 1458689546, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "To a degree. The human brain is very good at gathering information that we might not even realize. We gain quite a bit of depth information from comparing the input and state of our two eyes, but there are other sources of depth information as well.  For example, look out your car's side window when driving (and cover an eye if you want, it won't matter) - you'll notice that objects that are closer to you move through your field of vision faster than objects that are far away.  Another cool one: Say you're stationary and looking at two objects. If your brain has some preconceived notion of how big those two objects are, it will compare how big they look relative to each other. If the object that is supposed to be bigger actually looks smaller, you know that object must be farther away.", "human_ref_B": "Here's a fun game I play with people sometimes: it's a simple game of catch. First, I toss a ball to someone who has both eyes open, and they catch it then toss it back. Then, I have them close one eye and attempt to catch the ball again. Only this time, instead of actually tossing them the ball, I only pretend to, and instead toss the ball up a little bit (to simulate the arc the ball would have taken had I tossed it to them). Invariably, the person will believe that I tossed them the ball and go to catch it - and be *completely confused* for a moment when they find they can't. I would say that the results of this experiment would indicate that binocular vision is the most important contributor to depth perception, and that the other cues (focus, lighting changes, etc) are not strong enough on their own to counter our expectations of what is supposed to happen when binocular vision is blocked.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16721.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4biao9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Can we still see depth when covering one eye?", "c_root_id_A": "d19exvr", "c_root_id_B": "d19sx3i", "created_at_utc_A": 1458670109, "created_at_utc_B": 1458689546, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Yes, you can use what are called monocular cues:  >Monocular cues include size: distant objects subtend smaller visual angles than near objects, grain, size, and motion parallax.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception#Monocular_cues", "human_ref_B": "Here's a fun game I play with people sometimes: it's a simple game of catch. First, I toss a ball to someone who has both eyes open, and they catch it then toss it back. Then, I have them close one eye and attempt to catch the ball again. Only this time, instead of actually tossing them the ball, I only pretend to, and instead toss the ball up a little bit (to simulate the arc the ball would have taken had I tossed it to them). Invariably, the person will believe that I tossed them the ball and go to catch it - and be *completely confused* for a moment when they find they can't. I would say that the results of this experiment would indicate that binocular vision is the most important contributor to depth perception, and that the other cues (focus, lighting changes, etc) are not strong enough on their own to counter our expectations of what is supposed to happen when binocular vision is blocked.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19437.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4biao9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Can we still see depth when covering one eye?", "c_root_id_A": "d19exvr", "c_root_id_B": "d19h0fw", "created_at_utc_A": 1458670109, "created_at_utc_B": 1458672825, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Yes, you can use what are called monocular cues:  >Monocular cues include size: distant objects subtend smaller visual angles than near objects, grain, size, and motion parallax.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception#Monocular_cues", "human_ref_B": "To a degree. The human brain is very good at gathering information that we might not even realize. We gain quite a bit of depth information from comparing the input and state of our two eyes, but there are other sources of depth information as well.  For example, look out your car's side window when driving (and cover an eye if you want, it won't matter) - you'll notice that objects that are closer to you move through your field of vision faster than objects that are far away.  Another cool one: Say you're stationary and looking at two objects. If your brain has some preconceived notion of how big those two objects are, it will compare how big they look relative to each other. If the object that is supposed to be bigger actually looks smaller, you know that object must be farther away.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2716.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4biao9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Can we still see depth when covering one eye?", "c_root_id_A": "d19v25m", "c_root_id_B": "d19exvr", "created_at_utc_A": 1458692834, "created_at_utc_B": 1458670109, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Yeah.  You lose parallax, which gives us precision for the first 5 feet or so.  This is the difference in vision between each eye.  But you still have other depth clues, like how shadows are cast, how objects in the foreground block objects in the background, objects shrink as they move towards the horizon.  I mean, you can understand depth from a 2-d picture.  Our brains are good at figuring stuff out.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, you can use what are called monocular cues:  >Monocular cues include size: distant objects subtend smaller visual angles than near objects, grain, size, and motion parallax.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception#Monocular_cues", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 22725.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3vjuuj", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.84, "history": "Does depression have common stages, which are recognizable through majority of patients? If so what would these be? Hello, people of AskScience.  This question was on my mind and you find a lot blog/articles about this, but I wanted someone with scientific background to give me an answer.  Thank you either way.", "c_root_id_A": "cxo5cg7", "c_root_id_B": "cxoa4as", "created_at_utc_A": 1449334209, "created_at_utc_B": 1449342869, "score_A": 17, "score_B": 77, "human_ref_A": "Here are some recent publications on this question:  * Hosenfeld, B., Bos, E. H., Wardenaar, K. J., Conradi, H. J., van der Maas, H. L. J., Visser, I., & de Jonge, P. (2015). Major depressive disorder as a nonlinear dynamic system: bimodality in the frequency distribution of depressive symptoms over time. BMC Psychiatry, 15(1). http://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0596-5  * van de Leemput, I. A., Wichers, M., Cramer, A. O. J., Borsboom, D., Tuerlinckx, F., Kuppens, P., \u2026 Scheffer, M. (2014). Critical slowing down as early warning for the onset and termination of depression. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(1), 87\u201392. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1312114110", "human_ref_B": "Hi there!  Mental illnesses are of course hard to define and categorize, but depression actually received a lot of attention.  the DSM (Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders) gives standard criteria to diagnose and classify mental illnesses. To diagnose a depression (and there are different types of it) you need to make sure the patient has a required number of symptoms. For example, in order to be diagnosed with a Major Depression state a patient needs to have 5 out of ~9 given symptoms, for at least 2 weeks, linked to a change in the patient's functioning compared with before the symptoms. At least 2 of these symptoms have to be \"depressive mood\" or \" lost of interest / pleasure in things\". And then, you also have several types of Major depression states, with several degrees of severity (low, average, severe without psychotic caracteristics, severe with psychotic caracteristics). The depression can also be described by its state: in a period of complete or partial remission for example. As you can see, there are common traits in people with depression, although they don't all have every symptoms, and there are a lot of subtypes.  Someone can have some of the symptoms but not be in a depressive state.   There are some evidences that depression is better described as a continuum (like a gradation) than as a categoric illness (categoric = present vs absent) (Ruscio & Ruscio, 2000; Ruscio & Ruscio, 2002; Hankin & al. 2005).  Is it what you wanted to know?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 8660.0, "score_ratio": 4.5294117647, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pgieo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What is exactly happening during a panic attack? I've had panic attacks on-and-off for several years and have yet to fully understand the biological happenings inside my body during an attack other than I feel like I want to run off a bridge with dynamite strapped to my body.  I've had people tell me it's a glitch in the fight-or-flight response, that my brain is unable to process the stress being placed on it, my body is dumping it's supply of adrenaline, and a dozen other explanations.  Can someone explain biologically what the hell is going on during a panic attack?", "c_root_id_A": "c3p9ub1", "c_root_id_B": "c3p95p5", "created_at_utc_A": 1328741826, "created_at_utc_B": 1328738422, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "No one knows what brings on panic attacks. There a a lot of hypothesis but nothing definitive. We can say that you are more prone to having them with an increase in stressful circumstances, or if you have PTSD.   As for the follow up questions you were going to ask I think I can be of some help. Some people when having a panic attack can have weird spasms that usually begin in their hands (carpal spasms). This is due to hyperventilation. When you hyperventilate you blow off carbon dioxide. This causes the pH of your blood to become less acidotic. This ultimately leads to albumen in your blood taking up all of your free calcium. It's this drop in free calcium that causes the spasms. It's easily reversed when your pH normalizes. Which is done by raising the level of carbon dioxide in the blood.   This is the reasoning behind having someone breath into a paper bag. In practice however, putting something over the face of someone in a full blown panic attack usually works out poorly, and makes them more anxious. It DOESN'T stop the panic attack, and could be dangerous.   Panic attacks are self limiting. They are hell to go through but usually occur in populations who can handle the physiologic stress. When someone is in the middle of one speak calmly, allow them space. If they start having carpal spasms tell them it's expected in a panic attack.    Above all follow up with a doctor.", "human_ref_B": "My doc told me that it's a problem with the CO2 sensor in your brain.  The brain thinks that there is too much carbon dioxide and it goes into survival mode.  Note that is for Panic disorder-- GAD (general anxiety disorder) may be completely different.  another source", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3404.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pgieo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What is exactly happening during a panic attack? I've had panic attacks on-and-off for several years and have yet to fully understand the biological happenings inside my body during an attack other than I feel like I want to run off a bridge with dynamite strapped to my body.  I've had people tell me it's a glitch in the fight-or-flight response, that my brain is unable to process the stress being placed on it, my body is dumping it's supply of adrenaline, and a dozen other explanations.  Can someone explain biologically what the hell is going on during a panic attack?", "c_root_id_A": "c3p9knm", "c_root_id_B": "c3p9ub1", "created_at_utc_A": 1328740464, "created_at_utc_B": 1328741826, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If you do a lot of adventurous sports how do you avoid or control panic attacks from happening?", "human_ref_B": "No one knows what brings on panic attacks. There a a lot of hypothesis but nothing definitive. We can say that you are more prone to having them with an increase in stressful circumstances, or if you have PTSD.   As for the follow up questions you were going to ask I think I can be of some help. Some people when having a panic attack can have weird spasms that usually begin in their hands (carpal spasms). This is due to hyperventilation. When you hyperventilate you blow off carbon dioxide. This causes the pH of your blood to become less acidotic. This ultimately leads to albumen in your blood taking up all of your free calcium. It's this drop in free calcium that causes the spasms. It's easily reversed when your pH normalizes. Which is done by raising the level of carbon dioxide in the blood.   This is the reasoning behind having someone breath into a paper bag. In practice however, putting something over the face of someone in a full blown panic attack usually works out poorly, and makes them more anxious. It DOESN'T stop the panic attack, and could be dangerous.   Panic attacks are self limiting. They are hell to go through but usually occur in populations who can handle the physiologic stress. When someone is in the middle of one speak calmly, allow them space. If they start having carpal spasms tell them it's expected in a panic attack.    Above all follow up with a doctor.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1362.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pgieo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What is exactly happening during a panic attack? I've had panic attacks on-and-off for several years and have yet to fully understand the biological happenings inside my body during an attack other than I feel like I want to run off a bridge with dynamite strapped to my body.  I've had people tell me it's a glitch in the fight-or-flight response, that my brain is unable to process the stress being placed on it, my body is dumping it's supply of adrenaline, and a dozen other explanations.  Can someone explain biologically what the hell is going on during a panic attack?", "c_root_id_A": "c3ph7u3", "c_root_id_B": "c3p95p5", "created_at_utc_A": 1328803568, "created_at_utc_B": 1328738422, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "The pathophysiology of a panic attack is not well understood.  The part of your brain that acts as the \"anxiety waystation\" is the amygdala located in the temporal lobe.  This is where sensory information from the environment and your past memories of similar situations is integrated.  The amygdala, then, is what will \"decide if you need to panic\".  Generally, there is a trigger involved though the person experiencing the attack is not always conscious of the trigger (this is where therapy can be very useful).  After the decision is made, your body \"turns on the fight-or-flight\" response and you're well aware of what happens next.  It should also be noted that every panic attack you have strengthens this neural circuit which only predisposes you to future attacks.  Now why do people develop panic disorder / attacks?  The main culprit seems to be disruptions in GABA neurotransmitter system which is involved in A LOT of human emotion / reaction.  The things that might contribute to these changes in the GABA system include your temperament (we think this is a genetic thing), the adversity you've faced in your childhood, life stress and then genetics in the general sense.  I hope that helps!  Source: Psychiatrist", "human_ref_B": "My doc told me that it's a problem with the CO2 sensor in your brain.  The brain thinks that there is too much carbon dioxide and it goes into survival mode.  Note that is for Panic disorder-- GAD (general anxiety disorder) may be completely different.  another source", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 65146.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "pgieo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.85, "history": "What is exactly happening during a panic attack? I've had panic attacks on-and-off for several years and have yet to fully understand the biological happenings inside my body during an attack other than I feel like I want to run off a bridge with dynamite strapped to my body.  I've had people tell me it's a glitch in the fight-or-flight response, that my brain is unable to process the stress being placed on it, my body is dumping it's supply of adrenaline, and a dozen other explanations.  Can someone explain biologically what the hell is going on during a panic attack?", "c_root_id_A": "c3p9knm", "c_root_id_B": "c3ph7u3", "created_at_utc_A": 1328740464, "created_at_utc_B": 1328803568, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "If you do a lot of adventurous sports how do you avoid or control panic attacks from happening?", "human_ref_B": "The pathophysiology of a panic attack is not well understood.  The part of your brain that acts as the \"anxiety waystation\" is the amygdala located in the temporal lobe.  This is where sensory information from the environment and your past memories of similar situations is integrated.  The amygdala, then, is what will \"decide if you need to panic\".  Generally, there is a trigger involved though the person experiencing the attack is not always conscious of the trigger (this is where therapy can be very useful).  After the decision is made, your body \"turns on the fight-or-flight\" response and you're well aware of what happens next.  It should also be noted that every panic attack you have strengthens this neural circuit which only predisposes you to future attacks.  Now why do people develop panic disorder / attacks?  The main culprit seems to be disruptions in GABA neurotransmitter system which is involved in A LOT of human emotion / reaction.  The things that might contribute to these changes in the GABA system include your temperament (we think this is a genetic thing), the adversity you've faced in your childhood, life stress and then genetics in the general sense.  I hope that helps!  Source: Psychiatrist", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 63104.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "xgjxs", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Have there been any studies regarding how humans are able to keep time? Some people can keep time better than others. Some can even keep time exceptionally well, over the course of hours or days. At a macro level, we might be able to use environment stimuli to resolve the probable time, but at the micro level, how are humans able to relatively accurately discern that a second, or ten seconds, or a minute, has passed?  Is there some physiological circuitry that allows this? Is it an acquired capacity, akin to muscle memory?", "c_root_id_A": "c5mcvpa", "c_root_id_B": "c5mfb7g", "created_at_utc_A": 1343787586, "created_at_utc_B": 1343797224, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I thought it was just experience with the concept of time.", "human_ref_B": "In the brain there is actually a time keeping structure called the  suprachiasmatic nuclei; this is what gives animals their circadian rhythm. An important part of the time-keeping system is melatonin] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21914478) which is released by the pineal gland in greater concentrations at night compared to day. Some ways the SCN keeps rhythm are: the concentration of melatonin, light detected through the eye, and the body's physiological processes.   If humans are given control over their light/dark periods (temporal isolation), the intrinsic circadian rhythm is about [25 hours. In temporal isolation, humans were asked to consider the long and short periods of time. Researchers discovered an association with the intensity of light whereby brighter light made time subjectively pass faster.  [Additional research] (http://igpp.academia.edu/MarcWittmann/Papers/490563/Age_effects_in_perception_of_time) has found that young and old people perceive time differently.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9638.0, "score_ratio": -1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "puyuw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why does my sweat smell like curry after I eat Indian food? Why does this not happen with other strong tasting/smelling foods?", "c_root_id_A": "c3shfhf", "c_root_id_B": "c3sj829", "created_at_utc_A": 1329567130, "created_at_utc_B": 1329586531, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Are you sure you are sweating curry, or is there curry oil left somewhere on your skin.  Garlic also leaves behind strong odors, and I doubt it's because of sweating (but I couldn't find a reasonable explanation for this, the Wikipedia article is factually lacking).  So here's another question: When I cut garlic, the smell stays on my hands for a few days, why? And is something like Allyl methyl sulfide present in curry?", "human_ref_B": "The same reason it smells like cheese after consuming milk/cheese. You are just to the smell, but many asians find westerners who consume milk products smell a lot like cheese.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 19401.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "puyuw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why does my sweat smell like curry after I eat Indian food? Why does this not happen with other strong tasting/smelling foods?", "c_root_id_A": "c3sk2fg", "c_root_id_B": "c3sy0hb", "created_at_utc_A": 1329592037, "created_at_utc_B": 1329704567, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Nice try India.", "human_ref_B": "Because sweat is made from blood, blood transports nutrient chemicals, some chemicals that smell strongly survive the stomach and the gut barrier without becoming modified and have a lower threshold of detection for smell.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 112530.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "puyuw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why does my sweat smell like curry after I eat Indian food? Why does this not happen with other strong tasting/smelling foods?", "c_root_id_A": "c3shfhf", "c_root_id_B": "c3sy0hb", "created_at_utc_A": 1329567130, "created_at_utc_B": 1329704567, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Are you sure you are sweating curry, or is there curry oil left somewhere on your skin.  Garlic also leaves behind strong odors, and I doubt it's because of sweating (but I couldn't find a reasonable explanation for this, the Wikipedia article is factually lacking).  So here's another question: When I cut garlic, the smell stays on my hands for a few days, why? And is something like Allyl methyl sulfide present in curry?", "human_ref_B": "Because sweat is made from blood, blood transports nutrient chemicals, some chemicals that smell strongly survive the stomach and the gut barrier without becoming modified and have a lower threshold of detection for smell.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 137437.0, "score_ratio": -0.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "puyuw", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.68, "history": "Why does my sweat smell like curry after I eat Indian food? Why does this not happen with other strong tasting/smelling foods?", "c_root_id_A": "c3sk2fg", "c_root_id_B": "c3shfhf", "created_at_utc_A": 1329592037, "created_at_utc_B": 1329567130, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "Nice try India.", "human_ref_B": "Are you sure you are sweating curry, or is there curry oil left somewhere on your skin.  Garlic also leaves behind strong odors, and I doubt it's because of sweating (but I couldn't find a reasonable explanation for this, the Wikipedia article is factually lacking).  So here's another question: When I cut garlic, the smell stays on my hands for a few days, why? And is something like Allyl methyl sulfide present in curry?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 24907.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qugr3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "When people say their eyes change color depending on their mood, does that have any factual, biological basis?  It seems like it must be utter BS, but I hear it so often that I'm starting to second-guess myself. Can any biologists weigh in?", "c_root_id_A": "c40ljtl", "c_root_id_B": "c40l5h2", "created_at_utc_A": 1331657745, "created_at_utc_B": 1331655895, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "What about seasonally? I've heard people say that their eye color lightens somewhat in the summer, for example, which I always thought made no sense at all.", "human_ref_B": "In addition to the pupil diameter effect that has already been mentioned, iris color can also appear to change with ambient light, and can look slightly different in hue depending on the light from the environment. Light colored eyes are especially prone to this. For instance, warm incandescent lights can add warm hues to your eyes, while an overcast day may make colors appear \"washed out\".", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1850.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qugr3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "When people say their eyes change color depending on their mood, does that have any factual, biological basis?  It seems like it must be utter BS, but I hear it so often that I'm starting to second-guess myself. Can any biologists weigh in?", "c_root_id_A": "c40np4t", "c_root_id_B": "c40otqp", "created_at_utc_A": 1331667493, "created_at_utc_B": 1331672542, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "my eyes change color too but it's usually because of surrounding colors or external light.  I've never actually seen them transition but my ex-boyfriend has seen them go from green to gray.  We were outside and a cloud had passed over the sun at the time.  Once in an indoor pool, my friend told me that they were the most brilliant shade of aqua.  I have no idea what color they actually are.  Hopefully someone here has some ideas because I've always wondered.", "human_ref_B": "The observed eye color is based on the stoma if you have a light brown iris.  So, if you have a dark iris color then your eyes look dark brown all the time, and light brown eyes mean a mid brown iris, but if you have a light brown iris then depending on how light it is the color observed can change based on mood, lighting and season.  This is caused by the iris being light enough that color of light reflected is determined by the soma.  In cases of people iris not being dark enough to be brown, yet not being light enough to be blue the soma can reflect a range from light green to grey blue if the stoma has pigmentation (green and hazel.)  It's a less common trait that occurs among people mixed European decent.  My eyes change and i am Scandinavian, south German, and mixed UK.  I had asked my optometrist since the DMV had said that eyes don't change color.  The short answer was that pigmented eyes with light iris can change observed color.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 5049.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "qugr3", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.77, "history": "When people say their eyes change color depending on their mood, does that have any factual, biological basis?  It seems like it must be utter BS, but I hear it so often that I'm starting to second-guess myself. Can any biologists weigh in?", "c_root_id_A": "c40np4t", "c_root_id_B": "c40rcck", "created_at_utc_A": 1331667493, "created_at_utc_B": 1331685888, "score_A": -1, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "my eyes change color too but it's usually because of surrounding colors or external light.  I've never actually seen them transition but my ex-boyfriend has seen them go from green to gray.  We were outside and a cloud had passed over the sun at the time.  Once in an indoor pool, my friend told me that they were the most brilliant shade of aqua.  I have no idea what color they actually are.  Hopefully someone here has some ideas because I've always wondered.", "human_ref_B": "I know for myself I have two rings of color in my eyes, the inner is very brown and the outer is green.  I have noticed that sometimes when my eyes are physically agitated, the green is much more obvious, making my eyes appear more green than brown, which I assume is due either to the inner ring contracting somehow or perhaps as a side effect of dilation/contraction.  I have no idea if this happens with moods, but I can see how the dilation/or contraction (dilation can be caused by desiring something) might change the apparent overall color.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 18395.0, "score_ratio": -1.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6c391u", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "What is the cause of diffusion and osmosis? How does it work? I know the general gist of how diffusion/osmosis works, I just don't know *why* it works like it works.", "c_root_id_A": "dhrmx5y", "c_root_id_B": "dhrn2la", "created_at_utc_A": 1495203015, "created_at_utc_B": 1495203200, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 17, "human_ref_A": "Diffusion is caused by the random movement of particles; anything with energy moves and shakes a little. From this random moving and shaking, it is much more likely that things get further apart from each other, so they do. This is simply because if they _can_ move in all possible directions, what are the chances that each will move toward those that are similar, even after bouncing into each other?  Osmosis is a little trickier. Whilst it can possibly be explained using entropy and whatnot, I like to imagine it like this: in order for something to be dissolved in water, water needs to be able to bond with with it, and stick to it. Most of these things, like salts or sugars, tend to be either larger than water, or quite charged. This means they find it very difficult to pass through the fatty membranes of cells. So, if the water is 'stuck' to them and bonding with them, it is less likely to pass through the barrier as well. Water that has fewer things to bind to will be freer to pass through the membrane. In this way, water always seems to move towards things it likes to bind with, simply because going the other way is harder.  An inverse example of this is salt channels in membranes. They work by binding to the salt ion in the same way water does, replacing the bonds it would have to break to pass through. Because the bonds are being replaced, it is not energetically unfavourable for it to pass through. In this way, you can also think of the bonds 'pulling' the salt ions through, or the water being pulled back by the things it binds with.  *TL;DR:* 1) things move around randomly. 'Away' direction happens more often. 2) water is sticky. It sticks to stuff. More stuff=more stuck= less moving through things.  Source: I study chemistry at uni", "human_ref_B": "There is a chemical potential difference because of different free energy for the different concentrations. Systems tend toward the lowest energy configuration, which occurs when there is no chemical potential difference.   Basically, the system is thermodynamically most stable when there is no concentration gradient.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 185.0, "score_ratio": 2.125, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "b4pwf1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 1.0, "history": "How do probiotic bacteria survive for such long periods in pill capsules? I bought some probiotics recently which come in pill capsules and have a use by date (where it is claimed to still be effective) over a year from now. How do these bacteria survive so long without a food source or oxygen?", "c_root_id_A": "ejapnnu", "c_root_id_B": "ejaua9x", "created_at_utc_A": 1553466333, "created_at_utc_B": 1553469744, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "If the pills are stored at room temperature the bacteria actually die. The manufacturer just puts billions of bacteria cells into their capsules so the death of the bacteria is already estimated (10-20% monthly) The shelve life actually represents the calculated  cells alive for the pill to work.  The same applies for pills stored in the fridge/refrigerator. The added effect of a slowed metabolism because of the temperature combined with the high cell count make it able to be stored for a long time.  The most used method in pills is freeze drying bacteria (lyophilisation) because of the long shelve life. This removes all moisture for the bacteria and almost stops all metabolic activity which makes them survive for months. The bacteria \"wake up\" when they are resuspended in moisture, but in moisture in the human body (usually stomach) is not Ideal.   EDIT: The first two methods are mostly used with probiotic drinks (or liquid pills if they exist) the last method is used in pills, powders and tablets.", "human_ref_B": "Some bacteria can be freeze-dried and can last for decades in that state. They are essentially in suspended animation and when water is provided they can spring back to life.  There is still debate as to whether or not probiotics (even in fresh, live cultures) do anything for you at all. My bet would be if the cells in those pills died, you wouldn't know the difference.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3411.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vqj8i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do mosquitoes make a loud buzzing sound? I understand that natural selection does not always lead to an optimal organism but intuitively I would think that any mutation that would reduce the noise of a mosquito would lead to a very direct and measurable increase in fitness.   Other insects such as flies seem to be less loud even though sound shouldn't cost them as much.  Is there any known benefit for the sound that could outweigh the death of many moquitoes caused by it?", "c_root_id_A": "c56t0bd", "c_root_id_B": "c56rhyi", "created_at_utc_A": 1340898399, "created_at_utc_B": 1340892385, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Who went through and downvoted all the answers so far in this thread, which are all correct?", "human_ref_B": "They aren't really loud, 5db, you hear them loud 'cause they hunt at night, where is less noise to cover them up", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6014.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "vqj8i", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "Why do mosquitoes make a loud buzzing sound? I understand that natural selection does not always lead to an optimal organism but intuitively I would think that any mutation that would reduce the noise of a mosquito would lead to a very direct and measurable increase in fitness.   Other insects such as flies seem to be less loud even though sound shouldn't cost them as much.  Is there any known benefit for the sound that could outweigh the death of many moquitoes caused by it?", "c_root_id_A": "c56t0bd", "c_root_id_B": "c56s6ct", "created_at_utc_A": 1340898399, "created_at_utc_B": 1340895230, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Who went through and downvoted all the answers so far in this thread, which are all correct?", "human_ref_B": "Evolution does not produce perfect creatures. They are pretty quiet. Not being totally silent is indeed an imperfection, but is not extremely harmful, and allows for wing shapes & frequencies that a silence requirement would not permit.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3169.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "62yb50", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.8, "history": "If we stop using an antibiotic, would resistance to that antibiotic disappear over a few years? Basically I'm wondering if the genes responsible for microbial resistance to specific antibiotics will disappear once there is no longer any evolutionary pressure selecting for those genes.  If everyone in the world stopped using amoxicillin for a decade, would infectious bacteria drop their resistance to amoxicillin, or do they retain resistance in their genetic arsenal for much longer timescales?", "c_root_id_A": "dfro264", "c_root_id_B": "dfrsi1v", "created_at_utc_A": 1491224306, "created_at_utc_B": 1491230503, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I do not believe the gene for Antibiotic resistance would just disappear. While there are no longer selective pressures for those bacteria to use that gene and spread it around, the bacteria still reproduce asexually through mitosis, meaning the plasmid would be replicated in the new bacterium and so on, so forth. Therefore, while the number of bacteria with the gene would be minimal because more bacteria without the gene can grow, the gene can never truly \"disappear\" out of the population. It will just continue growing in small numbers.", "human_ref_B": "We actually have some naturalistic evidence from Denmark, where the antibiotic avoparcin was banned in agriculture after high rates (~75%) of resistant Enterococcus were seen. The rate of resistance in animals did indeed fall sharply in the years after the ban, but 13 years later resistance genes were still hanging around in the population to the extent (~2%) that reintroducing the drug would cause a rapid rebound in resistance. One researcher estimated an antibiotic holiday would have to last 45 years to avoid that rebound.  http://news.yale.edu/2011/01/08/antibiotic-holiday-needs-be-long-one-combat-resistance", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6197.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "a95goc", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.76, "history": "Are atoms with a high electron count more likely to form bonds with other atoms because their valence electrons are far away from the nucleus?", "c_root_id_A": "echhrrj", "c_root_id_B": "ecj1kzo", "created_at_utc_A": 1545691417, "created_at_utc_B": 1545758103, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Valence electrons in the outer shell is the biggest determining factor for reactivity, atomic number is a smaller factor. Sometimes it increases reactivity sometimes it decreases it.     The higher the atomic number the greater the outer valence electron distance from the nucleus, this affects the electronegativities seen here https://socratic.org/questions/how-would-you-arrange-the-following-atoms-in-order-of-decreasing-electronegativi .  Look at the halogen column, they strongly want to grab another electron shown by high electronegativity. Go down the column and you see the electronegativity decrease with higher atomic number hence decreasing reactivity.  Now look at the alkali metals, low electronegativity that decreases further for higher atomic number. In this case we have atoms that tend to donate electrons becoming even better donators, so we see an increase in reactivity.  Chemists can exploit this property to achieve desired chemical reactions.", "human_ref_B": "One think to keep in mind is, that this only holds true for \u03c3 -bonds.  \u03c0-Bonds between elements in the third row and higher (for example silicon) are generally far more unstable than between their analogs in the 2nd shell. This unwillingness to form double bonds is the main reason why scientists don't expect Si to support life similar to that on earth. Disilene (the silicon analog of ethene) is not a stable compound and prone to tautomerization. 3p-Orbitals are not able to form a significant overlap due to the increased length of the \"base\" \u03c3 -bond and their increased diffuseness (dont know if that is the correct noun though...).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 66686.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "6kle6j", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.97, "history": "How did we go from unicellular to multicellular life?", "c_root_id_A": "djo33tm", "c_root_id_B": "djo75zb", "created_at_utc_A": 1498960271, "created_at_utc_B": 1498966839, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Not an expert here either but I can imagine pools of unicellular organisms in close proximity having a net benefit to being close together.  An analogy can be made with bats.  One bat in singularity could freeze; however, a mass of bats could pool their thermal energy and survive the cold.  Over time symbiotic unicellular organisms began to evolve together.  Given a large enough time frame organisms could develop.  I think cellular development (parts of the cells) likely were independent in a similar fashion.", "human_ref_B": "I know there is a theory known as Endosymbiont Theory which hypothesizes that the mitochondria of plants are the result of one unicellular organism \"eating\" another one. However, it ended being up more beneficial for them to coexist rather than dominate each other, so they began to evolve with one living inside the other. There's substantial support for this theory, the most prominent piece of evidence being that mitochondria have their own DNA and divide separately from the rest of the cell. There is some debate as to how prokaryotes  (bacteria and archaea, the latter of which may actually be eukaryotes) evolved into complex eukaryotic organisms, but this is one theory.   Edit: good info here http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/organelles/  Edit 2: I may have misspoke, but my meaning was that kingdom Eukarya may have evolved from Archaea, and some have argued that the two kingdoms should therefore be combined under Archaea.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6568.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "90yyxf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why is O the most common blood type even though the O allele is recessive?", "c_root_id_A": "e2v457x", "c_root_id_B": "e2v5oj1", "created_at_utc_A": 1532312622, "created_at_utc_B": 1532314367, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "Dominant / Recessive has everything to do with whether something gets expressed or not.  Has nothing to do with rarity.  Common / Uncommon has nothing to do with whether something gets expressed or not.  has everything to do with rarity.", "human_ref_B": "What /u/seronis said: recessive genes are not necessarily rare.  To give an example, suppose 20% of the alleles in the population were Type A, and the rest were Type O.  If they're randomly distributed, then about 0.2 \\* 0.2 = 4% of the population would have two A alleles and have blood phenotype A, 0.8 \\* 0.8 = 64% of the population would have two O alleles and be phenotype O, and the rest (32%) would have mixed alleles and be blood phenotype A because A is dominant.  Add it all up, and the population would be 64% phenotype O, 36% phenotype A.  Now, suppose the whole population has kids.  That scrambles the alleles around, but each allele, O or A, has a 50-50 shot at being inherited, so the children will have the same allele mix as the parents, and so they too will be 64% phenotype O, 36% phenotype A.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1745.0, "score_ratio": 1.875, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "90yyxf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why is O the most common blood type even though the O allele is recessive?", "c_root_id_A": "e2v3ikg", "c_root_id_B": "e2v5oj1", "created_at_utc_A": 1532311910, "created_at_utc_B": 1532314367, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 15, "human_ref_A": "This could only be a guess (and what i learned in High school biology), but it might be because if there are already more people with the O- blood type, more people will have babies with that blood type, regardless of whether it's dominant or not. Basically, because there are already a lot of people with the blood type, the trait will continue to be in a lot of the population, unless something negative (inhibits reproduction, makes people not live as long, etc) arises from having an O- blood type.", "human_ref_B": "What /u/seronis said: recessive genes are not necessarily rare.  To give an example, suppose 20% of the alleles in the population were Type A, and the rest were Type O.  If they're randomly distributed, then about 0.2 \\* 0.2 = 4% of the population would have two A alleles and have blood phenotype A, 0.8 \\* 0.8 = 64% of the population would have two O alleles and be phenotype O, and the rest (32%) would have mixed alleles and be blood phenotype A because A is dominant.  Add it all up, and the population would be 64% phenotype O, 36% phenotype A.  Now, suppose the whole population has kids.  That scrambles the alleles around, but each allele, O or A, has a 50-50 shot at being inherited, so the children will have the same allele mix as the parents, and so they too will be 64% phenotype O, 36% phenotype A.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2457.0, "score_ratio": 15.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "90yyxf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why is O the most common blood type even though the O allele is recessive?", "c_root_id_A": "e2v457x", "c_root_id_B": "e2v3ikg", "created_at_utc_A": 1532312622, "created_at_utc_B": 1532311910, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Dominant / Recessive has everything to do with whether something gets expressed or not.  Has nothing to do with rarity.  Common / Uncommon has nothing to do with whether something gets expressed or not.  has everything to do with rarity.", "human_ref_B": "This could only be a guess (and what i learned in High school biology), but it might be because if there are already more people with the O- blood type, more people will have babies with that blood type, regardless of whether it's dominant or not. Basically, because there are already a lot of people with the blood type, the trait will continue to be in a lot of the population, unless something negative (inhibits reproduction, makes people not live as long, etc) arises from having an O- blood type.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 712.0, "score_ratio": 8.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "90yyxf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.82, "history": "Why is O the most common blood type even though the O allele is recessive?", "c_root_id_A": "e2w95g5", "c_root_id_B": "e2v3ikg", "created_at_utc_A": 1532367027, "created_at_utc_B": 1532311910, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "It's because the A and B alleles are significantly less common than the O allele. O occurs nearly 3 times more frequently than A and B combined.  The more interesting question would be why type A blood tends to be more common than B despite A and B having very similar allele frequencies.", "human_ref_B": "This could only be a guess (and what i learned in High school biology), but it might be because if there are already more people with the O- blood type, more people will have babies with that blood type, regardless of whether it's dominant or not. Basically, because there are already a lot of people with the blood type, the trait will continue to be in a lot of the population, unless something negative (inhibits reproduction, makes people not live as long, etc) arises from having an O- blood type.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 55117.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92yods", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "How many mass extinctions were there, and how do we know? I've heard that there have been five mass extinction events through Earth's history, and that an increasing number of scientists say we're in the middle of a sixth.  But I've also heard that those five happened in the last half-billion years.  Did no others happen earlier?  How do we know a mass extinction event happened in the first place\u2014do we just not have enough data from further back than 500 million years to tell?", "c_root_id_A": "e39fk1d", "c_root_id_B": "e39fjm3", "created_at_utc_A": 1532906544, "created_at_utc_B": 1532906530, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "Your number is correct and we know different ways.    I note that animals (and plants) go extinct all the time but in order to be a mass extinction event the extinctions have to be within a similar time frame (happen over the same span of time which isn't just instant but can cover thousands of years - such as the current one in which other plants and animals are becoming extinct because of the growing human population).   We know because of fossil records showing a massive number of some species then \"poof\" suddenly none..   As well we can study DNA to note bottlenecks of populations.", "human_ref_B": "You can look at the fossil record and see periods of great diversity, many fossils , followed by periods of few fossils and little diversity with many of these species never reappearing , then anslow growth in diversity over millions of years you can infer extinction events took place.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 14.0, "score_ratio": 1.1666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92yods", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "How many mass extinctions were there, and how do we know? I've heard that there have been five mass extinction events through Earth's history, and that an increasing number of scientists say we're in the middle of a sixth.  But I've also heard that those five happened in the last half-billion years.  Did no others happen earlier?  How do we know a mass extinction event happened in the first place\u2014do we just not have enough data from further back than 500 million years to tell?", "c_root_id_A": "e39my5z", "c_root_id_B": "e39g2bx", "created_at_utc_A": 1532914771, "created_at_utc_B": 1532907107, "score_A": 6, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The first animal fossils in the fossil record are the Ediacaran biota, which emerged 635 million years ago, shortly after the Earth emerged from a global ice age known as the Cryogenian.  Almost the entire planet froze over during the Cryogenian, so it would certainly have been a mass extinction on an epic scale if there had been lots of plants and animals around to go extinct, but there weren't; that all came later, and before that Earth was dominated by microbial communities which are resilient and resistant to extinction events, don't tend to fossilise and when they do fossilise they tend to look alike so it's really hard to tell if there's been a mass extinction when the only thing around to go extinct are bacteria.", "human_ref_B": "The answer to your first question is here. Although there is evidence for life 3 odd billion years ago it was very simple single cellular in nature and it took billions of years for life to evolve to a point where animals etc as we know then evolved. Evidence for first multi cellular life is 1000 million years ago with the first animals 500 million years ago.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 7664.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "92yods", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "How many mass extinctions were there, and how do we know? I've heard that there have been five mass extinction events through Earth's history, and that an increasing number of scientists say we're in the middle of a sixth.  But I've also heard that those five happened in the last half-billion years.  Did no others happen earlier?  How do we know a mass extinction event happened in the first place\u2014do we just not have enough data from further back than 500 million years to tell?", "c_root_id_A": "e39g2bx", "c_root_id_B": "e3a5reo", "created_at_utc_A": 1532907107, "created_at_utc_B": 1532943297, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The answer to your first question is here. Although there is evidence for life 3 odd billion years ago it was very simple single cellular in nature and it took billions of years for life to evolve to a point where animals etc as we know then evolved. Evidence for first multi cellular life is 1000 million years ago with the first animals 500 million years ago.", "human_ref_B": "Fossil evidence from before the Cambrian is generally too sketchy to identify the sudden extinction of many species. But there are several good candidates for mass extinction events: 1, the Great Oxidation Event; 2, the Snowball Earth events, and 3, the turnover of the Ediacaran biota just prior to the Cambrian explosion, though to some extent that may be a more gradual replacement. There's also been some argument for a mid-Permian extinction event lately based on new geological evidence.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 36190.0, "score_ratio": 2.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9znsla", "c_root_id_B": "d9zn0pk", "created_at_utc_A": 1479120378, "created_at_utc_B": 1479117483, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "> Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time?  Reasonably certain, yes.  Have physical constants changed with time?  >>The fundamental laws of physics, as we presently understand them, depend on about 25 parameters, such as Planck's constant h, the gravitational constant G, and the mass and charge of the electron.  It is natural to ask whether these parameters are really constants, or whether they vary in space or time.  >>Over the past few decades, there have been extensive searches for evidence of variation of fundamental \"constants.\" Among the methods used have been astrophysical observations of the spectra of distant stars, searches for variations of planetary radii and moments of inertia, investigations of orbital evolution, searches for anomalous luminosities of faint stars, studies of abundance ratios of radioactive nuclides, and (for current variations) direct laboratory measurements.  >>So far, these investigations have found no evidence of variation of fundamental \"constants.\" The current observational limits for most constants are on the order of one part in 10^10 to one part in 10^11 per year.  So to the best of our current ability to observe, the fundamental constants really are constant.  ----  Wikipedia: Time-variation of fundamental constants  >>The immutability of these fundamental constants is an important cornerstone of the laws of physics as currently known; the postulate of the time-independence of physical laws is tied to that of the conservation of Energy (Noether theorem), so that the discovery of any variation would imply the discovery of a previously unknown law of force.  ----  >It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  It isn't an assumption. We have measured it.  >Can we test this?  Absolutely we can.  Cosmology, is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical cosmology is the scholarly and scientific study of the origin, evolution, large-scale structures and dynamics, and ultimate fate of the universe, **as well as the scientific laws** that govern these realities.  >>Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as a \"historical science\" because \"when we look out in space, we look back in time\" due to the finite nature of the speed of light.  The primary method used is astronomical spectroscopy.  *Astronomical spectroscopy is the study of astronomy using the techniques of spectroscopy to measure the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light and radio, which radiates from stars and other hot celestial objects. Spectroscopy can be used to derive many properties of distant stars and galaxies, such as their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance, luminosity, and relative motion using Doppler shift measurements.*  There has also been the recent detection of gravity waves by the LIGO detector:  >>Based on the observed signals, LIGO scientists estimate that the black holes for this event were about 29 and 36 times the mass of the sun, and the event took place 1.3 billion years ago. About 3 times the mass of the sun was converted into gravitational waves in a fraction of a second\u2014with a peak power output about 50 times that of the whole visible universe. By looking at the time of arrival of the signals\u2014the detector in Livingston recorded the event 7 milliseconds before the detector in Hanford\u2014scientists can say that the source was located in the Southern Hemisphere.  This detection indicates that the laws concerning relativity, gravity and black holes were the same 1.3 billion years ago as they are today. This finding does not depend on the propagation of electromagnetic waves.  In a wider sense ... look at the night sky and observe the stars and galaxies. The furthest away galaxy that we have observed is about 13 billion light years away. Essentially all of these stars and galaxies produce the light that we see via the exact same process of hydrogen fusing into helium. The observation of the night sky alone tells you that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time.  >Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?  The \"time and distance scales\" of our measurements are not small ... it amounts to over 13 billion years and 13 billion light-years. This is almost the entire extent of space and time.", "human_ref_B": "This really depends what you mean. If you are asking about (what in standard physics are considered to be) constants changing over time (or over space) then there is a lot of work in this direction. What is commonly referred to as a \"scalar-tensor theory\" can be roughly interpreted as GR + a spacetime varying gravitational constant.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2895.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9znsla", "c_root_id_B": "d9zns2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1479120378, "created_at_utc_B": 1479120328, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "> Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time?  Reasonably certain, yes.  Have physical constants changed with time?  >>The fundamental laws of physics, as we presently understand them, depend on about 25 parameters, such as Planck's constant h, the gravitational constant G, and the mass and charge of the electron.  It is natural to ask whether these parameters are really constants, or whether they vary in space or time.  >>Over the past few decades, there have been extensive searches for evidence of variation of fundamental \"constants.\" Among the methods used have been astrophysical observations of the spectra of distant stars, searches for variations of planetary radii and moments of inertia, investigations of orbital evolution, searches for anomalous luminosities of faint stars, studies of abundance ratios of radioactive nuclides, and (for current variations) direct laboratory measurements.  >>So far, these investigations have found no evidence of variation of fundamental \"constants.\" The current observational limits for most constants are on the order of one part in 10^10 to one part in 10^11 per year.  So to the best of our current ability to observe, the fundamental constants really are constant.  ----  Wikipedia: Time-variation of fundamental constants  >>The immutability of these fundamental constants is an important cornerstone of the laws of physics as currently known; the postulate of the time-independence of physical laws is tied to that of the conservation of Energy (Noether theorem), so that the discovery of any variation would imply the discovery of a previously unknown law of force.  ----  >It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  It isn't an assumption. We have measured it.  >Can we test this?  Absolutely we can.  Cosmology, is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical cosmology is the scholarly and scientific study of the origin, evolution, large-scale structures and dynamics, and ultimate fate of the universe, **as well as the scientific laws** that govern these realities.  >>Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as a \"historical science\" because \"when we look out in space, we look back in time\" due to the finite nature of the speed of light.  The primary method used is astronomical spectroscopy.  *Astronomical spectroscopy is the study of astronomy using the techniques of spectroscopy to measure the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light and radio, which radiates from stars and other hot celestial objects. Spectroscopy can be used to derive many properties of distant stars and galaxies, such as their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance, luminosity, and relative motion using Doppler shift measurements.*  There has also been the recent detection of gravity waves by the LIGO detector:  >>Based on the observed signals, LIGO scientists estimate that the black holes for this event were about 29 and 36 times the mass of the sun, and the event took place 1.3 billion years ago. About 3 times the mass of the sun was converted into gravitational waves in a fraction of a second\u2014with a peak power output about 50 times that of the whole visible universe. By looking at the time of arrival of the signals\u2014the detector in Livingston recorded the event 7 milliseconds before the detector in Hanford\u2014scientists can say that the source was located in the Southern Hemisphere.  This detection indicates that the laws concerning relativity, gravity and black holes were the same 1.3 billion years ago as they are today. This finding does not depend on the propagation of electromagnetic waves.  In a wider sense ... look at the night sky and observe the stars and galaxies. The furthest away galaxy that we have observed is about 13 billion light years away. Essentially all of these stars and galaxies produce the light that we see via the exact same process of hydrogen fusing into helium. The observation of the night sky alone tells you that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time.  >Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?  The \"time and distance scales\" of our measurements are not small ... it amounts to over 13 billion years and 13 billion light-years. This is almost the entire extent of space and time.", "human_ref_B": "So far, the assumption that the laws of physics are the same everywhere seems to fit all our observations of the universe. But the idea that physics could be changing is an exciting enough possibility that people do try to look for evidence of it.   When we say the laws of physics change, we generally assume it isn't something as abrupt as electromagnetism suddenly stopping. Instead, we are asking if the fundamental constants of the universe are slowly varying. In particular, we want to know if the dimensionless constants, such as the fine structure constant or the mass ratio between an electron and proton, are shifting since changes to these constants will unambiguously cause the qualitative behavior of physics to change.   So if you look at a distant corner of the universe, how can you detect if physics has \"changed\" there? For the proton-electron mass ratio, you can look at absorption lines. These are (relatively) easy to measure, and while they can shift up and down due to the local redshift the relative spacing between a set of lines won't be affected by the redshift. This paper reports that absorption lines from methanol are consistent with no change in the ratio down to 1 part in 10^(-7), even at a redshift of Z=0.89 (i.e. close to the edge of the observable universe). Changes in the fine structure constant would also shift these absorption lines.  If we did detect a change, it would require a major overhaul of the standard model. There was some excitement a few years ago about a measurement that implied the fine structure constant was changing, for instance, although to the best of my knowledge that didn't pan out. At the time though, Sean Carroll explained in this post how difficult such a result would be to square with our current models of the universe. But if solid evidence of a changing fine structure constant did emerge, then you could expect there to be a flurry of effort to develop a theoretical framework to explain it. Once we had that framework, I suppose you could say that the laws of physics *are* the same everywhere, but a new field (or whatever variable is needed to understand things) has a value that changes over space and therefore changes the qualitative behavior of physics in different regions of spacetime. It would be similar to the way the qualitative behavior of physics is different on the surface of the Moon compared to the surface of the Earth. After all, the goal of physics is to ultimately define the laws that explain the whole universe.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 50.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9znsla", "c_root_id_B": "d9znl5g", "created_at_utc_A": 1479120378, "created_at_utc_B": 1479119620, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "> Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time?  Reasonably certain, yes.  Have physical constants changed with time?  >>The fundamental laws of physics, as we presently understand them, depend on about 25 parameters, such as Planck's constant h, the gravitational constant G, and the mass and charge of the electron.  It is natural to ask whether these parameters are really constants, or whether they vary in space or time.  >>Over the past few decades, there have been extensive searches for evidence of variation of fundamental \"constants.\" Among the methods used have been astrophysical observations of the spectra of distant stars, searches for variations of planetary radii and moments of inertia, investigations of orbital evolution, searches for anomalous luminosities of faint stars, studies of abundance ratios of radioactive nuclides, and (for current variations) direct laboratory measurements.  >>So far, these investigations have found no evidence of variation of fundamental \"constants.\" The current observational limits for most constants are on the order of one part in 10^10 to one part in 10^11 per year.  So to the best of our current ability to observe, the fundamental constants really are constant.  ----  Wikipedia: Time-variation of fundamental constants  >>The immutability of these fundamental constants is an important cornerstone of the laws of physics as currently known; the postulate of the time-independence of physical laws is tied to that of the conservation of Energy (Noether theorem), so that the discovery of any variation would imply the discovery of a previously unknown law of force.  ----  >It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  It isn't an assumption. We have measured it.  >Can we test this?  Absolutely we can.  Cosmology, is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical cosmology is the scholarly and scientific study of the origin, evolution, large-scale structures and dynamics, and ultimate fate of the universe, **as well as the scientific laws** that govern these realities.  >>Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as a \"historical science\" because \"when we look out in space, we look back in time\" due to the finite nature of the speed of light.  The primary method used is astronomical spectroscopy.  *Astronomical spectroscopy is the study of astronomy using the techniques of spectroscopy to measure the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light and radio, which radiates from stars and other hot celestial objects. Spectroscopy can be used to derive many properties of distant stars and galaxies, such as their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance, luminosity, and relative motion using Doppler shift measurements.*  There has also been the recent detection of gravity waves by the LIGO detector:  >>Based on the observed signals, LIGO scientists estimate that the black holes for this event were about 29 and 36 times the mass of the sun, and the event took place 1.3 billion years ago. About 3 times the mass of the sun was converted into gravitational waves in a fraction of a second\u2014with a peak power output about 50 times that of the whole visible universe. By looking at the time of arrival of the signals\u2014the detector in Livingston recorded the event 7 milliseconds before the detector in Hanford\u2014scientists can say that the source was located in the Southern Hemisphere.  This detection indicates that the laws concerning relativity, gravity and black holes were the same 1.3 billion years ago as they are today. This finding does not depend on the propagation of electromagnetic waves.  In a wider sense ... look at the night sky and observe the stars and galaxies. The furthest away galaxy that we have observed is about 13 billion light years away. Essentially all of these stars and galaxies produce the light that we see via the exact same process of hydrogen fusing into helium. The observation of the night sky alone tells you that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time.  >Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?  The \"time and distance scales\" of our measurements are not small ... it amounts to over 13 billion years and 13 billion light-years. This is almost the entire extent of space and time.", "human_ref_B": "This is a subject that I haven't worked on myself, but have taken a small interest in. There's been some really great work on this:  All of the physical processes we know have physical constants, values that set how strong different effects are. For example, there's the gravitational constant, G, which sets how strong the gravitational force is, or Planck's constant, h, which sets the scale at which quantum mechanics operates. The speed of light is probably the most famous constant of nature.  Each of these constants have been measured carefully many times over the past century (or longer, for some). Our measurements have become increasingly accurate as we get better at building experimental equipment. People have asked the question: Do we see changes in the values of these constants over time? And in all cases, so far as I know, the answer has been: the measurements are consistent with no change, and if there is a change it has to be less than X per century, where X is typically a very small value which may be of order 1 part per billion, or less.  But that's only with about one centuries worth of measurements. Lets go to astrophysics, which lets us probe back to the early history of the universe. How can we measure the constants of nature remotely, without sending out test equipment? One of the best ways we can look for variations over time is by measuring something called the fine-structure constant. The fine structure constant is a value that sets the scale of certain processes inside of atoms: it determines some details about the states that electrons can occupy around an atomic nucleus. It depends on several different fundamental constants: the charge of an electron (which sets the scale of charge quantization in electromagnetism), the electric permittivity of free space (which sets the strength of electric forces), Planck's constant, and the speed of light. So it basically relies on most of the major constants related to electricity and quantum mechanics. If any of them change, the fine-structure constant will change (unless two of them change in *exactly* equal and opposite ways).  Since the fine-structure constant affects atomic energy states, we can measure it by looking at atomic spectral lines, which are caused by transitions between different energy states. By looking at the spectral lines where the fine-structure constant plays a role, we can measure the constant. And we have done so, using stars in nearby galaxies and using distant galaxies, looking back roughly 10 billion years. At one point there were some possible weak detections of changes in the fine structure constant, but those were dismissed as calibration errors. Last I heard, everything was consistent with no change in the fine structure constant over the last 10 billion years, with an accuracy of something like 1 part per million.  There are probably further tests using other physical constants, but I don't know as much about them. The only other comment I have is that we have seen spectral lines, and been able to identify the atoms that create them, going back to, I think, as early as a billion years after the Big Bang. If atomic physics had been significantly different back then, we should have seen major effects on those measurements.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 758.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9zn0pk", "c_root_id_B": "d9zsdry", "created_at_utc_A": 1479117483, "created_at_utc_B": 1479132477, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "This really depends what you mean. If you are asking about (what in standard physics are considered to be) constants changing over time (or over space) then there is a lot of work in this direction. What is commonly referred to as a \"scalar-tensor theory\" can be roughly interpreted as GR + a spacetime varying gravitational constant.", "human_ref_B": "In a philosophical sense, stating that the laws of physics don't change with time is actually an axiom of science. Science assumes that if your current theories don't work throughout space and for all time, there is a better theory that does, and you should use it instead.   Currently our observations and experiments indicate that (almost) all observations throughout space and time can be reasonably well explained by current theories. But if we were wrong, we wouldn't give up: we'd look for a more fundamental theory that explains the changes in parameters with time (but that itself doesn't change with time).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14994.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9zsdry", "c_root_id_B": "d9zns2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1479132477, "created_at_utc_B": 1479120328, "score_A": 5, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "In a philosophical sense, stating that the laws of physics don't change with time is actually an axiom of science. Science assumes that if your current theories don't work throughout space and for all time, there is a better theory that does, and you should use it instead.   Currently our observations and experiments indicate that (almost) all observations throughout space and time can be reasonably well explained by current theories. But if we were wrong, we wouldn't give up: we'd look for a more fundamental theory that explains the changes in parameters with time (but that itself doesn't change with time).", "human_ref_B": "So far, the assumption that the laws of physics are the same everywhere seems to fit all our observations of the universe. But the idea that physics could be changing is an exciting enough possibility that people do try to look for evidence of it.   When we say the laws of physics change, we generally assume it isn't something as abrupt as electromagnetism suddenly stopping. Instead, we are asking if the fundamental constants of the universe are slowly varying. In particular, we want to know if the dimensionless constants, such as the fine structure constant or the mass ratio between an electron and proton, are shifting since changes to these constants will unambiguously cause the qualitative behavior of physics to change.   So if you look at a distant corner of the universe, how can you detect if physics has \"changed\" there? For the proton-electron mass ratio, you can look at absorption lines. These are (relatively) easy to measure, and while they can shift up and down due to the local redshift the relative spacing between a set of lines won't be affected by the redshift. This paper reports that absorption lines from methanol are consistent with no change in the ratio down to 1 part in 10^(-7), even at a redshift of Z=0.89 (i.e. close to the edge of the observable universe). Changes in the fine structure constant would also shift these absorption lines.  If we did detect a change, it would require a major overhaul of the standard model. There was some excitement a few years ago about a measurement that implied the fine structure constant was changing, for instance, although to the best of my knowledge that didn't pan out. At the time though, Sean Carroll explained in this post how difficult such a result would be to square with our current models of the universe. But if solid evidence of a changing fine structure constant did emerge, then you could expect there to be a flurry of effort to develop a theoretical framework to explain it. Once we had that framework, I suppose you could say that the laws of physics *are* the same everywhere, but a new field (or whatever variable is needed to understand things) has a value that changes over space and therefore changes the qualitative behavior of physics in different regions of spacetime. It would be similar to the way the qualitative behavior of physics is different on the surface of the Moon compared to the surface of the Earth. After all, the goal of physics is to ultimately define the laws that explain the whole universe.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 12149.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9zns2m", "c_root_id_B": "d9znl5g", "created_at_utc_A": 1479120328, "created_at_utc_B": 1479119620, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "So far, the assumption that the laws of physics are the same everywhere seems to fit all our observations of the universe. But the idea that physics could be changing is an exciting enough possibility that people do try to look for evidence of it.   When we say the laws of physics change, we generally assume it isn't something as abrupt as electromagnetism suddenly stopping. Instead, we are asking if the fundamental constants of the universe are slowly varying. In particular, we want to know if the dimensionless constants, such as the fine structure constant or the mass ratio between an electron and proton, are shifting since changes to these constants will unambiguously cause the qualitative behavior of physics to change.   So if you look at a distant corner of the universe, how can you detect if physics has \"changed\" there? For the proton-electron mass ratio, you can look at absorption lines. These are (relatively) easy to measure, and while they can shift up and down due to the local redshift the relative spacing between a set of lines won't be affected by the redshift. This paper reports that absorption lines from methanol are consistent with no change in the ratio down to 1 part in 10^(-7), even at a redshift of Z=0.89 (i.e. close to the edge of the observable universe). Changes in the fine structure constant would also shift these absorption lines.  If we did detect a change, it would require a major overhaul of the standard model. There was some excitement a few years ago about a measurement that implied the fine structure constant was changing, for instance, although to the best of my knowledge that didn't pan out. At the time though, Sean Carroll explained in this post how difficult such a result would be to square with our current models of the universe. But if solid evidence of a changing fine structure constant did emerge, then you could expect there to be a flurry of effort to develop a theoretical framework to explain it. Once we had that framework, I suppose you could say that the laws of physics *are* the same everywhere, but a new field (or whatever variable is needed to understand things) has a value that changes over space and therefore changes the qualitative behavior of physics in different regions of spacetime. It would be similar to the way the qualitative behavior of physics is different on the surface of the Moon compared to the surface of the Earth. After all, the goal of physics is to ultimately define the laws that explain the whole universe.", "human_ref_B": "This is a subject that I haven't worked on myself, but have taken a small interest in. There's been some really great work on this:  All of the physical processes we know have physical constants, values that set how strong different effects are. For example, there's the gravitational constant, G, which sets how strong the gravitational force is, or Planck's constant, h, which sets the scale at which quantum mechanics operates. The speed of light is probably the most famous constant of nature.  Each of these constants have been measured carefully many times over the past century (or longer, for some). Our measurements have become increasingly accurate as we get better at building experimental equipment. People have asked the question: Do we see changes in the values of these constants over time? And in all cases, so far as I know, the answer has been: the measurements are consistent with no change, and if there is a change it has to be less than X per century, where X is typically a very small value which may be of order 1 part per billion, or less.  But that's only with about one centuries worth of measurements. Lets go to astrophysics, which lets us probe back to the early history of the universe. How can we measure the constants of nature remotely, without sending out test equipment? One of the best ways we can look for variations over time is by measuring something called the fine-structure constant. The fine structure constant is a value that sets the scale of certain processes inside of atoms: it determines some details about the states that electrons can occupy around an atomic nucleus. It depends on several different fundamental constants: the charge of an electron (which sets the scale of charge quantization in electromagnetism), the electric permittivity of free space (which sets the strength of electric forces), Planck's constant, and the speed of light. So it basically relies on most of the major constants related to electricity and quantum mechanics. If any of them change, the fine-structure constant will change (unless two of them change in *exactly* equal and opposite ways).  Since the fine-structure constant affects atomic energy states, we can measure it by looking at atomic spectral lines, which are caused by transitions between different energy states. By looking at the spectral lines where the fine-structure constant plays a role, we can measure the constant. And we have done so, using stars in nearby galaxies and using distant galaxies, looking back roughly 10 billion years. At one point there were some possible weak detections of changes in the fine structure constant, but those were dismissed as calibration errors. Last I heard, everything was consistent with no change in the fine structure constant over the last 10 billion years, with an accuracy of something like 1 part per million.  There are probably further tests using other physical constants, but I don't know as much about them. The only other comment I have is that we have seen spectral lines, and been able to identify the atoms that create them, going back to, I think, as early as a billion years after the Big Bang. If atomic physics had been significantly different back then, we should have seen major effects on those measurements.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 708.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9zquwt", "c_root_id_B": "d9zsdry", "created_at_utc_A": 1479129387, "created_at_utc_B": 1479132477, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "In the standard model of cosmology there are two assumptions about the universe: It's homogeneous (same every where) and isotropic (it has no preferred direction). What this amounts to is that no matter where you are in the universe, things looks more or less the same. This seems to be born out by observations.  There's also the fact that in relativity one of the underpinning principles is that physics should be the same no matter what reference frame you work in. What this means is that if i sit here in my office and observe some physical process, the outcome should be the same as if i watch it from a rocket going near the speed of light. It may look slightly different in each case (loss of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction), but the actual laws are entirely equivalent.   The universe has in some sense changed over time, due to expansion and cooling, but as far as we can tell the actual mechanics of what is going on are unchanged. The universe has gone through different phases of existence though. For example, in the early universe the entire universe was opaque. What this means is that light was constantly interacting with matter and the whole universe was just a big soup of unattached particles and photons. At some point the universe cooled down due to expansion and then it became transparent. The result is the CMB.   Sorry, I kind of went on a ramble... basically no, as far as we can tell laws are the same over space and time.", "human_ref_B": "In a philosophical sense, stating that the laws of physics don't change with time is actually an axiom of science. Science assumes that if your current theories don't work throughout space and for all time, there is a better theory that does, and you should use it instead.   Currently our observations and experiments indicate that (almost) all observations throughout space and time can be reasonably well explained by current theories. But if we were wrong, we wouldn't give up: we'd look for a more fundamental theory that explains the changes in parameters with time (but that itself doesn't change with time).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 3090.0, "score_ratio": 1.25, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9znl5g", "c_root_id_B": "d9zsdry", "created_at_utc_A": 1479119620, "created_at_utc_B": 1479132477, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "This is a subject that I haven't worked on myself, but have taken a small interest in. There's been some really great work on this:  All of the physical processes we know have physical constants, values that set how strong different effects are. For example, there's the gravitational constant, G, which sets how strong the gravitational force is, or Planck's constant, h, which sets the scale at which quantum mechanics operates. The speed of light is probably the most famous constant of nature.  Each of these constants have been measured carefully many times over the past century (or longer, for some). Our measurements have become increasingly accurate as we get better at building experimental equipment. People have asked the question: Do we see changes in the values of these constants over time? And in all cases, so far as I know, the answer has been: the measurements are consistent with no change, and if there is a change it has to be less than X per century, where X is typically a very small value which may be of order 1 part per billion, or less.  But that's only with about one centuries worth of measurements. Lets go to astrophysics, which lets us probe back to the early history of the universe. How can we measure the constants of nature remotely, without sending out test equipment? One of the best ways we can look for variations over time is by measuring something called the fine-structure constant. The fine structure constant is a value that sets the scale of certain processes inside of atoms: it determines some details about the states that electrons can occupy around an atomic nucleus. It depends on several different fundamental constants: the charge of an electron (which sets the scale of charge quantization in electromagnetism), the electric permittivity of free space (which sets the strength of electric forces), Planck's constant, and the speed of light. So it basically relies on most of the major constants related to electricity and quantum mechanics. If any of them change, the fine-structure constant will change (unless two of them change in *exactly* equal and opposite ways).  Since the fine-structure constant affects atomic energy states, we can measure it by looking at atomic spectral lines, which are caused by transitions between different energy states. By looking at the spectral lines where the fine-structure constant plays a role, we can measure the constant. And we have done so, using stars in nearby galaxies and using distant galaxies, looking back roughly 10 billion years. At one point there were some possible weak detections of changes in the fine structure constant, but those were dismissed as calibration errors. Last I heard, everything was consistent with no change in the fine structure constant over the last 10 billion years, with an accuracy of something like 1 part per million.  There are probably further tests using other physical constants, but I don't know as much about them. The only other comment I have is that we have seen spectral lines, and been able to identify the atoms that create them, going back to, I think, as early as a billion years after the Big Bang. If atomic physics had been significantly different back then, we should have seen major effects on those measurements.", "human_ref_B": "In a philosophical sense, stating that the laws of physics don't change with time is actually an axiom of science. Science assumes that if your current theories don't work throughout space and for all time, there is a better theory that does, and you should use it instead.   Currently our observations and experiments indicate that (almost) all observations throughout space and time can be reasonably well explained by current theories. But if we were wrong, we wouldn't give up: we'd look for a more fundamental theory that explains the changes in parameters with time (but that itself doesn't change with time).", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12857.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "5cty0w", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.57, "history": "Can we reasonably certain that laws of physics don't change over space and/or time? It seems innocent enough to assume that the laws don't change but isn't that a very big assumption with far reaching consequences?  Can we test this?  It may be possible that small changes add up when we look very far in space and time like peering back into the moments after the big bang.  Do have instruments sensitive enough over our small time and distance scales to rule out that this might be happening?", "c_root_id_A": "d9znl5g", "c_root_id_B": "d9zquwt", "created_at_utc_A": 1479119620, "created_at_utc_B": 1479129387, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "This is a subject that I haven't worked on myself, but have taken a small interest in. There's been some really great work on this:  All of the physical processes we know have physical constants, values that set how strong different effects are. For example, there's the gravitational constant, G, which sets how strong the gravitational force is, or Planck's constant, h, which sets the scale at which quantum mechanics operates. The speed of light is probably the most famous constant of nature.  Each of these constants have been measured carefully many times over the past century (or longer, for some). Our measurements have become increasingly accurate as we get better at building experimental equipment. People have asked the question: Do we see changes in the values of these constants over time? And in all cases, so far as I know, the answer has been: the measurements are consistent with no change, and if there is a change it has to be less than X per century, where X is typically a very small value which may be of order 1 part per billion, or less.  But that's only with about one centuries worth of measurements. Lets go to astrophysics, which lets us probe back to the early history of the universe. How can we measure the constants of nature remotely, without sending out test equipment? One of the best ways we can look for variations over time is by measuring something called the fine-structure constant. The fine structure constant is a value that sets the scale of certain processes inside of atoms: it determines some details about the states that electrons can occupy around an atomic nucleus. It depends on several different fundamental constants: the charge of an electron (which sets the scale of charge quantization in electromagnetism), the electric permittivity of free space (which sets the strength of electric forces), Planck's constant, and the speed of light. So it basically relies on most of the major constants related to electricity and quantum mechanics. If any of them change, the fine-structure constant will change (unless two of them change in *exactly* equal and opposite ways).  Since the fine-structure constant affects atomic energy states, we can measure it by looking at atomic spectral lines, which are caused by transitions between different energy states. By looking at the spectral lines where the fine-structure constant plays a role, we can measure the constant. And we have done so, using stars in nearby galaxies and using distant galaxies, looking back roughly 10 billion years. At one point there were some possible weak detections of changes in the fine structure constant, but those were dismissed as calibration errors. Last I heard, everything was consistent with no change in the fine structure constant over the last 10 billion years, with an accuracy of something like 1 part per million.  There are probably further tests using other physical constants, but I don't know as much about them. The only other comment I have is that we have seen spectral lines, and been able to identify the atoms that create them, going back to, I think, as early as a billion years after the Big Bang. If atomic physics had been significantly different back then, we should have seen major effects on those measurements.", "human_ref_B": "In the standard model of cosmology there are two assumptions about the universe: It's homogeneous (same every where) and isotropic (it has no preferred direction). What this amounts to is that no matter where you are in the universe, things looks more or less the same. This seems to be born out by observations.  There's also the fact that in relativity one of the underpinning principles is that physics should be the same no matter what reference frame you work in. What this means is that if i sit here in my office and observe some physical process, the outcome should be the same as if i watch it from a rocket going near the speed of light. It may look slightly different in each case (loss of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction), but the actual laws are entirely equivalent.   The universe has in some sense changed over time, due to expansion and cooling, but as far as we can tell the actual mechanics of what is going on are unchanged. The universe has gone through different phases of existence though. For example, in the early universe the entire universe was opaque. What this means is that light was constantly interacting with matter and the whole universe was just a big soup of unattached particles and photons. At some point the universe cooled down due to expansion and then it became transparent. The result is the CMB.   Sorry, I kind of went on a ramble... basically no, as far as we can tell laws are the same over space and time.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9767.0, "score_ratio": 1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3strxa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Did ancient/medieval people have image of future as we have? If yes, what kind of? Like in the '70s they thought that by 2000 we will have flying cars and personal robots ant stuff.", "c_root_id_A": "cx12pr3", "c_root_id_B": "cx1e8vc", "created_at_utc_A": 1447609587, "created_at_utc_B": 1447627322, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "Their predictions for the future were a bit limited by their minimal understanding of science. There are, of course, people like Nostradamus who made vague predictions of the future. Perhaps you could look into the history of science fiction stories. That might be of interest to you.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_fiction", "human_ref_B": "To add to the existing answers, medieval / ancient peoples often believed the **past** was also static. To give one example, stain glass windows from the medieval period often feature figures from a 1000 years ago on a different continent in current clothing styles.  Until technology started changing at an rate that caused regular disruption, most people most of the time simply assumed the world had been and would always been the same. There simply wasn't enough change going on for people to see it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17735.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3strxa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Did ancient/medieval people have image of future as we have? If yes, what kind of? Like in the '70s they thought that by 2000 we will have flying cars and personal robots ant stuff.", "c_root_id_A": "cx14pqh", "c_root_id_B": "cx1e8vc", "created_at_utc_A": 1447612917, "created_at_utc_B": 1447627322, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 10, "human_ref_A": "For most of human history, things didn't change from generation to generation.  Once we got to the industrial revolution, people could see how the technology changes with each generation, and use that to extrapolate to the future.", "human_ref_B": "To add to the existing answers, medieval / ancient peoples often believed the **past** was also static. To give one example, stain glass windows from the medieval period often feature figures from a 1000 years ago on a different continent in current clothing styles.  Until technology started changing at an rate that caused regular disruption, most people most of the time simply assumed the world had been and would always been the same. There simply wasn't enough change going on for people to see it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 14405.0, "score_ratio": 1.4285714286, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "3strxa", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.72, "history": "Did ancient/medieval people have image of future as we have? If yes, what kind of? Like in the '70s they thought that by 2000 we will have flying cars and personal robots ant stuff.", "c_root_id_A": "cx1e8vc", "c_root_id_B": "cx16scs", "created_at_utc_A": 1447627322, "created_at_utc_B": 1447616107, "score_A": 10, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "To add to the existing answers, medieval / ancient peoples often believed the **past** was also static. To give one example, stain glass windows from the medieval period often feature figures from a 1000 years ago on a different continent in current clothing styles.  Until technology started changing at an rate that caused regular disruption, most people most of the time simply assumed the world had been and would always been the same. There simply wasn't enough change going on for people to see it.", "human_ref_B": "I know this isn't nearly as far back as you are asking about, but here's a 1900 CE vision of the year 2000, which is worth a look.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 11215.0, "score_ratio": 5.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "62t3mf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.63, "history": "How distorted has the spherical cow problem made our understanding of the laws of physics, the universe and everything? Spherical cows have been extensively introduced as a short cut to avoid realistic complexity in the literature of physics problem solving. Surely we have paid an unholy price for this perversion. All are welcome to contribute their experiences to this discussion of how far down the rabbit hole this cow conundrum has dragged us, and restore bovine dignity.  May I propose an incremental improvement by adopting a yam standard?", "c_root_id_A": "dfp4bgu", "c_root_id_B": "dfp1gtv", "created_at_utc_A": 1491065760, "created_at_utc_B": 1491061712, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "The problem actually isn't as bad as it looks. The main purpose of physics course work is to cover techniques and concepts that form a foundation for research. Since we can't reasonably expect students to do research projects that would take months for every homework assignment, we tend to settle for problems that have a high degree of symmetry. Then they introduce perturbation theory to deal with less ideal problems and much of research and engineering application relies on that at some level. The advent of cheap computing also means that a closed analytic form isn't really necessary anymore, but a solid understanding of first principles is. The problem is that most people don't continue in physics into research, so they never see the transition to real applications that people devote years to. Also, engineering has a habit of glossing over the derivations and approximations that go into equations in favor of rules of thumb and tables of presolved problems. While effective, there is no real explanation regarding where those tables came from, especially at the undergraduate level.  The other reason for spherical cows is that they are often good enough or the general case is so complex that we can't even make a computer solve it. A lot of what engineers do is making rough estimates to evaluate feasibility. For example, suppose you want to cool a machine and you need to decide if air cooling will work or if you need chilled water. The difference in cost and development time is huge. Using simple models, you can quickly calculate if air cooling is worth pursuing or if it will be insufficient by an order of magnitude. Carefully simulating a variety of heat sink geometries and detailed convection won't change your recommenation to the project lead about what might be possible most of the time. If it turns out that it is close, you are only out a few hours instead of weeks.", "human_ref_B": "I think these calculations go hand in hand with the *smooth circle approximation* that pi=3, as well as the *small circle approximation*,  that pi=1.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4048.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ly8j4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How do experiments with high power requirements arrange their supply of electricity? It's well known that experiments such as particle accelerators, fusion tocamacs and lasers require extremely high amounts of energy to run; some for a fraction of a second, some for significantly longer.    Do these experiments have their own power stations, as it were?  Or do they draw electricity from the national grid of the country their in?  If so, how does the grid deal with the momentary spike in demand?  Do the experiments have to schedule their demand in advance?", "c_root_id_A": "e7bgb7q", "c_root_id_B": "e7b15lx", "created_at_utc_A": 1538890100, "created_at_utc_B": 1538873989, "score_A": 14, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "It depends on the experiment.  CERN uses a lot of power but most of it for cooling 24/7, no problem for the grid.  ITER has continuous cooling as well, but in addition it will use a lot of power for short periods to start a plasma - still coming from the grid. They have to coordinate this with the grid operators, with schedules in advance and with handshakes directly before a pulse. See this page and this article for more information.  And then you have things like the NIF which uses a terawatt for fractions of a second - there is no way to draw that much power from the grid, they have to store it in capacitor banks on site. More information.", "human_ref_B": "The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) was initiated as an ionospheric research program jointly funded by the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).[1] It was designed and built by BAE Advanced Technologies (BAEAT). Its original purpose was to analyze the ionosphere and investigate the potential for developing ionospheric enhancement technology for radio communications and surveillance.[2] As a university-owned facility, HAARP is a high-power, high-frequency transmitter used for study of the ionosphere.   **The facility is powered by a set of five (5) 2500 kilowatt generators being driven by EMD 20-645-E4 diesel locomotive engines.**", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16111.0, "score_ratio": 4.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ly8j4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How do experiments with high power requirements arrange their supply of electricity? It's well known that experiments such as particle accelerators, fusion tocamacs and lasers require extremely high amounts of energy to run; some for a fraction of a second, some for significantly longer.    Do these experiments have their own power stations, as it were?  Or do they draw electricity from the national grid of the country their in?  If so, how does the grid deal with the momentary spike in demand?  Do the experiments have to schedule their demand in advance?", "c_root_id_A": "e7ae6sv", "c_root_id_B": "e7bgb7q", "created_at_utc_A": 1538852836, "created_at_utc_B": 1538890100, "score_A": -2, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Well, if you need it quick, like a circuit breaker test, you can use a Weil Dobke testing circuit. Longer test's need larger power as you may guess.   If you are testing a Wind Turbine for it's Voltage Ride Through ability we use a different set-up and test.   What I'm trying to say is this question is actually super vague. Often you charge from the grid in some form, but High Potential Tests on gear can use a Diesel generator to get it's power requirements. Ideally the testing equipment can charge and operate itself without really inconveniencing the grid, otherwise the grid will find out and come for you as I'm pretty sure it's against their TOS.   EDit: Now including fixed first link. Second link still correct.", "human_ref_B": "It depends on the experiment.  CERN uses a lot of power but most of it for cooling 24/7, no problem for the grid.  ITER has continuous cooling as well, but in addition it will use a lot of power for short periods to start a plasma - still coming from the grid. They have to coordinate this with the grid operators, with schedules in advance and with handshakes directly before a pulse. See this page and this article for more information.  And then you have things like the NIF which uses a terawatt for fractions of a second - there is no way to draw that much power from the grid, they have to store it in capacitor banks on site. More information.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 37264.0, "score_ratio": -7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "9ly8j4", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.74, "history": "How do experiments with high power requirements arrange their supply of electricity? It's well known that experiments such as particle accelerators, fusion tocamacs and lasers require extremely high amounts of energy to run; some for a fraction of a second, some for significantly longer.    Do these experiments have their own power stations, as it were?  Or do they draw electricity from the national grid of the country their in?  If so, how does the grid deal with the momentary spike in demand?  Do the experiments have to schedule their demand in advance?", "c_root_id_A": "e7b15lx", "c_root_id_B": "e7ae6sv", "created_at_utc_A": 1538873989, "created_at_utc_B": 1538852836, "score_A": 3, "score_B": -2, "human_ref_A": "The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) was initiated as an ionospheric research program jointly funded by the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).[1] It was designed and built by BAE Advanced Technologies (BAEAT). Its original purpose was to analyze the ionosphere and investigate the potential for developing ionospheric enhancement technology for radio communications and surveillance.[2] As a university-owned facility, HAARP is a high-power, high-frequency transmitter used for study of the ionosphere.   **The facility is powered by a set of five (5) 2500 kilowatt generators being driven by EMD 20-645-E4 diesel locomotive engines.**", "human_ref_B": "Well, if you need it quick, like a circuit breaker test, you can use a Weil Dobke testing circuit. Longer test's need larger power as you may guess.   If you are testing a Wind Turbine for it's Voltage Ride Through ability we use a different set-up and test.   What I'm trying to say is this question is actually super vague. Often you charge from the grid in some form, but High Potential Tests on gear can use a Diesel generator to get it's power requirements. Ideally the testing equipment can charge and operate itself without really inconveniencing the grid, otherwise the grid will find out and come for you as I'm pretty sure it's against their TOS.   EDit: Now including fixed first link. Second link still correct.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 21153.0, "score_ratio": -1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bef481", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "Why are leading zeroes in a decimal number not considered significant figures? It seems like a 0 in an initial post-decimal position is just as relevant to the precision of a calculation as a zero on the end of a decimal. For example, 0.08 (1 sig fig) vs 0.60 (2 sig figs). Both are exhibiting precision to the hundredths place - why the difference?", "c_root_id_A": "el5lkos", "c_root_id_B": "el5kwx1", "created_at_utc_A": 1555552454, "created_at_utc_B": 1555551978, "score_A": 52, "score_B": 14, "human_ref_A": "Because then you could change the number of significant digits by changing units:    8 mm - 1 significant digit.    0.000008 km - 7 significant digits. But did our measurement get 7 times more precise, just by dividing by a million? Obviously not.", "human_ref_B": "In my opinion, scientific notation makes it easy to understand. 0.08=8.\u00d710^-2 in scientific notation which is only one significant figure while 0.60=6.0\u00d710^-1 in scientific notation which is two significant figures. Putting a zero to the left of the number (08) doesn't add significance.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 476.0, "score_ratio": 3.7142857143, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "2ib6eo", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.79, "history": "Is the universe ~14b years old, or is what we can see ~14b years old... or do we just not know? Its always puzzled me. I know we can only see that far back (because of the speed of light), but I also understand a galaxy on our horizon might see beyond that; if the universe is large enough, than maybe beyond that, too.  Or...  Do we see that far because that's how long ago the universe was created? From my understanding the big bang accelerated at/faster than the speed of light. So, how can we say its that old? Could it really be 100b years old; 1t years; infinite?", "c_root_id_A": "cl0wlb8", "c_root_id_B": "cl0vnom", "created_at_utc_A": 1412505289, "created_at_utc_B": 1412499531, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I think a more interesting question is what was going on before the big bang. We live in a cause and effect existence a far as I can tell, thus the big bang had a cause, and that cause had a cause, and on and on infinitely. Unless of course a causeless event happened which we would deem a miracle. I have not seen many of those which leads me to believe we may know the time of the big bang, a beginning, but not THE beginning which is what I think we really want to know.", "human_ref_B": "In cosmology, the age of the universe is the amount of time since the Big Bang. The best measurement of the age of the Universe is 13.8 billion years (specifically, 13.798\u00b10.037 billion years).[1][2] The most recent and most accurate measurements were made by the Planck spacecraft. These measurements were made using the cosmic microwave background radiation and the expansion of the Universe.  http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5758.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ori40", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Scientists plan on taking the first picture of a black hole. But how? The field of gravity around a black hole is so immense that it swallows everything in its reach; not even light can escape its grip. For that reason, black holes are just that \u2014 they emit no light whatsoever, their \u201cnothingness\u201d blends into the black void of the universe.  So how does one take a picture of something that by definition is impossible to see?  I understand how they plan on capturing the glow of matter swirling around the black hole before it goes over the edge and plunges into the abyss of space and time. But what about the black hole itself and the event horizon?", "c_root_id_A": "c3jgef9", "c_root_id_B": "c3jgonv", "created_at_utc_A": 1327248208, "created_at_utc_B": 1327250396, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 8, "human_ref_A": "They're probably going to photograph the accretion disk as you suggested. While black holes probably give off Hawking radiation, a black hole with one solar mass would radiate at 10^-29 watts, which we obviously cannnot observe.", "human_ref_B": "The plan is to image the accretion disk around the black hole. From what I understand the resolution is going to be high enough that you would see the \"shadow\" cast at the event horizon.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2188.0, "score_ratio": 2.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ori40", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Scientists plan on taking the first picture of a black hole. But how? The field of gravity around a black hole is so immense that it swallows everything in its reach; not even light can escape its grip. For that reason, black holes are just that \u2014 they emit no light whatsoever, their \u201cnothingness\u201d blends into the black void of the universe.  So how does one take a picture of something that by definition is impossible to see?  I understand how they plan on capturing the glow of matter swirling around the black hole before it goes over the edge and plunges into the abyss of space and time. But what about the black hole itself and the event horizon?", "c_root_id_A": "c3jgonv", "c_root_id_B": "c3jg94n", "created_at_utc_A": 1327250396, "created_at_utc_B": 1327246978, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "The plan is to image the accretion disk around the black hole. From what I understand the resolution is going to be high enough that you would see the \"shadow\" cast at the event horizon.", "human_ref_B": "I don't know if this is what you are talking about or if this is what they are trying to do, but black holes are theorized to emit Hawking Radiation, which, if we could detect, could give us a \"picture\" of a black hole.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3418.0, "score_ratio": 8000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ori40", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Scientists plan on taking the first picture of a black hole. But how? The field of gravity around a black hole is so immense that it swallows everything in its reach; not even light can escape its grip. For that reason, black holes are just that \u2014 they emit no light whatsoever, their \u201cnothingness\u201d blends into the black void of the universe.  So how does one take a picture of something that by definition is impossible to see?  I understand how they plan on capturing the glow of matter swirling around the black hole before it goes over the edge and plunges into the abyss of space and time. But what about the black hole itself and the event horizon?", "c_root_id_A": "c3jgef9", "c_root_id_B": "c3jg94n", "created_at_utc_A": 1327248208, "created_at_utc_B": 1327246978, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "They're probably going to photograph the accretion disk as you suggested. While black holes probably give off Hawking radiation, a black hole with one solar mass would radiate at 10^-29 watts, which we obviously cannnot observe.", "human_ref_B": "I don't know if this is what you are talking about or if this is what they are trying to do, but black holes are theorized to emit Hawking Radiation, which, if we could detect, could give us a \"picture\" of a black hole.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1230.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ori40", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Scientists plan on taking the first picture of a black hole. But how? The field of gravity around a black hole is so immense that it swallows everything in its reach; not even light can escape its grip. For that reason, black holes are just that \u2014 they emit no light whatsoever, their \u201cnothingness\u201d blends into the black void of the universe.  So how does one take a picture of something that by definition is impossible to see?  I understand how they plan on capturing the glow of matter swirling around the black hole before it goes over the edge and plunges into the abyss of space and time. But what about the black hole itself and the event horizon?", "c_root_id_A": "c3jg94n", "c_root_id_B": "c3jhnu0", "created_at_utc_A": 1327246978, "created_at_utc_B": 1327256460, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I don't know if this is what you are talking about or if this is what they are trying to do, but black holes are theorized to emit Hawking Radiation, which, if we could detect, could give us a \"picture\" of a black hole.", "human_ref_B": "Keep in mind that from the point of view of an external observer, time at the event horizon slows to an effective stop, so a detailed enough image of an event horizon, unobscured by a surrounding accretion disk, ought to provide all sorts of interesting data.    However, from Earth all we're likely to see is the accretion disk.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9482.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "ori40", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.71, "history": "Scientists plan on taking the first picture of a black hole. But how? The field of gravity around a black hole is so immense that it swallows everything in its reach; not even light can escape its grip. For that reason, black holes are just that \u2014 they emit no light whatsoever, their \u201cnothingness\u201d blends into the black void of the universe.  So how does one take a picture of something that by definition is impossible to see?  I understand how they plan on capturing the glow of matter swirling around the black hole before it goes over the edge and plunges into the abyss of space and time. But what about the black hole itself and the event horizon?", "c_root_id_A": "c3jg94n", "c_root_id_B": "c3lh37v", "created_at_utc_A": 1327246978, "created_at_utc_B": 1327740373, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "I don't know if this is what you are talking about or if this is what they are trying to do, but black holes are theorized to emit Hawking Radiation, which, if we could detect, could give us a \"picture\" of a black hole.", "human_ref_B": "We're gonna need some longer light....", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 493395.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "1km8h7", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.78, "history": "What compounds come closest to rivaling the stability, thermal and solvent properties of water? From a short conversation in this thread:  >...Water is a fantastic medium for complex chemistry to happen in. It's stable across a large temperature range (0 - 100 centigrade) above that, it boils into a gas without causing any chemical reactions and below that, it becomes a solid without doing the same. There aren't many other abundant 3-atom liquids that share that range and stability, where other chemical reactions can occur naturally and in a stable, replicable way.  My question is: *are* there any other compounds, natural or otherwise, with broad temperature ranges for the liquid phase, and with stability comparable to water? Anything that even comes close to water's efficacy as the \"universal solvent\"?  I found a related link on Wikipedia, but I'm still parsing through it: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent#Physical_properties_of_common_solvents", "c_root_id_A": "cbqfnfo", "c_root_id_B": "cbqe6xq", "created_at_utc_A": 1376860178, "created_at_utc_B": 1376855701, "score_A": 20, "score_B": 12, "human_ref_A": "That comment and quote is just awful. \"Stable\" means something doesn't decompose or react into something else. H2O isn't _stable_ from 0-100 C, it's just _liquid_ from 0-100 C. It's _stable_ from absolute zero to around where it forms a supercritical fluid or plasma. Also, why is the poster assuming that the properties at 1 atmosphere of pressure are what should be important in an extra-terrestrial context?  \"It boils into a gas without causing any chemical reactions\" doesn't say anything. Reactions with what? What is this even referring to? I for one have no idea.  \"There aren't many other abundant 3-atom liquids that share that range\" - This doesn't say much, and isn't really true. CO2 is liquid in a larger temperature range than 100 degrees C - at 10 atmospheres or so. And what's with the 3-atom requirement anyway? There's nothing magical about 3 atoms.  Other whoppers in that same comment: \"Oxygen works as a fine power source as its bonds are easily broken\" - oxygen is not a \"power source\", and forms _quite strong_ bonds, except in peroxo and superoxo states (which are rare for that reason).   In short, that's a _very bad_ comment.answer. Water has unique properties, but these are not them. To list some actual ones, water is a simple and fairly abundant compound (and not just on earth), it's a polar solvent, but also a protic solvent, that can act both as an acid and a base.", "human_ref_B": "I would say ammonia, H3N, and carbon dioxide, CO2, kinda comes closest to water in different aspects.  H3N has a \"broad\" liquid phase, roughly 40 C, and has strong hydrogen bonds which can dissolve polar molecules and ion-compounds. It's heat capacity is roughly half that of water. But it does gladly react with other compounds.  Carbon dioxide on the other hand is a much more stable molecule, it doesn't really react with much, that's why it's an end product of our respiration. But it's a non-polar molecule and doesn't have as good solving properties and it's liquid phase only span 20 C.  If you look at slightly larger molecules, ethanol, C2H5OH, and acetone, C3H6O, are fairly similar, mostly because they have a polar O just as water. Unlike water, they can dissolve both polar and non-polar solids, although not very good. And they have a broad liquid phase, much larger than that of water.  But water really is a very special molecule. And we should perhaps be glad that it's the most common heteroatomic molecule in the universe.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4477.0, "score_ratio": 1.6666666667, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "abs2yl", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.89, "history": "How do brainless organisms interact with the environment? I was watching something about a slime mold that moves between locations as efficiently as the Tokyo metro system and some have related it to the traveling salesman problem (if that sounds familiar). My question is, how does an entity without a brain have a survival instinct and habits? How does it \"know\" to eat, to reproduce, to move between destinations, to do things that keep it alive, or really to do anything at all?", "c_root_id_A": "ed3ryhn", "c_root_id_B": "ed3m9lp", "created_at_utc_A": 1546464983, "created_at_utc_B": 1546461015, "score_A": 8, "score_B": 5, "human_ref_A": "The best way to think about simple organisms is like they're an incredibly complicated chemical equilibrium. When a chemical equilibrium has outside stresses applied to it (heat, other chemicals, pressure, etc) it will shift to accommodate those stresses. The organism doesn't know it's doing anything, it's simply reacting to it's environment in incredibly complex ways due to the complexity of their makeup.", "human_ref_B": "it doesn\u2019t know anything. all organisms have adapted to have special functions through natural selection, just like the evolution of organelles inside cells. there is no active decision making in these processes, it is simply how the organism is chemically structured that lends itself to it. nature is pretty crazy in this way", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3968.0, "score_ratio": 1.6, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3ltl0n", "c_root_id_B": "d3lwz3u", "created_at_utc_A": 1464361896, "created_at_utc_B": 1464366471, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Depression is caused by low serotonin and adhd by dopamine and norepinephrine  http://www.drjoecarver.com/clients/49355/File/Attention-Deficit%20Hyperactivity%20Disorder%20(ADHD).html", "human_ref_B": "What evidence is there that both are \"caused\" by low dopamine and/or serotonin activity?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 4575.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3lvgv1", "c_root_id_B": "d3lwz3u", "created_at_utc_A": 1464364450, "created_at_utc_B": 1464366471, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2014/09/13/low-serotonin-levels-dont-cause-depression/  Depression is not caused by low seretonin  Author  above is a clin psych", "human_ref_B": "What evidence is there that both are \"caused\" by low dopamine and/or serotonin activity?", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2021.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3mme0g", "c_root_id_B": "d3m2zhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1464407050, "created_at_utc_B": 1464374672, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "We do not know what causes ADHD, but there are several clues. It has been reported in MRI scans that the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia are smaller in children with ADHD. It is possible that this can be related to ADHD because both structures are related to regulation and planning of behavior. However, smaller prefrontal cortex basal ganglia does not necessarily mean they have ADHD. Several genes related to the function of dopaminergic neurons have been reported to be abnormal in people with ADHD (D2r, D4r, and dopamine transporter gene).  In depression, disruption of the HPA system and related cortical areas has also been implicated as playing an important role in depression. On a specific level, there are hypotheses for the cause of depression. The monoamine hypothesis and diathesis-stress hypothesis.", "human_ref_B": "It is an oversimplification to state that they are both causes by low levels. The fact that increasing levels of these chemicals improves symptoms does not necessarily indicate that the levels themselves are the cause.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 32378.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3mme0g", "c_root_id_B": "d3ltl0n", "created_at_utc_A": 1464407050, "created_at_utc_B": 1464361896, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "We do not know what causes ADHD, but there are several clues. It has been reported in MRI scans that the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia are smaller in children with ADHD. It is possible that this can be related to ADHD because both structures are related to regulation and planning of behavior. However, smaller prefrontal cortex basal ganglia does not necessarily mean they have ADHD. Several genes related to the function of dopaminergic neurons have been reported to be abnormal in people with ADHD (D2r, D4r, and dopamine transporter gene).  In depression, disruption of the HPA system and related cortical areas has also been implicated as playing an important role in depression. On a specific level, there are hypotheses for the cause of depression. The monoamine hypothesis and diathesis-stress hypothesis.", "human_ref_B": "Depression is caused by low serotonin and adhd by dopamine and norepinephrine  http://www.drjoecarver.com/clients/49355/File/Attention-Deficit%20Hyperactivity%20Disorder%20(ADHD).html", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 45154.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3lvgv1", "c_root_id_B": "d3mme0g", "created_at_utc_A": 1464364450, "created_at_utc_B": 1464407050, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2014/09/13/low-serotonin-levels-dont-cause-depression/  Depression is not caused by low seretonin  Author  above is a clin psych", "human_ref_B": "We do not know what causes ADHD, but there are several clues. It has been reported in MRI scans that the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia are smaller in children with ADHD. It is possible that this can be related to ADHD because both structures are related to regulation and planning of behavior. However, smaller prefrontal cortex basal ganglia does not necessarily mean they have ADHD. Several genes related to the function of dopaminergic neurons have been reported to be abnormal in people with ADHD (D2r, D4r, and dopamine transporter gene).  In depression, disruption of the HPA system and related cortical areas has also been implicated as playing an important role in depression. On a specific level, there are hypotheses for the cause of depression. The monoamine hypothesis and diathesis-stress hypothesis.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 42600.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3mctpk", "c_root_id_B": "d3mme0g", "created_at_utc_A": 1464389499, "created_at_utc_B": 1464407050, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Neither of these illnesses are well understood, and the prevailing theory for describing depression and related mental illness (the monoamine hypothesis) is now considered mostly inadequate.   There's a relatively new body of research which suggests that reduced hippocampal neurogenesis is the cause of these illnesses, and that the efficacy of serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline based treatments for depression can be attributed to their mediatory and signalling roles in adult neurogenesis.   This theory explains the ~3 week delay seen between treatment of depression (by increasing intracellular monoamine concentrations) and alleviation of symptoms. It may also explain why exercise is such an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression, as physical activity is known to increase concentrations of not only serotonin, but also brain-derive neurotrophic factor - a known mediator of neurogenesis.", "human_ref_B": "We do not know what causes ADHD, but there are several clues. It has been reported in MRI scans that the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia are smaller in children with ADHD. It is possible that this can be related to ADHD because both structures are related to regulation and planning of behavior. However, smaller prefrontal cortex basal ganglia does not necessarily mean they have ADHD. Several genes related to the function of dopaminergic neurons have been reported to be abnormal in people with ADHD (D2r, D4r, and dopamine transporter gene).  In depression, disruption of the HPA system and related cortical areas has also been implicated as playing an important role in depression. On a specific level, there are hypotheses for the cause of depression. The monoamine hypothesis and diathesis-stress hypothesis.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 17551.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3m2zhe", "c_root_id_B": "d3p9o7b", "created_at_utc_A": 1464374672, "created_at_utc_B": 1464624958, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "It is an oversimplification to state that they are both causes by low levels. The fact that increasing levels of these chemicals improves symptoms does not necessarily indicate that the levels themselves are the cause.", "human_ref_B": "Neurotransmitters aren't like vitamins. We don't talk about \"neurotransmitter deficiency\". We talk about neurotransmitter dysregulation.  Dopamine and serotonin are chemicals used to aid information processing in the brain. One perspective is that they are used to guide decision making.  Dopamine, for instance, seems to be used to evaluate the value of effort. At what point is the effort no longer worth the reward? Or the other way around: when is the expected payoff great enough that you should work harder?  Serotonin is more tricky. While I've read many promising theories on the function of dopamine, I haven't seen a single decent theory on the function of serotonin. Most neuroscientists I've discussed this with just says \"well serotonin just has a lot of different unrelated functions so it's not something to worry about\".  But we do have some clues that we can use to piece the puzzle together.  Low levels of serotonin are associated with aggressiveness and impulsiveness. A lack of inhibition, that is. So whatever the function of serotonin, it should be related to inhibition.  The prefrontal cortex--the decision center of your brain--is packed with serotonin receptors. So it should be related to planning as well.  A small structure known as the lateral habenula is basically in control of the raphe nuclei (this is where serotonin in your brain comes from). The lateral habenula is activated by disappointment.  If we take these three observations, we can come up with a theory: serotonin inhibits impulsive behavior in a way that is related to planning and disappointment. What if it simply increases the weight placed on expected future outcomes based on your ability to control outcomes (based on disappointment)?  I think this is a pretty promising idea. The lateral habenula registers failure to control outcomes (disappointment). What should you do if you keep failing? You should be careful how you spend your energy. And the lateral habenula sends signals to the ventral tegmental area (center of dopaminergic activity) as well.  A woman with treatment-resistant depression was cured by having her lateral habenula electrically inactivated not long ago. And ketamines, found be astoundingly effective in short-term treatment of depression, partly work because of doing something to the lateral habenula (there was an fMRI-study done).  This is already becoming an essay, but I handed in my thesis last week and my neurotransmitter system has seemingly calculated that typing this all out is worth the effort.  You mentioned ADHD as well. This is a fascinating disorder. But to even discuss ADHD, I need to bring up norepinephrine.  This is another neurotransmitter. In psychology/neuroscience textbooks it is described as important for \"arousal\". In some sense, this isn't a bad term to use to describe it. But it misses the point. Some researchers rather say it reflects levels of cognitive effort. Yet, there's a better way to see it. Bouret and Sara published a review where they suggested norepinephrine performs a global network reset in the brain. It shuts down current \"programs running\" and focuses your attention on an unexpected event.  Cohen and Aston-Jones are behind the \"Adaptive Gain\" theory that explains how norepinephrine is related to motivation. When you're doing something, there *could* be something better out there. You might be missing out. What if a hot chick/dude is right outside your flat, but you're inside solving a Rubik's cube? How do you decide when to abandon an activity to explore your environment for new ones?  The idea is simple: when the utility of a task declines, you should disengage. One part of the brain sends signals regarding value (the orbitofrontal cortex) to the source of norepinephrine (the locus coeruleus), and another sends signals regarding cost (the anterior cingulate cortex). The latter is (believed to be) involved with choosing actions with the highest utility. When utility declines, the locus coeruleus signals the anterior cingulate cortex with norepinephrine and, in effect, randomizes its decision-making process. This disengages your autopilot, causing you to explore your environment for untapped resources.  This seems connected with ADHD. It could be that this process is disregulated in those with this disorder. They disengage too frequently, resulting in rampant exploration (hyperactivity) rather than exploitation (focus).  I've barely scratched the surface, but you can see that this whole ordeal is complicated. It's not a simple manner of \"low levels of dopamine/serotonin\". There are a lot of brain structures involved that process information in different ways and that are connected to each other, working in unison. And it's hard to find out how they're cooperating. fMRI works on the order of seconds. But that's very slow compared to the speed of brain activity. So we mess with levels of neurotransmitters, shut down genes coding for receptors, and do a whole lot of other stuff to make up for the fact that it's hard to measure stuff in the brain.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 250286.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3ltl0n", "c_root_id_B": "d3p9o7b", "created_at_utc_A": 1464361896, "created_at_utc_B": 1464624958, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Depression is caused by low serotonin and adhd by dopamine and norepinephrine  http://www.drjoecarver.com/clients/49355/File/Attention-Deficit%20Hyperactivity%20Disorder%20(ADHD).html", "human_ref_B": "Neurotransmitters aren't like vitamins. We don't talk about \"neurotransmitter deficiency\". We talk about neurotransmitter dysregulation.  Dopamine and serotonin are chemicals used to aid information processing in the brain. One perspective is that they are used to guide decision making.  Dopamine, for instance, seems to be used to evaluate the value of effort. At what point is the effort no longer worth the reward? Or the other way around: when is the expected payoff great enough that you should work harder?  Serotonin is more tricky. While I've read many promising theories on the function of dopamine, I haven't seen a single decent theory on the function of serotonin. Most neuroscientists I've discussed this with just says \"well serotonin just has a lot of different unrelated functions so it's not something to worry about\".  But we do have some clues that we can use to piece the puzzle together.  Low levels of serotonin are associated with aggressiveness and impulsiveness. A lack of inhibition, that is. So whatever the function of serotonin, it should be related to inhibition.  The prefrontal cortex--the decision center of your brain--is packed with serotonin receptors. So it should be related to planning as well.  A small structure known as the lateral habenula is basically in control of the raphe nuclei (this is where serotonin in your brain comes from). The lateral habenula is activated by disappointment.  If we take these three observations, we can come up with a theory: serotonin inhibits impulsive behavior in a way that is related to planning and disappointment. What if it simply increases the weight placed on expected future outcomes based on your ability to control outcomes (based on disappointment)?  I think this is a pretty promising idea. The lateral habenula registers failure to control outcomes (disappointment). What should you do if you keep failing? You should be careful how you spend your energy. And the lateral habenula sends signals to the ventral tegmental area (center of dopaminergic activity) as well.  A woman with treatment-resistant depression was cured by having her lateral habenula electrically inactivated not long ago. And ketamines, found be astoundingly effective in short-term treatment of depression, partly work because of doing something to the lateral habenula (there was an fMRI-study done).  This is already becoming an essay, but I handed in my thesis last week and my neurotransmitter system has seemingly calculated that typing this all out is worth the effort.  You mentioned ADHD as well. This is a fascinating disorder. But to even discuss ADHD, I need to bring up norepinephrine.  This is another neurotransmitter. In psychology/neuroscience textbooks it is described as important for \"arousal\". In some sense, this isn't a bad term to use to describe it. But it misses the point. Some researchers rather say it reflects levels of cognitive effort. Yet, there's a better way to see it. Bouret and Sara published a review where they suggested norepinephrine performs a global network reset in the brain. It shuts down current \"programs running\" and focuses your attention on an unexpected event.  Cohen and Aston-Jones are behind the \"Adaptive Gain\" theory that explains how norepinephrine is related to motivation. When you're doing something, there *could* be something better out there. You might be missing out. What if a hot chick/dude is right outside your flat, but you're inside solving a Rubik's cube? How do you decide when to abandon an activity to explore your environment for new ones?  The idea is simple: when the utility of a task declines, you should disengage. One part of the brain sends signals regarding value (the orbitofrontal cortex) to the source of norepinephrine (the locus coeruleus), and another sends signals regarding cost (the anterior cingulate cortex). The latter is (believed to be) involved with choosing actions with the highest utility. When utility declines, the locus coeruleus signals the anterior cingulate cortex with norepinephrine and, in effect, randomizes its decision-making process. This disengages your autopilot, causing you to explore your environment for untapped resources.  This seems connected with ADHD. It could be that this process is disregulated in those with this disorder. They disengage too frequently, resulting in rampant exploration (hyperactivity) rather than exploitation (focus).  I've barely scratched the surface, but you can see that this whole ordeal is complicated. It's not a simple manner of \"low levels of dopamine/serotonin\". There are a lot of brain structures involved that process information in different ways and that are connected to each other, working in unison. And it's hard to find out how they're cooperating. fMRI works on the order of seconds. But that's very slow compared to the speed of brain activity. So we mess with levels of neurotransmitters, shut down genes coding for receptors, and do a whole lot of other stuff to make up for the fact that it's hard to measure stuff in the brain.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 263062.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3p9o7b", "c_root_id_B": "d3lvgv1", "created_at_utc_A": 1464624958, "created_at_utc_B": 1464364450, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Neurotransmitters aren't like vitamins. We don't talk about \"neurotransmitter deficiency\". We talk about neurotransmitter dysregulation.  Dopamine and serotonin are chemicals used to aid information processing in the brain. One perspective is that they are used to guide decision making.  Dopamine, for instance, seems to be used to evaluate the value of effort. At what point is the effort no longer worth the reward? Or the other way around: when is the expected payoff great enough that you should work harder?  Serotonin is more tricky. While I've read many promising theories on the function of dopamine, I haven't seen a single decent theory on the function of serotonin. Most neuroscientists I've discussed this with just says \"well serotonin just has a lot of different unrelated functions so it's not something to worry about\".  But we do have some clues that we can use to piece the puzzle together.  Low levels of serotonin are associated with aggressiveness and impulsiveness. A lack of inhibition, that is. So whatever the function of serotonin, it should be related to inhibition.  The prefrontal cortex--the decision center of your brain--is packed with serotonin receptors. So it should be related to planning as well.  A small structure known as the lateral habenula is basically in control of the raphe nuclei (this is where serotonin in your brain comes from). The lateral habenula is activated by disappointment.  If we take these three observations, we can come up with a theory: serotonin inhibits impulsive behavior in a way that is related to planning and disappointment. What if it simply increases the weight placed on expected future outcomes based on your ability to control outcomes (based on disappointment)?  I think this is a pretty promising idea. The lateral habenula registers failure to control outcomes (disappointment). What should you do if you keep failing? You should be careful how you spend your energy. And the lateral habenula sends signals to the ventral tegmental area (center of dopaminergic activity) as well.  A woman with treatment-resistant depression was cured by having her lateral habenula electrically inactivated not long ago. And ketamines, found be astoundingly effective in short-term treatment of depression, partly work because of doing something to the lateral habenula (there was an fMRI-study done).  This is already becoming an essay, but I handed in my thesis last week and my neurotransmitter system has seemingly calculated that typing this all out is worth the effort.  You mentioned ADHD as well. This is a fascinating disorder. But to even discuss ADHD, I need to bring up norepinephrine.  This is another neurotransmitter. In psychology/neuroscience textbooks it is described as important for \"arousal\". In some sense, this isn't a bad term to use to describe it. But it misses the point. Some researchers rather say it reflects levels of cognitive effort. Yet, there's a better way to see it. Bouret and Sara published a review where they suggested norepinephrine performs a global network reset in the brain. It shuts down current \"programs running\" and focuses your attention on an unexpected event.  Cohen and Aston-Jones are behind the \"Adaptive Gain\" theory that explains how norepinephrine is related to motivation. When you're doing something, there *could* be something better out there. You might be missing out. What if a hot chick/dude is right outside your flat, but you're inside solving a Rubik's cube? How do you decide when to abandon an activity to explore your environment for new ones?  The idea is simple: when the utility of a task declines, you should disengage. One part of the brain sends signals regarding value (the orbitofrontal cortex) to the source of norepinephrine (the locus coeruleus), and another sends signals regarding cost (the anterior cingulate cortex). The latter is (believed to be) involved with choosing actions with the highest utility. When utility declines, the locus coeruleus signals the anterior cingulate cortex with norepinephrine and, in effect, randomizes its decision-making process. This disengages your autopilot, causing you to explore your environment for untapped resources.  This seems connected with ADHD. It could be that this process is disregulated in those with this disorder. They disengage too frequently, resulting in rampant exploration (hyperactivity) rather than exploitation (focus).  I've barely scratched the surface, but you can see that this whole ordeal is complicated. It's not a simple manner of \"low levels of dopamine/serotonin\". There are a lot of brain structures involved that process information in different ways and that are connected to each other, working in unison. And it's hard to find out how they're cooperating. fMRI works on the order of seconds. But that's very slow compared to the speed of brain activity. So we mess with levels of neurotransmitters, shut down genes coding for receptors, and do a whole lot of other stuff to make up for the fact that it's hard to measure stuff in the brain.", "human_ref_B": "http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2014/09/13/low-serotonin-levels-dont-cause-depression/  Depression is not caused by low seretonin  Author  above is a clin psych", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 260508.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3mctpk", "c_root_id_B": "d3p9o7b", "created_at_utc_A": 1464389499, "created_at_utc_B": 1464624958, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Neither of these illnesses are well understood, and the prevailing theory for describing depression and related mental illness (the monoamine hypothesis) is now considered mostly inadequate.   There's a relatively new body of research which suggests that reduced hippocampal neurogenesis is the cause of these illnesses, and that the efficacy of serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline based treatments for depression can be attributed to their mediatory and signalling roles in adult neurogenesis.   This theory explains the ~3 week delay seen between treatment of depression (by increasing intracellular monoamine concentrations) and alleviation of symptoms. It may also explain why exercise is such an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression, as physical activity is known to increase concentrations of not only serotonin, but also brain-derive neurotrophic factor - a known mediator of neurogenesis.", "human_ref_B": "Neurotransmitters aren't like vitamins. We don't talk about \"neurotransmitter deficiency\". We talk about neurotransmitter dysregulation.  Dopamine and serotonin are chemicals used to aid information processing in the brain. One perspective is that they are used to guide decision making.  Dopamine, for instance, seems to be used to evaluate the value of effort. At what point is the effort no longer worth the reward? Or the other way around: when is the expected payoff great enough that you should work harder?  Serotonin is more tricky. While I've read many promising theories on the function of dopamine, I haven't seen a single decent theory on the function of serotonin. Most neuroscientists I've discussed this with just says \"well serotonin just has a lot of different unrelated functions so it's not something to worry about\".  But we do have some clues that we can use to piece the puzzle together.  Low levels of serotonin are associated with aggressiveness and impulsiveness. A lack of inhibition, that is. So whatever the function of serotonin, it should be related to inhibition.  The prefrontal cortex--the decision center of your brain--is packed with serotonin receptors. So it should be related to planning as well.  A small structure known as the lateral habenula is basically in control of the raphe nuclei (this is where serotonin in your brain comes from). The lateral habenula is activated by disappointment.  If we take these three observations, we can come up with a theory: serotonin inhibits impulsive behavior in a way that is related to planning and disappointment. What if it simply increases the weight placed on expected future outcomes based on your ability to control outcomes (based on disappointment)?  I think this is a pretty promising idea. The lateral habenula registers failure to control outcomes (disappointment). What should you do if you keep failing? You should be careful how you spend your energy. And the lateral habenula sends signals to the ventral tegmental area (center of dopaminergic activity) as well.  A woman with treatment-resistant depression was cured by having her lateral habenula electrically inactivated not long ago. And ketamines, found be astoundingly effective in short-term treatment of depression, partly work because of doing something to the lateral habenula (there was an fMRI-study done).  This is already becoming an essay, but I handed in my thesis last week and my neurotransmitter system has seemingly calculated that typing this all out is worth the effort.  You mentioned ADHD as well. This is a fascinating disorder. But to even discuss ADHD, I need to bring up norepinephrine.  This is another neurotransmitter. In psychology/neuroscience textbooks it is described as important for \"arousal\". In some sense, this isn't a bad term to use to describe it. But it misses the point. Some researchers rather say it reflects levels of cognitive effort. Yet, there's a better way to see it. Bouret and Sara published a review where they suggested norepinephrine performs a global network reset in the brain. It shuts down current \"programs running\" and focuses your attention on an unexpected event.  Cohen and Aston-Jones are behind the \"Adaptive Gain\" theory that explains how norepinephrine is related to motivation. When you're doing something, there *could* be something better out there. You might be missing out. What if a hot chick/dude is right outside your flat, but you're inside solving a Rubik's cube? How do you decide when to abandon an activity to explore your environment for new ones?  The idea is simple: when the utility of a task declines, you should disengage. One part of the brain sends signals regarding value (the orbitofrontal cortex) to the source of norepinephrine (the locus coeruleus), and another sends signals regarding cost (the anterior cingulate cortex). The latter is (believed to be) involved with choosing actions with the highest utility. When utility declines, the locus coeruleus signals the anterior cingulate cortex with norepinephrine and, in effect, randomizes its decision-making process. This disengages your autopilot, causing you to explore your environment for untapped resources.  This seems connected with ADHD. It could be that this process is disregulated in those with this disorder. They disengage too frequently, resulting in rampant exploration (hyperactivity) rather than exploitation (focus).  I've barely scratched the surface, but you can see that this whole ordeal is complicated. It's not a simple manner of \"low levels of dopamine/serotonin\". There are a lot of brain structures involved that process information in different ways and that are connected to each other, working in unison. And it's hard to find out how they're cooperating. fMRI works on the order of seconds. But that's very slow compared to the speed of brain activity. So we mess with levels of neurotransmitters, shut down genes coding for receptors, and do a whole lot of other stuff to make up for the fact that it's hard to measure stuff in the brain.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 235459.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3ltl0n", "c_root_id_B": "d3m2zhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1464361896, "created_at_utc_B": 1464374672, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Depression is caused by low serotonin and adhd by dopamine and norepinephrine  http://www.drjoecarver.com/clients/49355/File/Attention-Deficit%20Hyperactivity%20Disorder%20(ADHD).html", "human_ref_B": "It is an oversimplification to state that they are both causes by low levels. The fact that increasing levels of these chemicals improves symptoms does not necessarily indicate that the levels themselves are the cause.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12776.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "4l9pq1", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.73, "history": "What's the difference between ADHD and depression if both are cause by low levels of dopamine/serotonin?", "c_root_id_A": "d3lvgv1", "c_root_id_B": "d3m2zhe", "created_at_utc_A": 1464364450, "created_at_utc_B": 1464374672, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2014/09/13/low-serotonin-levels-dont-cause-depression/  Depression is not caused by low seretonin  Author  above is a clin psych", "human_ref_B": "It is an oversimplification to state that they are both causes by low levels. The fact that increasing levels of these chemicals improves symptoms does not necessarily indicate that the levels themselves are the cause.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 10222.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u7dwtn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Can lahars happen in extremely cold climates?", "c_root_id_A": "i5eaoc0", "c_root_id_B": "i5eb4gm", "created_at_utc_A": 1650402978, "created_at_utc_B": 1650403152, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Lahars form when pyroclastic material melts and/or mixes with snow and ice causing mass movement of material downslope. Often at very high speed and with lots of volume.   Cold conditions are needed for the snow and ice, as is some sort of volcanic activity. Therefore they can occur in both high altitudes but also in cold climates as long as there is some volcanic activity to create the pyroclastic material.", "human_ref_B": "Yes, lahars can be triggered in cold climates. Lahars are tephra (ash) laden mud/debris flows that occur on slopes and flanks of volcanic landscapes. How they are triggered is when rain water or snow/glacial melt occurs and undermines the slope. Even in colder climates, rain may occur and glacial melt is absolutely happening everywhere. The nice thing about lahars is they leave a good deal of evidence behind in the geologic record, so it is possible to go out to the field and construct a timeline of lahar events in the same area over time. Collect radiocarbon samples and you have a numerical age range for the events and the median age for each event provides a rough frequency of lahar events. Over time, slopes regain ash volumes due to subsequent eruptions.  For case studies, please refer to the following scientific articles:  Alaska lahars:  https://dggs.alaska.gov/webpubs/dggs/gr/text/gr053.pdf  Kamchatka, Russia lahars:   https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-016-1094-4  Iceland lahars:  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275333068\\_Two\\_lahar\\_deposits\\_in\\_Iceland\\_The\\_Eyjafjallajokull\\_2010\\_deposit\\_and\\_the\\_Hekla-S\\_deposited\\_3900\\_years\\_ago\\_BP\\_A\\_comparative\\_study  Antarctica lahars:  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-16630-9", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 174.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "u7dwtn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Can lahars happen in extremely cold climates?", "c_root_id_A": "i5eaoc0", "c_root_id_B": "i5fqqow", "created_at_utc_A": 1650402978, "created_at_utc_B": 1650425377, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Lahars form when pyroclastic material melts and/or mixes with snow and ice causing mass movement of material downslope. Often at very high speed and with lots of volume.   Cold conditions are needed for the snow and ice, as is some sort of volcanic activity. Therefore they can occur in both high altitudes but also in cold climates as long as there is some volcanic activity to create the pyroclastic material.", "human_ref_B": "Lahars happen much more often in cold climates because of snow and ice on the volcano as others have mentioned, but it should be said that there is such a thing as rainfall triggered volcanic mudflows of ash that's been on the ground already for a while (but sometimes very recently erupted). Those lahars have been some of the most deadly, in highly populated river valleys in the tropics. Volcano erupts in the dry sseason, everything's fine, then when the monsoon comes, there's a flash flood of what might as well be fresh wet concrete mixed with whole trees...", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 22399.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jpxm5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why are humans so disproportionately weak compared to the rest of the great apes?", "c_root_id_A": "c2e63cf", "c_root_id_B": "c2e9dhm", "created_at_utc_A": 1313963124, "created_at_utc_B": 1313990509, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "If we do not need to be very strong, then it is evolutionarily maladaptive to spend so much energy on maintaining super dense muscle tissues. We stopped climbing and moving through trees, and starting running and building things that could do work for us. Our weapons allowed us to kill things very easily, at further distances, and required much less physical strength to use.  I'm speculating of course, but it seems pretty logical, and I've had a good amount of education in evolutionary processes.", "human_ref_B": "Random point of interest: google hairless monkey and you can see just how muscular they are.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 27385.0, "score_ratio": 1.75, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jpxm5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why are humans so disproportionately weak compared to the rest of the great apes?", "c_root_id_A": "c2e9dhm", "c_root_id_B": "c2e6y99", "created_at_utc_A": 1313990509, "created_at_utc_B": 1313970590, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Random point of interest: google hairless monkey and you can see just how muscular they are.", "human_ref_B": "It's worth mentioning that our big brains require a huge amount of energy. With a relatively fixed food source spending more energy on our brain requires less energy be spent elsewhere.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 19919.0, "score_ratio": 2.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "jpxm5", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.75, "history": "Why are humans so disproportionately weak compared to the rest of the great apes?", "c_root_id_A": "c2e7u7h", "c_root_id_B": "c2e9dhm", "created_at_utc_A": 1313977815, "created_at_utc_B": 1313990509, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 7, "human_ref_A": "Because we are the masters of endurance hunting, which was one of the reasons we out populated the neanderthal.  Show me some \"strong\" chimpanzee or bonobo that can run down an antelope over 30 kilometers.", "human_ref_B": "Random point of interest: google hairless monkey and you can see just how muscular they are.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 12694.0, "score_ratio": 3.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nhfi9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does my dog not respond to anything on the TV? Okay, my dog will go ballistic at the slightest bark or sight of another dog in the neighborhood. However, when a perfectly real sounding bark comes from the TV, my dog acts like he can't even hear it. Or when a dog or cat comes up on the screen and I hold him up to it, he doesn't show any reaction whatsoever.  Basically, what I'm trying to say is, is there a scientific explanation as to why my dog doesn't react to anything on the TV, or does he truly know that the dog on the TV isn't real?  I'm actually curious about this so any explanation would be great!", "c_root_id_A": "c394bn0", "c_root_id_B": "c3947s5", "created_at_utc_A": 1324229720, "created_at_utc_B": 1324228838, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 11, "human_ref_A": "Two reasons... First, dogs have a greater range of hearing than people. Dog barks extend into these high frequencies. TV doesn't reproduce these frequencies.   As a result, dog barks over a TV sound very clipped to dogs. Kind of like if we heard our voice over an AM radio-- the sound is still there, but all the emotional punch is stripped out.   Second reason. Most dog barks on TV are not natural but dubbed in. After a dog has heard that exact same bark dozens of times, they tune it out.", "human_ref_B": "Not an answer but a related question: when I'm on Skype with my family, my dogs never seem to recognize my face or my voice. They normally go wild when they see me. So, what is it with dogs and screens?", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 882.0, "score_ratio": 2.5454545455, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nhfi9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does my dog not respond to anything on the TV? Okay, my dog will go ballistic at the slightest bark or sight of another dog in the neighborhood. However, when a perfectly real sounding bark comes from the TV, my dog acts like he can't even hear it. Or when a dog or cat comes up on the screen and I hold him up to it, he doesn't show any reaction whatsoever.  Basically, what I'm trying to say is, is there a scientific explanation as to why my dog doesn't react to anything on the TV, or does he truly know that the dog on the TV isn't real?  I'm actually curious about this so any explanation would be great!", "c_root_id_A": "c394bn0", "c_root_id_B": "c394b2m", "created_at_utc_A": 1324229720, "created_at_utc_B": 1324229590, "score_A": 28, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Two reasons... First, dogs have a greater range of hearing than people. Dog barks extend into these high frequencies. TV doesn't reproduce these frequencies.   As a result, dog barks over a TV sound very clipped to dogs. Kind of like if we heard our voice over an AM radio-- the sound is still there, but all the emotional punch is stripped out.   Second reason. Most dog barks on TV are not natural but dubbed in. After a dog has heard that exact same bark dozens of times, they tune it out.", "human_ref_B": "I'd imagine it has something to do with the way a dogs vision works, and possibly being desensitized to any noise that comes from a tv set.  \"A little known fact is that Dogs can see flickering light better than humans. (ref 1) This reference suggests that this may mean that dogs may see conventional television or cinema as a series of moving frames rather than a continuous picture. This is because \u2018flicker fusion\u2019 relies on our eyes being tricked into seeing still frames (as used by film, TV and digital video files) as a continuous picture when they are run together faster than our flicker fusion threshold. For humans the threshold is said to be around 16 Hz minimum (16 frames per second).\"  Taken from here", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 130.0, "score_ratio": 7.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nhfi9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does my dog not respond to anything on the TV? Okay, my dog will go ballistic at the slightest bark or sight of another dog in the neighborhood. However, when a perfectly real sounding bark comes from the TV, my dog acts like he can't even hear it. Or when a dog or cat comes up on the screen and I hold him up to it, he doesn't show any reaction whatsoever.  Basically, what I'm trying to say is, is there a scientific explanation as to why my dog doesn't react to anything on the TV, or does he truly know that the dog on the TV isn't real?  I'm actually curious about this so any explanation would be great!", "c_root_id_A": "c3950d5", "c_root_id_B": "c396lju", "created_at_utc_A": 1324235014, "created_at_utc_B": 1324246343, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Well, no one mentioned 2d vs 3d.  This may also play a role.  Most cats and dogs don't notice a mirror either (and those that do are very funny and make it to youtube).  I have a cat with only one eye and she is the *only* cat I've ever had that pays attention to the TV.  She tries to catch snowboard jumpers and such.  I believe the fact that here entire world is 2D is a deciding factor.", "human_ref_B": "This was asked a few weeks ago if you would like to check out the answers here.    Also, note that anecdotes about how your dog reacts to the TV will be removed, so try to stick to scientific evidence.  Thanks!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 11329.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nhfi9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does my dog not respond to anything on the TV? Okay, my dog will go ballistic at the slightest bark or sight of another dog in the neighborhood. However, when a perfectly real sounding bark comes from the TV, my dog acts like he can't even hear it. Or when a dog or cat comes up on the screen and I hold him up to it, he doesn't show any reaction whatsoever.  Basically, what I'm trying to say is, is there a scientific explanation as to why my dog doesn't react to anything on the TV, or does he truly know that the dog on the TV isn't real?  I'm actually curious about this so any explanation would be great!", "c_root_id_A": "c394ewp", "c_root_id_B": "c396lju", "created_at_utc_A": 1324230436, "created_at_utc_B": 1324246343, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "I think dogs get used to a TV like they would getting used to hunting rifles. After awhile it just doesn't effect them anymore because they know what it is and where it's coming from. Noises outside are always strange and new.", "human_ref_B": "This was asked a few weeks ago if you would like to check out the answers here.    Also, note that anecdotes about how your dog reacts to the TV will be removed, so try to stick to scientific evidence.  Thanks!", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 15907.0, "score_ratio": 2000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nhfi9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does my dog not respond to anything on the TV? Okay, my dog will go ballistic at the slightest bark or sight of another dog in the neighborhood. However, when a perfectly real sounding bark comes from the TV, my dog acts like he can't even hear it. Or when a dog or cat comes up on the screen and I hold him up to it, he doesn't show any reaction whatsoever.  Basically, what I'm trying to say is, is there a scientific explanation as to why my dog doesn't react to anything on the TV, or does he truly know that the dog on the TV isn't real?  I'm actually curious about this so any explanation would be great!", "c_root_id_A": "c3950d5", "c_root_id_B": "c394ewp", "created_at_utc_A": 1324235014, "created_at_utc_B": 1324230436, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Well, no one mentioned 2d vs 3d.  This may also play a role.  Most cats and dogs don't notice a mirror either (and those that do are very funny and make it to youtube).  I have a cat with only one eye and she is the *only* cat I've ever had that pays attention to the TV.  She tries to catch snowboard jumpers and such.  I believe the fact that here entire world is 2D is a deciding factor.", "human_ref_B": "I think dogs get used to a TV like they would getting used to hunting rifles. After awhile it just doesn't effect them anymore because they know what it is and where it's coming from. Noises outside are always strange and new.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 4578.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "nhfi9", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.64, "history": "Why does my dog not respond to anything on the TV? Okay, my dog will go ballistic at the slightest bark or sight of another dog in the neighborhood. However, when a perfectly real sounding bark comes from the TV, my dog acts like he can't even hear it. Or when a dog or cat comes up on the screen and I hold him up to it, he doesn't show any reaction whatsoever.  Basically, what I'm trying to say is, is there a scientific explanation as to why my dog doesn't react to anything on the TV, or does he truly know that the dog on the TV isn't real?  I'm actually curious about this so any explanation would be great!", "c_root_id_A": "c396o24", "c_root_id_B": "c394ewp", "created_at_utc_A": 1324246816, "created_at_utc_B": 1324230436, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "This was asked three weeks ago and got a lot of attention. You should be able to find some good discussion in the thread here. Instead of foaming at the mouth about reposts and using the search function, may I suggest instead using google? Enter terms after \"site: reddit.com/r/askscience\" that relate to your question (my exact search was \"site: reddit.com/r/askscience dog bark tv\") and you should be able to find what you're after a little easier.", "human_ref_B": "I think dogs get used to a TV like they would getting used to hunting rifles. After awhile it just doesn't effect them anymore because they know what it is and where it's coming from. Noises outside are always strange and new.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 16380.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "10oury", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.91, "history": "Great Idea - but I'm not sure if the science works.  I thought of this while at the gym the other day. It sounds like a totally doable - and marketable idea. Either its a great idea and I'm the first to think of it or it is totally impractical and cannot be done. I'm asking you guys for your input. I realize that someone else could \"steal\" my idea but I've come to terms with the fact that without someone specializing in the skillset necessary it won't happen anyhow.  Here it is - Color changing polyurethane. Specifically I mean Hydro Chromic floor coating. All gym, basketball, and other wood floors are coated with polyurethane. It is great when dry but when wet will become incredibly slippery and dangerous, as well if it is wet long term it will damage a floor. I know there are chemicals that change color temporarily in the presence of polar water molecules so why not add these to polyurethane so it can give an obvious warning that the area is wet. If it is stable you could actually print \"caution wet floor\" on top of the first coat of regular polyurethane and any time the floor was wet it would indicate exactly where the floor was still wet.  It seems like one of those things that would instantly become a must have for large businesses trying to avoid lawsuits because it will always be a 100% reliable way of indicating where and when a floor is wet. As well on sports courts it could indicate to athletes where the floor is slippery so they can avoid it or wipe it up. Anyhow, maybe I'm giving away what could become a million dollar idea or maybe it is crap. You tell me. I demand SCIENCE.", "c_root_id_A": "c6fefsa", "c_root_id_B": "c6fekvl", "created_at_utc_A": 1348977894, "created_at_utc_B": 1348978612, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 6, "human_ref_A": "How reasonable this idea actually is depends on whether this paint performs how you assume it performs. Is it durable? Does it have minimal impact on traction? Is it cheap enough to make up the cost of a minor or nonexistent problem?", "human_ref_B": "Floors are waxed.   Waxed floors will not let water come in contact with color-changing molecules.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 718.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gw1em", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "As an actual scientist, when did you actually start to feel like you knew your subject? I graduate in about 3 weeks and I still feel like I know almost nothing. I get the basics and know where to look to find the things I don't have memorized. I majored in biology and completed a general science program before that. I am afraid to even apply to graduate school because I feel like they will instantly know I am faking it. At what point in your career did you feel like you actually KNEW what you were talking about or researching?", "c_root_id_A": "c1qor8i", "c_root_id_B": "c1qop3b", "created_at_utc_A": 1303607974, "created_at_utc_B": 1303607092, "score_A": 9, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Your feelings are quite normal for people entering grad school, it's called the Imposter Syndrome.    It's said that there's a transition during your grad school career, after your qualifying exams, when you go from being a consumer of knowledge to a producer of knowledge. That's usually the transition point for most people.", "human_ref_B": "There's a saying: the more you know, the more you realize you don't know.  >I am afraid to even apply to graduate school because I feel like they will instantly know I am faking it.   I think this is something every smart person feels at times.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 882.0, "score_ratio": 3.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gw1em", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "As an actual scientist, when did you actually start to feel like you knew your subject? I graduate in about 3 weeks and I still feel like I know almost nothing. I get the basics and know where to look to find the things I don't have memorized. I majored in biology and completed a general science program before that. I am afraid to even apply to graduate school because I feel like they will instantly know I am faking it. At what point in your career did you feel like you actually KNEW what you were talking about or researching?", "c_root_id_A": "c1qoyfo", "c_root_id_B": "c1qot43", "created_at_utc_A": 1303610899, "created_at_utc_B": 1303608739, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "Teaching it.    Teaching changed everything for me.     Day one of teaching: freak out, no confidence, not even sure of answers, fumbling towards results. (I was a recent graduate in physics and math and was teaching intro physics to undergrads at my new graduate position...)   Three months later a real sense of \"knowing what I'm doing\". Knowing that the methods work, that an answer will come if I use best practices, that if I mess up then the mistake is an opportunity to explain how to trace back mistakes.     After teaching my subject it changed my whole approach.    When you are a student, there's always a net to catch you. If you ever can't figure something out you can go to your professors. So you never develop a sense of authority. Eventually after explaining things to others you learn where your own weaknesses are and with no else to turn to you learn to fly on your own.    Teach, tutor. Explain things to people. Practice convincing people. Practice convincing yourself.", "human_ref_B": "I graduate with my Masters degree in two weeks and just defended research I've been working on, and never before have I felt so ignorant than having that research picked apart by a committee of my professors.  And they are the nicest ones I could find.  Rather than being discouraged by my apparent ignorance, I just have to use it as motivation to keeping learning more.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 2160.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gw1em", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "As an actual scientist, when did you actually start to feel like you knew your subject? I graduate in about 3 weeks and I still feel like I know almost nothing. I get the basics and know where to look to find the things I don't have memorized. I majored in biology and completed a general science program before that. I am afraid to even apply to graduate school because I feel like they will instantly know I am faking it. At what point in your career did you feel like you actually KNEW what you were talking about or researching?", "c_root_id_A": "c1qou27", "c_root_id_B": "c1qoyfo", "created_at_utc_A": 1303609114, "created_at_utc_B": 1303610899, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "By the time I finished my master's, I felt like I knew a very very (very) tiny niche of my subject better than anyone, but that's only because I was the PI on my own project doing completely new research.  In general, aside from that niche, there are people who know *way* more than me about everything in my field.", "human_ref_B": "Teaching it.    Teaching changed everything for me.     Day one of teaching: freak out, no confidence, not even sure of answers, fumbling towards results. (I was a recent graduate in physics and math and was teaching intro physics to undergrads at my new graduate position...)   Three months later a real sense of \"knowing what I'm doing\". Knowing that the methods work, that an answer will come if I use best practices, that if I mess up then the mistake is an opportunity to explain how to trace back mistakes.     After teaching my subject it changed my whole approach.    When you are a student, there's always a net to catch you. If you ever can't figure something out you can go to your professors. So you never develop a sense of authority. Eventually after explaining things to others you learn where your own weaknesses are and with no else to turn to you learn to fly on your own.    Teach, tutor. Explain things to people. Practice convincing people. Practice convincing yourself.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1785.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gw1em", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "As an actual scientist, when did you actually start to feel like you knew your subject? I graduate in about 3 weeks and I still feel like I know almost nothing. I get the basics and know where to look to find the things I don't have memorized. I majored in biology and completed a general science program before that. I am afraid to even apply to graduate school because I feel like they will instantly know I am faking it. At what point in your career did you feel like you actually KNEW what you were talking about or researching?", "c_root_id_A": "c1qot43", "c_root_id_B": "c1qox6t", "created_at_utc_A": 1303608739, "created_at_utc_B": 1303610411, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "I graduate with my Masters degree in two weeks and just defended research I've been working on, and never before have I felt so ignorant than having that research picked apart by a committee of my professors.  And they are the nicest ones I could find.  Rather than being discouraged by my apparent ignorance, I just have to use it as motivation to keeping learning more.", "human_ref_B": "After finishing my BSE in chemical engineering I thought I knew a lot of chemical engineering.  After my MS, I recognized how much material there was in my field that I didn't know *anything* about.  After about 4 years of graduate school I realized I had become an expert on certain areas within my field, but that there were still things from my undergrad years that I have to look up.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1672.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "gw1em", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.94, "history": "As an actual scientist, when did you actually start to feel like you knew your subject? I graduate in about 3 weeks and I still feel like I know almost nothing. I get the basics and know where to look to find the things I don't have memorized. I majored in biology and completed a general science program before that. I am afraid to even apply to graduate school because I feel like they will instantly know I am faking it. At what point in your career did you feel like you actually KNEW what you were talking about or researching?", "c_root_id_A": "c1qox6t", "c_root_id_B": "c1qou27", "created_at_utc_A": 1303610411, "created_at_utc_B": 1303609114, "score_A": 3, "score_B": 2, "human_ref_A": "After finishing my BSE in chemical engineering I thought I knew a lot of chemical engineering.  After my MS, I recognized how much material there was in my field that I didn't know *anything* about.  After about 4 years of graduate school I realized I had become an expert on certain areas within my field, but that there were still things from my undergrad years that I have to look up.", "human_ref_B": "By the time I finished my master's, I felt like I knew a very very (very) tiny niche of my subject better than anyone, but that's only because I was the PI on my own project doing completely new research.  In general, aside from that niche, there are people who know *way* more than me about everything in my field.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 1297.0, "score_ratio": 1.5, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bw9sbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Has Cancer always existed or is it a modern disease? Is cancer a product of our modernization? Or has it always existed even for much older generations like in the 12th century and the like? Did it exist in a different name? Etc etc", "c_root_id_A": "epwaxzh", "c_root_id_B": "epwab4l", "created_at_utc_A": 1559571109, "created_at_utc_B": 1559570595, "score_A": 92, "score_B": 85, "human_ref_A": "Two factors make it seem more prevalent today. We are much better at detecting cancer, especially less apparent ones that don't form obvious masses. Secondly, people are less likely to die from other things.  Cancer is pretty much inevitable if you live long enough, so if you aren't dying from infectious diseases, accidents, etc. there's a good chance it'll be what finally gets you.", "human_ref_B": "No, cancer has been around for much longer; likely forever as there is nothing inherently \"new\" about how it arises.             On the history:              >Human beings and other animals have had cancer throughout recorded history. So it\u2019s no surprise that from the dawn of history people have written about cancer. Some of the earliest evidence of cancer is found among fossilized bone tumors, human mummies in ancient Egypt, and ancient manuscripts. Growths suggestive of the bone cancer called osteosarcoma have been seen in mummies. Bony skull destruction as seen in cancer of the head and neck has been found, too.              Our oldest description of cancer (although the word cancer was not used) was discovered in Egypt and dates back to about 3000 BC. It\u2019s called the Edwin Smith Papyrus and is a copy of part of an ancient Egyptian textbook on trauma surgery. It describes 8 cases of tumors or ulcers of the breast that were removed by cauterization with a tool called the fire drill. The writing says about the disease, \u201cThere is no treatment.\u201d                                      On the name:          >The origin of the word cancer is credited to the Greek physician Hippocrates (460-370 BC), who is considered the \u201cFather of Medicine.\u201d Hippocrates used the terms carcinos and carcinoma to describe non-ulcer forming and ulcer-forming tumors. In Greek, these words refer to a crab, most likely applied to the disease because the finger-like spreading projections from a cancer called to mind the shape of a crab. The Roman physician, Celsus (28-50 BC), later translated the Greek term into cancer, the Latin word for crab. Galen (130-200 AD), another Greek physician, used the word oncos (Greek for swelling) to describe tumors. Although the crab analogy of Hippocrates and Celsus is still used to describe malignant tumors, Galen\u2019s term is now used as a part of the name for cancer specialists \u2013 oncologists.                                       All from the American Cancer Society.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 514.0, "score_ratio": 1.0823529412, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bw9sbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Has Cancer always existed or is it a modern disease? Is cancer a product of our modernization? Or has it always existed even for much older generations like in the 12th century and the like? Did it exist in a different name? Etc etc", "c_root_id_A": "epwushh", "c_root_id_B": "epxizgx", "created_at_utc_A": 1559585194, "created_at_utc_B": 1559602039, "score_A": 13, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "The way my molecular biology professor and biochemistry professor both answered this is essentially \u201cif you live long enough you will die of cancer\u201d  The \u201cprevalence\u201d of cancer is because we can detect is very well (relative to the past) and people live longer.  Cancer is a mutation to the DNA that causes the cell to replicate uncontrollably. As you age you\u2019ve had more time for the mutation to occur. Furthermore, as your age your DNA gets damaged do to errors from the replication process.  So the tl;dr is that cancer has always been around, we just can detect it well and live long enough to get it.", "human_ref_B": "Cancer is probably as old as multicellular life. Tapeworms get cancer. The oldest preserved evidence of cancer is probably this \"prototurtle\" fossil from 240 million years ago, which had bone cancer in a leg.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 16845.0, "score_ratio": 2.1538461538, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bw9sbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Has Cancer always existed or is it a modern disease? Is cancer a product of our modernization? Or has it always existed even for much older generations like in the 12th century and the like? Did it exist in a different name? Etc etc", "c_root_id_A": "epxgxfr", "c_root_id_B": "epxizgx", "created_at_utc_A": 1559600485, "created_at_utc_B": 1559602039, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 28, "human_ref_A": "Cancer is essentially some of a person's cells trying to become independent. While is impossible, since cancerous cells will eventually die along with the rest of the body when the cancerous cells start invading all the organs, the cells of course don't know this in advance  Cancer is inevitable in all multi-cellular organisms, including animals.", "human_ref_B": "Cancer is probably as old as multicellular life. Tapeworms get cancer. The oldest preserved evidence of cancer is probably this \"prototurtle\" fossil from 240 million years ago, which had bone cancer in a leg.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 1554.0, "score_ratio": 28000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bw9sbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Has Cancer always existed or is it a modern disease? Is cancer a product of our modernization? Or has it always existed even for much older generations like in the 12th century and the like? Did it exist in a different name? Etc etc", "c_root_id_A": "epy9bdp", "c_root_id_B": "epxgxfr", "created_at_utc_A": 1559623984, "created_at_utc_B": 1559600485, "score_A": 7, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "This seems to have originated with various \"New Age\" crackpots in the 1960s.  When their \"New Age\" stuff didn't happen, they sort of became just a hippie movement. Anyway, 4,500 year old bones from Siberia show a man with what is either lung or prostate cancer. The tumours - which he was riddled with - ate holes in his bones in a very distinctive pattern seen with aggressive prostate or lung cancers. He had been given a very unique ceremonial burial. Perhaps he was highly regarded, or maybe his tribe thought he was stricken with demons (he would have had severe brain damage in his last few months) and a special burial was needed to ward off the evil spirits.  We found a 250 million year old reptile fossil with bone cancer in 2018!  Cancer is a byproduct of evolution, and the specific ways most animals today silence their growth genes. They try to turn them off, usually succeed, but occasionally they get reactivated. Primitive animals, back when they were still working out how to do this, didn't just pick this strategy. The lamprey rearranges its entire genome, completely discarding genes needed for growth and development in all cells but for the gonads. This means it is much, much less likely to get any form of tumour or cancer, as the growth genes plain aren't there.", "human_ref_B": "Cancer is essentially some of a person's cells trying to become independent. While is impossible, since cancerous cells will eventually die along with the rest of the body when the cancerous cells start invading all the organs, the cells of course don't know this in advance  Cancer is inevitable in all multi-cellular organisms, including animals.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 23499.0, "score_ratio": 7000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bw9sbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Has Cancer always existed or is it a modern disease? Is cancer a product of our modernization? Or has it always existed even for much older generations like in the 12th century and the like? Did it exist in a different name? Etc etc", "c_root_id_A": "epxgxfr", "c_root_id_B": "eq0c800", "created_at_utc_A": 1559600485, "created_at_utc_B": 1559681934, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 3, "human_ref_A": "Cancer is essentially some of a person's cells trying to become independent. While is impossible, since cancerous cells will eventually die along with the rest of the body when the cancerous cells start invading all the organs, the cells of course don't know this in advance  Cancer is inevitable in all multi-cellular organisms, including animals.", "human_ref_B": ">Is cancer a product of our modernization?  Absolutely not!  Cancer is the result of multiple alterations to a cell's genetic code (DNA) that cause that cell to behave in a physiologically abnormal way and to multiply uncontrollably.  Those alterations to DNA can be the result of ionizing radiation (such as UV light, produced by the sun) or transcription errors (DNA isn't perfectly copied when a cell replicates), among other causes.  Sunlight and transcription errors both existed loooonnngggg before the modern age.     >Or has it always existed even for much older generations like in the 12th century and the like?   It's safe to assume that, as long as DNA has been replicated by organisms, cancers have existed.  Cancer absolutely existed in the 12th century and the like.  However, it might have been 'rarer'...kind of.  It's important to remember that cancer is the result of accumulating several (often very specific) alterations to a cell's genetic code.  Generally speaking, the genetic code is only vulnerable to those alterations when a cell is undergoing mitosis and replicating itself.  If someone lives a long time, they are more opportunities for a cell's genetic code to be vulnerable to those alterations.  In other words, the longer someone lives, the more likely they are to get cancer.  In a time like the 12th century, life expectancy was much shorter than it is today, so people generally had less opportunity to develop cancer.  As such, cancer might have been 'rarer', but only because people died too young to ever develop it.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 81449.0, "score_ratio": 3000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "bw9sbf", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.81, "history": "Has Cancer always existed or is it a modern disease? Is cancer a product of our modernization? Or has it always existed even for much older generations like in the 12th century and the like? Did it exist in a different name? Etc etc", "c_root_id_A": "epxgxfr", "c_root_id_B": "f0xt9m8", "created_at_utc_A": 1559600485, "created_at_utc_B": 1569045751, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Cancer is essentially some of a person's cells trying to become independent. While is impossible, since cancerous cells will eventually die along with the rest of the body when the cancerous cells start invading all the organs, the cells of course don't know this in advance  Cancer is inevitable in all multi-cellular organisms, including animals.", "human_ref_B": "Here's what a nursing school professor once told us: \"People have been dying of the same things long before we had a name for them.\"   Things like cancer, and heart attacks and strokes have most likely been around as long as humans have been. Just because we didn't know what they were, or maybe had a different name for it doesn't mean it's not the same thing.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 9445266.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rxvqd", "c_root_id_B": "c6ryeoo", "created_at_utc_A": 1351227532, "created_at_utc_B": 1351230383, "score_A": 1, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Decay of a single radioactive particle is a random process and you can't say, when it will happen. It could decay the next moment or billions of years from now - regardless of the half time of that element. However you can say that in a certain amount of the time (half life) 50% of the atoms in a radioactive sample will have decayed.  Here is a good article on this topic - http://www.askamathematician.com", "human_ref_B": "Physics on quantum scales is inherently uncertain at a fundamental level.  >Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?  At the quantum level, the best predictions that can be made are probabilistic. For example, an electron in the ground state orbital of a hydrogen atom - we know the possible results if we were to measure it's position, and we know the relative probabilities, but we cannot say with certainty what result a measurement will give.    A lot of physicists during the early development of quantum mechanics were skeptical.  A famous 1935 paper called the EPR Paradox posits that quantum mechanics was an incomplete theory.  This doesn't mean the authors claimed it was wrong, because all experiment suggested it was correct, but rather that there existed a \"hidden variable\" - something physicists weren't taking into account that would turn the probabilistic theory into a deterministic one.  However, a paper including what is now called [Bell's Inequality] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality) proved that no local hidden variable could exist within the experimentally correct framework of quantum mechanics - i.e., the probabilistic theory was the best that could be done.  So, to answer your question concisely, yes, there are real physical systems for which complete knowledge would not yield deterministic predictions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2851.0, "score_ratio": 4.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6ryeoo", "c_root_id_B": "c6rxd6e", "created_at_utc_A": 1351230383, "created_at_utc_B": 1351225011, "score_A": 4, "score_B": 0, "human_ref_A": "Physics on quantum scales is inherently uncertain at a fundamental level.  >Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?  At the quantum level, the best predictions that can be made are probabilistic. For example, an electron in the ground state orbital of a hydrogen atom - we know the possible results if we were to measure it's position, and we know the relative probabilities, but we cannot say with certainty what result a measurement will give.    A lot of physicists during the early development of quantum mechanics were skeptical.  A famous 1935 paper called the EPR Paradox posits that quantum mechanics was an incomplete theory.  This doesn't mean the authors claimed it was wrong, because all experiment suggested it was correct, but rather that there existed a \"hidden variable\" - something physicists weren't taking into account that would turn the probabilistic theory into a deterministic one.  However, a paper including what is now called [Bell's Inequality] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality) proved that no local hidden variable could exist within the experimentally correct framework of quantum mechanics - i.e., the probabilistic theory was the best that could be done.  So, to answer your question concisely, yes, there are real physical systems for which complete knowledge would not yield deterministic predictions.", "human_ref_B": "A great example of this is Brownian motion, you can check out the wiki here.    Imagine you put a small pollen spore in a drop of water and look at it under a microscope. When you look at this spore, you'll see it moving in an apparently random fashion, almost vibrating, this is the result of the water molecules in the drop of water (which are moving randomly, but you can't see them). Since the water molecules are surrounding the spore, they are randomly  jostle it and cause it to move in all directions equally, eventually leading to no average displacement.    I hope that was a good explanation, feel free to ask me anything and I'll clarify :)", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 5372.0, "score_ratio": 4000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6ryeoo", "c_root_id_B": "c6rx63g", "created_at_utc_A": 1351230383, "created_at_utc_B": 1351224137, "score_A": 4, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Physics on quantum scales is inherently uncertain at a fundamental level.  >Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?  At the quantum level, the best predictions that can be made are probabilistic. For example, an electron in the ground state orbital of a hydrogen atom - we know the possible results if we were to measure it's position, and we know the relative probabilities, but we cannot say with certainty what result a measurement will give.    A lot of physicists during the early development of quantum mechanics were skeptical.  A famous 1935 paper called the EPR Paradox posits that quantum mechanics was an incomplete theory.  This doesn't mean the authors claimed it was wrong, because all experiment suggested it was correct, but rather that there existed a \"hidden variable\" - something physicists weren't taking into account that would turn the probabilistic theory into a deterministic one.  However, a paper including what is now called [Bell's Inequality] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality) proved that no local hidden variable could exist within the experimentally correct framework of quantum mechanics - i.e., the probabilistic theory was the best that could be done.  So, to answer your question concisely, yes, there are real physical systems for which complete knowledge would not yield deterministic predictions.", "human_ref_B": "Depends who you ask.   Edit: Sorry if this came off as a joke. I'll go into more detail.  Since the universe is made of particles, and the motion of particles can be determined by their observation, then knowing enough about something means that you can find out what will happen and thus there is no randomness. However because of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle, the more you know about a particle in one respect, the less you know in another. Thus they can be said to move randomly. But this all assumes that it is possible to know everything about the universe, which you can't do. So the real answer is yes, the universe would behave randomly even if you knew everything about it, because there is just no way to know everything about it without breaking the laws of physics.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 6246.0, "score_ratio": -1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rx7p7", "c_root_id_B": "c6ryeoo", "created_at_utc_A": 1351224339, "created_at_utc_B": 1351230383, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 4, "human_ref_A": "Tough question. Some scientists say that of you know where every particle is located in the universe you can predict the future (simplified). However, recent research has shown particles that come into existence out of nothing. So I would say many things are completely random in the universe as best we understand.", "human_ref_B": "Physics on quantum scales is inherently uncertain at a fundamental level.  >Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?  At the quantum level, the best predictions that can be made are probabilistic. For example, an electron in the ground state orbital of a hydrogen atom - we know the possible results if we were to measure it's position, and we know the relative probabilities, but we cannot say with certainty what result a measurement will give.    A lot of physicists during the early development of quantum mechanics were skeptical.  A famous 1935 paper called the EPR Paradox posits that quantum mechanics was an incomplete theory.  This doesn't mean the authors claimed it was wrong, because all experiment suggested it was correct, but rather that there existed a \"hidden variable\" - something physicists weren't taking into account that would turn the probabilistic theory into a deterministic one.  However, a paper including what is now called [Bell's Inequality] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality) proved that no local hidden variable could exist within the experimentally correct framework of quantum mechanics - i.e., the probabilistic theory was the best that could be done.  So, to answer your question concisely, yes, there are real physical systems for which complete knowledge would not yield deterministic predictions.", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 6044.0, "score_ratio": -1.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rxd6e", "c_root_id_B": "c6rxvqd", "created_at_utc_A": 1351225011, "created_at_utc_B": 1351227532, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A great example of this is Brownian motion, you can check out the wiki here.    Imagine you put a small pollen spore in a drop of water and look at it under a microscope. When you look at this spore, you'll see it moving in an apparently random fashion, almost vibrating, this is the result of the water molecules in the drop of water (which are moving randomly, but you can't see them). Since the water molecules are surrounding the spore, they are randomly  jostle it and cause it to move in all directions equally, eventually leading to no average displacement.    I hope that was a good explanation, feel free to ask me anything and I'll clarify :)", "human_ref_B": "Decay of a single radioactive particle is a random process and you can't say, when it will happen. It could decay the next moment or billions of years from now - regardless of the half time of that element. However you can say that in a certain amount of the time (half life) 50% of the atoms in a radioactive sample will have decayed.  Here is a good article on this topic - http://www.askamathematician.com", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 2521.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rxvqd", "c_root_id_B": "c6rx63g", "created_at_utc_A": 1351227532, "created_at_utc_B": 1351224137, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Decay of a single radioactive particle is a random process and you can't say, when it will happen. It could decay the next moment or billions of years from now - regardless of the half time of that element. However you can say that in a certain amount of the time (half life) 50% of the atoms in a radioactive sample will have decayed.  Here is a good article on this topic - http://www.askamathematician.com", "human_ref_B": "Depends who you ask.   Edit: Sorry if this came off as a joke. I'll go into more detail.  Since the universe is made of particles, and the motion of particles can be determined by their observation, then knowing enough about something means that you can find out what will happen and thus there is no randomness. However because of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle, the more you know about a particle in one respect, the less you know in another. Thus they can be said to move randomly. But this all assumes that it is possible to know everything about the universe, which you can't do. So the real answer is yes, the universe would behave randomly even if you knew everything about it, because there is just no way to know everything about it without breaking the laws of physics.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3395.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rxvqd", "c_root_id_B": "c6rx7p7", "created_at_utc_A": 1351227532, "created_at_utc_B": 1351224339, "score_A": 1, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "Decay of a single radioactive particle is a random process and you can't say, when it will happen. It could decay the next moment or billions of years from now - regardless of the half time of that element. However you can say that in a certain amount of the time (half life) 50% of the atoms in a radioactive sample will have decayed.  Here is a good article on this topic - http://www.askamathematician.com", "human_ref_B": "Tough question. Some scientists say that of you know where every particle is located in the universe you can predict the future (simplified). However, recent research has shown particles that come into existence out of nothing. So I would say many things are completely random in the universe as best we understand.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 3193.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rxd6e", "c_root_id_B": "c6s8udy", "created_at_utc_A": 1351225011, "created_at_utc_B": 1351284976, "score_A": 0, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "A great example of this is Brownian motion, you can check out the wiki here.    Imagine you put a small pollen spore in a drop of water and look at it under a microscope. When you look at this spore, you'll see it moving in an apparently random fashion, almost vibrating, this is the result of the water molecules in the drop of water (which are moving randomly, but you can't see them). Since the water molecules are surrounding the spore, they are randomly  jostle it and cause it to move in all directions equally, eventually leading to no average displacement.    I hope that was a good explanation, feel free to ask me anything and I'll clarify :)", "human_ref_B": "You may find this comment thread enlighening which I inadvertently set in motion the other day: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/122lue/if_its_an_irrelevant_question_to_ask_what_was/c6ros00", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 59965.0, "score_ratio": 1000.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rx63g", "c_root_id_B": "c6s8udy", "created_at_utc_A": 1351224137, "created_at_utc_B": 1351284976, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Depends who you ask.   Edit: Sorry if this came off as a joke. I'll go into more detail.  Since the universe is made of particles, and the motion of particles can be determined by their observation, then knowing enough about something means that you can find out what will happen and thus there is no randomness. However because of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle, the more you know about a particle in one respect, the less you know in another. Thus they can be said to move randomly. But this all assumes that it is possible to know everything about the universe, which you can't do. So the real answer is yes, the universe would behave randomly even if you knew everything about it, because there is just no way to know everything about it without breaking the laws of physics.", "human_ref_B": "You may find this comment thread enlighening which I inadvertently set in motion the other day: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/122lue/if_its_an_irrelevant_question_to_ask_what_was/c6ros00", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 60839.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rx7p7", "c_root_id_B": "c6s8udy", "created_at_utc_A": 1351224339, "created_at_utc_B": 1351284976, "score_A": -3, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Tough question. Some scientists say that of you know where every particle is located in the universe you can predict the future (simplified). However, recent research has shown particles that come into existence out of nothing. So I would say many things are completely random in the universe as best we understand.", "human_ref_B": "You may find this comment thread enlighening which I inadvertently set in motion the other day: http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/122lue/if_its_an_irrelevant_question_to_ask_what_was/c6ros00", "labels": 0, "seconds_difference": 60637.0, "score_ratio": -0.3333333333, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rxd6e", "c_root_id_B": "c6rx63g", "created_at_utc_A": 1351225011, "created_at_utc_B": 1351224137, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "A great example of this is Brownian motion, you can check out the wiki here.    Imagine you put a small pollen spore in a drop of water and look at it under a microscope. When you look at this spore, you'll see it moving in an apparently random fashion, almost vibrating, this is the result of the water molecules in the drop of water (which are moving randomly, but you can't see them). Since the water molecules are surrounding the spore, they are randomly  jostle it and cause it to move in all directions equally, eventually leading to no average displacement.    I hope that was a good explanation, feel free to ask me anything and I'll clarify :)", "human_ref_B": "Depends who you ask.   Edit: Sorry if this came off as a joke. I'll go into more detail.  Since the universe is made of particles, and the motion of particles can be determined by their observation, then knowing enough about something means that you can find out what will happen and thus there is no randomness. However because of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle, the more you know about a particle in one respect, the less you know in another. Thus they can be said to move randomly. But this all assumes that it is possible to know everything about the universe, which you can't do. So the real answer is yes, the universe would behave randomly even if you knew everything about it, because there is just no way to know everything about it without breaking the laws of physics.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 874.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "123v9z", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.86, "history": "Is there anything truly \"random\" or unpredictable in the universe? If you had the knowledge, wouldn't very outcome technically be mathematically deduced? For example, a coin flip is said to be random, but the moment you flick the coin many different areas of physics are being acted on that coin, meaning the outcome is completely certain. Is there anything at all in the universe that cannot, no matter how much knowledge you have, be predicted?", "c_root_id_A": "c6rxd6e", "c_root_id_B": "c6rx7p7", "created_at_utc_A": 1351225011, "created_at_utc_B": 1351224339, "score_A": 0, "score_B": -3, "human_ref_A": "A great example of this is Brownian motion, you can check out the wiki here.    Imagine you put a small pollen spore in a drop of water and look at it under a microscope. When you look at this spore, you'll see it moving in an apparently random fashion, almost vibrating, this is the result of the water molecules in the drop of water (which are moving randomly, but you can't see them). Since the water molecules are surrounding the spore, they are randomly  jostle it and cause it to move in all directions equally, eventually leading to no average displacement.    I hope that was a good explanation, feel free to ask me anything and I'll clarify :)", "human_ref_B": "Tough question. Some scientists say that of you know where every particle is located in the universe you can predict the future (simplified). However, recent research has shown particles that come into existence out of nothing. So I would say many things are completely random in the universe as best we understand.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 672.0, "score_ratio": 0.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}
{"post_id": "257gzn", "domain": "askscience_validation", "upvote_ratio": 0.7, "history": "How many humans have had their genomes sequenced, and how many are available in databases for public research?", "c_root_id_A": "chevfi2", "c_root_id_B": "chehyde", "created_at_utc_A": 1399773601, "created_at_utc_B": 1399738393, "score_A": 2, "score_B": 1, "human_ref_A": "Do you strictly mean whole genomes? or does this include exomes (the coding regions of the genome)?  The big sequencing projects are TCGA (a cancer initiative), and several other NHGRI funded projects either for specific diseases (autism, schizophrenia) or the centers for mendelian genomics (of which there are 3).  In the UK, there's the UK 10K, which will sequnce 10K genomes (and will probably end up doing more).  Interestingly, Regeneron (a pharma company) announced they will sequence 100K exomes over 5 years.  This could very well become wholly or partially whole genome during that time frame.   I'd guess there's well over 100K exomes in the world and maybe 20K whole genomes.  Illumina announced a few months ago a new sequencer called the X10.  To get your money's worth from it, you need to sequence 20K whole genomes a year.  I think at least 5 places have agreed to buy them, so about this time next year there should be 100K whole genomes just from these machines.  If you want data you can get 1000 genomes, ESV which is ~6400 exomes, there is also a lot of data at dbGAP -- not all of it is public and you cna apply to get controlled access to more of it.  A lot of data is also submitted to public databses such as dbSNP and clinVar.  But these are usually just single or  asmall number of mutations.", "human_ref_B": "About 10,000 human genomes have been sequenced.  This number will grow in 2014 (probably another 10,000 or so) and really grow in 2015 (maybe 100,000).  Then in 2016-7 it should hit ~1M.  The number publicly available now, May 2014 is several hundred.", "labels": 1, "seconds_difference": 35208.0, "score_ratio": 2.0, "metadata_A": "", "metadata_B": ""}